Mf-$0.65 Hc16.58

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 055 664 PS 005 099

AUTHOR Gordon, Edmund W.; Kourtrelakos,James TITLE Utilizing Available Informationfrom Compensatory Education and Surveys. Final Report. New York, INSTITUTION Teaching and Learning Research Corp., N.Y. SPONS AGENCY Office of Education (DREW),Washington, D.C. PUB DATE 8 Jun 71 CONTRACT OEC-0-71-0370(284) NOTE 196p.

EARS PRICE MF-$0.65 HC16.58 DESCRIPTORS Basic Skills; *CompensatoryEducation; *Compensatory Education Programs; *Data Analysis;Emotional Development; *Evaluation Needs; ParentParticipation; *Research Needs

ABSTRACT The absence of systematicanalyses and syntheses of data from hundreds ofdocuments relating to compensatoryeducation constitutes justification for astudy unifying and avaluatingalready available information. Section Oneof this document introducesthe need for such a study anddiscusses problems and proceduresused in conducting and interpretingcompensatory educationevaluation research. Section Twodelineates the status of compensatoryeducation and Title I programs byciting major findings andconclusions from previous efforts, by representingfindings graphically on a matrix and by summarizing major studiesaccording to the following categories: academic skills, earlychildhood programs, affective development, parent and communityiniolvement, staff training, overhaul of schools and schoolsystems. Section Threeelaborates on implications for evaluationresearch by consideringexemplary studies of compensatory education,by analyzing survey andnational assessment strategies and byproposing some answers toquestions about the purpose, design,interpretation and policydetermination for evaluation research.Abstracts of relevant literatureand numerous programsplus a list of references areinterspersed within the text. [Filmed from bestavailable copy.] (WY) U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION & WELFARE OFFICE OF EDUCATION THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO- DUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIG- INATING IT. POINTS OF VIEW OR OPIN- IONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDU- CATION POSITION OR POLICY Research Proposal made to the Evaluation Design Division Program Planning andEvaluation Office of Education Department of Health,Welfare and Education 400 Maryland Avenue, S.W. Washington, D. C. 20202

from Compensatory TITLE: Utilizing Available Information Education and Surveys

APPLICANT: Edmund W. Gordon, Secretary-Treasurer Teaching and Learning ResearchCoiporation 355 Lexington Avenue New York, New York10017

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATORS: Edmund W. Gordon, Ed.D. James Kourtrelakos, Ph.D.

71 - 0370(284) FINAL REPORT - June 8, 1971 - OEC - 0 - Utilizing Information from Evaluation, Research and Survey Data Concerning Compensatory Education Page Section I. Introduction A.The Need for the Study 1 B.Problems in the Conduct and Interpretation of Compensatory Education Evaluation Research . 3 C.Procedures Utilized in this Study 11 D.Outline of the Report 14

Section II. Status of Compensatory Education and Tit lct I Programs A.Major Findings and Conclusions 16 B.Graphic Representation of Findings 27 C. Summary of Major Studies by Category 71

Section III.Implications for Evaluation Research A. Exemplary Studies of Compensatory Education 144 B. Survey and Other National Assessment Strategies ... 149 C.Evaluation Research: Purpose, Design, Interpretation, Policy Determination 153 Section I: INTRODUCTION

A. The Need for the Study

Statement of Problem The decade of the1960's has been markedby tremendously increased concern forthe education ofunderdeveloped segments of the populationof the U.S.A. The enthusiasm and great expectationsnoted.in many of theinitial efforts at compensatoryeducation are now balancedby impatience, of pessimism. The problem has not sobriety, and Some degree The subsided in response to adéc.lied intent to attackit. complexity .of this problembecame more clear whenit became evident that simple changesin the quality offacilities, increase in the personnelassigned and servicesprovided or modestshifts in curriculumemphases, did not effect significant improvements inthe quality of learning: Educators are just beginningto realize thatthey confront tremendously complex problemswhen they seek to reversethe negative impacts ofeducational deprivation,social insulation, ethnic discrimination andeconomic deprivation. Increas- ingly, it is sensed thatthe problem is notsimply-pedagogical but involves allaspects of communitylife. At the same time that thebreadth and complexity ofthe problem becomes clearer,it isalso becoming evidentthat concern for this problem servesnot only politicaland humanitarian purposes. The application ofpedagogical concern, competence and skill to theimproved education of thedisadvantaged is forcing educators to give moreserious attention to someof Reduced to its the basic problems ofteaching and learning. essence, the.crucialpedagogical problem involvedis that of understanding themechanisms of learningfacility and learning dysfunction andapplying this knowledge tothe optimum development of aheterogeneous populationcharacter- ized by differential backgrounds,opportunities, and patterns of intellectualand social function. Research related to theeducation of thedisadvantaged has covered a wide varietyof approaches andissues. However, most of this work canbe classified under twobroad categories: the first of these mightbe called the study of populationcharacteristics,and the second,the description and evaluation of programsand practices. In contrast to thevaried, detailed, andsometimes adequately designed researchinto population characteristics among disadvantaged groups,the examination ofeducational

3 -2-

has programs andpractices for childrenof such populations too often beencharacterized by onlysuperficial descriptions One would expectthat the substantial and evaluation. would be research focused onpopulation characteristics reflected in new treatments;however, there hasbeen relatively little effortat relating developmentand treatment efforts to thepopulation characteristicsstudied. have tended to emergefrom the special Rather, treatments with either the fact biases or dominantmodels in the field, of intervention orthe magnitude ofintervention receiving than the specific nature orquality of more attention for the fact that intervention. This tendency may account referrable to treatmentand programs is much of the research or ..-tharacterized bysuperficial description of program practice and generalevaluation of impact. It is possible toidentify more than twohundred documents which report programdescriptions, programevaluations, or researchstudies related to compensatory surveys of programs reports of educational education. There are several hundred efforts sponsoredunder funds provided byProject Headstart Elementary and SecondaryEducation Act and T:itle I of the has of .1965. In addition, the U.S. Office of Education completed extensive surveysof the programs fundedunder Title I ESEA. In view of the amountand variety of these research, evaluation and surveyefforts,along with therapid and the critical needfor guidance development of this field syntheses of the of future efforts,systematic analyses and data from these various sourcesare very muchneeded. The absence of such analysesand syntheses Is theprimary justification for this studyand constitutes the purposeto which it is directed. The main task of the study wasthat of carefullyexamining it for new insightsand consolidating the literature, mining well as it in order to betterdirect educational policy as further research in thisfield. A special emphasis wasgiven to the relationshipbetween input variablesand variables defining the program impact onpupils (output variables) Crucial variables and criticalrelation- and to identifying work in ships among variables. However, when the status of this field iS more closelyexamined, this emphasis,which sounds feasible, appears notonly close to impossibleto pursue, but, withinthe limits of what canbe done with the data that presently exist,the emphasis almost seemsuseless, due to the inconclusive, unevenand contradictory nature of these data. Discrete relationships betweenvatiables simply cannot be determined fromthe data available. Most of the studies are not verygood. Almost none have been designed in a fashion which isadequate to guide policy decision making. There are problems in thedesign and conduct of evaluation research andin the implementationge.programs -3- which make synthesis andinterpretation difficult if not impossible. These problems are not peculiarto compensatory educatior but may come to be morefully appreciated out of our efforts atevaluating compensatory education, and particularly out of these efforts atutilizing information from evaluation, research and surveydata.

B. Problems in the Conduct and Interretation of Compensatory EducationEvaluation Research

1. Technical Problems of Research The weaknesses in the applicationof evaluative research to compensatory educationpartially stem from the complex political and economic circumstancesunder which these programs were initiated anddeveloped. Programs from their inception involved large expenditures,often guided by other than purely experimental educationalconcerns. More than $10 billion was invested in educating poorand minority-group childr6n, from the combined efforts offoundations and local and federal governments. While the foundations pioneered relatively large attacks on the problemsof 'educating the' disadvantaged, some of these effortsunfortunately seemed also. to reflect a desire toestablish organizational leadership, a domain of action or a model programwhich could be identified with the funding organization. The federal programs that followed theearlier work of foundations were subject to a different set of pressures,especially larger political concerns. Federal programs were in part responses to rising_demand for a socialrevolution for the improvement of human rights and theincreased developmentof underprivileged populations. For a while, it seemed moreimportant politically to act and be identified with theeffort to do something than to act wisely. There was little time forplanning, with large sums of money being spent,andwith political objectives clearly the motive; "porkbarrelling" and politically sensitive distribution of moneynaturally developed. In an effort at maintaining somesemblance of responsible government, the executive branch beganto press for evaluation data to "prove" favored programssuccessful and to provide the basis for reducing or eliminating unpopularactivities. It is interesting that the legislature was notinitially greatly concerned with evaluation. It was the execUtive brandh that needed to immediately validate the impactof its actions in compensatory education. In this context, it is easy to see thatlarge expenditures hastily appropriated to new programs, political pressuresfor a change and a piece of theaction, and the demand for

5 -4.- immediate proof of impact havecomplicated the evaluation of. implemented and the effectiveness ofthese programs which were evaluated under the pressuresof political urgency to act. Evans (Office of Education)and Schiller (Office ofEconomic Opportunity) discuss.the pressuresthey were under while implementing and designing HeadStart: Unfortunately, the political processis not orderly, scheduled, or rational. Crests of public and congre6- sional support for socialaction programs often swell quickly and with littleanticipation. Once legislation is enacted, the pressures onadministrators for swift program implementation areintense. In these circum- stanceswhich are the rule ratherthan the exception-- pleas that the program shouldbe implemented carefully, along the Iines of a trueexperiment with random assignment of subjects so we canconfidently evaluate the program's effectiveness, arebound to be ignored. Theresults of such conditions were program andresearch designs based upon well intended butprecipitious decisions. Often, when evaluations after the fact wereattempted, it was discovered that the originaldesign was -less than: adequate. Quite apart from the problemsrelated to the conditions under which programswere initiated arethe problems of evaluative-research-in-generel----Here-one-often-finds alow level-of expertise andinadequately-developed me-thods. The best educational researchscientists_often choose-to work with basic problems in childdevelopment, learning, linguistics etc., rather than evaluativeresearch. Evaluative and field research have only recentlygained in respect and demand among educators and the public. Consequently, high demand has been suddenly created in a fieldwith insufficient expertise. Although many good research scientists weredrawn into evaluation, they could not readilytransfer their researCh competence to the new situation. Indeed, given their experience in controlled laboratorysettings, the problems of evaluative and field research mayhame been more difficult for them than for some lessexperienced investigators. In the conduct of evaluativeresearch, one can distinguish three approaches or three levels of concern. The first attempts to discover whether or not aparticular intervention program is an effective treatment;that is, whether or not developmental apd learning processes areaccelerated following application of a particular teaching method,curriculum, etc. This kind of evaluative research askswhether or not the intervention works. The second level of concern is comparative; one attempts to discover whetherthe intervention in question works better than other knownmethods. The third level is explanatory; one tries to describe andexplain the -5-

relationship between specificintervention methods, specific characteristics of the recipientsof treatment, and specific associated changes in thebehavior of the recipients. Most evaluative research has beendirected at answering thefirst two questions. It is the third levelquestion, however, which is the most important. In answer to questions onthis level one is able tc establish arational basis for action and can begin to specifytreatments in relation toknown characteristics of the children tobe served. In answer to third level questions thedistinction between basic research and evaluative researchcollapses. The questions posed demand a quality ofdesign which is appropriate tobasic research but which can also serve_the purposesof evaluation. _Un-_ fortunately, evaluative researchof this quality hasseldom been applied to compensatoryeducation. In all of these approaches,technical, operational problems create furtherdifficulties. The closer compensatory education programs approachlaboratory experimentalconditions, the better one can discoverwhat, how and why certain educational treatments altereducational underdevelopment. Yet, numerous obstacles standin the way of establishingthe necessary degree ofprecision and control inisolating variables and discovering theeffectiveness of specific treatments. One such _obstacleinvolved_difficulties_in. the utilization. of_ an adequate method forselecting subjects. Campbell__ _and Erlebacher point out,"experimental" subjects _are often _ not selected on a .r.andombasis. While the "control" groupis selected to closely match theexperimental group according to various indices, the control groupis too often different from the experimental group incrucial aspects, although perhaps to a small degree. Without random selection of subjects, the results of a program mayreflect differencesin the development of two populationswhich-are unrelated to C:71$ question; in addition, matching coir the experimental treatment in procedures may produce regressionartifacts. As for analysis C> of covariance and partialcorrelation, such biases may occur both where pretest scores are availableand in after-the-fact 1/1) studies. Campbell and Erlebacher propose.trueexperiments in which randomization of subjectswill avoid difficulties that previous quasi-experimentaldesigns have encountered. Cit However,parental objections, coupledwith political pressures, of random assignment of (:11) have made large-scale application subjects impossible. Controlled comparative studies ofthis sort are often resisted bycommunities who will not accept arbitrary selection.of subjects forexperimentation when ;14 everyone wants the benefit ofspecial treatment. Another difficulty in establishingcomparable experimental and control groups can be attributedto the influence of what has been called the radiationeffect. Even if the two groups -6- are initially "comparable,"the effect of experimentation on the experimental subjectsis radiated onto theirfamilies, siblings and eventually onto thecontrol subjects if thereis any contact, direct orindirect, between these several groups. Susan Grey (1966) reported theconfounding impact of preschool on the experimentalchildren's families and even onother members of the community in whichthey lived. Reporting on the Early Training Project, Greyfound that at the end of each school vear the controlscaught up to the gains made during the summer by theexperimental groups. However, another control group in a town 60miles away did not show suchgains. In addition, untreated youngerbrothers and sisters of experimental subjects were observedto make unusual progress, no doubt as a resultof the influence of the programon their parents or siblings(Kohlberg, 1966). Obviously, control subjects should beselected in a manner suchthat they can in no way, beaffected by the experimentaltreatment. However, this conaition isincreasingly difficult tomaintain in large-scale field studies anddemonstration projects. In addition, investigatorshave discovered other effects that are associated with anintervention program, whichagain are hot direct results-of the treatment ,i.tself.-Rosenthal- (1968) reported that a teacher'sexpectations can have an important influence on the performanceof students. Shephard (1964) reported a similar experiencein the early stages of his work-l-n St.- -Louis.-Where the-teacher'sexpectations -of the- ch-ildfi-s--perform-ance- the child-is likely _ -show-loa,tter-aGhievement-han whereexpectations are-low. - Despite several criticisms ofRosenthal's work anddifficulties in replicating his findings(see Fleming and Anttönen,1971), there continues the strongly heldview that expectations greatly influence performance. Consequently, in any compensatory education program, theexpectations of the subjects' teachers may influence theirsubsequent performance. There is greater fathillarity with theHawthorne effect, in whichthe Mere fact of experimentation oraltered learriing conditions may cause a temporarychange in performance, anrelatedto the specific intervention methodapplied. One can see that variables other than those identified forstudy may affect the results. In the evaluation of compensatoryeducation, such interferences_have not beenidentifed or controlled for; hence, the real consequences of thevarious treatments cannot be determined from .these studies. There are still more problems referrableto evaluative research design which confuse,_distort orlimit the data as well as subsequent findings. Most evaluations of compensatory education studies tend to dependexcessively on quantitative measures and static variablesto the neglect of the process variables and the qualitative analysisof-behavior, circumstances and conditions. This dependence onquantitative measures of i

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UO) En&I.V419'(d(T).0 .E9>im si'in 14 qj H $4 p WV .r40..-Irtioli4 Clio() vz 14 0 r1 r1 U > 0 14 W a), 0 /4 4-1 124 Perl erl?)1)891241- (a 0 0 Pi 4) rri14 U .r1 0:1 0 >4 IV 44114 0 IV(0 -r1 5$4>inlaspil >ft:14.04>o. 4.1W0)41 W i.i 0 W w W, i4 ra W al 0 0 I'dIV 0 ,0 04 o 4-) ,ri CR14 i'd4.)0) rI 1.1 W 44 Oi 0 0 0 45 14 4-1 4)044 o4a) 0 a 1,r4 .0 1414ta 0 01 0 (s) 0 4) al rtini > 44 3 444 m),-1,-1 441:710>44-riu09-luniuirdolit03.00).FIT)(a)4a) -8-- repetition discourage reallearning, and with the factthat discipline for discipline'ssake serves the purposeof creating artificial order, but at the sametime produces dull automa- tons instead of eagerstudents, or turns theinmates of public schools against education totheir lifelong detriment. Even where extraordinary programsof compensatoryeducation may have broughtabout some beneficialresults, larger social results in the long run. Outside factors may negate these society that the classroom,disadvantaged children confront a is hostile to their healthydevelopment. Learning in. structured-situations may beirrelevant in_the_context_of____ to their life outside_the_slchool. There is some evidence suggest that ethnic,economic,ors'ocial-irife41;aticin-666-s have beneficial-effectson -children-whoSe-baCkgroUndresult- in such school problems._AAzhievement haVe been shown in many schools,although the to rise after_desegregation not exact interplay-of.readtlonsleading tól:this. result has been conclusively determined. For example,-improved-teacher - morale or.other improvedconditions brought about bythe process of desegregationmay result in anoverall increase in the quality Of educationthroughout the 'system.-Other" evidence points to theconclu-sian-that integm-ation on-a-social__ status group basis hasbeneficial effects fordisadvantaged children when the majority oftheir peers in the school are from higher status groups. Even these resuitS,-hoWever,are" asj.s __.not_ au f±.1ai e ntly_ c onclus-tv_e_ . to .. pr. ovide... a legit_irkat e for large scal.e.generalizations. In additionthe problem is further complicatedby_ the new renaissance incultural nationalism among ethnicminorities, a movement whichaffects any assumptions tobe made about ethnicintegration and education. In a society which hasalternately pushed ethnic separation or ethnic amalgamationand which has nevertruly _accepted_cultural and ethnicpluralism, blacks,_chicanos, -Puerto Ricans, and nativeAmericans are insistingthat the traditional-oublicschool is-guilty not onlyof intelleczual sm4 social but also of culturalgenocide for their. chilaren. There are class and casteconflicts to whichinsufficient attention_has_:been given in theorganization..and.delivery_of _ educational services. If cultural and ethnicidentification are important componentsof the learningexperience, to ignore ordemean themiS poor-education-,' atbest._ And even if_these_ factors are sufficientlytaken into account in theschool, we are far fromhaving any guarantees thatthe society_ will honor such values outside theclassroom. In short, it is not at all clear thatintensive, sbort-term_in-schooltreatment can counter the-negative, external forces working upon - - disadvantaged populations._ - The schools face a difficult challengeif they are to make learning an exciting andstimulating experiencs for all their students and to make whatthey have to offer relevant 1 M h it 0 1-1. En 0: Cr 0 0 121 t PA it it Su Ot fn til i . al 11:1 rt t 0' a tla I-1* 02 0 al 0 M 4.0 0 KJ V. 0 O it P P. 11 01 C/3 0.0 H 11 ' , 11VOIMJOH.01-11 11'041'11 IA 1-101 11 al rP(D0(D a, 0 a) 0 1-t 0 OoIIID0011010(t(DM0.0041 liC t10 rt ti) M 0 0 0 1-1 P.. M CD 0 H. 4 al 0 rl 0 iel .:.0f1101II ' 11 000'001.100H.N. 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enrichment. . 5'.1most-casestheeffectiveness.of the_programs- seems to depend Upon carefulplanning, clear objectives,. arid intensity of treatment,-attentionto-indivldual-needs,-home--- )Dase&support_for_schoolbased_learninactivities_andthe_7_._ presence_of personnel committed to_thepedagogical _procedures.____ prescribed.-These.chaacteristicS -SeeM..to'be mde.important17 than the specific curriculum strategyused. Where.such factors are not evident, the result's areoften_mixed or. poor-

3.__ Problems_Related_to the_Dialecical--Rad-ationshipBetween-- Personnel, Program and Situational-Cbaracteristics Most evaluation efforts in this field havetaken one or two-input variables-and looked-at them in relationshipto One output variable. Although.thi-s procedure has a respected history in research methodology,-in the sphereof cOmpensatory education the failure of the.procedure-to takeinto _account -a-number of inputS--related to pupils and staff, program content, community, etc.--and the dialecticalrelationships between them render it an inappropriate procedure. EValu- ation research which is sensitive to -polynomicvariable complexes is essential. None of the available studies meet ihis standard, and it is a demanding and difficult standard. Str_ategies for dealing with multiple-input variablecomplexes _are suggested by methodology fromthe field of-anthropology but strategies for similarly dealing withmultiple-output variable complexes have not yet been established. It may be that the mechanisms of educational and_social development are so idiosyncratic to individuals and sci Specific to circumstances that all effort at evaluating them must be based on assessment of specific individuals and their situations with conclusions for groups of individuals resting on the post-hoc grouping of findings rather.than on the ad hoc grouping or populations, programs and data. C. Procedures Utilized in thisStud

The study which herein isreported is primarily anexercise in bibliographic research. No original data havebeen collected. The data of the study arethose contained in evaluation and research documentsproduced over the pastfive to ten years with specialattention given to the1969 Elementary School Survey. The study consisted ofthree components which are outlined below. 1. Identification and review-of(a) extant evaluation-and research ztudies_pextaining_t0compensatory education; (b) 1969 Elementary School Survey This component was undertakenwith several purposesin mind. It was primarily organizationalin nature and served as a f_aundation forthe analysis andsynthesis_ which followed. The tasks included in thiscomponent are:

a. Development of a comprehensiveannotated bibliography (Section IV of this report) Identification of dependent andindependent variables (enumerated in the comprehensivematrix included in Section II) Olas_sification,of wtudies bypopulation units studied______control over proggamprovidedt_type of intervention, type of measurement instruments,and quality of research design.- These and other attempts atclas- sification proved relativelyuseless except for category of intervention(see Section II, C) and quality of research design(see Section III, A).

- d. Summary of major studies by categoryof-intervention to reflect the findings ofeach study and the overall status of work in each category- (see Section II, 0).

e. Identification and substantive summaryof exemplary studies chosen for the highquality of research design and contribution to thefield (see Section III,A). Identification of critical relationships amongvariabLas , . This component focused onexploring and-evaluating relationships existing among thevariables included in the Office cd' Education Survey and theindependent study data. Identification of such relationshipsreflects consideration of the major evaluationdomains which are encompassed by the survey information aswell as the most powerful instructional and program componentswhich have been identified by indeoendentresearchers and practitioners- in this field. These relationships aregraphically presented in thecomprehensive matrix includedin Section II, B. The following areas ofinterest -reflect the emphasis that gavedirection to thisanalysis. of participation(hours per a. To what extent the level participated in year) and the type of reading program for is associated with-cognitive change, especially (1) urban pupils who areeducationally disadvantaged and (2) pupils who areeducationally disadvantagedwho live in rural areas andsmall towns. To what extent level ofparticipation (hours peryear)-- in ancillary programsis associated withnon-cognitive change-, both social aridpersona2,, (1 ) urban pupils who are educationallyand/or socially disadvantaged, and (2) pupils who areeducationally_ and/or socially _,__- disadvantaged -who -livein-rural- area-s or- small-towns.

c. What combinations of ancillaryservices and academic programs yield thegreatest cognitive andnon-cognitive chatige-S in (1) urbanpupils-Who areeducationally-and socially disadvantaged and(2) pupils living in rural areas and smallcities who areeducationally and socially disadvantaged. characteristics(exparience _ __To what _extent_ teacher. _ trainingattitude s) and teacher:pupil_ interactions _arerelated to pupil behavior(interest_ attitudes, academic--accompli-shment absenteeism, and intt in scliool)- especiallyfor: educationally disadvantaged pupils in(1) rural areas and small cities, and (2)._ largecities4 and (a)_ senior high s, (9-12), (b) junior high schools(7-9) schools(c) grade school (1-6). To what extent approachesto classroom managementhave been utilized includingthe types of pupil responses required by -teachers, -thestructure -of classroom assignments and activities,_ andgeneral teaching methodology- related to pupilbehavior and attitude including classroom attitude,pupilal4senteeism, pupil interestpupil -achievement, andpupil personal -- and social changes. What levels of concentrationsof services and types of services (ancillary andacademic) are needed for significant affective andcognitive gains of pupils in elementary and secondaryschools: (1)with high percentage of poor students -13-

(2) with high percentage of black students (3) with high percentage of educationally disadvantaged students Elements included: 1) instructional programs (type, intensity,duration) 2) non-instructional programs (social, psychological, counseling services) (3)out-of-school programs (work schedules, recreation, ---stu-dent-Tplan_ned classes) (4-) selection of pupils for participation in special services

g. What---va.riables not -regularly coni-ideredinsfirdieS of compen.satory educ at i on can 'be -inn:tient i al- in d et er- mining the suecess- of- compensatory education programs? -_ Such components include:

(I. pupil participation in instructional plarming 2 -c-ommunity -participation-in instructional-planning_ - 3 non-toer-tified instruc_t.j.onal_p_ersonnel in (4 diversification of program offerings for disadvantaged pupils (5)use of non-classroom facilities and other resources 3. Integrative Summary The third project -component -attempts to synthesize the analysis_of- the_re_search end -evaluation d-ata--,-- and report on the ciiti,ent_-e"-teTtus of the field-bfceimpenbatory education_ (see Section II, A).f From the comparisons that have been made among the range of variables identified an attempt -is made to formulate -specificrec-ommendations with respect to research and evaluation efforts, including (a) identification of evaluation procedures in independent projects W-hich-Mus-t be- -C-ol-isidered -in the-design. ofcompensatory education. survey evaluation methodology, and (b) tre- deve/opment of variable:81_ de scrip-tor s and-- program_component categories which can. be utilized for a more effective comparison of data obtained fromSurvey and independent sources. -14-

D. Outline of the Report

Section I: Introduction A. The Need for the Study

B. Problems in the Conduct and Interpretation of Compensatory Education Evaluation Research

C. Procedures Utilized in this Study D. Outline of the Report

Section II: Status of Compensatory_E,ducation and__TitIe_ I _ Itagralls. A. Major Findings and Conclusions B. Graphic Representation of Findings_ _ _ C.- --SundmailCr- Tra:joi;---Stutlies 15y L. Development of Specific Academic Skills 2. Developmental Facilitation in Early Childhood 3.Guiding and Utilizing the Affective Development of Children _ - - Inv_olving Parents and _theComminity_in,the T,earning Process 5.Changing Staff Behavior Through Training- 6. Changing Schools and School-Systems

Section III: Implications for Evaluation Research A. Exemplary Studies of- Compensato-ry B. Survey- and Other National Assessment Strategies

C. Ev-aluation Research:Ur_pose-, _D_esign _Interpretation.4__

Section IV: Annotated Bibliography. -15-

Section I: List of References

1. Evans, John W. and Jeffrey Schiller. "lbw Preoccupation with Possible Regression Artifacts Can Lead to a Faulty Strategy for the Evaluation of Social Action Programs. A Reply to Campbell and Erlebacher," Disadvantaged Child, Vol. III, Jerome Hellmuth, Ed., New. York: Brunner/ Mazel, Inc., 1970.

