Perspectives

(violent struggle represented by Malcolm X). Black power movement bordering on B R Ambedkar, separatism and Black Muslim movement were other manifestations of that struggle. As late as 1992 Arthur Schlesinger Jr W E B DuBois and the wrote that “racism has been a great na- tional tragedy”.4 It is not surprising, there- fore, that in a large number of Process of Liberation writers, particularly in , com- pared their struggle with that of Blacks in B R Ambedkar’s American ‘experience’ helped him hone his America. The Dalit Panther Movement commitment to a pragmatic, flexible democratic system. For most was modelled on Black Panther Move- authors, Ambedkar was not influenced by the Black American ment. V S Naipaul writes in India: A Million Mutinies Now that Namdeo struggle, though his stay in America coincided with an Dhasal’s career was like the career of a efflorescence of Black protest literature. Instead he used his number of Black Power people in the US.5 knowledge of American culture to analyse his own country’s Sharad Kumar Limbale, one of the promi- social situation. This essay analyses the writings of Ambedkar nent dalit writers, has written his PhD dissertation on Negroes and . and W E B DuBois as both sought a way out to liberate their Even if it is conceded that the untouch- long oppressed peoples. ables in India were of the same racial stock as the caste Hindus, although it has not S D KAPOOR Black American reality, that was strug- been conclusively established as yet, it does gling to assert itself. I believe that the not follow that the comparison between n one of the essays, ‘The American Black American component of his Ameri- the two cannot be made. James Baldwin, Experience of B R Ambedkar’ in- can experience has been glossed over or while emphasising the uniqueness of Black Icluded in her book, From Untouch- has not been sufficiently researched. Since experience in America, finds similarities able to Dalit, Eleanor Zelliot writes: “A Black struggle is integral to American between the Blacks and the oppressed direct comparison between the Negroes of experience, it is difficult to keep this part groups in other countries. In a piece on America and Untouchables of India does out of Ambedkar’s experience of America. James Baldwin, Stephen Spender writes: not appear in Ambedkar’s writings.” She The period of Ambedkar’s stay at “If the Negro problem is resolvable, the may be right, in a way, but Ambedkar does Columbia University (1913-16) coincided only useful way of discussing it is to con- make comparison between slaves and with the most crucial period in Black sider American Negroes in a situation com- untouchables, cites parallel cases and also American history. It was the period of parable to that of workers and Negroes shows how Hindus lack social and public Harlem Renaissance when Black Ameri- elsewhere (like dalits in India). To write conscience as against the white Americans.1 can writers and thinkers were trying to as though Negroes do not exist anywhere The reason why Zelliot finds no direct separate those aspects of their existence except in America is to induce despair, to comparison between the two oppressed that made them different from the whites. suggest that in America, white and black, groups is that Ambedkar found no racial In fact, they were struggling to free them- cannot become integrated to the (rather basis for untouchability. From this she selves from the white imagination which limited) extent to which they have been, deduces that Ambedkar was not influ- had defined their existence for them. Their for example, in Brazil. It is in fact playing enced by the struggle of Negroes (they struggle did not end with the Civil War in the hands of black Muslims whose prefer to call themselves African Ameri- and the Fourteenth Amendment of the position is that America – world even – cans or Blacks) in America but used his constitution of the US. It continued long has to choose between having but black “knowledge of American culture to analyse after the period of Reconstruction both in or nothing but white people by which it his own country’s social situation”. Thus, the south and the north. Malcolm X, in is meant that it would be undemocratic to according to her, the American experience the first chapter of his autobiography titled have nothing but the black majority.”6 The of Ambedkar “seems to be chiefly in deve- ‘Nightmare’ mentions the warnings and comparison between the oppressed groups loping his commitment to a pragmatic, threats given by the Ku Klux Klan raiders is natural despite different historical situ- flexible democratic system”. Zelliot seems to his family that they better leave the ations because the process of liberation is to limit Ambedkar’s interest in America town. Malcolm’s father was a dedicated almost similar. Although the direct com- to the effort made by white American to organiser for Marcus Aurelius Garvey’s parison between the Blacks and untouch- create an egalitarian democracy.2 For Universal Negro Improvement Associa- ables is rather limited in Ambedkar’s her Ambedkar’s experience of Black tion. The incident took place before writings, the influence of America, in- Americans counts for nothing. Malcolm X’s birth.3 The struggle inten- cluding Black America, goes deeper than Apart from the trappings of American sified in the 1950s and the 1960s moving direct comparisons can show. I find marked democracy to which Ambedkar was from civil rights (non-violent struggle of similarities between W E B DuBois and exposed, there was another reality, the Martin Luther King Jr) to human rights B R Ambedkar in the process of liberation

