Le Corbusier, the Brise-Soleil, and the Socio-Climatic Project of Modern Architecture, 1929–1963

Le Corbusier, the Brise-Soleil, and the Socio-climatic Project of Modern Architecture, 1929–1963

Daniel A. Barber

Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/thld_a_00128 by guest on 23 September 2021 Daniel A. Barber

Le Corbusier’s “vernacular turn” in the formative years—from the influence of the 1930s has been a point of much discussion for regionalist painter Charles L’Eplattenier, architectural historians. Why the shift away through his 1911 travels in the Balkans and from purism? Concerns about the climatic direct experience of a “pre-modern” culture, to performance of a building, it turns out, were his engagement with the German Werkbund paramount—not only to Le Corbusier’s shift, in the late teens and twenties—Passanti writes: but also to the direction modern architecture would take in subsequent decades. By empha- He had begun within a movement sizing the place of climate in the historiogra- seeking to invent a regionalist phy of Le Corbusier’s turn, we can also indi- style, and he had ended by cate that climate-based design methodologies, arguing, with Loos and Muthesius, addressed to problems of shading, ventilation, that modern culture is best and interior comfort, are an important and described by the work of those under-recognized aspect of the reception of anonymous people, notably modern architecture as a social project. engineers, who don’t try to In order to analyze these developments, invent a new aesthetic.1 the historical significance of thebrise-soleil will be traced—first, locating it in relationship The integration of “found,” or vernacular, to the historiography of Le Corbusier’s knowledge and of the practices of anonymous vernacular turn, second, connecting this engineers, Passanti continues, was central to discourse to interactions between architectural the modern architectural project: and climatic sciences in 1930s Brazil, and third, placing the brise-soleil and shading As a conceptual model this strategies in relationship to the “bioclimatic notion of the vernacular was regionalisms” and “tropical architectures” important, because it could open of the 1950s. From this perspective, Le architecture to redefinition. ... thresholds 40 Corbusier’s vernacular turn initiated an The vernacular model insisted important moment both in the interaction on connecting architecture to of architectural design with the expanding something external to it, the technological demands of modern living, identity of society; and it further and also in the contribution of design insisted that such a connection strategies to the cultural, technological, and be not invented but found. ... bureaucratic regime of global environmental In the case of Le Corbusier, the management—a socio-climatic project of vernacular model provided modern architecture that has had long-lasting a conceptual structure for and multivalent effects. integrating the new inputs into the discipline of architecture and for broadening its vocabulary Conceptual Constants and responsibilities.2

In his essay “The Vernacular, Modernism, Passanti proposes that the “conceptual model” and Le Corbusier,” Francesco Passanti argues of the vernacular was “a constant, articulating that the strength of early architectural the persistent hope for a natural and organic modernism was its potential to integrate modern society, and for a natural relationship traditional design concepts with the new forms of modern society and architecture;” a and materials emerging from the processes constant, Passanti insists, because it persisted of industrialization. Tracing Le Corbusier’s through his turn from purism.3

Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/thld_a_00128 by guest on 23 September 2021 Le Corbusier, the Brise-Soleil, and the Socio-climatic Project