2. Fleming, Elyse S., and Ralph G. Antonnen:- "Teacher Expectancy on My Fair Lady,"_American Education -ResearchJcurnal, 8(2): 241-252,-- March, 1971. - 3. Klaus, Rupert A., and Susan Gray. The Early Training Project for Disadvantaged Children: A Re.ortAfter Five Years. Monographs of the Society for Research in ChildDevelopment, Vol. 33, No. 4, 1968.

4. Rosenthal, Robert A., and LenoreJacobson. asmalion in the Classroom: Teacher Expectations and.Pu ils'Intellectual Develo ment. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968.

5. Shephard, Samuel. Efforts-in the Banneker Distr-ict to Raise Academic Achievementof Culturally D-isadvanta ec&_l__a.iildren, -A Brief Statement 1964. -16-

Section II: STATUS OF COMPENSATORY EDUCATION AND TITLE I PROGRAMS

A. Major Findings and Conclusions

The review and analysis of the data from the 1968-69 Surveyand some 200 evaluation and research reports concerned with Title I ESEAprojects and amide variety of compensatory education efforts hasenabled us to pose several questions the answers to which speak to the Statusof Compensatory Education in the U.S.A. in 1970. It is possible to indicate:

1.Who was reached by these programs; 2. What _programs and practices mere employed; 31. What has been the tmpact of these programs and practices on the children served; and 4.What combinations of input and outcome variables show promise of improving development in populations of disadvantaged school children

1. Who Shut Reached by These Programs?

During the school year 1969 and 1970 approximately5.4 million public school pupils were assisted by ESEA Title I. Approximately 3.7 million pupils in a national sample mere identified by their teachers aseducationally disadvantaged. Of these. approximately 407. or 1.5 million wereprovided special assistance under the ESEA Title I program, which providesapproximately eighty percent of the federal funds for education of disadvantaged pupils. However, the other sixty percent or approximately 2.2 million pupilswho were identified by their teaChers as educationallydisadvantaged did not receive extra assistance through Title I. Of all the pupils assisted by ESEA Title I,approximately 27%.of them were educationally disadvantaged,leading one group of investigators toconclude that substantial amounts of ESEA Title I funds ere-dispersed.on other than -edumMtionaltyldisadvantaged pupils.

In addition, the survey data reveal that those.dhildrenattending school in districts sihere regular !school expenditures were low continued, despite Title I funds, to have proportionately less spent for their education than children in more fortunate districts. This phenomenon is due both to the Title / allocation formula, which Is partially based'on the level of regularschool, expenditure from state and local funds, and to the tendency of lov expenditure districts to disperse their Title I funds or services among a larger proportionof their pupils tban do more wealthy districts.

The pupils served.by ESEA Title / in grades 2, -4,and 6 in 1969 and 1970 were ethnically distributed is follows: Black 33.0% Spanish surnamed 8.8% Indian .8% Oriental .2% Other 55.1% Non response 2.2%

Total 100.0%

The pupils served by ESEA Title / in grades 2, 4, and6 in school year 1968-69* were geographically distributed as follows:

Rural areas 37.3% Suburbs 8 5% _Small city (Under 40,000) 29.3% Riddle Size City (40,000 - 500,000)...... 14.5% Large City (500,000 and over) 10.4%

Total 100.0% 0 Moving frau the survey data to other reports, it isdifficuli to be more specific or encouraging with respect to who was served. At the height of activity in Readstart, approximately 500,000.children wereserved in any one year. Of this number, about 150,000 were from-non-disadvantaged (i.e. above the poverty level) families.Estimates indicate that in most Communities the most severely depressed families were notconsistently reached. An the several smaller populationstudies reviewed, it is often possible to identify ethnic background. andinvestigator's estimate or determination that a low income group has been served butthese data are not helpful in estimating the nulberof children served.

2. What Programs and Practices were Employed?

Infant Studies

Growing out of the assumptions that poor children tend tosuffer-deprivations early in life which are related to their subsequentdepressed level of academic functioning, as well-as from the research evidencewhich suggest that during the first three'years of life the intellectualdevelopment of the child is most Malleable, several programs designed toinfluence develop- mentin infancy have been developed. All of these programs.seem to have resulted tm some acceleration of development or at least theacquisition of additional behaviors. The.maintenance of this acceleration.and the contribution of the.additional behaviors to subsequent developmenthas not yet been established.

* This is the latest national data on geographic distribution that is avellable. -18-

\ specific strategies. Interventions during infancyhave included a variety of They generally emphasize,hoever, the fallowing activities:

Perceptual stimulation and trainingranging frota enrichmnt 1. in.flt with of the crib environmentand the engagement ef the objects in that environment tosystematic training in percnp- tual discrimination and acumen. Language and conceptdevelopment and enrichmentincluding 2. child, verbal bombardment, labeling,playing games, reading to showing pictures, object permanence,conservation, and exPerien- tial enrichment with repetitiousdesignations. including adult to 3. Social-emotional stimulation and support __child .attention, loving care,cuddling, body play, emotional warmth, developing trust,person-self identification and stable but varied routines. infanes development through parent- 4. Parental .support for the training in relation to theabove_as:well.as through_direct .4ssimtnt- to_parents .in improvingtheir life conditions._

Preschool

Combining the long_tradition of concernin the nursery school movement or socializationof the young child, the concernin day care for health and_custodial protection, andthe emerging .concern withstimulation of._ cegnitive development in theearly years, the current preschool program . has emerged as a multifacetedoffering. Nonetheleas,- most of these cognitive development. programs for poorchildren have-tended 'to emphasize Headstart,_but many , The most_extensive singleeffort has_been that of school districts have.utilizedTitle Imoney to sponsor-preschool pro- In.general, the initial impactof these programs on childrenhas _gram's. following been positive with gainsrather consistently noted.immediately of exp.osure to the -experiencebut with wide.variation in measures effectiveness as the time between treatmentand follow up measurement is exIended._Few_studies.show.achievement_differences,between experimental and control groups one or twoyears following tntervention. there are problems As is indicated in.chapters I and IV of this report, and- factors other than effeni:issof program which may-contribute follow up of pre- to the essentiallynegative findings in long term various com- school interventions. Programs extant-tend to include binations of the following elements: representation and concept .1.. Enhancement .of sk:,111 in..symbolic _formation, with specific emphasesranging_from_language enrichment,Janguage bombardment.'and-labeling, .tothe uSe.of lantuage to ask and answer questions,contemplate.past and future,-to observe and discuss causeand effectzelationships all designed to 'encourage ab*!-Lractthought as opposed to mechanical languageutilization; alSoutilized- arelistening centers, a variety'of readingreadiness materials, repeated exposure to elaborativerather than-res':..rictive language structure and lar.7-,wege games such aslotto. -19-

and.intellective tools=,7.11.special 2. Mastery of pre-academie emphasis given to languageand arthmetic. In these programs instruction skills mastery isencouraged through, small, group responses, individualand group 'repe- in which group chanting of tition of words, sentencesand numbers_andheavy use positive and negativesAnctions are u,Led--Also.imcludcd here are strattsieG emphasiziagperceptvAl zFz:1 sor5ory d4ce,-inin3tion developa2at attcpreozItr,71 a4 cnciNunqsett of task involvement. enhancing the ability toapproach and 3. Learning to learn or, This strategy uses gamesand planned solve problems. from motor manipu- sequences of gamelikeactivities which range experience and- lation through perceptualimagery to symbolic has been -their verbalization. The -design of the program greatly influenced byPiagetian concepts. Enhancement of self conceptand confidence as aninquirer. 4. individual Programs using thesestrategies give- emphasis to attention, verbalreenforcement,-high-personal-regard, ex--. periences-and materialsfocussed on personal and identity, trips, music and scienceexperiences designed to stimulate curiosity andinquiry behavior, andhigh frequency of success experiences Practically all 5. Parent involvement-andparent development. programs include someelement ofparentinvolvement-either directly-in-the schoolexperience,orin active support-of school learning in-the homeexperience. Activities include in-the' parent meetings., prentvolunteers or pail. WOrkers Classiotii;Ifame'viSit-development ofmaterials-and-sequences- -far parent 'use In addition-to-theseactivities,designed-to------.inVolve-the.parent in the,education.ofthe child a-wi.de-variety development, including --of activities have beenutilized in.parent social casework, vocationalguidanCe, jOb.Placethent-,--COMmunity" all designed organization, -family assistanceand health services parental respon- to strengthen the parentin the discharge of

. sibilities.

Media and TeChnolOy

Television AddComputer-assisted-instruction-arethe.two-innovations pupil-- cOncerning which-there ate-dataavailable cOncerrang .impact on been radio, achievement and development...Although there have long ofy6ung children, it newspaperand,magazine efforts,at -education was not until the SesemeStreet TV.seriesthat asystematiC-effort- Although the series was made at . theevaluation of educationalimpact. ,children,'the data indicate - was priMarilydirected-aC disadvantaged that. it was more effective inTeaching somewhat more-privileged In all children.. reached,-however, the show waseffective children. its purposeto in getting acrosS CheknowledgeS and skills.which were the greatet- teach, In addition, thegreater the'frequency of e.:-tpoSure,. was cc .ept.. and-skill. mastery.,

Of a variety ofHprogrems of computerassisted instruction, mOst are -20--

is che Respon7 still'in deVelopment stages. Ono set of programs in use typewriter. With sive Environment,colloquially known as the talking this device the pupil,caninitiate the precntation of ncharac!--.- C)7 symbol complex which issimultaneously presented visuallyand c.udiLorily enable the learner or in.eithermodality.. The machine is designed to with no knowledge of a.particular language to learnboth the spoken and written form of thatlanguage. Results in the use of thisprocedure are mixed. In general these resultshave been positive, however, correlated with speed of learning, readingand writing seem positively the maturity of the child'sspeaking-listening_abilities. The procedure does not seem to hold greatpromise for disadvantaged children standard speech do since children who beginwith high scores and good better than those who enterwith lower scores and skills. It does 'including-- 'appear;- however, that-0i:0-structured programmed-approach frequent and immediate feedback,combined with a 1:1 tutorialr:AkItion- ship, individual pacing andsomewhat individualized programming .seemto have some success.

Reading

A variety of programs havebeen develOped With theprincipal focus on which promote an inten- reading skills. Most commoa are those programs -sification or addltional amountot reading instruction,generally by the use of specialists andspecial centers. Such efforts have resulted -in varying degrees of'success asmeasured by reading achievement scores.- extant The range of techniques andmaterials is inclusive of strategies materials have been in this field. The more traditional and some new combined with cultural enrichment, peertutoring, home instruction, 'concept-enhance- --Cómputer assisted iristrirction;P-rogrammed learning and-beIf ment-procedures,- The tightlystructured-programmed approach Mentionedin- the,above paragraph has provensuccessful primarily in the areaof child reading. Programs oriented toward theaffective development of the as well as to hisreading progress also appear to havepositive outcomes.

Language and Communication viewed as Although language developmentand communication are generally one component of abroader reading Skills program, afew efforts have iOcused_on this CoMponent Inereased adult-child ratios in theclass- enabling the child room have been anessential aspect of such programs, eo receive more ndividual instructionand practice in speech and therapists are writing activities. Audiovisual materials and/or speech utilized in such programs. -Fewappropriate assEssment instruments are available in this prea. As a result, although gains havebeen ndicated by secondary school youth onlangUage tesats -and by younger-children on verbal intelligence tests,further definitive statements regardingresulL8 in this area cannot be made at present. -2i

Mathematics

Like language/communication, programsdealing with mathematics skill the reading-and-math com- - development usually contain other components, bination being the most frequent. These efforts generally consist of increased time given to Math instruction,often in small groups or individually, with no adaptations made inthe approach to the subject matter. Moderate gains in math achievementhave resulted from such programs. Those few programs which haveexperimented with innovative techniques such as gaming, discovery,and computer-assisted instruction appear to have resultedin larger gains in math achievement. There is some evidence whichindicates that tlhe greater studentinvolvement necessary for the successof such-programs has been an essentialinput with manifestations in otheroutcome!areas, affective as well as cognitive.

Affective Development

Although no compensatory education progirmsbeyond the preschool-level concerned with guiding/the affectivedevelopment_of _ are exclusively _advantaged youth, _almost all of_themrecognize:the relationship between a student's motivation,attitudes, self concept or aspirations and his intellectual performance, and at least make atoken gesture at offering affective support for his learning._Research on the learning pattern of _ the disadvantazed child indicates thatin classrooms which systematically. offer small reenforcement, he can gainthe pusitive self concept and sense of personal 'control overhis envir onment which appear to_be crucial_ factors in his ability to achieve. Some researchers have maintained that the primary benefit of compensatoryeducation would seem to be the Intervention in the affective domain and-that someof the success we attribute to Narious-curricular_and-instructionalstrategies in-producing _ intellectual and academic gains fon the-childreally are a-result of -increased motivation or the acquisition of arealistic self concept.

The primary agenE for bringing_aboutpositive affective change in the child seems to be clearly the teacher. Although there is some disagree-. ment about the possibility ofmanipulating teachers' expectations of a child's performance, there seems to be littledispute about the importance of teachers' opinions andbehaviors in creating a supportive classroom atmosphere for the child. --It hasalso been found that these behaviors can be experimentally manipulated toproduce desired behaviors from the child..A child's relationship with his peers,particularly in tutoring_programs, can affect his academic performance. There is also evidence that the use of programmed materials withbuilt-in rewards in a planned educatienalenvironment can result in greater motivation to learn and thus greater achievement gains.

Of all the interventions in.the educationAl lives ofthe disadvantaged child, placement in a desegregated school has-causedthe greatest social and personal chan9e. Minority group students tend to have morerealistic -22-

aspirations about theirabilities and futures and make concretedecisions. More able students become moredriven but at the same time moreconfident: Desegregation tends to challengethe stability of the self-conceptof minority group students andhas likely stimulated themovement_toward multi-ethnic curriculum which hasthe promise of reenforcing thestudent's identity in an interracialclassroom. Parental/Community Involvement Despite research 2.ndicatingthe positive effect which parental.involvement in the school has on thechild' s development, very few progra,24sin compensatory education _haveattempted to include thi_s as_a_significant_aspect of the program, and only oneof the reports studied discussed aprogram which attempted to institute genuinecommunity control.-Several pre- have attempted to educate parents school and elementary school programs the and involve them in support oflearning as well as involving them in .- -school.While-there are --elc-a-mpl-es -tc5- shoW--tlia.tparent educa-t-ibli-dalriead to positive behavioraladaptations, there- is a dearth ofevaluatitin- data - in this area, either test results ordescriptive- data.- One excepti-on-i-s the evaluation of an IndianCommunity School indicating that whilethe school has become more closely 1inked to the community, communityadminis- trative par ticfpat-ion has -beentoken. :The -limitedinformation-available----:-- cn a -communit_y--con-trolled-school i-s- of-a_cautiously -pos-it-ive Staff Training teacher As was pointed out in thediscussion of affective_ development,_ attitudes and behaVior areCr-Ucial in improving the education of dis- advaritaged- child'ren: 'Terceral agrffi h-thi-S--Tharret,--effiti-ft-§ in the area _are__:notcteti. .-.in-ser vide -training and-- teacher- training-progrems. have A.tri--14-z a--nurrib'er- of-- techniques--wh-ich- attempt to improve teachingmethods and, increasingly, to changethe psychosocial beh-aTiiOr of_teachers.. Substaritive-evaluative- data on such _ programs is virtually--nonexistent-with a few exceptions in theteacher- training area.Pre-serVac-F-tfairiing progfeing-show eh& promiie due largely to the longer -duration -of theproject._ -23-

Impact of these Programsand Practices on the 3. What has -been the Children Served? is possible to make somegeneral From the data ofthe 1968-69 survey, it estimates. to show Participants in the compensatoryprograms continued 1. comparison to non- declines in averageyearly achievement in participants who includeddisadvantaged andnon-disadvantaged - pupils. This of course makesthe comparison inappropriate It is not possiblefrom these data to for most purposes. compensatory-programs-showed - _ deternizne-whether participants-in a reduceddecline in average yearlyachievement. pupils in the lowestachievement levels 2. The data suggest that participation in- have shown some slightbenefit- associated with compensatory education programs. It is not clear, however, _ ii-- whether this represents aregression toward the- mean or schoolfiii--- reflective of -their response toimproved conditions of "-Equal itT of-Educational- _ -as repor ted -byColeman.-- -In- his-report, Opportunity", Coleman concludedthat_disadvantaged children significantly influenced byquality of schooling than are more achievement-- are md-ieprivileged childt eti nhot h-- I:nate-noes- the -- - patt erft-S- -are probably-asso-cri'at ed-with-regresbion,-ef'ftots-; quality of schooling andactual room for growth inachievement in relation to theceilings imposed by thglearning exnerte,,ce. achievement for participantsshow 3. Teacher estimates of academic signilicantly_greater results_ _than do test_results,_ They . also _ found,desirable social_growth moreoften in participantsthan in non-participants. _These surveyfindings are consistent with_ othret Studies-which in-generalghuW-teacher's subjective-judge= ments im iieüèñ eTfaii1iTIIianójtvetédTT: domain. also show positive estimatesof change in the affective _ _referr4121g_ hgs teen indicated.,thp-evalUatio44- research and_s4rvey data As _lend_ themselves to_ easy. to compensatoryeducation and_ Title I ESEA do_not of-griecifid-input. Var table 6" 14110Se-rel ations-to -sp-acitta--_-- Rather what we have arecomplexes --- output variables-can-be-determined. In _relation to of treatment variableswhich invegtigators have studied response_which may _be called--the--dependentArariables, aspects of _pupil:- fairly loosely However, if a varietyof patterns of reading instruction, described in the literature, canbe called input variables(we prefer variable complexes) iE is possible torepOrE'haE sonl6i of to call these with gains these variables _complexes arerather consistently associated

. . The . in achievement at levels1.7hich are.statisticaflysignificant. Elementary Hartford Intensive ReadingInstructional Teams; the Milwaukee the De t ro i t Reading Centers ;---the -Milwaukee_Token, Reenforcement-Rrogram; Communication Skills CenterProject; and the IndianapolisProgrammed Tutorial Reading Project areexamples of such-cases. Other examples Include what may be described asintensive efforts at instructionin- volving systematic and repeated exposureto structured learning -24-

experiences, usually over a period of 2ktp8 months. In general it seems clear that thetightly structured programmed approach including frequent and immediate feedback to the pupil, combinedwith a tutorial relationship, individual pacing and somewhat individualizedprogramming are positively associatedwith accelerated pupil achievement.

In contrast to these intensive and highly structured programs areseveral which are more global, less intensive_and appear to givegreater atten- ticn to the social and affective conditions oflearning even while they concentrateon-specific- skills, -The-Malabar--Read-ing-Program;- School Program and the More Effective Schools Program areexamples. The evaluation results in these cases_ are_less definitive.but _are_ Achievement levels of pupils exposed to these programsfor one year or more reflect gains most of which arestatisti6allY significant with respect to _academic achievement patterns.Available-data do- not-permit _firm conclusions with respect to affective_ development-although-gains --- in the social-ethotional area are strongly asserted. These programs which depend hea.v_fl-y--on-indiliidt.talized_ instructinntindependent_learning _ the develo ment of ositive self image -and _active-parent support for -- learning are generally associated with gains in pupilachievement. _ There areseveral preschool-programs which-show -positive though the---lame.--seal-e-, n a tictna=1 -impact-studies- are --hard- to-interpret- ; it is possible tb discern clear trends in these data whenthe smaller, more carefully tontrolled -Studies arereviciaed.- TheSe -studiei indicatethat a wide variety of preschool practices are associatedwith_immediate- _to long _term gains_ in the developmental patternsof_children_served_-____ Since all of these studies have given more attention to pretestand_pbst7 teSE scafei thin-fb ana/ysis of program .C.Tiaracteristics, it isdifficult --to -d4;scuss op t Gal -interventionstrategies:-In---ane of the-few g-tr _ attempts at .Comparative stud-y of treatments, 'WeikartconclUded "Thechoice of a curriculum framework is only of minor importance-as long as one is selected. ... Either the mechanical -application of a specific curriculum or the busy concern_ with administrative_procedure that an-y_ Jrcig-ra-th entails -Wt_lOni a project -to_failure...__The promess of-creating-end-th oreat-iveLaPPLication- of .a curriculum, -not -the par= titular curriculumselected _what is _essen.tial_ta_ - success". The evidence from several studies seems to support con- clusiOns that--the crucial elements in effective programs, are__(l) the htini-an Invidvament of concerned -staff, -(2)-learning experiences that reflect thespecial-charactertstics- and---naed-g of the individUal 'teat-net', (3) interaction of more experienced' p-ersbns (adults) with les6 perienced (children) on an individual or small group basis, 4 time for teacherS-to reflect on and lan -feir the individual u.ilS for Whom_ _ _ they are responsible, (5) a systematic approach_ to the provision _of_. directed lear-ning and (6) support in the home for theschool based -learn--

_ ing experiences of children. ,

Although it seems clear that systematic programs of education directed at the development of specific or general_ skills can behighly effective, it is not clear that the crucial elements areorder, system, and individual attention. It is consistentlyalleged by some thatCho contribution of these elements to theaffective climate and conditions of learning are the critical factors. Despite our inability to give definitive specification to those variableswhich constitute the affective conditions associated with positive outcomes,the data of several studies clearly support the conclusionthat affective support is a crucial variable in the learning of adisadvantaged child. Of the several factors associated with. achievement in school,Coleman and his coworkers (1966) found that sense of control over ones environmentaccounted for iL more of the variation inachievement than all other factors save family background. Where sense of control;is high,.achievementin school is high and where sense of controlis-173'W .achievement is low. This -relationship was found to hold for blacks al;c1 whites,for rich and poor. Sources of this sense of:control have not beensystf-ma,.:ically studied.. but the Coleman data also indicated that for thep,:nulation..studied,, the experience of schooling in integrated settins.wasassociated with a high sense of control forblack pupills, &SditiPnal-support-for the- Amportance of the affective domainis,found in work .of Zigler_and Butterworth (1968) who haveclearly deonstratedthe basis in changed affective components for-changes in level of-test score.-Their researdh- indicates that without any discernable shift in the natureof cognitive- function and without intervention of a. cognitivenature,-significant shifts in the level of intellective function can beachieveclthrouo-h- the modification of motivation,.task involvement andaffective-state. A number of related studies provide similarthough less convincing evi= dence. They include studies of achievers and non-achievers with 'difference in affect being the major associated difference betweenthe -two groups. A-variety of .reenforeement studies-make the same poiht: When learners find the learning.experienceor-the-result-of-the. experience rewarding, achieveMent.is hioher. fact, the single most- consistently. effective.strategy. for the achievement_of masteryof a- specific. behavior or skill. is that based. upon .the analysisoflearner--. behavior and contingency management resulting in consistent rewards -for appropriate behavior. By no means unrelated to this phenomenon is .the_utilization of.peers as models or tutors. a variety of_ programs: utilizing peers, it seems clear that the reenforcement providedby: 'peer approval or the meeting of-peer norms isa.powerful tool-for in- fluencinc,, punil.acHITATeMent.

The concern 'with affective development -Is not unrelated tothe.age--old concern with the development of moreeffective communication between

parents, community and the school or the comtemporarycCncerns. with .

-"parent participation" and."community control". 'Parent andCommunity . Involvement in the 'school are presumed to.mikeschooling more .congruent .with the lives of-pupils_ as well.a.S 'to insure-snppott in the.broader life eXperience for the activities .olthe school,:The: latter:may be instrumental in reenforcing specific_learning both arethoUght to-influence. Che attitudes of children toward schooling The data indicate that the children of parentswho are more intimatelyinvolved .in school show heightend self concept and 'more sigmi1Ti6anclvsuperior.acadc,mic -26- prnress. in her annual. revieN.1 of compensatryeducation progra, Jablonsky Concluded that "schoolswhich have open doors to 17:nt.s and community members have p.sreater successin ed.catin,;-, In the review of rescarchrelated to decentrlizat.ion enj participation, Lopate and others haveconcluded, "investi,4ations of the effects of participatorydecision makin in creatin; -oositivc changes in the affectiVe andinstrumental behavior of the. 1)arceipants consistently demonstrate the importanceof actively involvincr in decisions uhich affect them. ...Educational research incliceL2s th:at when parents Of school children areinvolved in the proces of edocatio. their children are likely toachieve better."