5344 Economic and Political Weekly December 27, 2003 of their people. It is here that the compari- recognise the value of courage and human taken care of casteism and racism, it is son is valid and ought to be considered. dignity”. Rajsekhariah adds: “How could pointless to talk about it. But a single Ambedkar escape the influence of such a incident in Los Angeles or in a remote Slaves and Untouchables silent revolution that was brought about village in Rajasthan or Bihar exposes the by Booker T Washington, about whom he falsity of this argument. Similarly, it is In an essay, ‘Slaves and Untouchables’, had learnt so much while in America.”10 facile to argue that racism and casteism Ambedkar compares the two inhuman Rajsekhariah does not mention DuBois in were invented to deal with a particular systems pointing out the level of segrega- such glowing terms although he was doing historical situation and it was necessary at tion and the degree of psychological dam- much more revolutionary work than that particular point of time. Ambedkar age caused by them. “Slavery was never Washington. DuBois wanted his people to argues that a division of labour eventually obligatory. But untouchability is obliga- educate themselves in the best manner became a division of labourers and became tory. The law of slavery permitted eman- possible – not just for mechanical work the basis of graded inequality. A system cipation. Once a slave always a slave was which was the object of Tuskegee institute thus invented doesn’t suddenly disappear not the fate of the slave. In untouchability – and work for change so that they could with a change in historical situation. It there is no escape. Once an untouchable not only compete with the white on equal acquires association and mythical, even always an untouchable. The other differ- footing but also help raise their unfortu- rational, justification. The power of the ence is that untouchability is an indirect nate brethren. Towards the end of his book privileged whether in India or the US rests form of slavery. A deprivation of a man’s Rajsekhariah mentions DuBois to whom upon lies which are propagated in such a freedom by an open and direct way is a Ambedkar had sent a letter exploring the manner that they get internalised. Even preferable form of enslavement. It makes possibility of taking the question of the after the lie on which the entire structure the slave conscious of his enslavement and untouchables to the newly born United of racism and casteism is based is exposed, to become conscious of slavery is the first Nations Organisation. The letter was sent it continues to exist in the minds of people. and most important step in the battle for to the University of Atlanta, Georgia, US Dalits in India took a long time, as com- freedom. But if a man is deprived of his where DuBois was working as a professor. pared to Blacks in America, in reaching liberty indirectly he has no consciousness The letter was despatched on July 2, 1946.11 the level of awareness of their predicament. of his enslavement. Untouchability is an Ambedkar probably had no time to pursue And even when they did reach that level, indirect form of slavery.”7 the matter as soon after the British govern- their awareness was still enmeshed in the Columbia University, where Ambedkar ment announced that it would hand over complex hierarchy of caste within their was working for his degree, was close to power to Indian leaders by June 1948. I own group. In Laxman Mane’s Outsider Harlem, and it seems unlikely that he had no do not think it was a sudden revelation to the protagonist fights against the strangle- knowledge of the stirrings going on there. Ambedkar that DuBois was a prominent hold of caste throughout his life but ends Besides, there were two prominent Black Black leader and could help him in his up by accepting the same debasing and leaders whose approaches to Black prob- crusade against untouchability. It appeals limiting system against which he had earlier lems were diametrically opposed. They to reason that he must have known DuBois revolted. It is another thing that he did this were Booker T Washington and W E B or read his books during his stay in the US. to please his father. One is tempted to ask DuBois who disagreed not only over the DuBois published his important book, The whether it is the expression of related into- nature of education Blacks should receive Souls of Black Folk, in 1903 and it became lerance or a kind of assimilation into the but also the direction their struggle should an instant success. Its readers were im- larger world of caste. A character in Lorraine take. Washington wanted his people not to pressed by the fresh approach to the Black Hansberry’s play Les Blancs has this to say aspire to be like white but be satisfied with problem. Saunders Redding wrote that the about racism, and it could be applied to things they could do. In other words, he was book “may be seen as fixing that moment casteism as well. “Race-racism is a device. for the status quo. It was reflected in his in history when the American Negro began No more, no less. It explains nothing…I famous slogan ‘cast your bucket where you to reject the idea of the world’s belonging am simply saying that a