The structure of this vernacular model ambitions. At the same time, Porteous sees the is also significant to our understanding of the contemporaneous Immeuble Wanner (1928- conceptual and methodological importance 1929), an unbuilt project for Geneva, as even of the brise-soleil. The emergence of modern more innovative and transformative in this architectural shading techniques can be regard, organizing the five points in creative mapped onto Passanti’s model in three ways. combination to productively address climatic First, the brise-soleil was a “vernacular” impacts. The Wanner project led to a different object insofar that it followed on the use of design for the same client in the Immeuble overhangs and other methods of shading in Clarté (1932–1933), to which I will return. folk or so-called primitive architectures— including, significantly, the pre-modern architecture of Brazil. Second, it was “found” Climate and the by Le Corbusier in Brazil and in other regions Vernacular Turn peripheral to the western European discourse as a “native” response to the twentieth-century Amidst these conceptual constants— problem of building multi-story concrete of climate and the vernacular—there is structures with glazed facades. Third, the nonetheless a significant shift in the treatment quasi-scientific architectural and sociological of form, materials, and building processes discourse generated by the proliferation of evident in Le Corbusier’s work of the 1929- the brise-soleil after World War II operated on 1936 period. Kenneth Frampton proposes Passanti’s terms—as a form of architectural that the turn away from purism and the integration of “new inputs.” Such inputs crystallization of a new direction was first developed in concert with other concerns over evident in the unbuilt Maisons Loucher socio— climate, providing a mechanism for both the (1929). The Loucher project had a combined dynamic expansion of architectural vocabulary structural system of pilotis, a steel frame, and and for the delicate insertion of architectural a local rubble-stone party wall, intended to methods into the new responsibilities of the be built by local masons. The trend continued economic, industrial, and environmental in the Maison Errazuris (1930), a project for management of the post-colonial global South. a coastal site in Argentina, which is cited by If the vernacular model is a constant in the development of modern architecture chez Le Corbusier, so is a general concern for 1 Francesco Passanti, “The Modern, the Vernacular, Le Corbusier” in Vernacular Modernism: Heimat, Globalization, interior climatic comfort. The development of and the Built Environment, ed. Maiken Umbach and Bernd the brise-soleil and the broader dissemination Huppauf (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2005), 153. 2 Ibid., 156. of shading techniques can be seen as part 3 Passanti continued: “As Mary McLeod has shown, what of a general concern with ventilation, light changed was the sense of where to seek the fulfillment of such a hope. During the 1920s, Le Corbusier sought it in and air, and other health-related issues that the rationalist and abstract organization of industry and its framed the theories and practices of the products; later, disillusioned by them, he sought it in a more direct and holistic connection of people with people, and 4 early modern movement. Colin Porteous people and techniques.” Ibid., 155. has recently emphasized that at least three 4 See Paul Overy, Light, Air and Openness: Modern Architecture Between the Wars (London: Thames and Hudson, 2008), which of Le Corbusier’s “Five Points” of 1926 relate discusses the importance of these concerns to the Central directly to producing a salutary relationship European developments of modernism. 5 Colin Porteous, The New Eco-Architecture: Alternatives from between internal and external climatic the Modern Movement (London: Taylor and Francis, 2002), conditions.5 Porteous reads the Villa Savoye 51-55. For Porteous, the plan libre and façade libre enable spatial configurations that “promote routes for natural thermo- (1928) as central to Le Corbusier’s inter-war circulation”; the fenetre en longeur and the related pan de production because it realized his climatic verre allow for deep light penetration. The fourth point, the jardins suspendu, further amplified the salubrious effects of as much as his formal and constructive these various elements.

Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/thld_a_00128 by guest on 23 September 2021 Daniel A. Barber

Frampton as the point “in which Le Corbusier made a total break with the Purist machine aesthetic in that the double-height volume of the house was to be covered by monopitched roofs sloping inwards toward a central gutter.”6 As Frampton describes it, through these and other examples, Le Corbusier’s “turn” was conditioned by the possibility of integrating traditional practices and materials with 7 modern methods and designs FIG. 1.

FIG. 2 — Le Corbusier, Cité des Refuges, Paris, 1933 (model).”

to harness the materials, resources, and sites necessary to further the project of the modern office building as a climatic management 8 object FIG. 2. In both of these projects, Le Corbusier’s vision was focused on an active climatic strategy he called respiration exacte, one of the more prominent early proposals for a complete system of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning. As Frampton described it:

A building was supposed to be heated and cooled by tempered air being distributed throughout via an all- enveloping plenum, integral with thresholds 40 its outer skin. These “neutralizing walls,” as [Le Corbusier] called them, were to be made up of an inner and outer glass membrane, with an air- space in between, constituting a FIG. 1 — Le Corbusier, Maison Errazuriz, Argentina, 1930 (unbuilt) jacket through which either warmed and Maison de Weekend, Paris, 1934.” or cooled air would be passed Historians have also looked to the through according to the season parallel emergence of the brise-soleil to of the year.9 understand the origins and significance of Le Corbusier’s turn. At issue is the purported Such a system was proposed in both Paris and climatic efficiency of the sealed glass curtain Moscow, though bureaucratic budget cutting wall. The Immeuble Clarté in particular, as frustrated both attempts. The insulating Frampton notes, was designed right after Le curtain walls were built, hermetically sealing Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret—accustomed, the buildings, but little or no mechanical as Frampton puts it, to “over-reaching ventilation or air conditioning was employed. themselves technically”—had come closest to The result was in both cases a greenhouse box, realizing their “technocratic vision.” At both cold in the winter and unbearably hot in the Cité des Refuge (1929-1933) in Paris and the summer. the Centrosoyuz (1928-1936) in Moscow, that Frampton proposes that the technological vision relied on the power of public agencies and bureaucratic barriers that prevented Le

Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/thld_a_00128 by guest on 23 September 2021 Le Corbusier, the Brise-Soleil, and the Socio-climatic Project

FIG. 3 — Le Corbusier, Immeuble Clarté, Geneva, 1930-32. From Le Corbusier, Oeuvre Complete, 1910-69.

Corbusier from successfully implementing The Brise-soleil in Brazil the respiration exacte system led to a life- changing “loss of faith in the manifest destiny As Banham also pointed out, Le Corbusier of the machine age,” and thus to a new had an explicit internationalist program for approach to climate that would first develop the respiration exacte, intending to produce at Immeuble Clarté.10 Reyner Banham is “one single building for all nations and somewhat more ambivalent in summarizing climates.”13 From the ‘30s to the ‘50s, before socio— these events, indicating that “Le Corbusier’s the widespread use of mechanical HVAC obstinate environmental misapprehensions” systems, the brise-soleil operated on these at the Cité des Refuges led to “the invention of terms—as a techno-cultural object able to the brise-soleil,” while conceding that “there mediate a variety of climatic conditions. can be no doubt that, however desperate Following the Clarté experiment, the brise- its motivations, the brise-soleil is one of [Le soleil was proposed for the Maison Locative Corbusier’s] most masterly inventions, and one (1933) at Algiers. This project, a 12-story of the last structural innovations in the field of hillside tower, also called for the misconceived environmental management.”11 respiration exacte, but included a concrete At the Immeuble Clarté, Le Corbusier did not attempt a mechanically sophisticated 6 Kenneth Frampton, “Le Corbusier and Oscar Niemeyer: system. The building deployed a collection Influence and Counterinfluence, 1929-1965,” inLatin American of low cost, user intensive, and formally Architecture, 1929-1960: Contemporary Reflections, ed. Carlos Brillembourg (New York: Monacelli Press, 2004), 37. dynamic sun-shading devices—balconies, 7 Other relevant examples include the Maison de Weekend external blinds, retractable awnings, and (1935), the first Maison Jaoul project (1937), the projected Roq et Rob vacation houses (1949), and the second Maison interior shutters blocked and modulated solar Jaoul (1952-54). See Kenneth Frampton, Modern Architecture: 12 A Critical History (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1986), 224; incidence FIG. 3. Though much more than a and Kenneth Frampton, Le Corbusier (New York: Thames and brise-soleil, the basic principle was established: Hudson, 2001), 130-149. as part of the turn away from his faith in 8 Frampton, Le Corbusier, 101. 9 Frampton, “Le Corbusier and Oscar Niemeyer,” 101. See also the machine age, Le Corbusier proposed Porteous, The New Eco-Architecture, 67. architectural elements to manage those interior 10 Frampton, Le Corbusier, 101. 11 Reyner Banham, Architecture of the Well-Tempered Environ- climatic conditions that the mechanical systems ment (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969), 158. approach had proven unable to engage. 12 Porteous, The New Eco-Architecture, 62. 13 Banham, Architecture of the Well-Tempered Environment, quoting Le Corbusier in Precisions (1930).

Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/thld_a_00128 by guest on 23 September 2021 Daniel A. Barber

Designed by a team of Brazilian architects including Lucio Costa, Oscar Niemeyer, Alfonso Reidy, and others—and with extensive consultation by Le Corbusier—it established the international model for a climatically sensitive modern office buildingFIG. 5. The north (sun-facing) facade has three-fin modules of operable louvers in egg-crate frames, suspended from a balcony for heat dispersion. The south facade is unshaded glass, and the blind walls at each end are sheathed in pink marble. In plan, the design proposed a simple rectangle for the tower, offset by a more organic volume for the theater. Brazil in the 1940s, isolated

FIG. 4 — Oscar Neimeyer, Obra do Berço, Rio de Janeiro, 1937. from the world at war, saw From Heinrich Mindlin, Modern Architecture in Brazil, 1955. what was likely the largest thresholds 40

grid of protruding shading elements on the sun exposed facades.14 This basic formula was reproduced by a number of Corbusier-influenced architects in Brazil: by early 1936, MMM Roberto’s Associação Brasileira de Imprensa (ABI) and Oscar Niemeyer’s Obra do Berço, both in Rio de Janeiro, established the use of varied brise- soleil facades to manage internal climate.15 Whereas the ABI, like the Maison Locative, had uniform fixed diagonal slabs on the north and west facades, the more sophisticated Obra do Berço had independent, operable brise-soleil on each floor. This operability, as well as the capacity for different treatments for different orientation or programmatic conditions, established the model for sun-shading FIG. 4. The Ministerio da Educação e da Saúde (MES) building (1936–1943), also in Rio, FIG. 5 — Oscar Neimeyer, Lucio Costa, Alfonso Reidy, et al., Ministry of Education and Health, Rio de Janeiro, 1936-1943. From Victor and was the culmination of this early period. Aladar Olgyay, Solar Control and Shading Devices, 1957.

Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/thld_a_00128 by guest on 23 September 2021 Le Corbusier, the Brise-Soleil, and the Socio-climatic Project

sustained production of modern buildings up make it possible to calculate accurately and to that point. The brise-soleil was a necessary solve any sunlight problem.”17 component of the work of Niemeyer, MMM Mindlin’s second factor was “the Roberto, Luiz Nuñes, Paulo Antunes Ribeiro, development of an advanced technique for and many others working in Brazil and gaining the use of reinforced concrete.” The industrial international attention FIG. 6. Brazilian architect infrastructure of Brazil, he noted, already and historian Henrique E. Mindlin, in his allowed for widespread use of concrete; Modern Architecture in Brazil (1955), is matter additional concrete for the brise-soleil was of fact about the centrality of both the brise- thus an exceptionally efficient means to soleil and of Le Corbusier to the proliferation manage internal climate. Mindlin’s third factor of modern architecture in Brazil from the touches on Passanti’s “conceptual constant”: mid-’30s. “The brise-soleil,” Mindlin wrote, “Reminiscences of and variations on the “(in Portuguese quebra-sol or ‘sun-breaker,’ traditional colonial screens and shutters are but that the French expression is commonly frequently found in the details of the brise- used indicates its direct derivation from Le soleil, [leading to] expressions of the past Corbusier) has been applied in Brazil in the re-occurring in the vernacular now being greatest variety of ways.”16 Mindlin argued for formed.” This integration of the vernacular the importance of the brise-soleil according with contemporary demands of climatic to three main factors. First, he described the management suggest how a formal approach importance of “research into the functions of could connect design methodology to sunlight” in São Paulo engineering schools at economic and political concerns.18 the turn of the century, and the consequent development socio— of “a scientific basis for the orientation and sun-lighting of buildings” in architecture schools by the mid-’20s. As Mindlin summarized, “easily handled sunlight graphs and tables, in general use by architects for decades now,

14 The Greek-Brazilian architect Stamo Papadaki is seen by Jeffrey Aronin, Porteous, and others as the first to use the brise-soleil in his proposed Christopher Columbus Memorial Lighthouse of 1928. See Jeffrey Aronin, Climate and Architecture (New York: Reinhold, 1953). 15 Costa was appointed director of the Esquela Nacional de Bellas Artes in 1930, right after Le Corbusier’s first trip to Brazil, largely as a result of his allegiance to Corbusian modernism. 16 Mindlin, Modern Architecture in Brazil, 11. Mindlin initially wrote the book—with an introduction by Sigfried Giedeon—to accompany the 1943 Brazil Builds exhibition at MoMA. FIG. 6 — MMM Roberto, Seguradoras Building, Rio de Janeiro, 1949. From Victor and 17 Ibid., 11. Aladar Olgyay, Solar Control and Shading Devices, 1957.

Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/thld_a_00128 by guest on 23 September 2021 Daniel A. Barber

Beyond Mindlin’s mid-century analysis, regionalism” codified by Victor and Aladar the MES has been regarded recently as Olgyay, and the “tropical architecture” central to another “conceptual constant” that approach summarized by Maxwell Fry and weathered the vernacular turn: Le Corbusier’s Jane Drew. Both developments were modeled investment in the bureaucratic elite as the on the Corbusian use of the brise-soleil. The ideal client for modern architecture. In Olgyays summarized their method through the post-war period, this tendency allows a comparative analysis of Mies’s 1951 for connections to be drawn to the then- Lake Shore Apartments (reliant on a large emergent bureaucracy of global environmental mechanical ventilation system); Harrison & management. Le Corbusier had always been Abramowitz’s 1954 Republic Bank in Dallas interested in engaging figures of authority— (an aluminum “breathing wall”); Skidmore, politicians, technocrats and bureaucrats, Owings, and Merrill’s 1952 Lever House (with engineers, and civic leaders—on his travels. custom tinted glass effective for deflecting Yonnis Tsiomis has recently proposed that this summer radiation but not for keeping winter was especially the case during the 1936 visit heat in); and finally, Le Corbusier’s 1953Unité to Brazil, due in large part to Le Corbusier’s d’Habitation. As the Olgyays explained, “The frustration with the conditions in Europe.19 last example illustrates a radiation control Such interest was no doubt encouraged by the solution with shading devices. The method near-direct invitation to Brazil extended by the is fundamentally sound. Interception of the client of the MES, the Minister of Education energy happens at the right place—before it and Health Gustavo Campanema. Much like attacks the building. ... Here, by shaping the Raoul Dautry and Eugene Claudius-Petit, devices according to the changing seasonal Ministers of Reconstruction et Urbanisme in sun-path, both summer shading and utilization France right after the war and Le Corbusier’s of winter energies can be performed.”20 Noting clients on the well known Unite d’Habitation that Le Corbusier—at least at the Unité—did (1952), among other buildings, Capanema not carefully consider all of these climatic thresholds 40 was a high-ranking official devoted to modern elements, especially as regards the building’s architecture on cultural terms, and supportive orientation, they nonetheless saw themselves of it as a public representation of his own following Le Corbusier by using the brise-soleil as modernization initiatives and strategies. If an architectural solution to climatic challenges. Le Corbusier had lost faith in the manifest The Olgyays’ method was based on using destiny of the machine age, he had not lost diverse shading devices on different facades in his interest in architecture as a techno- combination with operable louvers to provide bureaucratic device for managing industrial heating, cooling, and ventilation amidst growth and shaping social conditions. In numerous climatic conditions. A “bioclimatic” this context, the brise-soleil came to be a building, they proposed, organized an provocative formal and technological response “interlocking field of balance” between regional to the climatic, political, and economic climate, technological possibility, biological pressures encountered by architects working knowledge, and architectural technique.21 in tropical regions. Their method involved analyzing sun- charts to identify potential “overheated” and

Post-war Proliferations . 18 Ibid. 19 Yonnis Tsiomis, “Introduction,” in Le Corbusier, After the war, the brise-soleil was Conferences de Rio: Le Corbusier au Bresil, 1936 (Paris: central to two innovations of the modern Flammarion, 2006), 67. 20 Victor Olgyay and Aladar Olgyay, Solar Control & Shading architectural discourse: the “bio-climactic Devices (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1957), 7.

Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/thld_a_00128 by guest on 23 September 2021 Le Corbusier, the Brise-Soleil, and the Socio-climatic Project

“underheated” periods; testing site-orientation mediate betweenpolitical, social, and climatic against sunlight modeling systems; determining complications. the contextual “sky-vault” conditions of In conclusion, it is important to note existing shading elements; and calibrating it that the globalization of the environmental all to determine an appropriate “sun-mask” discourse, occurring in this same period, shape which correlated to a specific shading also depended heavily on the conceptual 22 device strategy FIG. 7. Through this complex formulation of “the tropics” on the part of system, the Olgyays participated in a dramatic Western European and American industrial- re-conception of the internal environment ists and bureaucrats.24 The Olgyays interest of a building, directing their efforts towards in climate converges with a broader inter- producing an optimum zone for human activity. disciplinary effort, involving the natural and Somewhat ironically, their careful method social sciences, to articulate a socio-political to determine “thermal comfort” would be concept of the environment. The tropical rescripted to fit the specification parameters architecture discourse further suggests an for mechanical HVAC systems as the ‘50s intertwining of formal, technological, and bureau- progressed FIG. 8. cratic histories in managing the ecological and Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew’s Tropical economic conditions of industrial development. Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zones (1956), The point here is not to invest architectural the 1953 conference it summarized, their strategies with explicit political import, but 1947 Village Housing in the Tropics, and their rather to indicate the continuing impact involvement with the planning of Chandigarh of the architectural discourse on tropes of in the 1950s also reflected the influence of Le modernity and modernizaton. At the limit, an Corbusier and of the brise-soleil on the post- expanded history of modern architecture can socio— war discourse of climate and architecture. Their engage the socio-climatic legacy of inter-war work is also explicit about how the climatic innovations for their implications—intentional facility of modern architecture led to a regional or otherwise—in the production of cultural, approach of managing industrialdevelopment technological, and bureaucratic regimes of after the collapse of colonial regimes. global environmental management. This brief The argument in Tropical Architecture history of the brise-soleil suggests a vital in the Dry and Humid Zones is tied to narratives connection between the formal implications of economic development. Following the of Le Corbusier’s vernacular turn, and the dissolution of direct British control of former geopolitical and geoeconomic significance West African colonies, Fry and Drew advocated of climatic management—one that is inflected for design principles that facilitate economic anew amid the current concern over a and infrastructural management FIG. 9. “The act warming climate. of building,” Fry and Drew wrote, “must probe deeply into the productive possibilities of a country... leading to a more complete and more 21 Victor Olgyay and Aladar Olgyay, Design with Climate: 23 secure mastery over circumstances.” Passive Bioclimatic Approach to Architectural Regionalism (Princeton, climate mitigation, they argued, provided NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963), 12. 22 The contemporary building performance modeling software better conditions for economic growth in Autodesk Ecotect appears to be based directly on the areas removed from infrastructure: it both Olgyays’ method. 23 Ibid., 25. improved the living conditions of the worker 24 Although tropical rainforest deforestation is only a small piece and provided comfortable accommodations for of the environmental crisis, the “rainforest connection” has since the 1950s “been central in the scientific and popular western agents of industry and government. construction of global-change knowledge.” See Peter J. Tropical architecture’s innovations can Taylor and Frederick H. Buttel, “How Do We Know We Have Environmental Problems? Science and the Globalization of the be seen as attempts to use architecture to Environmental Discourse,” Geoforum 23, no. 3 (1992): 410.

Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/thld_a_00128 by guest on 23 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/thld_a_00128 byguest on 23 September 2021

thresholds 40 FIG. 7— Solar ControlandShadingDevices, 1957. Victor and Aladar Olgyay, Vocabulary ofShadingDevices. From Victor and Aladar Olgyay, FIG. 8— Aladar Olgyay, SolarControlandShadingDevices, 1957. Victor and Aladar Olgyay, SchematicBioclimaticIndex . From Victor and Daniel A.Barber 30

FIG. 9 — Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew, British Petroleum Building, Lagos, 1960. From Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew, Tropical Architecture in the Dry and Humid Zones, 1964. Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/thld_a_00128 by guest on 23 September 2021 Daniel A. Barber thresholds 40

***

Daniel A. Barber is an architectural historian analyzing affinities between the history of architecture and the emergence of environmentalism in the 20th century. Daniel received a BA in Comparative History of Ideas from the University of Washington, and a PhD in Architecture (History and Theory) from Columbia University. He also holds a Master of Environmental Design from the Yale School of Architecture, and an MFA in Studio Art from Mills College.

Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/thld_a_00128 by guest on 23 September 2021