It is difficult to draw meaningfulconclusions from the. data on efforts at changing .staff behaviorthrough training or from the polemical literature on changing schools andschool systems. Although no strategy or content for training emerges asexemplary from.thetraining-Iitefature," from research on program it does arppeallthat the gOals of training, need to focus on staff.member (1) use of-self as afacilitatOr -and reinforcer 'of -learning; (2.) planning for consistency andflexibility in management of learning experiences; (3) utilization of indigenoushuman and other resources to encourage and suPportlearning; and (At utilization_ of =rep_ and environment assessment data to plan the-developmental experiences of individuals and aroups. Howthese- goals Tare-be st -achieved-in- training is not clear, but evidence mounts in supportof an association between ,the presence of such characteristics in thebehavior of staff and-improved As for changes in_ schools and__ achievement and adjustment for_pupil_ so systems, experience. _ So far is more apparent thanreal, more-symbolic than-conCrete, and too new for there to be good data from which to_draw. conclusions.Nonetheless, the weight of the arguments tips the balance toward the conclusion that schooling is out of phasewith the changing -

_needs of those we would school.The manlier in which schoolin-g-rnust be changed is the focus of the debate. B. QsaohicRepresentation ofFinding,s

Introduction and graphic of this-study was tohave been the identification A central task of dependent and independent representation ofrelationships between a variety education efforts. Considerable variables referable toTitle I and compensatory at-trying to identify andspecifythe effortlwas expended- be investigation. Although this task proved to have been subjected to used,.programs difficult because of.thewide variation in thway terms are neglected, the task ofutilizing are designedand outcomes are measured or and to and specifications todetermine relationships those identifications It:As-the graphically represent definitiverelationships-proved impossible. that has thwarted theseattempts. nature and qualityof the data available standardization i/n. the Conception-or definition' of- There is little to no Variables may be the variables utilizedin the manystuaies reviewed. meanings.but-the:- . assigned to categoriesaccording to generally .agreed to. the variable.are inconstantacross.programs substantive characteristics_of reading or- parenC involveent situations and pupils. Hence, guidance,- or have different meaningsin each. are referred toin numerous prOgrems but intelligence level ,--effect -on-pa-rents-may -be-identified------Or reading -score,- Specifications idio- as- common dependentvariables but with each having situati5f-i-inwhich it is uSed."In addition-;--Iess syncratie'to the study or designs which than one tenth of the _reportsstudied were based on research hypothesis .testing experiments,_in which isolated,. _meet criteria for Nearly variables were studied forpossible interactiverelationships. all-the-Studies-incrude multipletre-a-EMent-variables and-a-few-dependent determining WhiCh specific -variables, with no-seriouseffort Airected at independent variable or-combinations of variablesaccount-for-the:_association- Because of these with a specific dependentvariable or variable complex. of graphicallyrepresentingLthese_nebulous several factors the problem form_has not relationships in_other thansimplistic and- possibly.misleading been solved. categories of program A simple program matrixhas been produced in which tnput variables are listed onthe vertical and categoriesof outCome variables for each study is the horizontal. An identifying number are listed on intercept.':. charted in the cells whereindependent and dependent-variables where the independent Column'one of the matrix isreserved for thoSe studies variable is-associated with nomeasured difference-: The remaining vertical which studie'S showingdifferences associated with columns include cells in differences categories or treatment areidentified. Studies Showing significant diagomal. The matrix at the .05 level areidentified: by placement above.the The data.on these programs referred to representsgraphically 62 programs. were reported in a mannerwhich enabled the Staff toidentify independent these data were .dealt with and dependent Variables,and in.most instances A casual study of thismatrix reveala that' it is not auseful statistically. Variables. By 'no aid in identifying crucialrelationships between speCific means aro all thevariables which may have rolevahcefor effective compensatory Indicated in sufficint:. education listed. -Nor axethose which are id,ent,ific:.d,- In fact, some detail to be useful in directingpolicy and progi-am planning. -28- of the most important findings andconclusions which can be drawn from the data and reports studied simply cannot-be graphically represented in this matrix. The matrix can be useful, however, indetermining those categories of variables with which much orlittle work has been done. It can provide some suggestiveleads for concentrating future and moredefinitive study. It can be used to identify complexesof input variables and complexes of ,lutcome variables which show promiseof association. The bibliography which foll-ows the matrix includesannotated references to the programs included in the matrix. These and other studies are discussed in summary fashion in section IIC of the report.

- ____ _-

_ -29-

I-2,NTIFICATION AND DEFINITION OFINDEPENDENT VARIABLES

UTILIZED IN PROGRAM MATRIX

1. General learning and problem-solvingskills - refers to skills general enough to be applied inall or several areas rather than to specific subject matter. Includes "learning to learn," study skills, classification,general concept formation. SES, ethnic or age 2. Grouping patterns - includes grouping on an basis as well as on the basis of academicachievement.-

3. Increased adult-child ratio - includesaides and volunteers as_ well as regular teachers. - programs whichhad materials 4.. Innovative materials and curriculum or curricula particularlydevelopedor packaged for-the program.

5. Language and communication skills -includes pre-school through high school; oral_expression, grammar, spelling, composition (excludes reading).

6. Math skills

7. Motivation - techniques used to motivatechildren to perform academically including internal and externalmotivation, posi- tiveand negative- motivation- and future goalorientation.. -

Parent.,education and/or invo1vement,7-includingparentalvisits . to classroom and parental teaching athome as well .ad community invOlVement.

9. Peer relationships - includes peer tutoring,friendship, role models.

10. Reading skills development .rv

41. Staff Skillsdevelopment includes-.-in-service training, sensl-- 0.yiy'raining,

12. Affective.-development - inclUdeS.self.7-condepti selfimage, a titude,toward learning. (does.not.includemotivation).

13. Cultural enrichment - includes trips out to museums, piays, etc. and bringing in art, dance, etc to the learning environment.

14. Diagnodis of learning deficitS anY effort at-the identification of deficits that may interfere with learning. -30-

these ate-p0:ecd togetIler at: 15. Headstart, Montessori, Sesame.Street present because each progra contains a unique collIbination of methodology inputs not usefully brokendown into individual i,Inuts.

16. Use of paraprofessionals

17. Motor development - gross motordevelopment_

18. Psychological support services and guidance

19. Hardware, teaching machinery - includesaudiovisual materials, programmed materials, and media aswell as techniques associated with the use of this material.

20. Specialists - subject specialists

21. Residential programs where the child"lives in" at the educational institution.

22. Suppert services - a more multi-facetedapproach than No. 18 above, includes work with the family, themilieu, etc.

23. Teacher planning time - increased freetime given teachers during school day studies of the 24. Teacher expectations - this category encompasses "pygmalion" effect -31-

IDENTIFICATION AND DEFINITION OF-DEPENDENT VARIABLES

UTILIZED IN PROGRAM MATRIX

1. General intelligence - any test that gives an IQ or mental age measure such as the Stanford-Binet, the WISC,the WPPSI, the DAT.

2. Verbal intelligence - inclu.:es tests such as the ITPA, the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, verbal section of the WISC.

3. Language achievement - tests of English ability.

4. Reading achievement - tests of reading ability.

5. Math achievement - tests of math ability.

6. Attitude 4-oward self - includes tests of self-concept, anxiety, ahd attitudes.

-7. Effect.on'parents - includes improved attitude towardschool or education, improved family health,- etc., greater-involvement-in school.

8. Level of aspiration - increased orientation toward academit, vocational, social and personal goals.

9. Learning style - reflective or'impulsiVe (this category may be expanded to include other approaches to learning in which the child may show changes..) -32-

KEY TO PROGRAM MATRIX

.05 level. Numbers above the diagonalline - statistically significant at Numbers below the diagonalline - test results not at .05level or data in test score form with notest of significanceapplied (significant in the colloquialsense).

8a - includes differential aptitude test 18a - re tutees 18b- re tutors 228 - as evaluated-by Fox 22b- as evaluatedby Forlano et. al. 31a - re mothers' self-esteem 34a - re self-concept 35a - re children in program one year 35b- re childrenin program two years 38a - Head Start children attendingfull-year now in 1st grade b fall and summer. 38 - No differencefound on Stanford Achievement for Head Start children now in 2ndgrade; no difference on ITPA for Head Start children in grades1 and 2; no difference found in Head Start children in grades1 and 2 on self concept. 39a - re 2nd graders 3-b- re 5thgraders 39c- re 5thgraders' self concept and schoolattitudes 39d- re 2ndgraders' arithmetic achievement 40a- includesanxiety measure 40b- generalintelligence (Otis) 40c - language achievement difference 428- no differencefor K on PPVT in '68 evaluation; no for 2nd grade on reading in'68 evaluation; no difference for K on reading for '69 evaluation. 42 - re 1st graders on'68 and '69 evaluation 42c- re 8th and10th graders on '68 evaluation 44A, 44B, 44C refer to different programswithin a city wide program 44Aa verbal and non-verbal intelligence 44Ab- arithmeticachievement 45a - verbal intelligence (Otis) 508 - re motor development 57a - controls did better on Cattell InfantIntelligence Scale than did experimentals - 3 3 -- PR OGRA

MEASURED , GENERAL VERBAL LANGUAGE ERENCE INTELLIGENCE NTELLIGENCE A CtIEVEIN7 ...:____ '. GENERAL LEARNING & --;1415-iiL:.4;-,5-111----14.2- gg5 5331 IS __--- PROBTFM- SOLVEIG SKILLS - LiSct -OF 57 izt $7 ------_:.-7-`ta, 5 rt. Vi rg 32:7-1-1 - 3 eco GROUPM1G PATTERNS 34 ct <75,I t0 a`12) ..-- i 7 PI 34__----- 1 -314 14.tl.------i.z a INCREASED .ADULT- ti. 3tict 41-1A; )-- 40,- CHILD RATIO Soc't q2q ..-- . ._------s- 4 ---- '_,iri s( !...------(1.Sb .------INNOVATIVE MATERIALS t S .1i-k I%-- I 5 ..,...-- ,. - _ ------'. ea CURRICULUM ----- 5--ir,1-3-4*---t itii.._, -i'-'..t" 5-T ...... _...h--.:11.62:7______...... _ i2,9015"-C-V5 LANGUAGE AND so s3 Pt df> ...... - 50 (4- Sic`' . C OIDIUNICAT ION SKILLS 57 -". ,; .145 5% 57 5 go ...L(w_. M...50...... __------s- 40 ' 44 5, f' II ,-5 MATH SKILLS ..-.- .... 34. 31t 5cd MOTIVATION 33 .--_--- 3.6 1.- ...ZV Scr i ,,,--; . a t.S PARENT EDUCkT ION 3 3 .4-42°- B7 3( .3 q*-7:77 3 34 -- .tis5S..*-- AND/OR INVOLVaENT 34 4544 --.45 -1-"vis --- C, # , 3t3t- .vit - .,...------31 PEER RELATIONSHIPS ....,-- .._ ....- ....- ... .. ,_ .i;ct uSi _.- ---&NB ...... 3 READING SKILLS 4047-1`6"-" :. ...-- DEVELOPMENT 37 ,- .._- . ------s ST JL..e_ .--- STAFF SKILLS 3VIMV.C.,---ii;li-Till--51-7-$76=.-- 5 ; ...... - DEVELOPI.ENT I. -.'".' _ ----I-----5-01._ '------t-6- 1--C1 AFFEC T IVE DEVELOR,ENT 3 444- itu, -54-r------31-t 1 - _,,,...... , -"SA CULTURA L ENRICIDENT Fa g".-.--.a. -._ ---ci .' ----.--___ - 14 i t .._ ...- D IAGNO SI S OF _...---- LEARNING DEF IC ITS __.--- :, BAD START/MONTE S S-0717. 3 S '3 g. ,SE SA./. STREET '.... _ .--. Sft - PA RA PROFE SS IONA L S 33 t 17at t ...---.--- . I.ITILIZED L....1... 53 --., ------..7771 1.IOTOR DEVELOKENT -,.- - --- ...... ----___. . 1".(7- . ...- ....._._. _------PSYCHLLOGICAL SUPPORT 6 k ' 1 304 .....-. --- ERVICES& GUIDANCE 1..-- ._.- ._ TEA CI1ING MACH ENERY 2 .- HAR1MARE 9r- 4(0 ...... I- vliv;-_-_-....._.:---414% -44A SPEC IALISTS WIN °A.20. I.%____.--- II s -- 27------4Li R.T.S. E.--ICITTAr-----""'IT Th"-Wit-I-1 f ...... ---- _....._...... _ I --.:.2...4...._._. _-_ SUPPORT SERVICES 3'A I 3-b ------_,.___---- t S _ - -- S TE.ACFroIR PLUNING T DE ...------....1--- 2/0 -7-,...--- _...... ----- TEACIER EXPECTATIONS ,...:-._ ITATRIX - 3 4 - IF_ARNING MATH ATTITUDE EFFECT ON LEVEL OF READING ASPIRATION STYLE ACHIEVEI.:ENT ACHIEVE1ENT TOARD SELF PARMITS

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PROGRAMS INCLUDED ON THE MATRIX

1. U.S. Office of Education, Washington, D.C. Division of Compen- satory Education. Language Stimulation Program, Auburn, Ala- bama. One of_a Series of Successful CompensatoryEducation Programs. 1969. 15p. ED 038 480 This program provided small groups of_educationallvdisadvantaged children_ with language stimulation in an attempt increase IQ and language ability. The children-were all NeL irst-graders, ranging in age from six years one month to eight yars twomonths, enrolled in -the only elementary school in Auburnwith all-Negro students.- The eurriculum of the program consistedof the experimental edition of the Peabody Language Development Kit,supplemented by stories used to stimulate the children'slanguage devel- ___opment. empbealzed story-making, classifying,-follow- Ing directions, looking, counting, describing,and-memember-ing. The language stimulation lessons lasted ten weeksduring the 1964- 65 school year. The results of a battery of tests indicatedstatis- tically significant gains of the-program children overthe control group in inteliecrual and_language develo-pment,and in rea-d-ing- -- skills. These tests were made over a year and a halflater when the children were in third grade. A third-posttest was admints--- tered when pupils were in the four-th-grade. -Data ar-e-held to indicate that, nearly three years after the end of treatment,the program children had maintained theirsuperiority over the control children. Tables and charts illustra-tive of the test data are included.

2. U.S. Office of Education, Washington, D.C. Division of Compen- satory Education. Afternoon Remedial and Enrichment Program, Buffalo, New York. One of a Series of Successful Compensatory Education Programs. 1969. 13p. ED 038 468 _ This afternoon remedial and enrichment program was offered to inner-city low income children -(grades 3-8) About 75 percent of the children_were black, 20 percent white and five percent Puerto Rican. Remedial instruction was offered in readlng and mathematics Average class size was six pupils; these small groups allowed for better diagnosis of needs and individualized instruction. Enrich- ment teachers taught classes in art, music, industrial arts,and physical education. Children's gains were measured by the Cali- fornia Reading Test and the-California_Arithmetic Test(Forms W and X) in 1966-67. No test data were collected in 1967-68 and 1968-69. Test scores for 1966-67 showed, however, that pupils achieved a mean gain of five months in reading achievement and six months in arithmetic dUring ths_five months between testings._ Division of Compen- 3. U.S. Office of Education,Washington, D.C. satory Education. The Ameliorative PreschoolProgram, Cham- paign, Illinois. -One of aSe-ries of Successful-Compensatory Education Programs. 1969. 12p. ED 038 469 This-preschool-program offered_ahighly_structured_ _curriculum in which language development wasfostered through encouraging verbal responses in a game formatcontext. The curriculum, based on skills and conceptsrequired for success inelementary school, included language arts, readingreadiness, mathematical concepts, science, and social s-tudies. Small instructional groupsof_five pupils allowed the_teacher to correct orreinforce_verbal responses immediately: Directed -play periods stressedvisual-motor activities such as-pu-zzles,-blockb,clay, rresting andstacking -toys, and pounding sets. Drawn fram-econonrically-depressedneighhor- hoods, two-thirds of the pupils wereblack and the remainderCau- casian. The results of six standardizedtests administeted-at- the end of the first gradeshowed that projectpupils performed better than -compar-able--pupils-who--hadattended a-traditional pre- _ school. The program pupils, furthermore,scored well above grade level on- the Cal-if orni-a -Achi-evement--T-es-ts-irrt-ending i-lan-guage,- and arithmetic-. -Tables-showing-testdatai-and- examples ofspeci---- _fic activities used in the program arealso included.

Division of Compen- -4. U.S. Office-of Edu-cation,Washin-gton, D.C. sato-ry--Edu-cation. Augmented Reading Project, Po-mona,California. Compensatory _Education Programs. . One .of a Series of Successful 1969. 16p. ED 038 470 This program provided -corrective_reacting instruction fordisad- vantage& pupils (grades 1-3)--fromblack, Mexican--4merican and Anglo low income families. Instruction was provided forsmall grOups (three to six pupils)_bytemedial reading -teachers, one teacher being -shared by two-schools. The program -also-in-cluded the assistance of classroom aLdes,psychologists, and counselors, and the-use of special instructionalmaterials-and cultural enrichment activities. An in-service training programdesigned for all project personnel aiMed to acquaint staffwith the Special prOb- lems of disa-dvantaged students. The Wide Range AchievementTest was used in 1966-67 to measuregains, which averaged nine months. Time between testings was about sixmonths. In 1967-68 students gained an average four and one-half monthsin A- period of just under four months between testings. Lists of special instructional materials and tables showing test resultdata are included. -37-

5. U.S. Office of Education, Washington, D.C. Division of Compen- satory Education. Learnin-g to Learn Program, Jacksonville-, Florida. One of a Series of Successful CompensatoryEducation Programs. 1969. 28p. ED 038 472 The kindergarten Learning to Learn Programwas-designed to help children acquire flexible strategies for dealingwith challenges and problems. The pupils in both experimental and control groups were from a low income blackneighborhood. The program was organized around a carefully planned sequenceof language and mathematical games and game-like activities;special teaching methods guaranteed success to each child. Through a sequence of planned experiences, the curricul-um allowed-childrento move from- mo-tor manipulation to the-b-ul-idingof-perceptual imagery to-sym bolic-experiences -throughth-e-me4lum-01-interes-ting-and-challeng- ing games and game-like activities. Teachers and teacher aides were trained -In an intensivein-service-training program to become child_-oriented rather than-content-oriented. Flemibility in grouping and parent participation mereimportantfaotors. Sequence charts -for language and mathematical gamesalong with related activities-are-included. Results-of the-S-tanfor-d-4.4-net Yorm L-M-, Peabody Picture-No-cabulary Test,--andthe--111-inois---Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities are given. Charts show comparative gains of experimental and control groups.

6. U.S. Offioaf-Educatio_a_, Washington,D.C.-Division of Compen- satory Education. Malabar Reading Program for Mexican-rAmerican Children, Los Angeles, California. One of a Series of Success- ful Compensatory Education Programs. 1969. 26p. ED 038 473 This program_attempted to ral,se the readinglevels o-f-Mexican- American children (prekindergarten through gradethree) through individualized instruction, self-instruction,curriculum change, parent_ participation, and cul.tura_L-a-etivities. It was as sunid that children would become capable of self-regulatinglearning _behavio_r_only when they had learned toorganize_their_cozmi_tive field; thus, the search for structure was to proceedin the development of both reading and_oral languageskills. The five major aspects of the instruction are presented in tabularformat. Tables include summaries of activities related to writing,-phonics,word discrimination, comprehension, and self-regulatory,self-instructing behavior and-anticipated-concomitant changes inself-concept for each level. Self-teaching material's are described. The Stanford Reading Test was the principal measure ofachievement. Tables giving analyses of data are included.. -38-

7. U.S. Office of Education, Washington, D.C. Division of Compen- satory Education. The Preschool Program, Oakland, California. One of a Series of Successful Compensz-_-,tory Education Programs. 1969. 17p. ED 038 475 This program aimed to help disadvantaged children enter kindergarten by giving them preschool experiences which were mainly designed to augment conceptual and cognitive development. The pupils, drawn from an economically depressed area, were mostly black three- and four-year-old children. In addition to augment- ing conceptual and cognitive development, the program emphasized stimulation of interest and curiosity, improvement of language skills, social-emotional _adjustment, school-parent understanding, detection and remediation of physical defects and problems, and preservice and inservice training for teachers. Examples of _ _ specific lessons are given. Children's gains were measured by the Pictorial Test of_Intelligence. _Tables giving test-data-are included.

8. U.s. Office of Education, Washington, D.C. Division of Compen- satory Education. Summer Upward Bound, Terre Haute, Indiana. One of a SerieS-of Successful Compensatory Education Programs. 1969. 18p. ED 038 477 Upward Bound was a precollege pro3ram geared fox -high school students with potential who had been handicapped b_y economic, cultural,- and educational deprivation. It involved a full-time summer-program and follow-up programs (counseling, cultural activities, and physical education) during the academic year. -_Students stayed in the program for three consecutive summers and were instructed in language arts, mathematics, study methods and techniques, and perceptual skills. Academic skills were stressed to encourage an enduring desire to pursue a c_ollege education-or some-kind of post secondary school training. Curriculum and teaching methods are generally described along with specific examples of word games, dictating exercises, and language study units.

9. U.S. Office of Education, Washington, D.C. Division of Compen- satory Education. Project Early Push, Buffalo, New York. One of a Series of Successful Compensatory Education Programs. 1969. 17p. ED 038 476 Project Early Push was a prekindergarten program designed to provide disadvantaged children with experiences vital to later educational success. Students' ages ranged between 3 years, 9 months and 4 years, 9 months at the-start of the program; students came

40 -39--

from a target area in Buffalo. Specific goals of the program were to foster a healthyself-concept; improved perceptual, discrimina- tory, labeling, and concept-buildingabilities; understanding of the-environment; self-expression; motorcoordination; verbal coM- munication; auditory discrimination andappreciation; literary appreciation; parent involvement; andimproved teacher awareness of the problems of disadvantaged children. Innovative aspects of the project included the Art Programdesigned to encourage self- expression. Continuous in-service training wasprc,vided for teachers and teacher aides. The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test wasused to measure achievement. Parent involvement was also foundto enhance improvement. Tables illustrative of test data areincluded.

10. U.S. Office of Education, Washington, D.C. Division of Compen- satory Education. Plus Program, Buffalo, New York. One of a Series of Successful Compensatory EducationPrograms._ 1969._ 19p- ED 038 474 The Plus.Program was designed to -provide amaximum amount.of remedial work in reading and mathematicsfor disadvantaged youth in grades 1-8. About 75 percent of the yroject pupils wereblack, 20,percent white,- and five percent PuertoRican-Specially trained teachers worked. with smaLL groups of studentain programs -d-esigned to be corrective and supplemental toregular rather than developmental curriculum. In both the corrective reading andcorrective mathematics programs,- smallgroup-s'aridindiV-iduar-attention-enabled teaohers to_ better_diagnase the needs of- tudent-s--and- to---ocracen- _trate_ am-strengthening-weak-areas. Parents-ware -encouraged- to wit- ness the progress of children. Lists of texts used for both pro grams are included along_ with specificexamples of reasdri eXer- .cisea.-_ The California.Reading Test_and theCaliformia.Arithmetic_ _Test (Forms W and X) -were used_to-meaSure gains,-Tables-shOwing test _data are 4ncluded .

11. U.S. Office of Education, Washington, D.C. Division of Compen- satory Education. Early Childhood Project, New York City. One of a Series of Successful CompensatoryEducation Programs. 1969. 27P. ED 027 974 This preschool program concentrated on languagedevelopment, self- concept, perception, and concept formation. Also, a vertically organized program of reading, math, science, andcreative drama- tics, along with parent activity, inservicetraining, and dissemination. The program went from prekindergarten throughthe third grade. Individual and small group work allowed children to proceed at their own rate. The-subjects, mostly Negroes from non- intact lower class families, originally varied innumber from

41 -.40-

120 to 200 (including controls) in each of six groups (waves) studies. Pretests were administered before prekindergarten. Two posttests were given, one after prekindergarten and the other after kindergarten. Evaluation was hampered by a loss of subjects, by an arrangement in which only subsamples were tested, and by the use of Various tests. The results on the Columbia Mental Maturity Scale showed that for the subsamples drawn from the first experimental wave and the basic control group, the difference in the means were not statistically significant on pretests, yet they were significant on the first posttest but not on the second posttest. For subsamples drawn from waves two through four, results on the Stanford-Binet showed that the experimental groups performed significantly better on both posttests but not on pretests.

12. U-SOffice of Education, Washingtoni-D:C. Divis-kon ol Cumpen-- satory Education. Expanded Language Arts, Buffalo, New-York- One of a Series of Successful Compensatory Education Programs. 1969. 13p. ED 038 471 The Expanded Language Arts_program aimed to increase the batA_c language skills of educationally disadvantaged children by decreasing-class-size and improving instructional materials. _Students were drawn from a low income inner-city area of Buf- falo and ranged in age from 11 to 19 yenrs (grades 7-12).Fifty percent of the students spoke a SouLhern rural dialect, twenty Percent spoke Italian in the home, and one percent spoke Spanish in the home. Language arts classrooms were used as laboratories for the teaching of writing. Electronic recording and playback equipment_were used to improve oral language skills. -Lists of -books, magazinesi. and audiovisual ma-terials are 1-ncluded. 1966-67, two standard achievement tests were-used: the Calif6r- ilia Language Test, Junior High and Advanced Levels, Forms W and X, and the Sequential Tests of Educational Progress (STEP), Levels 2 and 3, Forms- A and B. Anecdotal comments rather than test .data wee gathered for 1967_-_68.. Test scores for 1968,-69 have not_yet been compiled. The.19.66-67 test data, however, showed.that-a mean gain-of six to fifteen mean 'months were-reg- istered.

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13. U.S. Office of Education, Washington,D.C. Division of Compen- satory Education. Preschool Program, Fresno, California. One of a Series of Successful CompensatoryEducation Programs. 1969. 19p. ED 027 977 For each of four years varying numbers(from 45 to 750) of three- to five-year-old children, mostlyMexican-American, Spanish speaking, participated in a program aimed atlanguage development. Classes met three hours daily, five times aweek, in small discussion and activity groups that included fivechildren and one adult The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test wasused as a pretest and posttest measure. On the pilot project nearly everychild raised his IQ by ten to twenty points. For the_ second year, _ there were negligible gains, possibly due tothe brevity of:the proceram (two to five months) and theteachers' lack of nursery experience. The third year's test results, which weredivided into three ethnic groups (Caucasian, -Megro, andMexican-American), were compared. The groups differed significantly onthe pretest but not on the posttest. All groups gained significantly. The same procedure was followed the fourth year,and all groups gained significantly.