device is a device are’ (Up from Slavery). Dhananjay Keer to white people only, and to think of himself but it also has consequences; once in- in his biography, Dr Ambedkar: Life and as a potential force in the organisation of vented it takes on a life, a reality of its own. Mission8 and W N Kuber in B R Ambedkar society”.12 Ambedkar was a bibliophile So in one century, men invoke the device mention Booker T Washington and the good and, according to Dhananjaya Keer, he of religion to cloak their conquests. In work he had done at Tuskegee Institute.9 bought about 2,000 old books in New another race (or caste). Now in both cases A N Rajsekhariah in his book, B R Ambedkar: York itself. It is unlikely that Ambedkar you and I may recognise the fraudulence The Politics of Emancipation, mentions, wouldn’t have seen the book or even bought of the device, but the fact remains that a not only Booker T Washington but also it. It is said that the steamer in which man who has a sword run through him W E B DuBois. This is what Rajsekhariah Ambedkar had sent his pile of books was because he refuses to become a Muslim writes about Washington: “One of the most destroyed by a submarine. Some of the or Christian – or who is shot in Zatembe remarkable men America has produced, a precious books were lost this way. He had or Mississippi (or refuses to follow the man born in slavery but lifted by his own also sent some books with his friends caste code in a remote village in India) vision and perseverance to a position of returning from America but not all books because he is Black (or dalit) is suffering leadership and power. The son of a slave finally reached him. I am sure some future the bitter reality of the device. And it is woman, Booker T Washington struggled scholar who will have access to the pile pointless to say that it doesn’t exist.”13 to acquire an education for himself, then of papers still lying unpublished, will come The process of liberation of dalits and dedicated his life to educating others. His across the name of DuBois and other Black Black Americans from invisibility to visi- is the story of almost unbelievable devo- American writers. bility, from a non-human to a human tion and selflessness, an inspiration to In polite conversation quite often we existence, has not been simple and linear. people all over the world as long as men advance the argument that since law has It is characterised by growth and difficulty.

Economic and Political Weekly December 27, 2003 5345 In fact it has been painful and prolonged. who denied them a decent existence. In quite overwhelming mob of people fright- 15 It has been painful because at each stage order that they did not relapse into the same ened for their own very existence.” of their struggle they are reminded of their pattern of passive acceptance of their Similarly, in the second issue of his paper lurid past; it has been prolonged because existence, he organised satyagraha, first Mook Nayak, Ambedkar conveys this they have to fight against an invisible wall against the denial of access to Chawadar reality of segregation through the imagery of segregation, supported by racially or Tank, then against entry to the Kalaram of a tower. “Hindu society was just like religiously sanctioned entrenched attitudes. temple and finally the burning of a tower which had several storeys without The attitudes that racism and casteism have Manusmriti which was for him a symbol a ladder or an entrance. One was to die put in them cannot be jettisoned out of the of inequality. in the storey in which one was born.”16 system at will. Besides, the ruling ideology DuBois moves on to show the intellec- in its innumerable manifestations does not Examining the Past tual and psychological interaction with the concede the human space to them. The situation of the Blacks who had their lives history of Black Americans since 1866 A precondition for forging group con- shaped and manipulated by the way the when slavery was legally abolished and of sciousness was to systematically examine white world treated them. And the inter- dalits since 1948, when through an Act of the past. Both DuBois and Ambedkar were pretation of their situation kept changing: Parliament untouchability was abolished, intellectually equipped to do so. DuBois it was social, biological or cultural. DuBois shows how difficult the path for equality had done his research on the Suppression proved through his character and achieve- has been. The psychological distance in of the European Slave Trade; Ambedkar ments that such an interpretation was a both cases is not allowed to be bridged and began his intellectual journey by writing contrivance. He could beat them in every ever new ways are devised to maintain the a paper on Castes in India: Their Mecha- department of life in which he partici- status quo. The fight is now against an nism and Development for the anthropo- pated. Similarly, Ambedkar questioned and unknown terror as against a known terror. logical seminar at the Columbia Univer- rejected the religious interpretation of the It takes a long time before the oppressed sity. DuBois took this inquiry further in depressed classes based on the theory of group throws up a thinker who gives The Souls of Black Folk; Ambedkar ex- birth and karma. He called such an inter- direction to their struggle. In America such amined the concept of caste in his well- pretation a ruse to keep his people in a thinker emerged