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Political Violence and the Management of Outrage Brendan Riddick University of Wollongong, [email protected]

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Political Violence and the Management of Outrage Brendan Riddick University of Wollongong, Bpr612@Uow.Edu.Au University of Wollongong Research Online University of Wollongong Thesis Collection University of Wollongong Thesis Collections 2013 Political violence and the management of outrage Brendan Riddick University of Wollongong, [email protected] Recommended Citation Riddick, Brendan, Political violence and the management of outrage, Doctor of Philosophy thesis, School of Social Sciences, Media and Communications, University of Wollongong, 2013. http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/3890 Research Online is the open access institutional repository for the University of Wollongong. For further information contact the UOW Library: [email protected] Political Violence and the Management of Outrage The Convergence of Media and Political Power to Conceal Human Suffering in the ‘War on Terror’ Brendan Riddick B.A. (Hons) University of Wollongong School of Social Sciences, Media and Communication July 2013 This thesis is presented for the degree of Doctorate of Philosophy Abstract The United States-led 'war on terror' has resulted in high levels of civilian casualties and human suffering. The consequences of the military actions in Afghanistan, Iraq and Pakistan since 2001 might normally be the subject of outrage, not just in the target countries, but elsewhere including citizens in the US and other countries whose governments support the 'war on terror'. However this has largely not occurred because arguably, the US government, supported by the mainstream media, has used a range of techniques that alter perceptions of the war and its effect on civilians in the target countries. On the basis of four case studies where civilian casualties and suffering have occurred as a direct result of US-led military action in Afghanistan, Iraq and Pakistan, a pattern emerges showing the use of specific tactics that hide the human consequences of the 'war on terror' from Western audiences. These tactics, outlined in the backfire model as minimising outrage over an injustice, have been used by mainstream media organisations and government and military spokespersons. This is revealed by an analysis of mainstream media accounts, and official accounts released by the US Department of Defence and US State Department in relation to: l.The bombing campaign in Afghanistan from October to December 2001 2. The first siege of Fallujah in April 2004 3. The Nisour Square massacre in Baghdad in 2007 4.The increasing use ofunmanned drones in Pakistan's north-western tribal areas These official and mainstream media versions are compared with accounts of the same events published by academics, independent journalists, non-government organisations and peace workers. In each case it is shown how the official accounts and mainstream media articles obscure or hide the human consequences of Western military actions. By using tactics to minimise outrage over these four cases of injustice, the US government, supported by a compliant mainstream media, are effectively operating to limit opposition to the 'war on terror'. The ongoing use of these tactics, combined with the increasing use of private military contractors and unmanned drones, will contribute to facilitating a state of perpetual war that is likely to extend beyond the so called 'war on terror'. ii Statement of Candidate I certify that this thesis entitled 'Political Violence and the Management of Outrage: The Convergence of Media and Political Power to Conceal Human Suffering in the 'War on Terror', is entirely my own work except where I have given full documented references to the work of others, and that the material contained in this thesis has not been submitted for formal assessment in any formal course. Brendan Paul Riddick 8 July, 2013. Acknowledgements I would like to express the highest appreciation to my supervisor, Professor Brian Martin, for his sustained encouragement, guidance and support during the time it took to conceive and complete this research project. Thanks must also go to Dr. Anthony Ashbolt and Associate Professor John McQuilton for their contributions at various times. I have also benefitted from the support given by Jodie Warren, Saskia Ebejer, Kerryn Hopkins, Mary Scott, Patrick Hodder, Ian Miles and Majken Sorensen who, as fellow post-graduates, have consistently reminded me that this work was worth doing. Finally the greatest thanks must go to my family, Alex, Rosie, Archie and Jasper, who have unconditionally supported me during the ten years I have spent at the university, and to my friends and extended family who have taken an interest in my work over a long period of time. iii Publications in Support of this Thesis Brendan Riddick, 'The bombing of Afghanistan: The convergence of media and political power to reduce outrage', Revista de Paz y Conjlictos, Number 5, 2012. Accepted for publication: Brendan Riddick, 'Outrage in Fallujah: Strategies in the Communication of Political Violence', in Paul James and Donna Patterson (Eds.), Communication and Conflict: Interdisciplinary Perspectives, Inter-Disciplinary Press, Oxford, 2012. (ISBN to be confirmed) A Note on Referencing In place of a bibliography at the end of this thesis, full citations are given in the footnotes for the first reference to a source in each chapter. Short titles and Ibid are used only when a full citation appears previously in that chapter. iv Contents Chapter 1 - Introduction 1 1. A Note to Self or Thesis Question? 