14. U.S. Office of Education, Washington,-D.C. Division of Compen- Infant Education Research Project,_Washing- . satory Education,_ _ton, D.C. One_of a Series of Successful CompensatorxEducation Programs. 1969. 26p. ED 027 -97-6 In a study todetermine whether or not culturallydeprived children develop at progressively greater deficitsin intellectual functioning during the ages_ of fifteen months tothree years, tutors provided fifteen-month-old infantswith intellectual and verbal stimulation one hour daily, five times aweek until they were-36 months old. The subjects consisted of Negro malesfrom homes that met two of the following three criteria:(1) family income was $5,000- ar less,-(2) mother's-formaleducation was less than twelve years, and (3). mother had been anunskilled or semi- skilled worker. The exprimental group contained 28children and the control group numbered 30. Pretests on the Bayley Infant Scales showed the controls slightly superior(but not significantly) to the experimentals at fourteen months. At twenty-one months, the experimentals had gained significantly(.05 level). Posttesting on the Stanford-Binet at ages 27 and36 months showed experimentals were significantly-superior to controls atthe .01 level. When the subjects- were 36 months old, the PeabodyPicture Vocabulary Test and Johns Hopkins Perceptual Test showedthat the experimentals were significantly superior at the.01 level; the Aaronson-Schaefer Preposition Test also showed gains but notat a significant level. -42-

Division of Compen- 15. U.S. Office of Education,Washington, D.C. satory Education. Perry Preschool Project,Ypsilanti, Michi- gan. One of a Series of SuccessfulCompensatory Education Programs. 1969. 22p. ED 027 975 The Perry Preschool Projectassessed longitudinal effectsof a two-year program consistingof a daily three-hour cognitively oriented nursery, a weekly 90-minutehome visit, and less frequent group meetings of thepupilsv-parents- Subjects consisted of three- and four-year-old Negrodisadvantaged and functionally retarded children, whose pretest scores onthe Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale were not above 85. The-program operated from September 1962 until June 1966. About 24 children took parteach year. Upon entering, the children werepretested on the-Stanford- Binet, the Peabody Picture VocabularyTest, and the Leiter Inter- national T-er-formance -Scale-.- --Thes-e-- and- othe-r- -t es ts we-re --us e-d lat-er in the program. _Pewsignifican_t_differences between experimentals and controls were noted on thepretests. The California Achievement Tests in reading, language;and mathematics were given at the end- of the-first grad-e-an&-agai-n at- the-- end -o the second grade. The results showed significantgains for the experimentals over the controls.

16. U.S. Office of Education,_Washington,D.C. Division of Compen- satory Education. Diagnostically Based Curriculum,Blooming- ton, Indiana. One of a Serie.s of SuccessfulCompensatory Education Programs. 1969. 40p. ED 027 978 The purpose of this study was todevelop and evaluate-a diagnostically based curriculum for disadvantagedpres,chool children. For each of three years, 45 lowerclass_Appalachi_an white- -rive- year-olds were equally divided intothree groups. The experimental preschool group (EPS) re_ceived_astructural_curric-ulum designed to remedy specific, diagnoseddeficits in language development, fine motor coordination, conceptdevelopment, and socialization. Two contrast groups were used. The kindergarten contrast (KC) receivr.4 atradition-al-kindergarten program, while the hat_home" confast'grnup (AHC)receiVed-only-the pretesting and posttesting given to all groups. The experimental curriculum was annually revised to benefitfrom the past experiences. When the data from the populations ofthree years were combined, they revealed that in_ the intelligence category,the EPS mean was significantly g-reater than either the KC or AHCmean,-and the KC mean was significantly greaterthan the AHC mean. Testing during the first grade, however, showed that theEPS and KC had stabil- ized in IQ by the end of their preschool year,but the AHC group gained enough in the first grade to cancelthe IQ differences that formerly existed. Statistics for the other categories are also listed.

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Division of Compen- 17. U.S. Office of Education,Washington, D.C. satory Education. Academic Preschool, Champaign,Illinois. One of a Series of'SuccessfulCompensatory Education Programs. 1969. 27p. ED 027 979 A study was conducted to testthe effectiveness of apreschool rapid attainment of basicacademic con- program which emphasized five-year-old lower class, cepts. The experimentals were four-: to predominantly Negro, children. For two years they received instruction two hours daily,five times a week, in a groupwhere the pupil-teacher ratio wasfive.to one. To induce learning at positive and negative reinforce_s were an above-average rate, After used. A comparison group waspretested and posttested. the first year of instructionresults from the Stanford-Binet showed a gain of 17.14 points forthe experimental group;the comparison group showed a gainof 8.07 points. After the second year of instruction, theexperimental group gained anadditional- 8.61 points-; the-comparison grouplost 2.46 points. In.terviews -- with parents_and observationsof_the participating_c_hi/d_r_em revealed no beha-ioral problemsafter the second week ofinstruction and no regressive behaviorIn general.

Divsion Of Co-m-pen- 18. U.S. Office of Education,Washington, D.C. satory Education. Homework -Helper Program,-New-YorkCity. One of a__Series _of SuecessfulCompensatory Education Programs. 1969. 22p. ED 028 896 An after-school tutorial programin_which :nigh school students assisted failing elementary school.children with reading and homework two to four hours a weekis described. The children, .grados 3-6, were from low-incomefamilies, many._.from Minority gz,:ps, aad were taught innine centers staffedby a master ,cher and several tutors. The program began in February1963 and operated in summer as well asduring the school year until 1967. Evaluation of the 1963-64 school yearcompared 410 pupils with 185 control pupils on the basisof scores on the New York Tests of Growth in Reading. Level C. Form 1. Those pupils who were tutored four hours aweek made significant gains overthe control group, but the completeexperimental group did not _differ significantly from the control group. The 240 tutors, tested with alternate forms of the AdvancedLevel of the Iowa Silent Reading Tests, averaged 3-4 yearsof reading achievement gain. Analyses of classroom grades, pupilattitudes, tutorial academic averages, and tutorial attitudes werenot conclusive. Total cost $151,700. of the_ program for the 1963-64 schocl year was 19. U.S. Office of Education, Washington,D.C. Division of Compen- satory Education. Intensive Reading Instructional Teams, Hartford, Connecticut. One of a Series of Successful Com- pensatory Education Programs. 1969. 18p. ED 028 897 Inner-city Hartford, Connecticut, childrenreading below grade level but having potential for growth inreading were given a ten-week comprehensive program of readinginstruction conducted by three Intensive Reading InstructionalTeams (IRIT's). Groups of fifteen pupils attended the half-daysessions, moving from teacher to teacher at one-hour intervalsand receiving instruction in three areas:(1) phonics and word attack skills,(2) basal reading program, stressing vocabulary and comprehension,and (3) individualized reading. Part of the children's work included writing stories and poems. These, along with teacher-made exercises, have been collected into booklet form by the Hartford Schools for use by other teachers. In the three years-of the program, children from grades three to six havebeen included. The 1967-68 group contained 500 children, mostly from grades four and five. Pretesting and post-testing, using various forms of the California Reading Achievement Test, showed significant gains ir vocabulary, comprehension, and to-.41. reading achievement. Studies of measured intelligence, using Lorge-Thorndike Intelligence Tests, showed no significant gains. Followup studies seven months into the school year following IRIT, showed

that reading scores were bei_ng maintained or improved upon in . a regular classroom setting. References are included.

20. U.S. Office of Education, Washington, D.C. Division of Compen- -satory Education. After-School Study Centers, New York City. One of a Series of Successful Compensatory Education Programs. 1969. 18p. ED 027 362 The curriculum in this after school program for low income Negro and Puerto Rican elementary school (grades 2-6) consisted primarily of remedial reading and arithmetic, library training, homework assistance, and a "Special Potential Development Service" providing music, art, and health education. The volunteer students were accepted because they were retarded one year or more in reading or arithmetic. An evaluation of the 1964-65 program showed that a smaple of fourth-grade students enrolled in the reading program for three to six hours a week had made significantly greater gains in reading age than a control group from the same schools-. The greater the attendance, the greater-the gains were. In the 1966-67 program the students in the program showed sigaificant gains over expected performance in reading at each grade level. A description of the program's activities includes information on staff, teaching techniques (part:cularly reading), instructional materials, audiovisual aids, and costs. 21. U.S. Office of Education, Washington,D.C. Division of Com- pensatory Education. Self-Directive Dramatization Project. Joliet, Illinois. One of a Series of SuccessfullCompensa- tory Education Programs. 1969. 17p. ED 027 364 Two studies of the Self-Directive DramatizationProject are reported. In the first the relationship ofdramatization, self- ,Ioncept, and reading achievement inmiddle class children in grades two through seven was examined, andin the second mostly black disadvantaged children-in grades onethrough four were studied. Both groups of children dramatized storiesfrom three to five times a week over periods of3.5 months. In both studies gains in reading ability and self-conceptduring the self- dramatization period were measured, tested againsta_null hypothesis, and intercorrelated; and in thesecond study gains by the experimental groups were compared with thoseof-a corres- ponding control group. The findings of the second study,thought to be more significant than the first, suggestedthat the experimental-groups made grea-ter gains in reading abilitythan thecontrols, especially the grade two -experimentals,whose gains exceeded expectations.

22. U.S- Office of Education, Washington, D.C. Division of Compen- satory Education. More EffecriNe Schools, New York City. One of a Series of Successful CompensatoryEducation Programs. 1969. 39p. ED 027 363 The More Effective Schools project', an effort tomake the schools better able to solve the basic reading and arithmeticproblems of disadvantaged children, brought about areorganization -and- expansion 01_the teaching and administrative staffsof elementary schools in New-York City. The combined black and- Puerto Rican population in the project schools was greaterthan fifty percent of the total school population, and allclasses (preK-6) We-te-hé-terogeneously grOUped. Class size was re-diiced, after school study centers were opened, team' teaching and otherinno- vations were introduced, and teacher specialists wereused. Benefits claimed in reading and arithmetic achievement as measured by standardized tests are conflicting because of thevariety of designs used to evaJuate student performance. Several interpretations of the data are included in this report, as well as Information on staff; program methodology, and costs.

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23. U.S. Office of Education, Washington, D.C. Division of Com- pensatory Education. Elementary Reading Centers, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. One of a Series of Successful CompensatoryEdu- cation Programs. 1969. 14p. ED 028 895 In fifteen Milwaukee, Wisconsin, reading centersdisadvantaged children from grades four through eight receivedremedial reading instruction and wide reading opportunitiesthrough small group instruction. Students remained in the program for varying periods, ranging from a few weeks to sevenmonths. A diagnostic approach was used to identify the specificneeds of each pupil. Activities, materials, and equipment used to meetthese needs are listed. Evaluation consisted of administering the California Reading Test (silent reading) and the WideRange Achievement Test (oral reading). The educational and experien- personnel involved tial backg;.ounds and the responsibilities of the _ in the program are presented. Aaditional evaluation indexes,modi- fications and suggestions, and budgetary information areincluded. References are noted.

24. U.S. Office of Education, Washington, D.C. Division of Com- pensatory Education. School and Home, Flint, Michigan. One of a Series of Successful Compensatory EducationPrograms. 1969. 18p. ED 028_900 An experimental program in Flint, Michigan, was designed _toraise the academic level of underachieving children by involvingtheir parents in the daily reading exercises and study habitsof their children. Children were given materials including bookletsmade from old basal readers and file boxes-for word cards. Parents were given instruction in helpingchildren_use these materiale and suggestions for preparing children for-school. Reading aloud to children was eno.ouraged. The children involved in the program werc_NE.gro, 1)rimarily from low-income families where the parents had only limited educational backgrounds. Two elementary schools participated during 1961-62, with a total of.1,100 children in grades K-6. The Gates Reading Tests were used as pretests and post-tests to measure the effectiveness of the programand to compare children in it with a control group made upof children in another elementary school. Greater gains in vocabulary ti,an in comprehension were noted in all groups, with children in the two experimental groups showing significantly greater-gains than those _in the control group. Parents who were surveyed regarding the- program were enthusiastic about their own involvement andabout their children's progress. References are included. 25. U.S. Office of Education,Washington, D..C. Division of Compen- satory Education. Programmed Tutorial Reading Project. Ind- ianapolis, Indiana. One of a Series of Successful Compensatory Education Programs. 1969. 15p. ED 028 899 First-grade Negroes and Caucasians fromdeteriorated city-center areas were tutored inreading by paraprofessional tutors whose behavior was tightly programed. The project was developed through several years of experimentation by IndianaUniversity before being initiated in the Indianapolis Schools in1965. Children were given fifteen-minute sessions with individual tutorsduring which they were asked to perform certain reading tasks. Tutors, refer- ing to a master list of tasks and responses,indicated the correctness or-incorrectness of thechildren's responses with short statements. Although the project has continued through1968, the best evaluation of the program was made in 1965. It compared programed tutoring once a day for fifteen minutes withprogramed tutoring twice a day and with one and two dailysessions of a more traditional directed tutoring. Of these, only programed tutoring twice a day was statistically superior toits control. References are included.

26. Rosenthal, Robert; and Jacobson, Lenore. Pygmalion in the Class- room.- New York: Holt, Rinehartand Winston, 1968. To test the hypothesis that the expectationsof teachers affect the intellectual development of theirstudents, the investigators in this study administered a group intelligence testto eighteen classes of children about to enter grades one throughsix. The teachers were told that the test could predictpotential "spurters" (actually a fiction), and were given the names of severalchil- dren who were expected to make unusual gains. The students (20 percent of the children) were randomly chosen andin reality were no different from their peers. After one-year the-experimental group of child7en had gained an averageof twelve points while the control group of children had gained an averagegain of eight. Teachers were asked to deScribe their students at theend of the year, and despite the gains of the control groupchildren, they rated them less favorably. The expectancy advantage (the degree to which the IQ gains of the experimental groupchildren exceeded those of thecontrols) f-or intellectual developmemt wasanalyzed by grade level, track, sex, and minority-group status(predominantly Mexican). It was found that (1) children in the first and second grades made the greatest gains,(2) children in the middle track sho-Wed the greatest advantage, though children in theother tracks were close behind, (3) girls bloomed more in the reasoning sphere of intellectual functioning and boys bloomed more in the verbal sphere, (4) in total IQ, verbal IQ, and especially reason- -48-

ing IQ, minority-group children were moreadvantaged by favorable expectations than were otherchildren though the differences were not statisticallysignificant. The expectancy advantage for academic performance(principally reading ability) and classroom behavior as assessed byteachers was also analyzed by grade level, track, sex, and minority-groupstatus.

27. U.S. Office of Education, Washington,D.C. Division of Compen- satory Education. Speech and Language DevelopmentProgram.- Milwaukee, Wisconsin. One_of a Series of Successful Compenr. sieory Education Programs. 1969. 22p. ED 027 330 During 1966-67, Negro and Spanish-Americanpupils in grades one and two of seven Milwaukee elementaryschools received a progtam of intensive assictance from trained speechtherapists. The -goals of the program were (1) to increasethe verbal ability of disadvantaged children to enable them to competewith midaTe- class children of the same age, and (2) tocompile a list 3f effective techniques developed by the projecttherapists. Two experimental samples (273 students) and two controlsamples were randomly selected from students in the lower85% of their classes. Students in the experimental sample met in groupsof from x to eight students with atherapist for forty-five minutes, r days a week for fifteen weeks. The students talked, listened, -,ta carried out activities, such asillustrating stories, The effectiveness of the program was tested_ by the AmmonsQuIck_Tgat _ _ _ of verbal-perceptual intelligence, the evaluationof tape-recorded samples of the children's speech by therapists notinvolved in the program, and the evaluation of thestudents' performances by their classroom teachers and by project therapists. Although the results do not completely _agree, evidenceindicates that-this prugram of compensatory education wassuccessful. (Sample unLts from the program and lists -of therapy techniques areincluded.)

28. U.S. Office of Education,_ Washington, D.C. Division of Compen- satory Education. Communication Skills Project. One of a Series of Successful Compensatory Education Programs. 1969. 17p. ED 028 89-4 The Communicatign-SkilLS Center Project (CSC) in Detroit,Michi- gan, a Title I project, provided .remedialreading services_ to. 2,845 educationally disadvantaged children (80 to 85 percent Negro) in graaes two through twelve. during 1966-67. The facilities _included six communication.skillsicenters,-threeserving elementary and junior high school students, and threeserving high school students; one reading development center,including a diagnostic reading clinic and amethods and materials development.laboratory; and fourteen supplementary CSC classrooms. The measurement of reading achievement gains wasbased on pretest and post-test results using various appropriatelevels of the California Readirg Test and the Stanford Reading Test. Social- psychological adjustment was also evaluated. Students were organized into very low, low, and normal categories according to aptitude test scores. The findings indicated that, in general, at all school le.,els pupils of low and very low scholastic aptitude made significaht gains in reading achievement to justify their selection. Greater rates of comprehension gain than would be expected of normal achieving pupils were noted for all three aptitude levels for all age groups except for the very low aptitude elementary subgroup. Re5erences are indicated.

29. U.S. Office of Education, Washington, D.C. Division of Compen- satory Education. Junior High School Summer Institutes, New York City. One of a Serles o-f SufcCessful Compensator EdUca- tion_2rograms. 1969. 19p. ED 028 898 A summer program designed for sixth, seventh, and eighth graders recommended as needing remediation or repetition met for three consecutive 90-minute sessions daily for-fifty weeks. Regular school personnel staffed_ the_ ele-ven New- Yor4c-C1 ty-s cho o Is des ig=- nated as Summer Institutes and were assisted by guidance counselors and educational aides. Small classes and special services, including library services, were provided. Pretesting and posttesting were done with alternate forms of the Metropolitan Achieve- ment Battery. For reading instruction students were grouped into basic and intensive reading programs according_to pretest reading levels. Thdy worked-VI:thin-a -erght-ly structured curriculum emphasizing reading skills and mechanics.-Emphasis in-mathematics classes was on repetition of grades failed, with students grouped according to the grade they failed. Other subjects taught were English, foreign languages, sciences, and social studies,- SoMe Institutes also offered subjects of a vocational nature. Results of a 19_67 evaluation of six of the schools showed an average gain in reading of .3 year and an average gain in mathematics of.5 year. Attitudes and opinions of 1:oth staff and students concerning the program were favorable. References are included.

30. U.S. Office -of Education, Washington, D.C. Division-of Compen- satory Education. Project R-3, San Jose, California. One of a Series of Successful Com ensator Education Pro rams. 1969. 22p. ED -027 136

A project w?s designed by _the _San Jose .Unified ,Schoo 1 alstrict and the education division of the Lockheed Missiles and_ Space Company to treat'learning problems experienced by eighth and ninth grade students with underdeveloped reading and mathematics skills. The students were largely Mexican American and were from predominantly disadvantaged economic backgrounds. The program, designated R-3, was concerned with student readiness, subject relevance, and learningreinforcement. It consisted of a special curriculum whichinterrelated math, reading, andtechnologi- cal skills; a series of fieldtrip3; and an inservice training program for the projectstaff. Sodrces to contact foradditional information conclude the document.

Children. Final 31. Gordon, Ira J. Early Stimulation Through Parent Report. Gainesville: University of Florida,Institute for the DevelopmenL of Human Resources,1969, 232p. LI) -033 912 A project investigated a way inwhich early intervention intothe lives of babies might break the povertycycle. Major objectives _were to find out whether the useof disadvantaged paraprofessional _ women as Parent EducatorSof indigent mothers of infantsand young children enhanced the development ofthe_children and increased the mother's competence and sense ofself-worth. Parent Educn- tors each assigned to a graduatestudent _supervisor, receivedfive weeks of intensive preservice trainingand one day of inservice training weekly. The major treatment variable wasinstruction of the mother by the Parent Educator instimulation -exercises once a week, in the home, on aregular basis. (Exercises consisted of a systematic series ofperceptual-Motor-auditory-ta-ciilekinestheti inputs based upon a review of the theoryand research on cognitive and affective development in the earliestyears.) At the en-d of the first year, children whose mothershad been involved in the project were superior _to_control children onboth the Griffiths Mental Development Scales and on the seriesmaterial designed as teaching materials for the project. At the end of the second year .children whose mothers -had been-in the-project-from-the-beginning or whose mothers entered the progTamwhen their child was one year of age were superior on the series materialto control children. The second objective was partially_achieved. -(Implications-are discussed.)

32. U.S. 0:fice- of Education, Washington, D.C. Division of Compen- satory Education. Project Concern, Hartford, Connecticut. One of a Series of SuccessfulCompensatOry Education Programs. 1969. 20p. ED 027 365 Project Concern in Hartford bused approximately260 inner-city children to suburban elementary schools. The project was designed to evaluate experimentally theeffects of (1) placement in a suburban school with or without remedial-supportiveassistance and (2) placement_in an-inner-city-s-chool with orwithout eompensatory services. Criterion variables used to evaluate the treatment were mental ability, academic achievement,personal-sotial development, and creativity. Findings of a 1968 evaluationsuggested that the bused experimentalchildren in suburban classes in grades K-3 had a significantly greatertendency to show growth in mental ability than the controlchildren remaining in inner-city classrooms. In grades four and five, however,the controls showed better achievement than theexperimentals. The effects of supportive assistance were mixed. It was felt that the placement of two or three childrenin a suburban classroom had no measurable negative effect on theacademic achievement of the suburban children. A description of the programincludes information on staff-, methodology, and costs.

33. U.S. Office of Education, Washington,D.C. Division of Compen- satory Education. College Bround Program, New YorkCity. One of a 'Series of Successful CompensatoryEducation Programs. 1969. 13p. ED 027 367 From 2,000 to 3,000 ninth- and tenth-gradestudents In New York City, mostly black and Puerto Rican, wereselected for an intensive educational program (small classes,douhle sessions of Eng- lish, group and individual counseling,and cultural enrichnient) the program throughout with the hope that they would_ _ remain in high school and then pursue highereducation. Local colleges and universities had agreed toadmit-successful program gradu- ates and p-rovide them with financialaid. The studentei selected for their good attendance and _conduct, wereunlikely to enter a _college _preparatory program in high school.-Abou-t- one-half---were between grade level and two yearsretarded in reading and arithmetic. Over the 1967 six-week summersession-which-pre-ceded the program during the schoal yearstudents showe-d an average gain of-three monthg-to a year in-four tests ofreading and arithmetic. A description of the program containsinformation on staff, methodology, and costs.

34. Klaus, Rupert A.; and Gray, Susan.'The EarI)i Training Prbiect for Disadvantaged Children: A Renort AfterFive Years-. -Mono- graphs of the Society*for Researth fn ChildDevelapment, 1968. .7115, The Early Training Project attumpted"to develop an intervention 'package,' consisting of manipulations of thosevariables which, from research on social class, cognitivedevelopment, and moti- --va-t-i-on, seemed most likely to he influentialin later school performance." The population under study consisted-ofa-total of 61 children in four diffe-rent groups. Group I attended a ten- week summer preschool for four hours-per day, fived-ays _per --week, -for three summers. The preschaol program emphasized verbarinter- action, individual instruction, immediatereinforcement, concept formation, preceptual skills persistance, and delay-gratification.

53 In addition, these children had weeklyhome visits for three school years. Group II had two summers of special experiences plus two school years of home visits. Home -isits were made by Negro females who were certified Leachers andfocused on keeping parents informed and encouraging them to reactwell to children. Group III was the local control group, and GroupIV was a control group sixty miles away. At their first testing, children were three years and six months to four years and five months; at final testing ages were from 7.7 years to 8.6 years. Measurement instruments included the Binet, WISC, ITPA, Metro- politan, and Gates Reading Readiness Tests, nonstandardized tests of motivational changes, and interviews with mothers. Results showedthat the experimentals scored significantly higher on the Binet and WISC and on the ITPA (in two out of three years); experimentals scored better, though not significantly on the PPYT and on reading achievement. On tests of reflectiveness versus impulsiveness, the experimentals scored assignificantly more reflective than the controls, but nomeaningful differences were found between experimentals and controls on testsof self:- concept of ability to delay gratification.

35.. Stodolsky, Susan S. Ancona Montessori Research Project for:Cul- turally Disadvantaged Children, September 1,*_1968._to August 31,_ 1969. Final Report. Chicago: Ancona Montessori School, 1969. 83p. ED 044 166 This paper, part of a long term study, reports the effect-of a modified Montessori preschool experience on cognitive development, school-related behaviors, and social interactionsand perceptions of'disadvantaged children. Each of thirty-five disadvantaged Negro children (31 in nursery classes and four in elementary classes) was pair-matched with a middle class child. In the disadvantaged group, seventeen children were attending nursery classes for the first time. Pre- and posttests were made of cognitive ability on the Stanford-Binet, Piaget tests of length conservation, and sociometric features. Also, children were rated by testers on performance and teachers rated clasSroom behaviors. Data from previous years on some of the children were used in reference-to long term change. Part I (nursery school) test results show that neither first nor second-year children significantly increased their I.Q. scores. Both disadvantaged and middle class children-scored similarly on task orientation. Middle class children showed more friendship choices forming across social-class lines. _Part II (elementary school) results present Jimited support for the- theory that c-hild-r-en wtio -continueitc-ITO-rit-es-sbri, _rather than public',. school will show betten school achievement. Data included school records of more than thirty children. A future-study.will investigate diffusion effects on mothers and younger siblings, and testing with measures more directly relevant to Montessori curriculum. 36. Cohen, Harold L. CASE Project: Contingencies Applicable for Special Education; A Brief Progress Report. 1965. 51p. ED 013 271 A project which developed a "designededucational environment" to improve the academic achievement ofdelinquent adolescent boys is described. Based on the behavior theory of learning, the project offered sixteen institutionalizedboys voluntary, daily programed or semi-programed academic courses. Curricu- lums were created for each student on the basis ofhis score on a pretest.To receive the extrinsicreinforcements (goods or social reinforcers), which were available onlythrough points earned by academic success, each student was required to ach-ieve a ninety percent correct grade on aninstructional unit. These points were convertible into merchandise, admissidn to the lounge-, and_private student offices. Each student's educational behavior was continually measured to evaluate the efficacy of the programLs procedures and to indicate to the student his own progress. It is felt that from this-information learning can be translated into the discrete behaviors_ which constituteit, and procedures can be developed to elicit a certainbehavior to increase the likelihood that other similar behaviorswill occur and that_learning in general will be maintained- ane secticn discusses a training course which was developed for the staff and another contains comparative data and information on the students' educational and leisure behaviors.