in the person of researched paper, ‘Annihilation of Caste’, thraldom. In fact, he went to the extent of W E B DuBois; in India, in the person of which he wrote as a presidential address saying that “if Hindu religion is to be their B R Ambedkar. The task of such a thinker for the Jat Pat Todak Mandal, Lahore. religion, it must become a religion of social is momentous since he derives his strength In Dusk of Dawn: An Essay toward an equality.”17 Not many savarnas could match from his people. He has to analyse the Autobiography of a Race Concept DuBois his scholarship. He could stand up to any entire gamut of their experience, the forces tries to capture the mechanism of racism savarna leader and interact with them on that were responsible for their predica- through an elaborate imagery. the level of equality. Until Gandhiji met ment, the strategies to deal with those It is difficult to let others see the full Ambedkar he thought that he was a savarna forces and then to project an ideal order psychological meaning of caste segrega- fighting for the cause of the depressed in which the one-time victims can realise tion. It is as though one, looking out from classes. The speech he made at the Round a dark cave in a side of an impending their full potential as human beings. mountain, sees the world passing and speaks Table Conference for self-governance and The first task of a thinker is to give his to it courteously and persuasively, show- communal award was praised by all, in- people ‘group consciousness’ that is to tell ing them how these entombed souls are cluding the Britishers. them that it is not an individual problem hindered in their natural movement, ex- Having exposed the falsity of interpre- but a group problem. Since they have had pression and development; and how their tation, DuBois moves on to deal with the a common history, have shared a common loosening from prison would be a matter real problem which began with Recon- not simply of courtesy, sympathy and help memory and have suffered a common to them, but aid to all the world. One talks struction: how to deal with the damaged disaster, they must fight it collectively. on evenly and logically in this way, but psyche, the ‘double consciousness, the The battle for liberation begins when group notices that the passing throng does not twoness of their existence’. There were consciousness gets crystallised. DuBois even turn its head, or if it does, glances “two un-reconciled strivings, two warring wrote in his autobiography, Dusk of Dawn, curiously and walks on. It gradually pene- ideals in one dark body whose dogged that his life derives its significance from trates the minds of the prisoners that the strength alone keeps it from being torn people passing do not hear, that some thick the community and not otherwise. sheet invisible but horribly tangible plate asunder. The history of the American Negro Ambedkar wrote letters for Mook Nayak glass is between them and the world. They is the history of this strife, this longing to in which he emphasised the need for unity get excited; they talk louder; they gesticu- attain self-conscious manhood, to merge among all the innumerable untouchable late. Some of the passing worlds stop in his double self into a better and truer self. castes. He once said that he would survive curiosity; these gesticulations seem so In this merging he wishes neither of the as long as it was necessary for the welfare pointless; they laugh and pass on. They older selves to be lost. He would not still either do not hear at all, or hear but of the depressed classes. “If I fail to do dimly and even what they hear, they do Africanise America, for America has too away with the thraldom and inhuman not understand. Then the people within much to teach the world and Africa. He injustice under which the class, into which may become hysterical. They may scream would not bleach his Negro soul in a flood I was born, has been groaning, I will put and hurl themselves against the barriers, of white Americanism, for he knows that an end to my life with a bullet.”14 He was hardly realising on their bewilderment that Negro world has a message to the world. impatient to get his people dignity and they are screaming in a vacuum unheard He simply wishes to make it possible for and that their antics may actually seem human status. He kept on goading his funny to those outside looking in. They a man to be both a Negro and an American people to come out of the ghetto of their may even, here and there, break through without being cursed and spit upon by his existence and unitedly fight against the in blood and disfigurement, and find them- fellows, without having the doors of monster of caste discrimination and those selves faced by a horrified, implacable and opportunity closed roughly in his face.”18

