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State-Of-The-Art Water Treatment in Czech Power Sector membranes Article State-of-the-Art Water Treatment in Czech Power Sector: Industry-Proven Case Studies Showing Economic and Technical Benefits of Membrane and Other Novel Technologies for Each Particular Water Cycle Jaromír Marek Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Humanities and Education, Technical University of Liberec, Studentská 1402/2, 461 17 Liberec, Czech Republic; [email protected]; Tel.: +420-732-277-183 Abstract: The article first summarizes case studies on the three basic types of treated water used in power plants and heating stations. Its main focus is Czechia as the representative of Eastern European countries. Water as the working medium in the power industry presents the three most common cycles—the first is make-up water for boilers, the second is cooling water and the third is represented by a specific type of water (e.g., liquid waste mixtures, primary and secondary circuits in nuclear power plants, turbine condensate, etc.). The water treatment technologies can be summarized into four main groups—(1) filtration (coagulation) and dosing chemicals, (2) ion exchange technology, (3) membrane processes and (4) a combination of the last two. The article shows the ideal industry-proven technology for each water cycle. Case studies revealed the economic, technical and environmental advantages/disadvantages of each technology. The percentage of Citation: Marek, J. State-of-the-Art technologies operated in energetics in Eastern Europe is briefly described. Although the work is Water Treatment in Czech Power conceived as an overview of water treatment in real operation, its novelty lies in a technological model Sector: Industry-Proven Case Studies of the treatment of turbine condensate, recycling of the cooling tower blowdown plus other liquid Showing Economic and Technical waste mixtures, and the rejection of colloidal substances from the secondary circuit in nuclear power Benefits of Membrane and Other plants. This is followed by an evaluation of the potential novel technologies and novel materials. Novel Technologies for Each Particular Water Cycle. Membranes 2021, 11, 98. https://doi.org/ Keywords: water treatment; power generation; heating station; energy; boilers; ion exchange; 10.3390/membranes11020098 membrane processes; reverse osmosis; ultrafiltration; electrodialysis; electrodeionization; shock electrodialysis; membrane distillation; capacitive deionization; forward osmosis; OpEx; CapEx; Academic Editor: Victor payback period; turbine condensate; SDI; colloidal particles V. Nikonenko Received: 24 December 2020 Accepted: 13 January 2021 Published: 30 January 2021 1. Introduction 1.1. The Current State of Power Industry Water Treatment in Eastern Europe Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral According to the European Environment Agency (2020), power generation represents with regard to jurisdictional claims in the second largest overall share of raw water consumption in Europe (Figure1) in all published maps and institutional affil- sectors (including public consumption, agriculture and industry). The greater overall share iations. of agriculture is due to the more agricultural nature of Southern Europe, but in Eastern Europe power generation plays the major part. Therefore, it is desirable to start in the wide field of the power and heat generation (i.e., energetic) sector in order to maximize the effectiveness of water recycling, minimize the amount of waste-water, and make its Copyright: © 2021 by the author. treatment ecological and economical. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. The main reason for water treatment in power generation is to avoid the corrosion This article is an open access article and scaling of the whole system (including boiler, piping and turbine). The total volume of distributed under the terms and water cycles (including boiler circuit and cooling circuit) in one power or heating station conditions of the Creative Commons usually ranges from thousands to tens of thousands of cubic meters per hour. A very Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ rough approximation of the total volume of water in power stations (presented in this 4.0/). study) can be assumed as follows: 1 kg of condensated steam requires approximately Membranes 2021, 11, 98. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes11020098 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/membranes Membranes 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 27 rough approximation of the total volume of water in power stations (presented in this study) can be assumed as follows: 1 kg of condensated steam requires approximately 50– 60 kg of cooling water (mcw)—depending on the change in steam enthalpy (h) behind the turbine [1]: Membranes 2021, 11, 98 ∆ 2 of 27 mcw (1) ∆ ∆t is generally 10 °C, the specific heat capacity of water (cp) is 4.19 kJ.kg−1, and the rough value50–60 of kg theof enthalpy cooling water of steam (mcw in)—depending front of the turbine on the is change 2900 kJ.kg in steam−1 and enthalpybehind the (h) turbine behind 750the kJ.kg turbine−1, so [1 the]: change in enthalpy ∆h is roughly 2150 kJ.kg−1. Dh The water needs of power and mheatingcw = stations in Czechia range from 0.372(1) m3.MWh−1 (Heating Station Písek) to 2.622 m3.MWhcpDt −1 in Třinec Heating Station [2,3]. ◦ −1 Dt isThe generally following 10 diagramC, the specific (Figure heat 1) shows capacity the of statistical water (c pdata) is 4.19 of water kJ kg consumption, and the rough per sectorvalue in of the the whole enthalpy of Europe, of steam and in front Table of 1the shows turbine the detailed is 2900 kJ data kg− for1 and each behind part of the Europe. turbine The750 data kJ kg have−1, so been the changeprovided in by enthalpy the EuropeanDh is roughly Environment 2150 kJ Agency kg−1. [2]. Figure 1. Water consumption in the whole of Europe, based on Eurostat data (2020). Turkey is Figure 1. Water consumption in the whole of Europe, based on Eurostat data (2020). Turkey is included [2]. included [2]. The water needs of power and heating stations in Czechia range from 0.372 m3 MWh−1 Table 1. Millions of cubic meters of water consumption in Europe* per year [2]. (Heating Station Písek) to 2.622 m3 MWh−1 in TˇrinecHeating Station [2,3]. millionsThe following of m3.y−1diagram Energy (Figure 1)Industry shows the statisticalAgriculture data of waterPublic consumption Water Supply per sector inEastern the whole of Europe, and Table1 shows the detailed data for each part of Europe. The dataEarly have 1990s been provided21,901 by the European12,573 Environment13,945 Agency [2]. 11,058 Latest year 18,538 4882 3545 5990 Table 1. Millions of cubic meters of water consumption in Europe * per year [2]. Percent. 56% 15% 11% 18% MillionsWestern of m3 y−1 Energy Industry Agriculture Public Water Supply EarlyEastern 1990s 67,088 22,548 7570 33,682 LatestEarly 1990s year 54,787 21,901 17,787 12,573 5797 13,945 29,439 11,058 LatestPercent. year 51% 18,538 16% 4882 5% 3545 27% 5990 SouthernPercent. 56% 15% 11% 18% Western EarlyEarly 1990s 6635 67,088 2010 22,548 35,542 7570 13,828 33,682 LatestLatest year 7018 54,787 666 17,787 33,175 5797 16,738 29,439 Percent.Percent. 12% 51% 1% 16% 58% 5% 29% 27% SouthernTurkey Early 1990s 6635 2010 35,542 13,828 Early 1990s 67 734 17,842 3235 Latest year 7018 666 33,175 16,738 LatestPercent. year 12%98 810 1% 40,643 58% 5792 29% Percent.Turkey 0% 2% 86% 12% EarlyEurope 1990s 80,441 67 24,145 734 83,160 17,842 57,959 3235 Latest year33% 98 10% 810 34% 40,643 24% 5792 Percent. 0% 2% 86% 12% *: Water abstractionsEurope data are not 80,441 available for 24,145all sectors and periods. 83,160 Eastern Europe: 57,959 Bulgaria, Czechia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithua33%nia*, Hungary, Poland, 10% Romania, 34% Slovenia, Slovakia. Western: 24% *: Water abstractions data are not available for all sectors and periods. Eastern Europe: Bulgaria, Czechia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania*, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovenia, Slovakia. Western: Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Ireland*, France, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Austria, Finland, Sweden, England and Wales, Iceland, Norway, Switzerland*. Southern: Greece, Spain, Italy*, Cyprus*, Malta, Portugal*. Turkey is plotted on an individual column in this graph to depict the large increase in water use. Membranes 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 27 Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Ireland*, France, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Austria, Finland, Membranes 2021, 11, 98 Sweden, England and Wales, Iceland, Norway, Switzerland*. Southern: Greece, Spain, Italy*, 3 of 27 Cyprus*, Malta, Portugal*. Turkey is plotted on an individual column in this graph to depict the large increase in water use. Ion exchange technology still takes the major share in water treatment in in the cur- rently operating power stations and heating plants in Eastern Europe. However, thethe firstfirst exceptions havehave appeared,appeared, namely namely in in the the newly newly built built power power plants plants (in (in Hungary, Hungary, Poland, Poland, Ro- maniaRomania or theor the newly newly built built Turkish Turkish Yunus Yunus Emre), Emre), and in and Czech in Cz centralech central heating heating plants, plants, where thewhere economy the economy and environmental and environmental protection protection were were of the of greatest the greatest interest, interest, and and therefore there- membranefore membrane technologies technologies have have been been employed employed in water in water treatment. treatment. Membrane Membrane technologies technol- areogies even are moreeven commonmore common in small in plants small (withplants low-pressure (with low-pressure boilers orboilers small or cooling small circuits)cooling wherecircuits) technological where technological steam is producedsteam is (e.g.,produced bakeries, (e.g., breweries). bakeries, breweries). However, these However, small plantsthese small use the plants dosing use ofthe antiscaling dosing of antiscaling and anticorrosion and anticorrosion chemicals inchemicals the majority in the of major- cases. Furthermore,ity of cases.
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