37. Schnelle, Barbara; and others_. Early Childhood Education Program and Its Components: Psychological Evaluation, Sensorimotor Skills Pro-g-ram, New Visions--a Children's Museum. Dayton, Ohio: PUblic Schools, Division of Research, 1969.. 113p. The objectives of the Early Childhood Education program'for disadvantaged three, four, and five year olds were to improve perceptual, motivational, and social-skills and to help parents establish a home environment supportive of positive development for the entire family. Each class op-erated- from half days per week (the fifth being devoted to inservice education and parent conferences) and had twenty children, one teacher, one assistant plus use oi consultants and social workers. Classrooms provided .work and play centers wherein the_child had an opportunity to use material_s creatively and with increasingskill, to develop physical and motor skills,-to engage in imaginative play, to talk and work freely, to explore, experiment and discover..The,parent program included meetings, workShbps; visiting classes, and accom- panying children on trips,. The first part of the Psychological Evaluation study involved 88 four year olds attending- the ECE program. -Each child was administered seven different tasks or criterion instruments--eg., PPVT, Draw-A-Man Test, ITPA, Visual-Motor Integration. Pre- and posttests were given to all children; no control group was available. Results showed that neither race, sex, nor age operated in any predictably consistent way to produce significant changes on any of the tasks. General growth was se^a on all the measures and the largest and most consistentgains occured in language related areas. The second part of the Psychologi- cal Evaluation involved Kindergarten children with and without previous ECE program experience.- Instruments used were the Kuhlmanl-Anderson Test and the Metropolitan Readiness Tests. Children with ECE program experience scored significantly higher on the Kuhlmann pretest than children with no experience, but los this significant superiority by the end of the kindergarten year. Almost twice as many children who had been in the ECE, as compared with those who had not,- attained scores which categorized them as likely to.succeed in first grade. The Sensorimotor Skills program introduced preplanned daily experiences into the regular classroom. Activities were planned which followed a developmental sequence in each of these areas: body image, balance, basic-body movement, ey-hand coordination, large and fine muscle activ- i_ties, fo-rm perception, and rhythm. A longitudinal study-uf the effects-of sensorimotor training on four-year-olds beg-Un in 1967, Initial results showed that prekindergarten training maintained a significant effect at the end of kindergarten. New Visions is an art museum designed to provide learning experiences for prekindergarten and kindergarten children.

3. Westinghouse Learning Corp., New York: Ohio University, Athens. The Impact of Head Start: An Evaluation of the Effects... on ChilLIren's Cognitive and Affective Development% (Execu- tive Summary). 1969. 12p. ED 036 321 The Westingh-ouse Learning Corporation and Ohio University carried out a study on the impact of Head Start for the Office of Economic Opportunity. The main inquiry of the study concerned the difference between Head Start first, second, ane third gra- der_s and non-Head Start firs-t., second, ar". third graders-in intelrectu.1 and cocial-personal developme,,t. Data were collected from tests, interviews, and questionnaires of students, parents-,-and teachers fronf I04-Head Start centers across the country, and- control areas.. The major conclusions drawn from these data were:(1) Suulmer programs are ineffective in.producing lasting gains in affective and cognitive development, (2) full- year programs are ineffective in aiding affective development and only marginallxr effective in producing lasting cognitive gains, (3) all Head Start children are still cons-:derably below national

56 norms on tests of Jangua6edevelopment and scholastic achievement, while school readiness atgrade one approaches the national norm, and (4) parents ofHead Start children voiced strong approval of the program. Thus, while fulI-year Head Start is somewhat superior to summer Head Start, neithercould be described as satisfactory. Further research aimed at the developmentof an effective preschool programis recommended.

Fox, David J.; and Schwarz, Peggy M. Effective Interaction _ Between Older and Younger Pupils in an ElementarySchool "Peace Corps" Project. New York: City University of New York, City College, 1967. ED 015 223 This report is an evaluation of a program whichpaired students from two "slow" second-grade classes in a Harlemelementary school with students in two high _aehievt!mentfifth-grade classes. These pupils lunched together weekly and playedtogether after- ward. Once a week they met for directed classroom activities. Also they went on school trips together, attended oneanother's school assemh-lies, and-were encour-aged to exchangegr-eeting card-s- and other tokens of friendship. It was hypothesized that the second-graders, having theIrne-t-d to*idehrify- With asucte-S-Sf-ul model fulfilled, would shoW-an khcréase in moti-Vation,achievement, personal and social adjustment, and positiveschool behavior and related_att:ttudes--;- Evaluation proceeded onthe basis of teachers' ratings, individual interviews, school attendance,and standardized tests. Two control groups were established from the second- and fifth-grade classes. The results of the study showed tha.t-the second-graders improved in school-attendance-and - reading achievement.- However, data relevant to social and personal adjustment were not consistently supportive. Moreover, although the June 1966 teachers' ratings and the individualinter- views indicated that the pupils had generally -improvedsince September, the January 1967 teachers ratings of the pupils (then in third grade) were negative, especially in relation to peer group and classroom participation'. Possibly the somewhat tutorial relationship between -the older and younger children inhibited the younger children's ability to participate in peer- stroup situations. Further controlled testing inthis area is needed. Appendixes include a research paper which discusses. the program_in terms of the participating fifth-graders,and other relevant data.

7 Wessman, A14en E. Evaluation of Project ABC (ABetter Chance)_: An Evaluation_of Dartmouth College --.:1;ndependent_ cnoo Scholarship Program for Disadvantaged -High -School udents.. Final Report. Hanover:-N71171-Dartmouth ED 031 549

Exemplary study. See Section III A.

57 Froelich, Martha; andothers. "Success for Disadvantaged 41. 21(l):24-33, October 1967. Youth," The Reading Teacher, of a beginning reading progr Iht_ salient characteristics in a Harlem (NewYork City) elementary school arediscus Individual pacing ofi struction, orallanguage development, personal involve- the encourzgenent of!r4ependent study skills, ment of each child,4nd frequent studentevaluation are intrin- sic to the functioning ofthe program. Initial reading activities involve the us, ofwork charts which recorddaily class activities and ofchildren's "experiencestories" which the teacher copies on the blackboardand rexographs. Each child reading level is given books; andworksheets appropriate to his and is heid xesponsiblefor recording his own progress. Snell,. program's inotvidual pacingtechnique, reeding, essential to the asked to is encouraged.To insuretheir involvement, parents are sign the child's readieshomework rlip daily. The students' progress is formallyevaluated by teacher ratingsand progress records, graded word list tests,and standardised tests. Accor- ding to che reported testresults, the program hasconsistently improved the reading abilityof participatingstudents. Tabu- lar data on aehi ev.mi_et testresults are given.

Fesponsiwt EnvironmentProgram,_Lirostilnl. 42. Israel, Benjamin. New York: New York. Re ort of the First Yearof 0 eration. Board o Education, 1968. 199p. ED 027 72 Under the auspices of theNew York Board of Educationand funded tisrough the Office of EconomicOpportunity, twenty EdisonRespons- ive Environment (BRE)machines ("TalkingTypewriters") were acquired, and a research anddemonstration project fordisadvantaged students of a majormetropolitan area Wag developed. A total of 238 primary andsecondary school childrenattended the REP center daily for anini-month period, and a groupof functionally illstaratc adultscompleted an evening program on a voluntary basis. Multivariate analyses of pre-and post-program achivement measures indicatedstriking but inconsistentresults. Significant differences on anlpitabet recognition testfor preschool and kindergarteuchildren and three verbalability tsts participants in comparisonwith for first graders favored REP differences on the three control groups. However, no significant verbal ability tests were obtained atthe second-grade level. Secondary school pa..ticipantsevidenced greater reading compre- students, with no differencesdiscern- hension gains than cnntrol of ible on a word knowledge masure. The demonstrated efficacy growth and the motivationalimprove- the programn verbal ability ments observed werconsidered validation of responsiveenvironment concepts. Israel, Benjamin; and Litwin, Zelda. Responsive Environment Program, September 1968-June 1969. New York: Board of Edu- cation, 1969. 83p. ED 035 087 This progress report covers a six-month periodin the second year of an experimental researchproject to test the utility of the Edison Responsive Environment Talking Typewriter a major tool for teaching both initial and remedialreadi,A o educationally disadvantaged youth. Ccnducted in six scl, in Brooklyn, New York, the study includedexperimental and control groups at four age levels: kindergarten(82 pupils), first grade (388 pupils), eighth grade (31 pupils), andninth grade (21 pupils). Statistical analyses of the study's data are explained for each age level. In almost every instarce the study showed greater reading achievement by theexperimental groups using the Talking Typewriter. The report recommends further development of the Talking Typewriter program, stresses the need for teacher training in the technique, givesjob descriptions of the project's primary personnel, and concludes with material illustrating the program's format and instructional tools.

43. Ball, Samuel; and Bogatz, Ge-ry Ann. The First Year of Sesame Street: An '2valuation. A :'eport to the Children s Television Workshop. Princeton, New Jersey: Educational TestingserviZe7-15767 373+ pages. The ohjective of this study was to assess the impact onthice- to five-year-old children of the Children'sTelevision Workshop's national educational TV program, Sesame Streot. The evaluation was also directed toward discovering which groupsof children stem to benefit from viewing the show,what charactertzes -hose who learn a great deal, how children react to varioustecstniqueu used in the show, and w ether their reactions are rclatf.r their learning. Two settings were studied: the -*Ill(' i. h owu home and the child in-a preschool classroom. :hf, ,.!pulatio, con- isted of disadvantaged children in inner-city a- as, advantagd suburban children, advantaged and disadvantaged rural chitdren, and disadvantaged Span:eh-speaking children. Sites were: Boston, Durham, Phoenix, suburban Philadelphia, and northeasternCali- fornia. The majority were in the Northeast. h asurement instru- :Dents used were tests of body parts, letters,forms, numbers, classification, sorting; parent questionnaires; observations; teacher questionnaires. Findings included:(l) Disadvantaged children watched Sesame St'eet less than advantaged children;(2) amount of viewing affected gains on grand total scores; (3) as amount of viewing increased, gains increased. 44. Hartford City Board of Education, Conn. SADC Project 1: Rosearch Evaluaticn, 1968-1969: Focus on Action. 1969. 140p. ED 033 997 The report is an evaluation of those compensatoryeducation programs established in Hartford by the StateAct for Disad- vantaged Children (SADC). The measured effects of compensatory education in Hartford and the extension of amodified Higher Horizons program to all poverty area schools are the topics of two introductory essays. The Hartford program has five interrelated segments, including guidance, schoolsocial wock, psychological testing, speech and hearing, and health services. Each is reported in detail. The Higher Horizons 100 program, the Expanded Reading program, business services, a project to teach English as a secondlanguag,, and the services of coordinators of instructional imFrovement are all associated projects reported in detail. Statistical data are given for Project Concern, a busing program, and Project Read in the appendix.

45. Colerado State College, Greeley, School of Education. New Nursery School Research Project, October 1, 1968 to Sep- tember 30, 1969. Annual Progress Report. 1969. 159p. ED 036 320 This report describes the primary and secondary objectivesof the nursery school project and the methods and proceduresused in the program. Demographic information is supplied for the 30 three- and four-year-olds who were enrolled. The schedule and tentative lesson plans emphasize free choice activities, group time, and outdoor play. Planning and implementation of the program are considered. A section on the development of curriculum materials gives specific suggestions-forlearn- ing activities during snack and lunch time and methods for learning concepts such as "round," understanding opposites like fast and slow, using conjunctions, and playing with alphabet blocks or picture lotto games. To enrich the children's home environments, a mobile instructional library is used for home visits. The school functions as a demonstration center, and methods of observation and availaJle irformation materials are explained. A resume of the testing and data collection describes in detail the use of pre- and posttests, rating scales, observations, and inventories. A list of all personnel in the nursery ch)ol concludes the report. Colorado State College, Greeley. A Supplementary Report on Evaluation of the New Nursery Program atColorado State College. 1968. 42p. ED 039 919 This report, an expansion on"The Interim Report: Researchof the New Nursery School," ispresented in three sections. The first section examines the testresults of 29 childrenenrolled in the New Nursery School(NNS, for academicallyhandicapped, low income Mexican-Americans)and the REN school(similar to the NNS but for children whose parents canafford tuition). The tests included the Peabody,the Caldwell, the"C" Test, and the Categories Test. Though the tests have a verylimited value for evaluating the effectivenessof the program at this time, the results seem to indicate theNNS is affecting children's oehavior in a desired direction. Section two, a fnllow- up study of children whopreviously attended the schools,used standard tests, such as the Stanford-Binet,and teacher ratings. The tests tend to show that old NNSstudents are performing at least satisfactorily in their grade. The teacher ratings,however, correlate poorly with Aoreobjective measures andlead to the unfortunate conclusion that teachers arestill prejudging children as poor-learning stereotypes. The final section reports on the usefulness of the"typing booth," a facility at the NNS.

An Automated Primar -- 46. Atkinson, Richard C.; and Suppes, Patrick. Grade Reading_and Arithmetic Curriculumfor Culturally Deprived Children. Final Report. Palo Alto, California:Stanford Uni- versity, 1968. 211p. ED 023 773 This project's main objective indeveloping and implementing a computer-assisted instruction laboratoryprogram in mathematics and initial reading was toindividualize instruction so thateach child could pvogress at his own pacethrough a subset of materials best suited to his aptitudes andabilities. This theory of inatruc- tion attempts to optimize the learningsituation by manipulating such variables as the content, nature,and sequence of presentation. Minority-group students (approximatelyeighty percent Negro) received various combinations of the instructionfrom 1966 to 1968. During 1965-66 members of the projectstaff prepared parents and teachers for the technological innovation. The problems in put- ting the system into operation and themethods by which the students were introduced to the laboratoryand its materials are described. It is felt that although much dataremain to be analyzed, the findings of thin project can serve as abasis of a theory of individualized instruction which would span thediversity and skills found in learning elementary schoolsubjects.

61 DiLorenzo, Louis T. Prekinderzarten Programsfor Educationally 47. Final Report. Albany: New York Disadvanta ed Children. Evaluation, State Education Department,Office of Research and 1969. 267p. ED 038 460 from July 1965 to This report presents theresults of a study of year-longprekindergarten programs July 1969 on the effects districts in for disadvantaged childreninvolving eight school approximately 1,800 children. The study New York State and important and focused on factors whichthe schools considered major objectives oftheir programs. These were intelligence, physical development. The study language, self-concept, and The basic :aas a true experimentaldesign with tworeplications. individualized tests andmeasurements dilta were collected by for three (pretest and posttest) forthe prekindergarten year Posttesting was completedin the follow-up waves of children. well as years. Reparus and-ratings -by teamsof observers, as directors, were made ineach of the three teachers and program The cognitive pro- years. Each child's parent wasinterviewed. grams were able toclose some of the-gapbetween disadvantaged Mowever, the difference_that and nondisadvantaged children. Further, the results remained exteeded thedifference overcome. by the cognitive-orientedprograms, and not were achieved only programs. by the nursery-oriented orearly childhood-oricnted

Disadvanta1el_youth_122maschillz 48. Mandell, Wallace; and others. the World of Work: AStudy of NYC Enrolleesin New York City. Final Report. Staten Island, New York:Wakoff Research Center, 1969. 234p. pertained to the degree to The central questionof CAB research Corps (NYC) enrollees,NYC personnel, which Neighborhood Youth of reference, and and potential employersshared a common frame regarding the trannactionsinvolved in enter- held similar views examination of the ing the world of work. This was studied by an NYC enrollees, theirwork experience work related perceptions of itself &wing supervisors, and employers. The negotiating process studied. Data on thisbargaining,ses- employment interviews was Results of sion were gathered toinclude five major components. picture of ycott,frightened by the prospects the study presented a of work as of entering the world ofwork. They viewed the world extremely demanding, and sawthemselves as essentiallyunprepared took the position for these demands. Employers and supervisors that, although young people areunprepared, littlepreparation preparation is needed. is needed. The NYC enrollees believed -61-

McNamara, Robert J. Characteristics of Neighborhood Youth Corps in School Projects: An Analysisfor the Year 1966-67. Chicago: The University of Chicago,1967. 126p. ED 025 579 This study of the Neighborhood YouthCorps (NYC) was prepared for the national office describingthe in-school programs funded and in operation for the1967-68 academic year. It was based on responses from1257 project officials representing anenroll- ment of 102,468 youths. There were 490 urban projects,703 rural projects, and 64 "mixed projects." General project characteristics for the country as a whole, aswell as for each region, were analyzed in terms of population type, programsize, varieties of employment stations, and enrollees'descriptions. It was found that most differences among projectsexisted, not because of _regional location, but rather due tosize and type. In general, large urban programs assigned participants morneffectively to "white collar" jobs, provided more direct andfrequent supervision between staff members and enrollees,and offered funding for a variety of activities. However, 72 pe-rcent-ofall-spousors reported that there were more studentseligible for the Neighbor- hood Youth Corps than their budgets allowed. The most important success factor in the program,according to 86 percent of the revpondents, was the simple plaaemenx of ayouth in a job for whi.ch he rece-Ived wages. Job satisfaction and counselingalso contributed to the enrollee's sense ofachievement.

lhetteigiq.sEhood Youth Corps' In-SchoolEnrol- - McNamara, Robert J. lee, 1966-67: An Evaluative Report. Part I. Chicago: The Uni- versity of Chicago, 1967. 178p. ED 025 577 This analysis of the Neighborhood YouthCorps (NYC) In-School Enrollee was based on a probabilitysampling of all the nation's youths enrolled in the program. .3,618 were studied. A comparative group of 1,143 similar ]ine povertyyoungsters in the same schools, but not in the Neighborhood YouthCorps, were also analyzed in areas where parallelismsoccurred. Two-thirds of the enrollees listed retention in school untilgraduation as the main purpose of the Neighborhood 'iouthCorps. Most spent their wages on items of sc-ool needs andsocial respect. A fundamertal factor in the Jevelopment of goodwork attitudes and self-esteem was the enrollee's feeling of job satisfaction. This depended oik ge satisfaction, satisfaction with thu"boss," and satisfact;on with the work itself. Attitudes were positive on the last two;the first evoked large setle criticism. White collar Jobe were most popular with no discriwination among Negroesand whites in these placements. The fz.t that one-third of theenrollees were working in unskilled categories represents aproblem for the Neighboraood Youth Corps. In general, Neighborhood YouthCorps participants recaived little more counseling than the comparativegroup. Pro- ject directors recognize the need for greatereffort in this area. -62-

The Neighborhood YouthCorps' In-School McNamara, Robert J. Chicago: Enrollee, 1966-67: AnEvaluative Report. Part II. ED 025 578 The University ofChicago, 1968. 193p. counseling, family backgrolindsand rela- Factors such as jobs, and tionships, adult associations,school personnel influence, characteristics were analyzedwithin the Neigh- general poverty of youths. borhood Youth Corps(NYC) and comparative groups these elements influencedtheir adjust- Focus was placed on how of both groups ment to self andschool. Although 84 percent their goal, theNeighborhood Youth Corps indicated graduation as responsiveness enrollees show,.d betterattendance and greater However, there was littledisparity in their to counseling. of general study habits and subjectinterest. Also, in the area orientation towards school,there was no strongstatistical Youth Corps membersand their difference between Neighborhood goals of both groups fellow students. Similarly, the occupntional identical. Despite care: .1reservations, however, were virtually that the Neighborhood the overall conclusionof the authors was improving the lot andattitudes of our Youth Corps appears to be This nation's impoverished youth asthey go through highschool. the program: work exper- is because of thein-built features of ience, direct contact withsupervisors, increasedself-respect, and alleviation of poverty.

Reinforcement in Harris, Florence R. Field Studies of Social 49. Education Improvement a Preschool. Durham, North Carolina: Program, 1967. 19p. reduce undesirablebehav- In an attempt tomodify or substantially children, a teachingtechnique was intro- ior in nursery school child only when the duced wherein the teacherwould attend to the acceptable behavior andwould ignore the child was manifesting It would child when he was manifestingundesirable behavior. then be possible todetermine the effect onchildren's behavior representing positivereinforcement. When of teacher attention the desired behavior the particular childconsistently manifested of attending to thescceptable behavior of the teacher technique If the children and ignoringundesired behavior wasreversed. child then reverted to theundesirable behavior, theteacher behavior. These manipulationsdemon- reestablished the desired teacher atten- strated the validity ofthe independentvariable behavior. Five case tion as a significantinfluence upon child children with particularbehavior prob- studies of nursery school successfully altered the lems indicated that theteacher technique included crying spells,isolate play, undesired behavior, which the undesired and excessive passivity. Im_eath case, by ignoring the desired behavior,the latter behavior behavior and reinforcing how- changed from subordinate todominant. It must be understood, ever, that to achieve successwith this technique, theattention of the teacher must bepositively reinforcing to thechild. 50. Painter, Genevieve. The Effect of a Structural Tutorial Program on tl.Cognitive and Language Development of Culturally Disadvantaged Infants. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1967. 29p. ED 026 110

Based on the belief that structured preschool activities aid in the development of disadvantaged children, this study attempted (1) to evolve a tutorial program to accelerate spontaneous development in disadvantaged children and prevent cognitive and language deficits, and (2) to assess growth of the infant's cognitive and language development after one year of individual tutoring. Ten children (male and female, Negro and Caucasian, eight to twenty-four months old) received intellectual stimulation for one hour a day, five days a week, for one year. A matched control group received no stimulation.Pretests and posttests were administered.The training program emphasized language development, symbolic representation, and concept formation. The results showed that sample 'ralues of the experimental group were superior to those of the control group in twenty-five of twenty-six variables tested, eight being significant at the .05 level. IQ scores of the experimental group were greater than those of the control gfoup, and the difference was significant at the .05 level. Sample values of the experimental group exceeded those of the control group on fourteen of fifteen language subtests, two being significant at the .05 level. On tests administered to assess conpeptual development, the experimental group was consistently superior to the control group. Followup studies should be done to determfne long term effectiveness of the program. References and tabulated data are included. -64--

Henderson, Ronald W.; andothers. Positive Effects of a Bi- 51. cultural Preschool Program on theIntellectual Performance of Mexican-American Children. Tucson: UniVersity of Arizona, College of Education; NationalLaboratory on Early Childhood Education, Research and DevelopmentCenter, 1969. 10p. ED 028 827 In a study of the effectsof mixing childran of differentback- grounds, eighteen disadvantagedMexican-American children were integrated into classes withthirty-six advantaged Anglo peers to see if the intellectualperformance of the Mexican-Americans would be favorably affected. Comparisons were also madebetween eighteen children of the same ethnic groupwho were in Head-Start and another group of eighteenchildren who were not in apreschool program. All children were pr .:-ested andposttested on-the Wechs- - ler Pre-Primary Scale of Intelligence. As expected, childrenin the experimental integrated group made greavergains than children either in no program or in Read Start;however, Head Start subjects did not make greater gains than thechildren in no preschool program. On the basis of this_study, it seemspossible that Improved intellectual performance would be maintainedif children were active for a longer-period of time in anenvironment supportive of-newly acquired skills.. Too often"tracking" or "ability grouping"results, _in effect, in a segregated schoolenvironment. Further investigation is needed to obtain morespecific data on the role of imita- tion in classroom settings.

Modification of the Classroom Behav- 52. Sibley, Sally A.; and others. ior of a "Disadvantaged" KindergartenBoy by Social Reinforce- ment and Isolation. Durham, North Carolina: EducationImprove- ment Program, 1967..58p. Reinforcement techniques have been employedin various environments to modify in some mannerthe behavior of humans% The classroom is only one ofseveral situations in which theseprinciples and techniques have proven useful. The goal of the present investigation was to eliminate the disruptive,resistant, and'asE:.aultive behaviors and increase the appropriate peerinteraction of au economically disadvantaged kindergartenwhite boy. The treatment program involved presentationof adult (teacher) attention contingent upon "desirable" classroombehavior, withholding of attention contingent upon "inappropriate' behavior, andsocial isolation contingent upon "unacceptable" behavior.The subject's behavior was classified according to the Coping AnalysisSchedule for Educational Settings (Spaulding; 1966) and theteacher's interactions with the subject were categorized according totheir content. The subject's behavior and the teacher's interactions with him wererecorded simultaneously on an event recorder by anobserver who had attained high reliability. The baseline data supported theteacher's con- tention that the subject was a behavioralproblem, particularly

G6 structured situation. The program was carried in a strictly discussion, and rest. out daily in theactivities of freeplay, Some progress was madeunder the original program,but his behaviors were furtherdecreased inappropriate and unacceptable A when they were punished(isolation) rather than ignored. reversal of the treatment program(i.e., decreased positive and neutral interactionscontingent upon desirablebehavior and increased negative interactionscontingent-upon -inappropriate and unacceptable behaviors) wasintroduced to demonstratethat the teacher's interactions wereindeed the controllingvariables. After the successful reversal,the treatment wasreinstated with favorable-resuts. Although-thisdescription is accurateof the -overall treatment and itseffects in general, there werediffer- _ ences in the programand in its effects in thevarious activities. The study wae concluded when thesubject's-data indicatedthat_ -his behavior was no-longer amajor-probLem in the classroom. __Time_checks were made_several_ weeksafter the termination_of the official study which indicatedthat the teacher was maintaining the treatment as an integral partof the child's environ-- ment and that he was stillresponding favarably. The major_con- tribution of this study would seem tobe the successfulapplica- tion of reinforcement techniques toall of-the behavioremitted by a child in the classroom. This study does not attemptto demonstrate-the--basie--1-aws of reinforcementwhich no longer require proof, but rather extendstheir use to a more practical and comprehensive program within aclassroom. A secondary contribution may be the applicationof-these learning techniquesto a member of the "culturallydeprived" or "disadvantaged"population which is receiving so muchattention recently.