5346 Economic and Political Weekly December 27, 2003 The problem of reconciling the two selves memorial lecture at the Grand Bouls Gandhiji agreed with Ambedkar that could not be solved so easily. A large Conclave in 1948. Among other things he caste was evil and must go but he made majority of Blacks wallowed in misery and said: “I assumed that with knowledge a subtle distinction between caste and varna ignorance and time and again, despite the sacrifice would automatically follow. In and said that the latter was the basis of fact that they were now free, relapsed into my youth and idealism, I did not realise Hindu society and had nothing to do with the old pattern of submissiveness of the that selfishness is even more natural than caste. Even Sant Ramji of Jat Pat Todak ‘Yes Sir, Massa’ variety. DuBois knew sacrifice. I made this assumption of its Mandal questioned this distinction. In a that the only way they could understand wide availability because of the spirit of letter to Gandhi he wrote: I wish to bring their situation and the possibilities of sacrifice learned in my mission school to your notice that your philosophical existence was through education. And the training.”21 difference between caste and varna is too kind of education he had in mind was In his modified lecture he moved from subtle to be grasped by people in general, different from the kind of education Booker individuals motivated by personal free- because for all practical purposes in the T Washington was propagating, that is dom to group leadership. Such a leader- Hindu society caste and varna are one and technical skill. DuBois was very clear in ship, he believed, would take care of the same thing, for the function of both his mind that technical skills produced economic and cultural aspects of their race. of them is one and the same, i e, to restrict only artisans and not men. “Men we shall Lest people misunderstand him, he made intercaste marriages and interdining.”24 have if we make manhood the object of it explicit that he was not advocating pride Ambedkar was more forthright. He ac- the work of the schools – intelligence, in biological race but pride in a culture cused Gandhi of ‘terminological inexacti- broad sympathy, knowledge of the world group, integrated and expanded by devel- tude’. He countered this distinction at a that was and is, and of the relation of men oped ideals. In such a leadership, it would more rational level. Questioning Gandhi’s to it – this is the curriculum of that higher not remain a simple thing of colour but emphasis of following ancestral calling, education that must underlie true life.”19 would include a deeper and broader matter he wrote: “When can a calling be deemed He did not leave education entirely to of social conditions, including economic to have become an ancestral calling so as school; he wanted family and social group conditions. “Here comes a new idea for to make it binding on a man. Must one to contribute to their growth. For this he a Talented Tenth: the concept of a group follow his ancestral calling even when it had a specific plan in mind which he out- leadership, not simply educated and self- does not suit his capacities, even when it lined in his famous essay, ‘The Talented sacrificing, but with clear vision of present has ceased to be profitable? Must one live Tenth’. The plan was that 10 per cent world conditions and dangers, and con- by his ancestral calling even if he finds it of bright young Blacks would be trained ducting American Negros to alliance with to be immoral? To me the ideal of follow- in the best manner possible so that they culture groups in Europe, America, Asia ing one’s ancestral calling is not only an in their turn bring the others up and provide and Africa, and looking towards a new impossible and impractical ideal, but it is leadership. “Men of America”, DuBois world culture.”22 also morally an indefensible one.”25 Nor said, “the problem is plain before you. Like DuBois, Ambedkar identified the can the distinction between varna and caste Here is a race transplanted through the problem of his people in his longish on the basis of worth and birth be de- criminal foolishness of your fathers. essay, ‘Annihilation of Caste’, which was fended. Besides, who is going to decide Whether you like it or not, the millions are initially written as a presidential address and in what manner the existence of worth here, and here they will remain. It is if you but later published by Ambedkar on his in a person. Thus, for all practical pur- do not lift them up, they will pull you own. The booklet was sold out immedi- poses, worth is associated with birth and down. Education and work are the levers ately and, what was more, was translated that is what has happened all along. to lift a people. Work will not do it unless into a number of Indian languages. Ac- That is why he did not go along with inspired by the right ideals and guided by cording to him “caste is a notion, it is a Gandhi, despite the latter’s messianic intelligence. Education must not simply state of the mind. The destruction of zeal, in the abolition of untouchability. teach work; it must teach life. The Talented caste does not therefore mean the destruc- The basis of caste is a lie and must be Tenth of the Negro race must be made tion of a physical barrier. It means a exposed for what it is. It is to be fought leaders of thought and missionaries of notional change. Caste may be bad, caste not only in the minds of the people, but culture among other people. No other can may lead to conduct so gross as to be called also in the realm of the abstract which is do this work and the Negro colleges must man’s inhumanity to man. All the same, so dear to Hindus. Like Jyotiba Phule, he train men in it. The Negro race, like all it must be recognised that the Hindus saw the danger of following the line of other races, is going to be saved by its observe caste because they are deeply converting a social problem into a moral exceptional men.”20 religious.” Thus he attacked the religious problem. It is a social problem supported