1 2. Motivations and Revisions 3 3. Injustice and the Management of Outrage 5 The Case Studies 6 4. Methodological Approach and Chapter Outline 8 5. Limitations and Reservations 10 6. Originality and Contribution 12 Chapter 2 - The Backfire Model 13 1. Cover Up 17 2. Devaluing the Target 18 3. Reinterpretation of the Event 20 4. Official Channels 21 5. Bribery and Intimidation 25 6. Amplifying Outrage 26 Chapter 3- Explaining the Mass Media's Compliance with Government and Officials 29 1. The Propaganda Model 30 The Five Filters in Detail 34 The First Filter- The size and ownership of the mass media 34 The Second Filter: Advertising 37 The Third Filter: Sourcing mass media news 38 The Fourth Filter: Flak and the Enforcers 40 The Fifth Filter- Anti-Terrorism as a national religion and control mechanism 41 v 2. The Propaganda/Backfire Combination 43 3. Literature on the Propaganda Model 44 4. Further Literature Explaining the Mainstream Media's Subservience to Government Interests During War 52 5. Conclusion 63 Chapter 4 - The Air War in Afghanistan 65 1. Introduction 65 2. Historical Background 67 3. An Academic Account of the First Three Months of the Air War in Afghanistan 69 4. An 'Unjust' War 72 5. The Reporting of the Event in the Western Mainstream Media 79 6. Applying the Backfire Model 97 Cover Up 97 Devaluing the Victims 99 Re-interpreting the Meaning of Terror 100 Intimidation 101 Official Channels 103 7. Conclusion 103 Chapter 5 - The Attack on Fallujah - April 2004 106 1. Introduction 106 2. The Public Lynching of Private Military Personnel 107 3. The Attack and Siege of Fallujah- April 2004 111 4. Official Accounts ofFallujah 2004 119 Some notes on methodology 119 Maximising Outrage: U.S. Versions ofthe Lynching ofthe Blackwater Four 120 vi Minimising Outrage: Civilian Casualties and the Destruction of Fallujah 127 5. Al-Jazeera- Intimidation and Backfire 135 6. U.S. Withdrawal and Backfire 137 7. Aftermath 139 8. Conclusion 140 Chapter 6 - The Nisour Square Massacre: Problems with an Expanding Private Military Industry 144 1. Introduction 144 2. Private Military Companies: A Working Definition 145 3. PMC Activities in Iraq 149 4. Blackwater: A Brief History 151 5. Civilian Casualties and Blackwater 153 6. The Nisour Square Massacre 154 7. The U.S. Department of Defence Response: Cover Up by Deferment 156 8. The U.S. State Department Response: Reinterpretation and Deferment to Official Channels 161 9. Nisour Square and Official Channels 166 An Industry Body - The International Peace Operations Association 167 U.S. Congressional Hearing 169 The U.S. Legal System and the Nisour Square Massacre 170 10. Condolence or Bribery? 173 11. Conclusion 174 Chapter 7- Drone Attacks: Unmanned Aircraft and the 'War on Terror' 179 1. Introduction 179 2. Predator Drones: What are they? 180 3. The Effect of Hellfire Missiles 182 vii 4. Drone Attacks: Targets, Victims and Intelligence 184 5. Problems with Extrajudicial Killings 189 6. The Situation in Pakistan 192 7. Total Number ofDeaths from Drone Attacks 196 8. Summary and Context 199 9. Drone Attacks and the U.S. Department of Defence 201 10. Outrage Management Tactics 223 Chapter 8 - Civilian Casualties, Private Soldiers and Unmanned Drones: The Path to Perpetual war 227 1. Introduction 227 2. Perpetual/Permanent War: A brief history and a definition 228 3. Pretexts and the Demonization of Targets in a Preamble to (Ongoing) War 234 4. Collateral Damage and Perpetual War: Hiding the Human Cost and the Creation of an Enemy 237 5. Who Does the Fighting in a Perpetual War 244 a) Private Military Contractors 244 b) Drones 246 6. Conclusion 247 Chapter 9 - Conclusion 249 viii Chapter 1 - Introduction 1. A Note to Self or Thesis Question? ‘Am I the Only Person to Feel Outraged?’- January 2007 The ‘war on terror’, particularly its effect on the Iraqi and Afghan civilian society, has disturbed me greatly from the start. I have felt anger, sorrow, bewilderment and many other emotions ranging from neutral to negative. Predominantly, my feelings towards the war and the role of the US, Australia and the British governments have been negative. There are many words that could be used to summarise these negative emotions, but for simplification I will use one…… outrage. I am outraged over the indiscriminate bombing campaigns run by the US-led coalition causing vast suffering to people who have little understanding as to why they are the targets of military aggression. I am outraged that the reasons for this large scale bombing are insufficient to warrant the scale of suffering experienced by the Afghani and Iraqi people.
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