Mexican- 53. Nedler, Shari. Earl Education for S anish-S eakin American Children: A Comparisonof Three InterventiveStrate- gies. Paper presented_ at_ the_AnnualMeeting of the American Educational Research Association,Minneapolis, Minn., March1970. Three groups_of sixi-.een three-year-olds wereinvolved in a nime . month program. Group I was enrolled-in a dailythree hOur bilingual preschool whosesequential curriculum was developedby the SEDL- _Group II children had na_program,but their parents met regularly with staff members whaprovided them with information an health, nutritiom,_andearly childhood education. Group III children attended a ten hoilr per day-day carecenter. The goals of the Group I program were .strengthening the chiles_conception of self as a worthy individual-,-developing his-sensory-perceptual, language, aild problem-solving skills. The goal for Group II was to raise the intellectualperfarMance of the child thro-ughplanned parental instruction. The_goal of. the day.care center wasto pro-- vide an en-rironment where each-child could develop at his own rate; here.the use of. Spanish was permissablebut not emphasized.- Pre-: and posttesting (nine monthslater) was done on the nonverbalLeiter International Performance Scale and thePeabody Picture Vocabulary .-.

t,044Nrg4 A 1,11,111j;,11.101nc,244.7_,Triflot 106 1410.4.1m, 1"t4' 1541-,1-z_P._st!..711 s; slims.* 4 fiI ; 4 17$. yil,gt waktoims 1API4 tirvw144 s 44104 0.*forot*Isr.

St+ - "4 "*"" ttfarft 1040 Cb C 0441141t#-*.** 144.44.18 - 14144:et_'111.i tt&*0.-ti.r.P41.414, 1,411. *44r, ews-0,040. 4Nows-,414 doom* 6.c4ft.4.41,41114mmo, rntiolcs. ** *)) /*c, Ootoolromes pig- *Soot014. swirimete" orOWLOstot. ribm r40,11.04. of goqftwit4 toe dtoodwastagod 0.1001;ima tom Uri4 lop tAllitoorir tpthip,01 timplow.rpoit..4.4. 0 to 40twvot444. tolbort*w44104 to 1866t ligeod oomagoa ow,e4.0*, goOpeol 'root,*4o *1614111 potwoit* arotooelood emote %slip tAitditwo le 'MottIota* *Wboollts. 1111015 beehtee est ~welt irioroof M6/0 peolowl, witellegolog it**Porg****c01.0016ttet tmwe 404016*, thir'versatile. *me somowelmset elobjeres for bosh grumps *ad *Oloditotosled 101%****4ett*iitm elf41441411roo too1optio4 aed The wheel diregewleoleetodoe poroopeel, ribtelcai tas144414. The adele ee444115 .eorwirolloso, aod beeleb 4m41104.44amee sweseres. ovilloleie program to alsodieeueoed. !he measles el tato pre-pose- eveemmg peeweeCaleamford-Semee, resbody PictureVocabulary Tose, Obtrvell-ftieer Scale. sed tate&Meets feet of Peprbelteguisele abilities) ere ives. Vibe lower s chilare imagist10 ues, the mere lithely be wee to emeame large Wooafecr ~eery school elpereeece Medtseeies tire the diversityof i.leellectual capacity was sot as grime so the estates'Alt showed. Vbe childlree of tow seclooceeomic states mho emoted low cetebe Motets! MO test erode the mootgates dories Out *omega rear ofeho program. Laeguage ability, however, wometmed botow ~rag, 'weeotter the goosed peer. Children I. Whe 1040wr 6111 modegate, dertmg the first poor.

S. LlsoistreeIletvid; and Itemmeabowa, Joraos. astastof a Greer of Five Tor 01 argeraRla itgveianliraillfAttended heroic, Chlldres' Casterlateetveet los Prowls.

This sem* simpered eh, seesepeteed lestmage dove/spree of23 five peer old chtldroe whohad neteeded the Center for a seem 44441 emetics with a metalled eeetrel groupof 23 oltildree, 1, of Mesa had attended a summer IleedStart program imply end Seerwho Sell der lied am preschool wheaseever.The Coster programing* avaluat(ve see eed emphasisedeogeltive sad itegmistic dovelomeet. Seetremeets lasteded the Sleet,Preeelasel Leveeterp, PPVT, amid t.Oseeles deemed: (1) tbeemporlametele seared sigelficestly lildher ea the Blast thee did(he eeetrele, (2) the experimental* bed a stotistiselly sigetfiesethigher moss *sore oe the Preschool lamestoryt (3) the empertmestalsseared sigelficattly higher cm the rpm (4) the emperimeatalshad statistically sigelftemet U sher woo some es tbe TWA. A coopar.ttv.t And12:2019 SI omlig, ASSN.. 14.7and Still. Shelia. thy p ; aro' $ 0,,,..1121,,,t cot_ivo 'loath Ol_d Di oadvaetAared, reliant+ la an tcrliespitat Cat.r Mitt%OthwroX0A laUa..11 Craw.. Ppor pre..nted at the Annual1eeti4g of the AScritauPsycho- logi4el Assoctattoe, Mani,Via., leptesber 19/0. 28p. The program ie which these!ottani* were placed wasbased on Piagetian model espbasisingchanging the cognitive pred*ess ava:lable to tit. child, speeding upthe acquisitiou ofthese p-rcesees, and helping togeneralise these structures to new sets of stimuli. Each teacher was assigueJ tofour infants "for whose rare. loving, andlesson* she is respousible.'Teachers were trained inPlaset's theories and theirapplications. Teach- ers were encousAged to usetheir ingenuity in finding andcreating respossive toys and in modifyiug task presentation tofit individual baby's performance levels. LanI4age skills wereemphasised through speaking, reading, andsingioi. At twelve ouths, thirty- two black infants(sixteen xperimental* aud sixteevcontrols) were tested with tileCattell Infant intelligenceScale, the Early Language Assessment Scale, endthe Piagetian InfancyScales. Experinental infants bad by theeattended the program for a mean of 84 days; the control groupbad received no intervention atall. Results showed: (I) the experimentalInfants scoring significantly higher on mean total of their scores onthe Plow:ties Infancy Scales, (2) controls scoring slightlyhigher on the Cattell than the experinentals. The authors suggest thatthe aavances made by the experimental lafants outhe ?fagot Object Performance Scale and the Means-Lnds Scale"offers encouragement to explic- itly planned enrichmentefforts, based on Piagetian cognitive- developmental model...."

Toward an Effective - 514 Dusewics, Russell A.; and Rigging,Martin J. Educational Progran for DisadvantanedInfants. Paper preeen-ed at the Annual Meetingof the American EducationalResearch Association, Mew 'fork, February1971. 10p. ED 047 045 This study attempted to determineif significant and lasting cognitive gains culd be achievedby focusing preschool efforts ipon children younger than those nowbeing serviced by traditional programs--children under three years of ego. Thirty-six disadvantaged children, 19-28 months of age, wererandomly assigned to two -68.

itteupot Mon. Croup receiving70 minutes of tutoring in the boo* weeklv, and a CeSterGroup attending a four hour perday centrally located cognitivenrichment program. After 125 program days. aselysesof covariance of post-test Score(taking pre-test scores ascovariates) on the Slossnletelligerce Test. the Peabody Picture VocabularyTest, aod the VinelandSocial Neturity Scale (VSNS) revealedsignificant differences favoring the Center Croup on thefirst two measure!. Ron-significance on the VSNS appeared to beartitactual. The results demonstrate the feasibility mad meritsof compeesatory educationwith disadvantaged infants in school setting.

59. Stoats, Arthur V.; and others. A Token ReinforcementRsedial Reading Pro ram Administeredby Instructional Itelkmatlall, Riaieoes University Wisconsin, Research astdDevelopment Center for Cognitive Learning.1970. 28p. ILD 042 301 Instructional Technicians dministered atoken reinforcement remedial reading program to 32black ghetto children who were prablem learners. In the 40.2 sam hoursof training, the subjects made seas of 78,505 reading responses;learned a mean of 726.8 words, retatning 81Z short termand 395 long term; and received =eau monetary amountof 1121.34 worth of reinforcer.. Tose results indicatd that thesubjects did significavtlybetter than the controls on a 100-wordsample from the training matr- ials. They also xcelled on standard reading achievement test. Including the vocabulary section,and on botb the vcrbal and non- verbal portions of an intelligencetest.

Academy for Slack 60. toot, Maurice J. A Curriculum Evaluation of an Drop Outs: TheInWilatives iu an Alternative School. 1971. 34p. ED 047 043 Vtis paper reports the resultsof comprehensive curriculum evaluation of an academy founded toassist black drop-outs. Designed to determine theeffects of the educational program on the student bo,y and to laybare the major c2nstructs inthe isetruco4ena4 and curriculum designs,the study employed-a swa- tted Sbufflbeam curriculumevaluation model. Sloven majordata sources were-utilisedvetch allowed comparisonsto--bo made with data on comparable public schoolpopulations, as well as within the group comparisons. The findings raise questionsof-present innet-city educational programs. -69-

&pegs, Donald L. Mctducicaldly Dtsadvantited ElementarySchool Child: 61. Coemitment and AMXIOLV Reduction andeehavioral Cha e Ihrou h Public ColunnalRert. Carbondale:Southern Illinois University, 1969. 32p. ED 031 769

and identified as A total of fifty subjects,low in sociometric status educationally disadvantaged on thebasis of high "schoolanxiety," were Control and dravn from ii:th and sixthgrade public school children. experimental groups WAte set up.Elementary counselors worked withthe experimental groups using proceduresbased on the theory of cognitive In one group subjects wererequested to verbalise their dissonance. determine if the intended behavior change.Primary objectives were to subjects showed differential inprweementby treatment with respect to: subjects, (1) schGol anxiety, (2) severity ofstudent behaviors as rated by (3) teacher-pupil relationships asrated by teachers, and (5)teacher-pupil (1) counseling with relationships. Thera were three major conclusions: or without public commitment wasnot found to positivelyinfluence the irrele- above five eriteria, (2) certaincounseling "conditions" appeared teachers who con- vant to some behavioralproblems, and (3) attitudes of sulcad with counselors irproved towardguidance while attitudes of - teachers who did not consult withcounselors deteriorated.

New York: 62. Thackeray, John; and others. "Open Door." Nom York City. Center for Urban Education, 1970. 47p. "Open Door" A description of the earlyexperiences of Lillian Weber's program la two New YorkCity public elementuryschools. The program is based on, though not a replicaof, the English infant schools. Its goals similar to the are to structure theschool and the classroom in a wanner flexible and intimate best of the Heed Start programsin order to create a learning environment, to provide greatercontinuity between grade levels, isolation of the-self-containedclassroom. The use and to counteract the environ- of school corridors to provide astieulating and Informal learning ment is the first step inbringing about tbe envisionedrestructuring. Wevemeet of children and adultsle-encouraged.through the corridor and-- - teachers,mishec1 to betwesu several claverooms.Those classrooms whose restructure their rooms werehelped to establish learningcenters-in their classroome--language, meth, scieece,-dramttisation,and art.Although oonteeds-that ous area is specificallydemoted to longue's, the proeram language is part of all of the experiencesand in each area, children are encouraged to-talk, read, and write-abouttheir dIscovertes.Children choose their work areas, and teacherscirculate *song Individuals aod children's exploration of the small eroups. To give directiOA to the materials, teachers placed in each area astack bf cards vitb uTitten Materials are of the "findingout" kinds--typewriters, printing questions. register, scales press, workbeech, negnifyineglasses, prisms, animals, sand, cash

71 still a devel- loom, musical instr4ments. Since this program uas structured statisticalevaluation design oping model, a tightly comments of several was rejected andreplaced by observations and Some of these observationsfollow: "...very prominemt educators. seemed little aimless, restless, ordisruptive behavior...children phenomenon not oftenobserved in a ghatto happy to be at school--a the most school...their (tear:hers')different personalities were the prevailing c1.11.1...00mclimate... important factor in determining reading (or all teachers were concernedabout and actively taushr of the achievementlevels of reading readiness) and were aware uncongenial to me all their pupils...While Ifound this classroom because of the disorder andthe physical foolingaround, in general according to such standards asverbalization and readingle.rels, this class vas achieving muchbetter than / would havethought possible...noticeable decline indiscipline problems...Thebeauty school trying it coulddnvelop its of the program is that each policy of own character andmodifications. This is a conscious instances of prolongedattention...chil- the director...numerous Questionnaires (with a limited dren he;ping oneanother...." and etu--- sample sise)--showed potitiwereactions by teachers; sides dent teachers; twenty of twenty-oneparent respondentsindicated "a belief that the projecthelped the children tolearn."

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C. Summary of Hajar Studiesby Category

Dmillar.-AMLLIDdex URI Specific Academic Skills 73 1. Development of 73 &. Reading 73 (1) Intensification ofreading instruction instruction 75 (2) Highly programmed 77 (3) Orientation towards affectivedevelopment and/or peers 78 (4) Utilization of parents 80 b. Language and communication reading, and language 81 c. Mathematics, 82 (1) Peading/math supplementsof instruction math, educational technology . . . 82 (2) Integration of reading, 83 (3) Programmed instruction (4) High-school level programsincluding reading, math and 83 communication skills 84 d. Broader objectives 85 . Bussing programs 87 (2) Residential programa 87 2. Developmental Facilitationin Early Childhood cognitive emphases 87 a. Programs with 87 (1) MItture and range of programa (2) Methods and results of specificstudies _88 93 b. Infant studies (1) Rationale for work at this agelevel 93 (2) Investigation of nppropviste ageranges for intervention 94 (3) Investigation of kinds oftraining and infant responses 95 multiple emphases 27 c. Programs with 97 (1) Project Read Start (2) Research on preschool andfamily style education 99 media and technology 99 d. Stisdies utilizing mass 99 (1) Television 100 (2) "Talking Typewriter"

. . . 101 3. Guiding and Utilizing theAffective Development of Children a. Sense of control overenvironment 102 103 b. Motivation and self-concept 104 c. Teacher expectations 106 d. Contingency management andreinforcement strategies e. Identification with peers 107 f. Placement in a desegregated-learningenvironment 108

4. Involving Parents and the Communityin the Learning Process 111 a. Preschool programsinvolving parents 112 112 b. A model utilizing paraprofessionals 112 c. Communityinvolvement d. Community control 113 -72-

114 5. Changing Staff BehaviorThrough Training 115 a. Summer institutcs 117 b. In-service training 117 c. Pre-service training 120 6. Changing Schoc,ls and SchoolSystems of "radical school reform" 121 a. Pivotal questions 123 community control . . .. b. Decentralization and 127 C. Alternatives topublic schools 128 d. Student protest 128 e. Compensatoryeducation and the common school -73-

C. Summary of 11P-12E§MAS_22_12..YEALS&EKX

1. Development of Specific AcademicSkills a. Reading The bulk of programs which attempt todevelop or ameliorate academic abilities concentrate, predictably, onreading skills. The available /kterature on a dozen such programswhich produced positive results of varying degrees of strength andeducational significance, will be outlined here, with the understandingthat (a) other examples of successful or quasi-successful"compensatory" reading programs can be found; and (b) programs which dealwith reading in addition to other academic skills will be coveredin subsequent sections.

Attempts to further group evensuch a delimited sample in order to draw some conclusions about the statusof programs and research in this area meet with frustration. The-number of children in these programs ranges from 32 (ink year) to 13,000 (over 3 years); sample sizes used to evaluate programeffectiveness range from the total number to an exceedingly small percentagecf participants. Reading programs occur at all grade levels,with the majority In elementary school; however, the scope ofsuch programs ranges from one to all twelve gradelevels. Again, as in all compensatory education literature, there is enormous variabilityin program components, in extent and duration of treatment, and inthe quality_and scope of . eae descriptive and evaluative materialavailable. Primarily, for organizational purposes, therefore, the followingclustering seemed appropriate.

(1) Most common are those programa whichprovide an intensification of reading instruction, generally bythe use of specialists and/or special centers.Half an hour per day, over a 7 month academic year is about average.- -The one truly"high intensity" reading program, providing 3 hours everymorning for about a 10-week period, is /ntensive Reading Instructiona/ Teams(U.S. Office of Education, 1969) in Hartford, Connecticut. From 1965-9, children in grades 3-6 and-f&rst grade were given small-groupremedial instruction geared toward decoding, vocabulary and comprehensionskills, and reading appreciation by teams of specialists. Pre- and post-testing on the _ California Achievement tests. administered6-10 weeks apart, revealed an average 7 month gain for3rd-5th graders in 1965-6, a 10 month gain for 4th-6th graders ehe following year, a10 month gain for 4th graders, and a 15 mouth (1.5.grades) gainfor 5th graders-1n 19678. Te determine the amount of carry-over,24% of the 1965-6 participants were retested (without further-treatment) - in Spring 1967. TWo out of ehe three schools' scoresrevealed further gains, whiCh were statistically-significant. The description of the-lst grade 1968-9 effort is so poor as towarrant.exclusion from this

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report, were it notfor previous reasonablycredible results. An upward trend inwhat the reporters labelreading achievement PPVT as a baseline was found for thefirst cycle students, using Significant measure and PrimaryMental Abilities as a post-test. PMA used as increases for the secondcycle were reflected on the both pre- and post measure. supple- Three other programs arebuilt around the traditionally the school day. Ele- mentary remedialreading instructions during (U.S. Office of Education,1969) were es- mentary Reading Centers 1966-7. tablished in about 15 Milwaukeeschools each semester during year Small groups of children(about 6-8), in grades 4-8, over a retarded in reading, but of averageand above average intelligence, occasionally used the Centers all week,k hr. per day for one or, The Communication SkillsProject (U.S. Office of two semesters. in grades Education, 1969) in Detroitserved almost 3,000 students six centers plus supple- rwo thru twelveduring that same year in --classe.e.-- Groups-af-6=1.0-students_u.sed the Elementary Centers centers for two 60-minute periods aweek, while the high school frequently--four times a week for45 minutes. were attended more Education, 1969) Pomona's Augmented ReadingProject (U.S. Office of of did not provide separate centersbut offered varying amounts schools. remedial instruction tolst-3rd grade children in six in all three programs,and provided - -Reading specialists tsught There feedback and suggestions toclassroom teachers in two. of reading seems to have been anemphasis on thorough diagnosis difficulties and periodic re-assessmentin the Skills Centerproject, which included a separate resourcedevelopment center and diagnostic provided as well. staff. Counseliag services were in reading achievement viaCalifornia All programs assessed gains Reading Reading Tests, Wide RangeAchievement Test, and/or Stanford No statistical tests wereapplied to the data, nor were con- Tests. students in the first trol groups employed. For random samples of (oral), .64 years semester Milwankee program,gains were .69 years ._ of .35 (silent), compared with thedisadvantaged population norm After the 2nd semester, respectivegains in oral and years gain-. expected .5: silent reading were .19'and.76 years, competed with an the Augmented In 1966-7-a systematicrandom sampting of children in Reading Project showed en average9 months gain in a 6 monthperiod, 4h monthe -gain in a 4 mo. 1967-8. Since these results interpreted with caution. are based solely onthe WRAT, they should be Other-meadures-were used at variOus_pointsin the program, but unfortunately did not provide datasuitable fer illustratingreading progress (i.e. were usedonly once).

A small sample ofpupils in grades 4-12 usingthe Communication Skills Cedters werg:Ote--And-15.0atteSted.: The evaltiatOrt7co0i0-4ted:. average gsins-(months peryear). made during the programwith gains-

76 -75-

made prior to entry into the program. Junior and senior high students, particularly the latter, seemed tohave profited, on the basis of these measures. Fourth-sixth grade students improved relatively more only in paragraphmeaning, compared with the disadvantaged norm only. Although no comparative data areprovided either on the pupils or on the instruction atelementary vs. higher levels, the more frequently spaced periods in the highschool centers may have been a contributing factor.

Finally, theAfter School Study Centers (U.S. Officeof Education, 1969) of NewYork City provided tutorial programsin both reading and mathematics,as well as homeworkand library classes. The centers ran from 3-5each afternoon, served grades 2-6,and were voluntarily attended. Between 1964 and 1967, 13,000 students werein reading or arithmetic classes. These classes served about 15 pupils each;and reportedly used a wide variety oftechniques,- the principal resource in reading remediation being-theSRA Reading Lab. In 1964-5 an evaluation of the_Study Centers'reading_program- was-conducted-using--- 1,521 matched pairs of students.With attendance varying from 3-6 hours a week, significant differencesin Metropolitan Achievethent scores were foundbetween experimental and control subjects,both groups attending the sameschools._ Furthermore,progress assessed in non-Center schools was less thanthat recorded in Center schools, either of experimental or control-subjects;certainly a--plus for--the program. lite effectiveness of- the-arithmeticclasses was-not assEssed.

(2) A second set of-reading programs canbe loosely characterized by their highly programmedinstructional techniques. These three-- the Responsive Environment Program(Israel, 196B) in New York City, Milwaukee's Token Reinforcement-RemedialReading Program (Staats.et _ . al., 1970) and the ProgrammedTutorial Reading Project (U.S. Office - of Education, 1969) of Indianapolis--employmaterials and procedures that are more carefully specified andConsistent over time than those_programs previousLy discussed- (andthan-most programs reported), and thus are somewhat more readilyanalyzed and more easily replicated.

The Token Reinforcement-program wasactually an experimental study designed not only to_improve the readingskills of "problen learners" in a natural instruc- - but to verify the principles of reinforcement tional setting. Thirty-two black junior high adolescents were imatched with a-control sample 6nth6-bisis-of a work recognition- score, school, and type ofclass--one third of each-sample came from an ed.4cable mentally zetardedclass. Token reinforcers, equi- valent-to various monetary-amounts, wereused in a carefully specified manner to rewardcorrect responses_dnring activitiesbased on the SEA _ Reading Labs. Unique to this experiment was the useof paraprofessional instructional technicians ratherthan the usual college or 'graduate Students. Housewives ana high-ichoOl students, _supervised_ by a trained teacher, worked withindividual _children in the -76-

experimental group for aboutthirty minutes per day over 4-5 months. Thorndike The Metropolitan AchievementTest (Reading) and the Lorge Intelligence Tests were bothused as pre- and post-treasures. Sig- nificant experimental effects werefound for the non-verbal IQ score, and on avocabulary test taken from the trainingmaterial. Upward trends occurred for thestandardized reading achievement measure and verbalIQ. These outcomes held for childrenfrom EMR classes as well as from regularclasses. Immediate and one-week- later retention of vocabulary wasfound to be 81% and 59% respec- attempted to study the tively. In addition, the experimenters functional behavior repertoiresof their subjects (e.g., total number of words read, overtime) to alimited extent; however, they -used onlyan -indirect measure _a_f_sounding out/recognizing new words, for which they found no Lmprovement. In this, as in most studies using token economies, theassumption was made that motivational -problems underly educationalfailure, and-that these problems stem _ from the absence of social approvalfor_"learning" (presumably. the 0.Yett,school_ curriculum)_and _forcompetition for grades._The_ validity of this assumption and/orthe values inherent in it may be and begin- questioned. Nevertheless, the careful experimentatiom nings of descriptions of ongoingbehavior rather than reliance on post-tests must be highlighted as apartial attempt ta understand the teaching-learning process.