The assumption was that the elite of their basis of caste. Fighting against it involved by religion and must be accepted without race would be alive to their social and fighting against the authority of the prevarication. “The power of the privi- ethical obligations and would provide an Shastras. This religious sanction was re- leged class”, he wrote in the same essay, overall leadership, directing their thought sponsible for creating not only separate “rests upon lies, which are sedulously and movements. DuBois had obviously enclosures in society, but also separate propagated among the masses. No resis- placed responsibilities in them which they enclosures in the mind. Despite the fact tance to power is possible while the sanc- were not equipped to bear. The danger in that the Jat Pat Todak Mandal was tioning lies, which justify the power, are such a plan was that they might end up working against the annihilation of caste, accepted as valid. While the lie which is by imitating the standards of the other race it did not go along with Ambedkar in the chief line of defence remains unbroken placing their interest above the interest of denouncing religion, at least the parts there can be no revolt. Before any injus- their community. DuBois was later charged that sanction untouchability. Pushed to tice, any abuse of oppression can be re- with encouraging elitism and was forced the wall, they gave excuses and finally sisted, the lie upon which it is founded to examine his thesis, which he did in a cancelled the meeting. must be unmasked, must be clearly

Economic and Political Weekly December 27, 2003 5347 recognised for what it is. This can happen Ambedkar believed that liberation could and law the status of his people as equal with education.”26 be achieved through political means. His citizens would be upheld which would Ambedkar, like DuBois, believed that demand for a separate electorate for his pave the way for their final assimilation part of their problems emanated from ig- people which was conceded by the British into the Hindu society. Then the slogans norance. They must be brought to a level and his disagreement with Gandhi over it of equality, liberty and fraternity would where they become critically aware of their shows the direction in which he wanted become facts of life. His speech at the environment. The consciousness-raising his struggle to move. One doesn’t know Constituent Assembly spelt that out. strategy could be effectively achieved what direction dalit politics would have These principles of liberty, equality and through education. As early as 1924 he taken if the communal award had been fraternity are not to be treated as separate helped establish Bahishkrit Hitkari Sabha implemented, but the course of dalit situ- items in a trinity. They form a union of which, among other things, aimed at pro- ation would have certainly been different. trinity in the sense that to divorce one from moting education among the depressed Under moral pressure from the people the other is to defeat the very purpose of classes. Apart from starting Industrial and throughout the country following Gandhi’s democracy... We must begin by acknowl- agricultural schools, it also opened libraries, fast unto death, he was forced to sign the edging the fact that there is a complete absence of two things in Indian society. social centres and study circles and through Poona Pact instead of the Communal Award One of them is equality. On the social them promoted the spread of culture. He announced by the British government. plane, we have in India a society based on firmly believed in a kind of education that Ambedkar had already earned the displea- the principle of graded inequality which helps people to blow up the caste system. sure of the people and the charge was that means elevation for some and degradation “Giving education to those who want to he was working against the interests of the for others. On the economic plane, we have blow up the caste system will improve the country. Even when he sought support of a society in which there are some who have prospect of democracy in India and put the British for getting political power for immense wealth as against many who live democracy in safer hands.”27 Later his people, he knew that they were helping in abject poverty. On January 26, 1950, Ambedkar helped establish the People’s him out of political compulsions. I believe we are going to enter into a life of con- tradictions. In politics we will have equal- Education Society and schools and col- Ambedkar was more sinned against than ity and in social and economic life we will leges under its aegis. Once people began sinning. It is true that the cause of his have inequality. In politics we will be to see things for themselves, formed ideas people was uppermost in his mind but time recognising the principle of one man one of their own, they would willingly coop- and again he had given evidence of his vote and one vote one value. In our social erate in creating a common front, which loyalty to the country. The letter that and economic life, we shall, by reason of would lead to agitation. In the field of Ambedkar wrote to Alexander, a member our social and economic structure, con- education Ambedkar was following the of the Cabinet Commission, and some- tinue to deny the principle of one man one broad direction that DuBois had given in what sympathetic to the cause Ambedkar value. How long shall we continue to live his famous essay on the ‘Talented Tenth’. represented, after the British had decided this life of contradictions? How long shall His hope that the educated men of his not to give representation to the depressed we continue to deny equality in our social and economic life? If we continue to deny community would take up the leadership classes in the interim government, shows it for long, we will do so only by putting of the people was belied. Most of them Ambedkar’s bitterness and the wily char- our political democracy at peril. We must forgot all about their obligation and moved acter of the British. This is what he wrote: remove this contradiction at the earliest to become ‘dalit brahmins.’ They lacked “The despotism of the Hindu continued as possible moment or else those who suffer commitment and fell into the trap of middle ever before. Far from being curbed by the from inequality will blow up the structure class respectability. Like DuBois, who British High Command, it was pampered. of political democracy which this edited The Crisis, Ambedkar also brought From a social point of view, the British assembly so laboriously built up.29 out a fortnightly paper called Mook Nayak, accepted the arrangement as they found It is apparent that Ambedkar was rede- although he was not its official editor. It them and preserved them faithfully in the fining the concepts in the light of his reading underwent a number of mutations: it manner of the tailor who, when given an in Buddhist philosophy and his experience became Bahishkrit Bharat, Samta, Janata old coat as pattern, produced with pride as a leader of the depressed classes. He and finally Prabuddha Bharat. He also an exact replica, rents and patches and all. not only pointed out the contradictions in prepared a blueprint for the formation of The result is that though 200 years have social and political life, but also identified a political party, the Republican Party of elapsed since the establishment of the the two enemies that had come in the way India, which was formed after his death British rule the Indian wrongs remained of their liberation. The two enemies were: in 1956. unaddressed and their progress hampered brahminism and capitalism. By brahminism Ambedkar was convinced that without at every stage.”28 he meant not brahmins as a community, social emancipation of the depressed but all those who negated the spirit of classes, political emancipation had no Campaign to Secure Rights trinity. And such people could be found meaning. He went to the extent of saying in all sections of society including the that no economic or political reform would Like DuBois, Ambedkar was impatient communists who were at times guided by be successful unless the monster of caste to get his people not only civil rights, but the spirit of brahminism. Ambedkar knew was destroyed. For this it was imperative also human rights. Despite the fact that that economic deprivation was as real as that the depressed classes were treated not Nehru made efforts to secularise Indian social degradation. And he made a begin- as a religious minority, but as a political politics, Ambedkar was sceptical of the ning in this regard when he collaborated minority. Here the approaches of DuBois role of caste Hindus. He saw some hope with the communist in the strike against and Ambedkar towards the liberation of to translate his ideals into practice when the Industrial Disputes Act. But such their people diverge. Whereas DuBois he was called upon to be the chairman of collaboration was short lived. emphasised cultural and racial aspects, not the Constitution Drafting Committee. He True, he realised the limitations of lib- completely ignoring the political aspect, firmly believed that through the statutes eral democracy but kept on working within

5348 Economic and Political Weekly December 27, 2003 its framework for whatever benefits he their view and their vows”.33 Ambedkar’s later included in her book From Untouchable could get for his people. Besides, those tragedy was that he trusted for a while the to Dalit, Manohar 1988, pp 79-85. 3 The Autobiography of Malcolm X, Penguin who were at the helm of affairs in the ruling existing political system to go along with 1976, pp 79-102. party were not radical enough to bring his line of thought. Despite the fact that 4 Arthur Schlesinger Jr, The Disuniting of about revolutionary change in their situ- he never gave up his fight against economic America, Norton Edition, USA, 1992, p 19. ation. He became painfully aware of this exploitation, he could not free himself 5 V S Naipaul: India: A Million Mutinies Now, Minerva, India, 1990, p 115. when he piloted the Hindu Code Bill from the stranglehold that Hindu social 6 Fred L Standly and Nancy V Burt (ed), Critical through which he wanted to correct some system had created for his class. He looked Essay on James Baldwin, C K Hall and Co, of the ills of Hindu society. Initially he for and found some solace in religion. At Boston, 1988, p 256. had the support of Nehru but when the best he shuttled between religious and 7 Ambedkar Speeches and Writings, Vol 5, p 15. 8 Dhananjaya Keer, Dr Ambedkar: Life and parliamentary party opposed it, he was economic reorganisation of society which Mission, Popular Prakashan, Bombay, 1994, forced to modify it and finally withdraw could not be combined as one finds in his p 31. it at the behest of Nehru himself. The comparison between Buddha and Karl 9 W N Kuber, B R Ambedkar: Builders of Modern orthodox elements were too powerful for Marx. In one of his speeches in 1953 India Series, Publications Division, Ministry him to resist. On this issue he resigned Ambedkar said that the present generation of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, December 1990, p 22. from the cabinet. and the future generation would have to 10 A K Rajsekhariah, B R Ambedkar: The Politics Both DuBois and Ambedkar were choose between the gospel of Buddha and of Emancipation, Sindhu Publication, Bombay, working within the Enlightenment the gospel of Marx. But if one chose the 1971, p 11. worldview – Ambedkar modifying it a bit former, which some of them did, one could 11 Ibid, p 216 Rajshekhariah found this letter in the files containing his correspondence with but still reposing faith in liberal democracy not change the material conditions of people the Cabinet Mission and with other leaders at – which defined man and society in human except through moral force. Siddharth College Library, Bombay. terms. Both worked indefatigably for The strategies adopted by both DuBois 12 W E B DuBois, The Souls of Black Folk, change in the social, political and eco- and Ambedkar did not emanate from an A C McClurg and Co, Chicago, 1931, p 1X. 13 Lorraine Hansberry, The Last Collected Plays nomic conditions of their people without ideological framework that encompassed of Lorraine Hansberry, Random House, New spelling out institutional change. DuBois all aspects of human activity. That was one York, 1972, p 122. unwittingly became part of the elitist culture reason why they were disillusioned to- 14 Keer, p 525. which aimed at correcting things through wards the end of their life. At the ripe age 15 W E B DuBois, Dusk of Dawn: An Essay Toward an Autobiography of a Race excellence for which criteria came from of 91 DuBois left America for Africa. He Concept, Shocken Books, New York, 1968, the others. in his revaluation wrote in a letter: “I cannot take any more pp 131-32. of DuBois points out two defects in his of the country’s treatment. We leave for 16 Quoted by Keer, p 41. endeavour. “First he believed that the Ghana October 5 and I set no date for 17 Quoted by Keer, p 229. highbrow culture was inherently return…Chin up and fight on but realise 18 The Souls of Black Folk, pp 3-4. 34 19 Henry Gates Jr and Cornel West (ed), The humanising and that exposure to and that American Negroes can’t win.” He Future of the Race, Alfred A Knopf N Y, 1996, immersion in great works produce good died soon after. p 132. people. The other was that the educated Ambedkar was similarly disillusioned 20 Ibid, pp 156-57. elite he had put his faith in could transcend with the system after he was made to with- 21 Ibid, p 161. 22 Ibid, p 168. their individual and class interests and draw the Hindu Code Bill. After resigning 23 Ambedkar Writings and Speeches, Vol 1, p 68. move easily on behalf of the common good as minister of law he wanted to make a 24 Ibid, p 84. than the educated classes.”30 statement but he was not allowed to do so 25 Ibid, p 90. Ambedkar is being subjected to a similar by the deputy speaker on the ground that 26 Ambedkar Writings and Speeches, Vol 5, p 399. 27 Quoted by Keer, p 491. reevaluation. Anand Teltumbde is one such he had not submitted a copy of his state- 28 Ambedkar Writings and Speeches, Vol 10, critic. But he is guarded in his reevaluation ment earlier. When Kunzru and Kamath, pp 497-98. although he announces those who have two members of the House, pointed out 29 Quoted by V R Krishna Aiyer, Ambedkar and used different icons of Ambedkar to fur- that it amounted to pre-censorship, the the Dalit Future, B R Publishing Corporation, New Delhi, 1990, pp 32-33. ther their own ends. According to deputy speaker said since he was the 30 The Future of the Race, p 68. Teltumbde “although there cannot be any custodian of the rights and privileges of 31 Anand Teltumbde, Ambedkar in and for the doubt that he stood against capitalism, he parliament, it was necessary for him to see Post-Ambedkar Dalit Movement, Sugawa could not articulate a sound theoretical that the statement contained nothing irrel- Prakashan, Pune, 1997, p 55. basis for doing so”. At another place he evant and libelous. On this Ambedkar left 32 Ibid, p 23. 33 Keer, pp 302-03. writes: “Babasaheb Ambedkar, in his own the House and immediately afterwards gave 34 The Future of the Race, p 118. way, has been in search of a suitable his statement to the newspapers. His faith ideological carrier for the dalit move- in parliamentary democracy was shaken. 31 ment”. The consequence has been that His end came soon after. EPW Economic and Political Weekly in the Post-Ambedkar dalit movement Address for correspondence: the revolutionary character of Ambedkar available at has been overshadowed by “prejudiced [email protected] social identities in worn-out casteist Alter Media Bookshop 32 phraseology”. Notes Brahmaswom Madom Bldg, But Ambedkar could not be charged MG Road with elitism as he always kept contact with 1 See Volume 5 of Ambedkar Writing and Speeches compiled by Vasant Moon, Education Trissur 680 001, Kerala his people who came to him in large Department, Government of Maharashtra, numbers for advice and guidance. Accord- 1989. Email: [email protected] ing to Keer “he was the voice of their woes, 2 Initially written in 1977, revised in 1979 and

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