SimiLar in many respects to theabove-study, the-Programmed Tutorial _ Reading Project employed paraprofessionalswho worked in a carefully structur-A, highly controlled 1:1relationship with the students." Rather-than adolescents, these were-700black, 500 white-first-gradera, receiving two -fifteen minut: sessions p_erday. As opposed-to the token economy system in whichreinforcement rate was progressively reduced, _this project employed minimalcuing/feedback at the start of a lesson, graduating to frequentand immediate verbal feedback to children's responsesduring activities based on_the GinnBaaal_ Readers.- For evaluation purposes,four experimental groups with forty-Ithree subjects in each _were set up: programmed of traditional tutoring, for one or rwo fifteen minutesessions per day. Matched control sUbjects were selectedfrom the same classrooms. Ginn's Recall, Preprimer, and Primer Tests wereused, among others. Only the programmed/two-session group wasgenerally superior, although programmed_vs. traditional tutoring effected a-significant - ference on the Stanford Reading test aswell. - Although the Responsive-EnvironmentProgram was also.centeved around - -programmed-reading instruction with immediatefeedback and reiaforce- ment to the individualchild, it is more difficult toapproacha specific description of the insttuctionalprocedures, since (a) throughout the program, and particularlyduring the first year, programs (software) werestill being developed; (b) children atvarious --levels from IC to high school participated;and (c) one half disgch daily forty minute sessioninvolve-d the individual with O.K. Moorel-s -77-

Talking Typewriter, while the other twenty minutes included aclassroom follow-up session.The Talking Typewriter provides visual, auditory, and kinesthetic stimuli and feedback to thechild and either initial or remedial reading skills instruction via programs prepared partially on the basis of diagnosis of need.However, it does not appear that much initial diagnosis wascarried out.A large var.ety of materials were used to develop programs in this project; by June 1968 about 700 programs had been prepared, a selection of which were formally evaluated, but no report made in the overall evaluation. Primarily black and Puerto Rican children from low income Brooklyn families were .bussed_ each. day to the-Responsive Environment._Center for forty minutes of reading instruction.The typewriter booths were monitored by paraprofessionals, with twoteachers supervising. A good description of the theoretical foundations, previousresearch-, background, setting, and initial procedures of the program is avail-- able.-For each schr,ol involved, experimental and control classes- were selected; control schools* were choSen aswell,- and a Hawthorne effect Was indeed detected among second grade students during 1967-8-.--- That year no differential -gains were found for kindergarten studehts on the PPVT; first graders were significantly higher inMetropolitan word discrimination but not in sentence reading; some relative improvement _in -reading comprehension occurred in-eighth-and-tenth gradesthe data, however, are poor and incomplete.The 1968-69 program prodUced significant-progress in auditory discrimination -in- kindergarteners ,and significant increaSes in-word. discrithination and_ sentence reading in firt graders_.___ _Too muat..information.was missing ior the second junior high classes to evaluate gains.Un- fortunately, initial differences existed between experimental and control subjects in both achf_evement and self-concept/aspiration, thenature--; extent; and-effects- cff:which-are not made-clear.It is_ also-unfortunate lim-ited-assessment meas-ures -were employed: In general, though, the tightly stri.---...t,.red programmed apprOach including frequent and immediate feedback, coupled with .tutorial relationship-, individual-pacing and somewhat individualized programming, seems to have some success. _ - (3)- -In contrast-with the circumscr-ibed, highly -focused techniques of -the previous set of programs, the two described here are more global in their approach and oriented towards the affective development of the-child as well as his reading-progress.The Mara- ----bar -Readtrir Pragranr -for--Mexteart-_-Ama-ri.carr Children -(U.'S; Office-of-

- Education, -1969)- served pre-school through third grade children -Jji St Ile: _The_me_thods-Amployed-by- regular teachers during -the_ school day -were -gradually ,devel op e d and. defined., olier -EL period_sof_years_ durIng.._the pogrx N414 h sis decx,ibed _a4, involving individualized instruction, exploration, self-instruction, and parent spar_ticipation. -lirthoUgh76EingeiTin self- anti. cipated and specified, there is no -report of .any assessment of such (or St t a:,(.1 the -*Tit c 1!. .y) 1. crL-zli: of chil- Utf. :n th,r.e to eni)Orcn in vd (i.e. were tested atthe start eh(' 7.-0.4)c, had rot p in 1960; fng of those groupsincreased of ihr prnrf-,-.-p found ev-r Si4niiicant niff..rtnces wore ar LeSt acWell. on A 1-3,cal:)evvlopedI. 1967) was anotherbeginning MP' Finley heol Pro;lrarr (Froelich, reading prc,i.,..1-1 uhic!!ssted develcIeLent of a positivoFrAf-imzge, and parentinvolve- nfrp, th ily cileck cf thechild's Ise,rtt. Co-47sr)nt,ur include:1 n .:grol data arc reportedvhich-indicato that hI was accouiplit-A;ed to a highdegree. cmphasizedthe approach isdescribed PS "eclectic NO one method was description- of- materials- nd prygratfc;"nevertheless, ete .vailable generalized and abstract toget a clear picture and methodl, scciass too The Igo observotioncl/behavioraldata are offered. of the progra.m. with independent ralphafis was onindividu.'..etion of instruction, dow.-!ver, rlthoughfirst graders.in %wilt peer-hcIp black, 20% Puerto Rican) weregrouped "hetero- this Paelen school (tin the basis-of progress- gent.oualy," second gradeclasses were formed on classes, not individuals. Al- 10 ticr..ding, withpacing then done by article maintains thatthe class organization though'tht- descriptive be contrar the ability groupingpractice does appear to was "fluid," A good deal of assessment to the statedobjectives of the program: measures were builtinto this program, in contramt tothe Malsbisr individual pacin, somefor diagnosis, others *chola, some used for only However, reportedevaluation results include for evaluation. Pre-test quartile grade scores forgrades I and 2 over four yeara. comparison group existed.These raeher-, results are not reported; no upward trend in reading lissited and questionabledata do ludicate an project, attitudinalchs.nge adbievement.Again, as In-the-Malabar did Wet appear to havebeen examined.

to.reading instructionin...compensatory_ _ (4),..0fte fimal_approach individt*ls in the-child's programs recognizesthat significant professional educaeors canand do have a. environment other than Parents and peers profound influepete.on whatand how he leerns: here as agents who canteach both specAfic,skills ate highlighted towards lecirning: and more generalizablebehaViors and attitudes Now York City'sHomework Helper Progran(U.S. Xiffee of-EdtiWion, 1969)*Is targeted for boththe high school,tutor,sand'.the ,efeMentary children whom theyteach., 'While atteMpting'to school (grades 3-6) 'fie program improve the reeding-skillsof poorly-achieving'ehiXdr'en, remain, in schgpc b4pos to mativate.thehigh school people to perform better themselves,and perhaps to choose teaching as a career.It is assumed that theadolescents can communicate more effectively with the youngsters,and that their behavior will provide a positive model forthese children.The program had each tutor work with anindividual child for-two -hoursafter school, 1-2 'days a week, doingreading activities, homeworkiand some 11 creative" work.Tutors were given a printedmanual, once-a-week training session, and wererequired to complete daily reports. The 1963-4 evaluation procured-complete data on 356 fourth andfifth grade pupils and 97 tutors,with carefully selected pupiland tutor control groupsof 157 and 57 respectively. Pre- and post-testingof the children with the sameform of the New York Tests of Growthin Reading yielded gains forthose pupils receiving four hours per weektutoring significantly greaterthan those of control pupils.Even when adjusted for practice,the gains made by the tutors, after sevenmonths, -on the Iowa Silent--Reading were---s,i-ga-i-f-icantly-greaterthan -thosemade--by--the-aont-r-ol------group.No significant changes inattitudes and aspirations occurred, although tutors began withhigh-scores- in these-areas.NO rela= tionship was found between theimproved reading scores of the tutors and their -school performance.It unfortunate, that -the-great-- bulk of da-ta provided by thetutors' reports were mit analyzedin -a- systematic manner, as--th-ere---appears -to--be--a -wealth ofiiiformaricar- --- about the learning occurringin-both participants -in- the-tutorial relationship. . The SChool- and Mime- Prog-ram-(U.S.- Office of Education; 1969) of Flint, -Mi-c-higan suffer-s--even-more--from-lack of informationabout what .--wa-s----tatrght and learned.Black- -parent part ic-iparrt s--; --primarily - sou_th-were - ins tructed_inthe-importance-oil- their-- ovn. attitudes towardand involvement in -learning.Parents were instruc-ted--in a range-o-f---ae-ti-v-i-ties-in--which to---engage--wi-th-their childproViding quiet itudrEirae, readingregularly to and in the .presenee g-iv-ing---pre-ise-, en-- - couragement, asking questions,providing and valuing the child's academic property, etc.The program included a readingincentive club, and provided a dictionary _foreach fourth to sixth grader. . 1,10-0-children in two scliools ,(K-6)- were,inciuded in_ the-1961-2- program:- ---Unfortunately,-thereported-evaluation is poor.Small samPles (tiades two and f tie)from- the two exp erimetital schools -and a -control--school were 'pre=and -post--tested-on-the-Gates Revised- ,-.,_t:149.---7.0Fa4e07-jgains- tn kotly qttti9101- a invp'ca.,hu --RE40:11.-mg:Tets---lary were -isignificantly,g-reaterthan--control gains, while in---compre- =heristarr--Ank7-74,1*--'S'eh-Ool-fraadrZILtent s ign if i_Qan.t-liy TEo eictiWor, in what:iliariii-ei. thents AC.tiAgAig-sw .,a1though ..the_repos_t meAtions a "survey" done intheexPerimental.communities. -80-

Without observationof the ongoing processesand relationships in the programssuch as these, andwithout follow-up andcollateral data on the areas ofbehavior in Ilhich themotivational changes can be assumed to bereflected, it is impossibleto assess the import or impact ofsuch programs', as valid astheir initial assumptions may'be. b.Language and communication integrated into, oridentical Language developmentis very often skills.In separating with, the developmentof beginning readinghowever, we have dif- out the followingsmall-sample of programs, cultivation of oral ferentiated between-readingdevelopment and the and written communicationskills. 2,900-students-partici- At the secondarylevel;-between 1,600-and f ice- of Education,--- parted ---in-Buf fakolrExpanded-Language- At=t-s-(U-.S. 1969) project from1966-68.Fifty percent of thestudents spoke non-standard English(southern rural),cihile'21%-came from non- The program providedadditional -staff to English-speaking homes. the schools' languagearts -create a 10-1.-student-teacher ratio in and audio-. classes.Emphasis was on writingand speaking activities, trsed--estensively.A 1966-7 evaluation-included administration _ofthe7California- Language Test pre= andli.o-St.;--teSt. Tests of EducationalProgress to a sampleof and of.the Sequential recorded by the STEP, theaverage 610 students.While no gains were than the seven-months gain in months-onthe former test was greater -eleventh of program-participation.Gains we-re g-reatestfor tenth and graders, -least for seventhand eighth.Unfortunately, although -pre.- and-post--writing -sample.s--werecollected,_these were-not. analyzed-inappropriate to the _ any systematic way,and no other measur-es more program wereemployed. of Mi-lwaukee.!.s Speech-andLanguage DevelopmentProgram (U.S. Office Education, -1969) wasaimed at_. young children(grades one _and. two) chosen on the basisof teacher ranking ofverbal ability, aspeech articulation test; andjudgment of a speechtherapist.- The bottom-.-- 857 of this-distribution-were-randomly-assigned to twoexperimental__ _ which-were- Toughlyequivalent in-age,- grade- and two- -Control-groups , black, -157 Spapish- level, IQ; .And SES.79% of -the -chadren-were second semester), speaking.For fifteen weeks(either the first or -Children 'reeei-Ared--45mihutes per day, fourdays 7 the etp-erimentat work with.a speechtherapist in the areas per-veek of small-group stimuli of -decoding, memory,association, and encodingof. verbal It is unclear whether...these45 mi.nutes.-included.work in the larger - classroom- with the classroomteachers .Bulletins were_ distributed to these teachers, aswell .as to parents,outlining the.nature of the childreni.sdeficiencies .in what seeMs to_be, on_ the.hssis ot _ limited evidence, a ratheroffeasive manner...The evaluation -81 -

points out that few appropriate assessmentinstruments are available. The Ammons Quick Test ofVerbal-Perceptual Intelligence indicated that the first semesterexrerimental group was significantlyhigher than the other three which hadreceived no treatment; however, the second semester treatment groupdid not perform better than controls, although the firstexperimental group maintained its superiority without further treatmentbeyond January.Classroom teachers rated students on a variety oflanguage factors and participation, before and after treatment,and found no change.Howe-ver, non- program therapists did pre-and post-ratings of a randomsample of tape-recorded speech, and foundsignificant improvement for both experimental groups.The participating therapists alsonoted experimental-group progress on classroomparticipation variables. No similar ratings weredone of control childrer0-sbehavior.

c.Mathematics, reading, and language The development of mathematicskills is rarely the sole or even -a _- primary objective of compensatory programs.More cbmmon is the reading-and-math combination, sometimesalong with language skills development, or including the fostering_of-the amorphous-U.general---- intelligence."The programs cited below were notonly built -around such-multiple skill-objectivesi--but achieved-some-success in both or all.

(1)-Parallel to the most- common -remedialreading approach outlined- in the -first -"Read the _-- ect-lon -run- the -analogous --redd-ing/ math.-supp-Lements -of- i-n-struct ion.--But-falo'-s- Plus -Program- --(U.S.. Offtee:-- of Education., .19.69)has_ offered_ correctivereading_ and. remedialmaxh _ to over 7,..000. children ingrades one through eight since-1966.Small-- groups-of -5,6 are taught-for--3a--45 -minutes per.day, -34-1. th --me-thods and -Materials varying according to'pupil need and-teacher-preference. __Inserv_ice. _training _has been.p.ro4ided__for__the-prolect-teache-rs,-- who-- were to work closely,with classroom, _teachers in_ designing_coordina: ted activities: .A -19-66- 67evaiugtIon reveale-d "an Avetage eight months gain in reading -madg.tduring 7.5_-_months-i--and -a- -nine months gain ,in._math over_ eig.ht months, ifornia.. Reid ing. and Arith-.: _ --metic--Tests.Note that the- same--children-did-not- necessarily- par- - ticipate, -in both -classes:: although- thosewho may have done-so- Are not repbrted.Thus; two .separate prOgrams are actuallybeing examined here: to --gew 6ho o 1 S tully7-Genters:-is .1)314-fga10 4....Afternoprt -.Rested:IA.1-.40 'Fairtcbuent,,Progrark-..(p-s . (Yu 1.--c 6.- of EdUcation1969)., which of fered,two 45 :minute classes af t:ex.achpo1 three day 6 per, .week.. Oneperiod ,of skill r0iiedi.ation,,and One.' f enfictiMeli-t. (ait -musics,. -Pb-5isidaledcaJon,`j. 'etc ..) it" is7: - not" -cleac '. whetherchildren-who -attended:-reading- cIassealso. received math instruCtion.:. . -82-

Classes were small (six), methodsand materials varied. Once again, the evaluation of the 1966-7 program reportaverage months of gain on California Readingand Arithmetic Tests over five months. For all children in grades 2-8,their mean progress was five months in reading, six in math. More intensive instruction wasoffered at the Junior High Summer Institutes (U.S. Office of Education,1969) in New York City, where students could make up for failures incredit subjects, and receive remediation in reading skills. The math classes, as those in most other subjects, consisted of arepetition of the previous year's course, rdther than assistancein improving poorly-acquired skills. For 51/2(4 effective) weeks, students attendee one or twoninety minute classes _per day. Six institutes weresampled for evaluation purposes usirg pre- andpost-Metropolitan Achievement Tests. In the five weeks between testings, 479pupils progressed an average- -- of -three monthsin- read-ing-r-and -339 mathstu-dents---gatined-an- average---- - of f ive momths.____HawkrIdge points outthat_ somechanges mayhave been artifacts of testing procedures. In most of these instances where average months of gain are reported,the data presented are inadequate- The evaluation of-this study also-assessed-the "quality o f ins trugt staf f_and-child at titudea _atinmadance,..and_the- functicning of educational aides. Math classes in particular were rated as teacher-dominated--and authoritarian; _ _

(2) In contrast to the above progiams, whichconsisted of separate math and reading sub-components,Project R-3 (U.S. Office _of Education, 1969) of San-Jose attempted-anintegration-of reading, math, and-technological in a carefully designed p-rogram--in4----- tended_ to be highly motImating_and_reievaat ta theoccupational -- structure.of the area. The children were eighth and-ninth grade-- -- .Mexican Americans who _par tir-ipated-e-very -morning-for -t-wo-sehool ----- years in classes of fifteenfor reading and math activities, larger Two-week -teaching modules - _ for other technology-oxiented- activitlei-. were tightly organized, and utilizedgaming, discovery, team-learning role play-, fieldtrip, and-other -nonxtraditional techhiques: Stu- dents' families .were included -in field trips,-which, as all activi ties, were meant to further understanding of atechnologically-based- - society. The program was developed In cooperation with acommercial- outfit (Lockheed) , and .Included ongoing assessment as -well -as-independent evaluations at the end of each program year-.-ExpeiiMental- and control children did not-differ in their California Achievement scores at the start of the 1967-8 year;significant differenCes were found in both_ reading. and math _for that one year period. This_ is a highly- interesting program on .paper;i_t ,Vould be pdrticularly lightening to observe the degree to wlhich act4vities and skills were integrated in practice, and to examine the ongoing assessment techniques and- data. (3)One program worthy of note,and analogous to the Respon- sive Environmentreading project, wasStanford's computer-assisted- instruction laboratory,Automated Primary Grade Readingand Arith- metic Curriculum(Atkinson. and Suppes, 1968), set upin an elementary school to servefirst and second gradersduring 1966-68. Separate math andreading programs were developedfor CAI, and provided individualizedinstruction (on the basis ofche child's learning rate and past responsepatterns) for 56 first graders (1966-7) and 72 secondgraders/80 graders (1967-8) in math and reading respectively.Children learned to respond bylight pen, typewriter, and orally, andreceived visual and auditoryfeedback. The system .was designedfor research and curriculumdevelopment use as well as forinstruction, and a great-dealof data were collected on the participants aswell as the programs.Observation of children's behavior at the terminals wasconducted as well.For children in the indfla prograM,lowi.Q boys and av6kage IQ-girlsbenefited -moat; -their Scores On:StanfordACHi-e-Veinent -Tedts'-being Significantly greater than coretrols' .A- number of reading-achievemen t.. measures were employed, and experimentalchildren exceeded controls onalmost all, with significantdifferences on the Californiavocabulary and total scores, Stanfordvocabulary and word study scores,and project- developed-tests-o-f--vocabuleryi-phonetic---discriminationi---syntax understanding, and pronunciation.A great deal of data remainedto be analyzed, but initial-resultt; -not- surprisingly, -a1V-ear- to those obtained from acarefully planned tutorial program.

(4)Three high-schocil level _programshave included reading, math, and communicationskills in their objectives.The first is ar t-fbrd4 sc" ike ns "TOO (lrattfo-ed -C fty-"Btiat-tr-15f- Educe tarn-, 1969) which has selected 100ninth grade students each year to participate in a poorly describedand unclear combination ofacademic, counseling, and cultural activities.The small-group instructional team of the 1968-9 programconsisted of six special teachers, one .pro ject-as-si-stant-,-and--a-c ounselar-, wlmrovided-a-s-tuderrt=-instruc- tor ratio of about 12:1in a self-contained classroomarrangement. No changes in Lorge-Thorndikeintelligence scores were found for the 1968=9_ group _who fel]: inthe average...range.Significant increases in,Metropoli-tart Reading scoresand -in SRA Writing Skills were found:Boys gained significantly...inmath problem-solving ability taPped by_ the Metropolitan. TAquestionnaire-_regaraiiiik "motivation," administered toteachers and students, revealedlittle

,k,Opts-ramhiCh:-

WtiPh.--04Si*d.0.1e",tilatie.e4Horzoil'!!-.:objectiVes _ Terre Haute, Indiana. thaii4SnetSta'.tetiniVersity campus for eightweeks, participating in ahighly organized program of instruction,study,-and recreation. Reading, writing, virual perception, and studyskills were included in grammar, math, apparently employed the curriculum. Although several measures were for classroom grouping purposesin language arts, theacademic effectiveness of the program wasassessed only by 'lite- and posttesting on the DifferentialAptitude Test, a batteryincluding mechanical reasoning, numericalability, verbal, abstract, and The tested group of space relations,and language/grammarskills. from an average 35thpercentile (based on sixty students improved found to national norms) to 46thpercentile; percentile changes -were revealed sig- be statistically significant. Measures of self-image nificant positive changes aswell. out-of-school compensatory programs tobe evaluated One of the few 1971), a "second- is the Christian ActionMinistry Academy (Eash, chance" school for blackhigh-school drop-outs, theobjectives of basic communication,self-expression, and which were to develop of the problem-solving skills,self-identity, and "an appreciation heritage of man and thevarieties of human life.'! Attendance-at - the Academy, in the heartof a Chicago ghetto, wasvoluntary, and no records werekept to intimidate students. Instruction was characterized as individualized,self-paced, and interest-based, with a wide range ofmaterials, instructional techniques,and flexible_routes toward fixedobjectives for_the students,___No group tests were given, orcomparisons made among students. Rather, assessment and feedback wereprovided continually, and weredirected toward the achievement of skillsrequired to pass the GeneralEdu- cational Development tests. Small group instruction anddiscussion, as well asindividual activities, was seen as animportant setting for both intellectual andpersonal/social growth. Pre- and posttesting with the Test of AdultBasic EdueetiOn revealedsignificant progress in math and langUage,limited_gains in reading,overlabout succeeded in - Live m5nth-s . Moreolier, seVeral AcadeMy students have obtaining college educations. This report is one of the fewin- -the cOmpensatork educationliterature which points out in athought- ful and effective manner the natureof the usual stop-gap measures labelled "compensatory"-and suggeststhe dimensions along which alternatives to the educational environmentshould be built-. If more-data 'on these students'sctiVitieP, tretieviors..,.-end-etti.tudes_ are amenable, theyshould be publicized. Meanwhile, the instruc- t-tonal -model presented here- representswhat formal_ education, "conqc- . pensatory' or not, should be about.

d. Broader objectives - Thesdtof programs -cited- immediatelyabove provide an apOropriate- preview to a number -of ef for-ts-which;,- through --a total change residentiaT and/or formal learningefivirOnment,, have -atiernited to influence the child's intellectualand emotional development and his academic and socialskills. Boston's Project Exodus (Teele,1969) Two were bussing programs. private financing and the was accomplisheddespite the city through considerable determinationof ghetto residents. Hartford's Project Concern (U.S. Officeof Education, 1969), aftertremendous suburban initiated through metropolitancooperation opposition, was finally black in thirty-fivesuburban schools. TWo hundred and sixty-six randomly selected by classroomunits K-fifth grade children were seats from Hartford's segregatedschools and reassigned to vacant classrooms. Very few of the selectedsample de- in 124 different took clined to participate. Boston's voluntary integration program children from all gradelevels, although the evaluationstudy sampled children from third througheighth grades only. The "program" of define and is almost a bussing projectis, of course, impossible to totally dependent uponcharacteristics of thereceiving-school, about -which there-is generally-11-ttle information. Hartford-diA include ultimately appear tO affect a systematicvariation, which did-not the outcomes: proportions Of both thebusse-d-grOui:os and the-C-eintrór- groups who remainedin ghetto schools weregiven a "Supportive team" -consisting-o-f--onek-ghet-te--- school- -t-eacher_and. one-community paraprofessional, to provide remedialhelp, liaison with homes andspecial serVices,-and re-Source-Material-forthe suburban classroafft-eachet-d".

The Hartford evaluationincluded testing of the twoexperimental and two control groups atfour points over the 1966-8period, using a wide varietyof standardized-intelligence,achievement, anxiety, attitude, and peer-acceptance measures: Although "serious gaps" in the first:year data precludedtheir use, data are availableon-197 the second year,--The bussed - -bussed and-244 control---childreu-for children in grades K-3 showedgreaterprogress on their- WISCverbal reasoning IQ's-, and on Primary 'Mental*bflity scores (mostly verbal-and reading_readiness (Metro- subtests). Kindergarteners were superior in politan) scores, while third-grade-experimentals gained significantly more than controlsin bothrreading and math. No experimental differences in intelligence orachievement scores were foundfor fourth and fifth grade children. The evaluation of the Bostonproject is somewhat unique,although adMittedly inomPlete in late_1969,in _its attempt _to__tep. mediating factors which may accOunt ;fordifferential performance betwe-5n hYPotheses, based on exis- bussed and control subie_Pcs. A number °f ting theorY and research, YereProPosed; cdncerningdifferential ewPerimentalZ vs. ..controls-______characteris.tics of,- and,,c hanges- in, thoroug'hly docUmented--, yielded a _ Seleciion ,,a-nd at tri t-iOn,feciors - verY --smell- -19-617-8eamPle:.with, bmth -P-r an4 .Post-,teat informatl-on available for 32 , bussAd andla-cOn.trol Students-. Further data were available 44:1 bussed -chlidren;14hO 'had ,entered the Project in-1965 03)- and -19'66*( 311 'Urforturately, ade400-c--achietedentdata (Metrcpolitan -86-

stanines) are very shaky, and although there seems to beimprove- ment, difZerential results maybe due to statistical regression. A serious attempt was made to examinerelationships between years in program and attitudestowards school, peer relations, fatecontrol, self-image, aspirations, etc.;although it was not entirely successful, the study is worthy of note andof improvement. Although neither study provides information onthe instructional characteristics or even achievement-patternsof the receiving schools, the Exodus report highlights theimportance of studying the school atmosphere and the nature of the blackchild's reception and experiences. Project Concern, noting that the greatestimpact occurred in the lower grades, nevertheless recommendedcontinuation for upper= grade children based on-favorable perceptionof-their growth by teachers, their own expressed desime tocontinue 'to attend suburban schools, and their considerable partic-ipatiomin extra-cuIricular-- activities. One alternative to bussing, for olderchildren, is full-time-resi- dency in the more "advantaged-ftenvtroniiient.-'1,Tbject-ABC (A. Better- Chance) (Wessman, 1969) took -outstandingmale students --from ghetto high,s C110 0 WhQwere_ highly_rantiNzatedtn_a_chieve,__and pla.c.ed--thera in private preparatory schools after an-eight-week surname transi- tional -IprOgram on a college campus.---The82 boy's- who entered--in 1965 had a mean IQ of 115, were 13-14 yearsold,- and were composed of 70% blacks, 107 whites, 107 AmericanIndians, 97 Puerto Ricans, and 27 Orientals. The summer program included veryrigorous coaching in English, reading, and-math skills; aswith the bussing projects, no information about specific prepschool programs is given. A high quality evaluation study examined theentering-group .end-e-- - control group of students _using -an exhaustive arrayof...standardized . .aC-acleimic. and personaLity _measures, interviewschedules 1- -and-teacher-. _ ratings. Although the-full -range of data -should be-use& -for- an --- integrated picture of the effectivenesg of such anencompassing and. ._-_costlY program, only. aihievement -rasults will bementioned here-. No mean change in the Otis IQ oc_curred after a year,although the control group mean dropped. Neither were any significant changes, or jexperimental-controldifferences found in English achievement scores. However, 307 of the project sample showeddistinct positive academic ga-ins. The -mixed results obtalned are-reported as status -ratings, with percentages of s tuden-ts in each category. Achievem-ent- gains 'were associated with some background factors,and with IQ --scores (significant-correlations-in the -.40's and .50's). Responsibl 2 Sober, _assert ive ,intellActually efficient, independently- achieving individuals, according to tiae PereonalitY inventOries, werethe Ones succe. edtng in thePT.ogX-gru- Ano;a1,4Y- high corr,eiatinn- found between .academic Pe,rfOrmance end social adjustments Unf°r" tuna-tely, (perhaps predlotalY) a higher degree of anxietY seemed to Altough.thei.-e-' is -nOt 'much _.go alOng'*Tith the PrePsqh°°1exPerience* indication- of oVerall academic gain, resultsare, railted andvaried, -87-

and a good body of information ispresented on the changes in and experiences of the A-B-C participants.

While it is encouraging to notethat reporters and evaluators of comprehensive projects, such as thosedescribed above, see the need for including more -descriptive:and-evaluative-knformation than pre-- and post-achievement scores, onewishes that program designers and research people would recognize theinadequacy of the latter approach in assessing any instructionaleffort.

2. Developmental Facilitation in Early Childhood

a. Programs with cognitive emphases -

A_large and continually increasingnumber of studies concerning . preschool education define cognitive development asthe core of-the problem of the lack of success by young sociallydisadvantaged children in preschool and early elementary programs. The rationale generally goes as follows: Young children from Iow-income homes do not-perform in preschool-andearly-ekpmentary-s-Chooi7P-rograms:oh comparable basis with children from moreeconomically-advantaged__ home-S--; inde-ed, from-thest-COM'enf-Ehege-Childrenenter the classroom, they are-behind their-age-peers from higher socialclasses. There- fore, it is likely that the- poorer children are notadequately pre-- pared by their home environments for the_Jearningprocesses_demanded thus failed_ . _by _the sohool.s_i_ Sinc_e these childr_en&-families have_ them; the-educational'sydtem-thust reacti-themand-f3i-Ovide a proper eduCaticid-asas-is rapidly,economdcally, arild pedagogi- cally S inc a-the-se cht-tdr-err--shoW -many -ob udifféréiTsitñ-ds- language and-cognitive style Troia-the-Lir middle-cldsSpeer-S.-and te-ach-ers ob-_ -and since lan8Page and comtke..tentc6g4itive processes are the mast important) prerequIsites far- _ vious (although perhaps-not the-most school- success, prescHool progtatbs Should graspthis atiftoach a6- fhe -help prepare-the dIsadvan--- most _direet_ and logical method to -use-tto taged child for school. The programs discussed in this section all . have _as their preliminary -rationalethat disadvantaged children exhibit serious cognitive deficits and that thesedeficits-can-best be co't'kect-ed;-. or at the 'leastamelIOi.fated, by i;rograms designed to . deal directly with specific cognitiveweaknesses In_shart,--among the programs diwzussed in this section,thee is an- almost-universal acceptance that cognitive malfunctioning-lies-at the heart of the disadvantaggd:chikd's_problems and thatthis malfun-ction- -fin can-best be renediated- by methods focu-singprimarily, -and some- -ttmes exclusively, on-the -development of cognitiveskills. Within this general framework are . various hypotheses as tothe major de- ficiency and most likely corrective-prodedure. Blank and Solomon (1968) contend that the major problem for thesepreschoolers is -88-

their lack of a symbolic system bywhich to organize stimulation: Sprig le (1966) argues that what isimportant is for the child to develop flexible strategies fordealing with problems rather than to acquire factual content.Bereiter and Engelmann in their Academic- Preschool (U.S. Office ofEducation, 1960) suggest that -the crucial -thing-is for thesechildren-- tolearn at -a rate ex------ceeding the "normal" rate in ordeitO catch up.Others look to language development _as _the criticalfactor while others hypo- thesize that the type of curriculum(e.g.,. formal vs. informal or a mix of the two) willbe the telling agent. Each of these programs has attempted toevaluate itself--and in a very similar manner.All but one have employed a -pre-"post testde- sign with-experimental, comparison,-and/or- control groups. Some have had complete control over the programinput (e.g., Weikart) while others have h-ad practically no control(e;-g., Stodolsky). All- have -used --s-ten-d-ardized-tes-ts -tomeasure--1.n.-put -and- outp.lt of --(Weal; s ever al have --de &levied,- their own measur-es- fectlAte --development, a few have gathered_ ratingsand comments-from teachers and/or parents. --More striking perhaps-iS--thafTh--fil-y of tliese-itn-dies (Berger, Di Lorenzo,_ _Stodolskyw, Weikart)_-__made any.systematic attempt to o.bserve _and_ .rec,ord ,whatas.ac-tually-going-onf-in _Lhe-como-j-ect_-__------.classrboms---, and none ventured to determine development or success of teachers' per formanees by-any-means--other-than their pup-il-s-' achievement. Length-O-f-treatment and- fcilloid-ups variedgreatly among the studies, ranging -from 4 months (Blank and-Solom-on) to -4-years (Di Lifireniii; Klaus/Gray) with most evaluations cove-ring- a 1-2 year- peri-od-,---In- tensit-y of_treatment was.:fairly unifcirm--=with vid n__g_ 3 1"1.9u.r s_ -5 day s_p_e.x. zaeek.__ Sample _ siz_es ranged... from a . ______low of 22_(Blank/Solomon)to a high.._af_ 1800(Di Lorenzo)-.with-mos-t_. programs _having a __to tal- offrom--50 --80--exp er imental s coat-rola,: Methods and results Blank and Solomon (1968) evaluated "A TutorialLanguage Program. to Develop Ab-stract Thinking in-Sbcially-Disadvantaged Preschbol Chia- dren."The treatment consisted of 4--months of daily 20 minute ses-_ sions in whiCh teacher and Child were alonetogether.The child was encouraged to use language;ask and answer questions; contemplate past and future, observe arLd discuss _causeand effect relationships.Blank and Solomon emphasized their concern with "abstract -thinking"_ as opposed to._ si.ple the child

. the..S.t an fo.rdAliie used:. Hae..-Et314C:ihe.:.--1.TtAl;---:- ter:....;.and, 5 ...eMploy_e_d_O. tests.Additional instruments. 'Were Columbia Mental M.turity Scale' ff.i_Con.S.erv-at ion.; (S crimiriatiori, and ,COgnitiva eSt': of.:Inte17. -ligence' ,er-cept inn (KarneS) reSChbol Inventory.'.J.(LiriaS.tx'iom,- -89-

who can label glibly is oftendeceptive, since his facile useof words gives the false appearanceof understanding."When tested at the conclusion of the program,children who had received the treatment (daily individualtutoring) scored significantly higher on- the Binet than childrenwho had not been. tutored.Behavioral improvements were also observed aswell as-"drastic" -improvements-in- - -verbalization and a feeling of masteryby the children in dealing with educational tasks._ The keynote of theBereiter/Engelmann program is to "teach inthe fastest, most economical mannerpossible."Small group lessons in language, arithmetic, and music comprisethe program..The teacher relies on group chanting, repetitionof words and sentences, and -negative and positive sanctions-(-egs., loss of food, additional work, praise).Children who had attended one yearof a "traditional" preschool far 2 hours daily plus oneyear-of public -school kinder- -garten were -compared -with-children-who hadattended the-Bereiter-/ -Eng-elmann program-for -2--hours- dailyfor 2 years.The-latter scored significantly above the former on theBine-t. focused on just what Sprigle' s.(1966)- "Learn.ing to- -Learn" pr.ogram its name -susgests---an -approach-and-resolve,problems.- The program uses locally-developed gamesand planned sequences of game-like- ac-tiv it ies ;thes-e---are s-eque-nced -frour mator-manipulation- to perceptual imagery tosymbolic experiences; guaranteed successis built in *for each child._ Children' s independence from_ . teachers. _ is stressed._ . Monthly parent discussion meetings areheld with emphasis 'on staff listening to parents. -Deily staff-ple-nning-sessions -are c-onduc-ted-.- At the -end- -of- one-year' s treatment,the -experimen-tal-s were compared with-children in a "t-raditional" kindergartenand with children_-with no. kindergarten-The- experimentals scoredsignificently_-_ higher than both_other.groups-on,-the Binet,.PP-VT, and ITPA; the did bett-er- than-the---ehildren --childrenin the "tradit4onal-11---kindergartentheir differences were much smallerthan not in any kindergarten but traditionals ."This signifi- those,. found between- exp-erimentalsexperimentals :and _ and controls on the three _cant difference .between- of first grade; the difference be- tests was-Maintained et the end . no-:-kindergarten groups- however, tween, the "traditionals" and-. the- _ Wethl noW ne-gligible.: . -.Karnes' .(1970) "Ameltarative Preschool'Program" fostered langnage 'development -through repeated verbal- resporiseebased on a-gaiite -fo-r- -mat sztals were (eg lOt to, . claSs-i-fying)-; all "self- eXpress eliminated:.'When;-the_Aniegifaietlyei-,PreschOol.children were compared.,. with.controls on:CalifOrni,W;Achi.ey_eMent- Tests,,.the'farther perfotmed chilAren . _ lietter.Tfqo other .interet04.-.-"fiiii.clin-'-'---,Igere whose,mothers .attended meetings .tO learn how.:to'...,teech their. children an children whose mothers were notinyo,lved et bome.t:'4i-ci, b'eE-`. and- (2)-=:7..e'itt-'er1men-te. t. ar-xoéssio.nals.did experiMen The"Oakland Preschool Program" (Ametican Institute for Researchin theBehavioral Sciences, 1969) concentrated.on informaldialogues and Language Master materials to improve languageskills; manipulative materials to improve cognitive development; trip, musicdnii science act ivitLesto st imulate curtousity-;-par-ent-meetings-and -parent volun teersin the classroom; health and psychological supportservices. Wbenthe experimentals were compared wLth otherchildren in their ossA, kindergarten who had not attendedthe Preschool Program, the experimental.scored significantly higher on the PictorialTest of Intelligence (note: the children who had not attendr,:d the Preschool had not been tested priorto kindergarten). Deutsch's "EarlyChildhood Project," New York City (U.S. Office of-- Education,_1969) presented a_structured_sequentialcurriculum with _ stress onlanguage development (listening centers,telephones, Language Masters); Sullivan .Readitre-ss Program,_Stern-Workbooks_;. self concept (pairrors , cameras). monthLy_ ,parentmeetings. _Experi- mental.and controls were tested on ahost__of cognitiv_e_,and _affective- measures, -but due to problemsof a-tcritiOn, Sample bias, inconsis- tency in use of tests, and poorlymatched-control Efroups-, no-clearly- distinguishable trends were evidenced. Lindstrom andTannenbaum-(1970) comPared children 'Who-attended the Syracuse Children'sCenter full: day_program emphasizing_cognitive and languagedevelopment .for. 32-55__months_ with_ children..in_a-summer _ Bead Start.The Center children not 6nly surpassed the-Head Start children on the Binet, PPVT,-ITPA,--an-d-Preschool-Invefftdry,butalso they were- 4hown "to -be--fuotc-tionting _at :levels- which -were- -,a_t-,_;:or--above , their chronological ages:"Lindstrom tind-Tannenbaum-L-attribute_thes_e_ gains_ to the comttination of long-term_ a_ttendanceawl _emphasis. on languageand cognitive development: "The karly Trainiqg project"sOrecte-d_by.,Iclaus_and_Gray (19611) used -four comparison-groups.GroupI received a 10-weeksummer pre--- school with cognitiveorientation_for_three_summers_plvs 3years_Pf weekly meetings with ahome visitof during the sChbol years. Group IIattended pre.chool--: for-- tWO' sumaiii-S-1--aaa-- had two years-7o f holies visits weekly.Groups III and IV respectively' were_a local,control grt-up with no treatment and acontrol.group 60.miles-away'with no" treatment.The presChOolprogram emphasized,verbal_interactiom;, elaborative language code,perceptual ,discrimination, concept' -forma-,-=, tion,immediate reinforcement,:delretopOent_of.mottiatiOnrinCe-, and de4ay-gxat if icat The ,,home...v.lsite -were eachers,*ith -- the purpose of keeping-parentslattarealTgethering-:#1,fotsi-Stlb.n,;_74-nd' setting edUcitlen^1rol*litiodels7-for.thTe-parents'.,;:-The ,five,'SrAdt ;fddlow=r uP of Um' Early 'TrainTAIC'1444ee't-'rePOFte, sign/ fie-aptly higher Vrig: Groups I and /I did not'diffei significantlyfib* each OtEe.r. The experimentals also outperformed-the controls on-the PPVT .a.nd' ITPA although la the iecondyear.óf ub1icshoolingthe adritai.e.7 oir -91-

ITPA was lost.The experimentals performedbetter on achievemerit tests, although to a significantdegree on less than half the tests. The experimentals were alsoshown to be significantly morereflec- tive as compared with the controls.However, no differences were exhibited on self-concept, delay ofgratification, or achievement motivation-. -The -conclusion pointed tomodest -gains maintained over- a four year period.The Project's seven yearfollow-Up showed that by 4th grade there was still asignificant difference on the Binet between experimental -and controlchildren but that- all differences -on the ITPA and PPVT had disappeared. Stodolsky and Jensen (1969) studiedmiddle class and lower class children attending-a Montessori' School.The -program stressed perceptualand-- sensory dise-r-imination -and--development of att-enti-on and- taskinte-r-est in a racially and sex mixed setting.No significant improvement was found on the Binet by disadvantagedchildren attending the program - - -for -two years -teacher -rat ing-s-showed no-improvements el-titer-.;--- Some _intere sting_sociome_tr-ie- --data -was-r,epor Lel -an -- important factor in the choice offriends...middle class children increased --th-eir friendship choices- acrbsôcta11a-sS -lines while- lower class children decreased -incross-class choices." Berger (1969) studied two otherMontessori -programs -and comparedthem-- - -with- 'ftraditio-na.-11'-prek-inde-r-g-ar-ten-pr-og-rarns.----k-t-rend toward-better- per fo-rmanee -onperceptual_-discrim-i-nation ski-l-ks-was-noted--for-the Montessori children; the increase"was chiefly notable for the Children i-howing -minimal- perceptualskills."Both groUps made gains--roughly comparable---on- the Binat-:-No clear tretids-Were--noted--- 'on performance of cognritiVetasks; indded, contro-ls-pV:rformedbetter- _ in some-aasesthan-did--th-a -Montessori- experimentals.---Berger-eione-lude-s that_the main variable in all projects_isthe teacher and not what the _curriculum or such may belabeled- "Pupil outcomes are largely --dependent--upon the ind-ividual-. teacher'-s -mode of-s-tru-eturing -the_ e-lams-- room 'environment, herteaching preferences- and capabilitiesand- the Certain _characteristics-wer-e-consistently resultantlearning. press." oral language 5..timulation by means _of associated. with achievement:. teacher' s --informal -dialOgite-s With children,Jai enVifonment inclUding imaginative Outlets pl:is cognitivetraining-, flexible-and open-ended instruc'figinal transactions."Children's r-esponse patterns showed - inittation-- of exploratory activity andcuriosity to be negatively related to mechanistic instructionalstyles." The -"Longitudinal. Resul t s- - of --the-Np'sIA ant i Perry- preschool -Pro leaf" .(146.ika-ii.:-.;-ei; al., 1-970)- describe th-eetfects -of two years(1/2 day months -per year),---.7c4---a-colgnivively-oriented . -. td ..the2thoi-ne for. 4 90.minuteinstructidnarT, session.The Presch0Q1 emphasized verbal _Ati.mul.ationand..interaction, "verbal boinbaxdmant," sociodramatic 'play, andfield trips.The Perry 'PreSehogor:cfli'ld.i.en scored significantly,.higheron:measUres.of.-Cogni-. tive performance theme control group;this superiority disappeared -92-

by the third grade.The Project children also scoredsignificaritly higher on achievement testsin elementary school thandid controls and maintained thissignificant difference throughoutthe years of follow-up, including thirdgrade.The experimentals rec-e-ivedbetter ratings by elementary schoolteachers in academic, emotionaland social development thandid the -controls; -thisdifference was-main-- tained throughout _the follow-up.Weikart attributes these results to: (1) "The use of a theory-based(Piaget)_ curriculum permittedcommit-_ ment to a -specificframework which-set limitsfor -classroom oper-ation and provided a challenge toteachers to select appropriateactivities, to match their programwith desired outcomes, and todirect the tocal classroom operation toward supportof the theoretical goals."(2) Staff planning, team teaching,and -teachers' commitment.(3) -Teachers- --were- supervised --hy- -an--exp-erienced teacher and by- a- member-of the-re-- search staff._(4) Involvement of mothers inthe educational process combined with teachers' foc-using- onchi-Idren -during home visits. (5) Heavy use of language. Weikart (1969) also conducted a"Comparative Study- of Three Preschool- Curricula" for functionallyretarded' disadvantaged children.mill- dren- in group I were given a"unit-based" curriculum emphasizing -- e ialT-emot-ionaIdevelopment -and -a-considerable-degree -- ness.Chrldren in group II wete provided a"cognitively-Okiented" -cur-r iculum developed byWeikart and -emphas-izing--"verhatb-ombardmen-t"- anti-socio-dramatic Children-in-group---1-11 -were-given-the-Bereiter/ Children in all groups_ re- Engelmann language. training curriculum._ _ , . ceived_ a -90 minute home visitteaching session every other week. --Testing orr the Binet after oneyear'-s treatment showed no -differences-- a41 -children-gained substantially-and -more-or ra-tings--al-so showed- no -si--gn-if ioant--differences .Welker t- co ncluded _choice of a.....currioulum framework isonly, o,f-rainor tance as iong as one iss-elected..-.Either the mechanical application- -- -of- a-spec-I-fie cur-r-iculum -orthe. busy-concernwith- adm-in-istrat-Ive pro-- cedUre that any program operation entailswill doom a" p.-1.6j-e-Et.--to - The processof ereating-a-nd-thecrea-tive-application of- a curricullm, not theparticular curriculum aelected_or_developed,is What Es et-sential to suCcess."Weikart recommended that progra-ma: -(1)- include opportunity for-teachers 'tothink...ineenSi-Vely about each child.;_.(2) include mothers in theeducational procesS-7_:!lereate _an atmosphere of support for intellectual-growth-in the home;" (3). allow each individual to be creativelyInvolved in the total operation-- "the human involvement of concernedteachers and staff is the key

element in program. success:" _A4 Lorenzo_ (1969) compartztralf-AlaY__Preschool.programs op_erating-in eight districts in New.. Yokk. State.-He _describes- them .as. varying- from highly structured and cogni_tive inorientation to_ loosely structured _ and "early childhood" oriented.The -children in cognitive oriented programs performed..better than controls WIIC: -did not..attend..preschool _ on Binet, PPVT, ITPA and onachievement tests given a.t the end. of -93-

kindergarten and of first grade. However, children in earlychildhood oriented programs did nobetter than controls. Neither cognitive nor early childhoodprograms improved the self-concept orphysical development of experimentals overcontrols. Nedler's study (1970), "EarlyEducation for Spanish SpeakingMexican American Children," comparedthree treatments for disadvantaged children whose primary language wasSpanish: (1) Daily three hour bilingual program of carefullysequenced instructional activities (curriculum developed by the SouthwestEducational _Development _Laboratory.) emphasizing language,_perceptualskills, problem_solving, and self concepts; (2)_ Parentsof children in this group metregularly with the staff to discuss, inSpanish, issues of childhealth,-riutri- tion and education; (3) Children'inthi-d group attended a .1'traditionel" program for ten hoursdaily in a day care center;here-Spanish was permissable but not emphasized. Pretests found that on anonlariguage test of intelligence, thesedisadvantaged children performed at- _levels well:within the_normal rangebut that on a language test,- for middle-class children. Post- they scored below national norms _ _ tests showed that children. in group Imade significant gains in performance on the Leiter-and-PPVTwhereas- children in the other-two- groups made-modest or no-gains.

The studies cited la -th-epre-e.edingdismidaioh-dre by aiid Targe- mere carefully land scientifically. -designedand implemented thin many- -Others th the field of compensatoryeducatiorLresearch._Still, many _serious problems remain that must be consideredboth when interpreting the -redults of thestudiesan''dw1rerptanningfuttfre (1) In- several studies, sample size is sosmall that- results -Should not Be widely geileralized. (2) In many of the studies, the testof -out-- come-was-IrtepproPri=ate-r-e+ther-because-tt wasonly-d-i-stantIy-retated to the objectives of the program orbecause it too closely approxi- _mated the-program/s curriculuM. (3) In almost all of the studies- the treatments (of experimentalsand/or controls) was inadequately --described. One very commori--weakness was tolabel "traditional" -(Di -Lorenzo calls it "eerlychildhood") anything not whatever it is the experiMental treatment is_offering. What is this strange entity, this mysterious "traditional" program? Somewhere lie_i _the:implication that-the "traditional" -nursery school means aconcentration on social-- emotiotlar-7-rather -then a-dgnitive-develOpment;-bUtbb-cine-seethdNillii4 or able to define clearlyAnd spAcifically what this meansoperationally. How can two programs be comparedwhen both are not described? Secondly, just because we have the lable"perceptual discrimination" activities or "bilingual" materials, howdo we know what actually went on? .In

short, observational data-is sorAly.lacking.. .

b. Infant studies At least three factors have ledtd the growing interest .in infant resAarch- (1) The Availability of evidence thatpreschool programs have been able to improve,however slight, the cognitive performance of disadvantaged children hasreinforced the belief that early childhood is indeed a crucialperiod of development and may in factbe the most effective time periodin which to try to influencedevelopment. (2) The understanding that the greaterpercentage of development has not only taken place _bythe time the child reaches- school-agebut that it har probably occurredbefore his third birthday (observing the 4-5 year old in preschool programs, wecannothelp but_ see that his persohality well as his learning styLe---haS been-established- to a great degree).,(3) The enormous need for child carefacilities for _children_ Of working mothershad led to the necessity of_defining,___, appropriate means of dealing with these.children in group settings.. _ Dusewicz and Higgins (1971)- _summarize_the status of the results-of research in this area to date:"Although exp_erimental _eviclence_exists in support of the hypothesisthat appra-priate supplementaryexperien- ces at- an early age canresult in--carisi-d-erably rap-id-and signi-fic-ant --increases-in behav-ioral development --among:children from:- imp overtshe-dr-r---.7-- --- environmental conditions, by far -themajority- of such programs-have met with -only marginalsuccess- due to of -reasons principal of_ which seem to be:.failure to concentrate on the language-development- of -these _ chi-1 dren,- -and -st-arting-too--late: ----The -ques-bion--r emains-,----- however, is to how early in thedisachiantaged child' s life interven- ---ti_on-should take place 11F-order ro maximizethe eff-CtIveness of sudh a program:r

The infant studies cited in thissection attempt to determine_ _ appropriate-age ranges for intervention; whatkinds of training should- -be tried,-and .how infants respond tosuch training.

- The study-dealing with --the--younges-t----g-roup-o-f age-- is White' s (Hess andSear, 1968) "Informal- Education during.the -First Months of Life:"This -study had three concerns-:(1) -the- tracing of development of the major-sensori-motor abilities (eg., visually directed reaching)-; (2) the-identification-of- environmental -= or experiential conditionswhich _seem relevant to these abilities; (3) the d-e-t-ermination of whether earlydevelopment is significantly. dependent 'upon rearing cond...i.ti,-,ons...... _.White foundthat_ motor--processes were--remar.kably plas-tio-, thatthe- rate of- developme-nt- of behaviors were ,able to-be' systEmaticallyaCeelerated- and:retarded, and- that. Changes were of .striking --..-Magnitta_de... Inaddition to these .... findings, White makes two other important.points.The -first is his Plea extensive obsgrkratiotiO15e_fore.-_reaear.OherS: beg±6.-.Eheir theori-- zing; he is call in& fo,r iticluctive .theoriking_Which he feelS has-been angWere the. -oft-bronght- that changeS- -brought .--about..,in a--y.oungster uP criticsmth:ey can ,:be..s,een to-.still exist several months or years.'" "In educa t ion ,, .one doesn'..t expect

. a '6: yextr.-old."._f or :sixmontha -and- thee -,f-ind -p-i*fOund cans equesne-es. at age. 18 .14,6:asSume 'that education is a continuing, ... long-term_ process. succeeding We therefore attemptto design theinterventions of ea:ch year so thatthey mesh with priorevents..Furthermore,. we recognize the cumulative natureof the process."_ Piagetian Developthentof Twelve In "A ComparativeAnalysis of the (1970) had three Month Old DisadvantagedInfants", Honig and Brill to change thecognitive processesaVailable to the child, objectives: ofthese processes, and tohelp generalize tospeed up the acquisition to new setsof-stimuli;Their., the applicabilityof 'a cognitive-schema who attended a li day population consisted of16 .black 12 month-olds length of 84 days -programat 'SyracuseChildren' Is Center .for a mean The experi- -and 16 black 12month-olds who received notreatment. mental infants were in aprogram whichprovided 1 teacher per4 teacher responsible:fot "care., .loving,and infants, which had the language skills, andwhich gave thetea- lesson,s," which emphasizedtraining with enphasis onPiagetian conceptS-and chers intensive 4ere coMpatedwith the controlSafter tasks.When the experimentals .6n testsof six months, theexperimentals S,coredsignificantly highet -Piagetian tasks and Scoredhighet than, though mitsignificantly, the controls on the Cattell. Painter (1969) studied_"The Effect of aStructured Tutorial Program on theCognitive and LanguageDevelopment of CulturallyDisadvantaged Infants."She points out that"Research studies haveshown that although significantdifferences are not foundbetween infants of differizng cultUralbackground by the ageof 15 months, suchdevelop- mental deficits arewell established evenby age three yczars." Painter's populationconsisted of 10experimentals, aged 8-24months, who received individualstructured intellectualstimulation within their homes for one hour aday, 5 days Per weekfor one year; this stimulation emphasizedlanguage and conceptualdevelopment. 10 matched infants, 8-24months old, received notreatment.Results showed the experimentalsscoring significantlyhigher on the Binet, higher but notsignificantly on the ITPAand Merrill-PalmerMental Tests, and higher-about1/2 significantlyhigher-on conceptualdevelopment tests. Schafer's "Infant EducationResearch Project" (U.S.Office of Educa- tion, 1969) hypothesizedthat disadvantaged childrendevelop progres-. sively greater deficits-ins intellectual functioningduring the period from 15 months-threeyears,the period.iof 'earlyverbal development and that .this isparticu1arly'because.;(4 lack of.Verbal stimulation:. 28 Negro m4leinfants, 15 :_months of :age' 'at-the -beginning of/treatment, *ere -t-utared iritheir home.]: hci:cur,.ger..day.:for.5..days per week for 21 months'.The tutoring-emphasi.zed_verbal,deyelopmentand'cOncept: formation; the tutor talkedilii-thi-the child, shOwed him taught new wOrdS;Playe-d- gameS; read books.Participation. mother. was encouraged..butriot-required:.When these experimeAtals were comparedmith .30 matched ,ControlSwisio .received' no trea:tthent, testinit Shdi.ied that as instructionp-cd, e:.p orimenta singly 5; upisrior. t 9 contrit: forevq**. pan 51 the-PPVT, -Johns Hopkins:'CAe. -96--

Dusewicz and Higgins'study (1971) "Toward anEffective Educational Infants" compared 26,children,19-28 months, 'Program for Disadvantaged received 70 in two different'treatmentsituations. 'The first group minutes weekly of tutoringin their homes. The second group partici- (away from pated in a four hour dailycognitive enrichment program massive stimulation withthe aim of developing their homes) emphasizing After 125 days acuteness of sensoryperception-and discrimination.: of treatment, the two groups were_tested Both groups hadimproved - considerably, but the second group(in the Center cognitiveprogram) scored significantly higher onthe. Slosaon_Intelligence.Testand _on the PPVT. Another finding was that_ ageof subject waa not a signia ficantly related factor in gains,sUggesting "that for the tyge of program utilized inthe present study..a limithas not as yetbeen reached here as.to -how youngthe youngest can be andstill demonstrate gains comparable to his.oldercounterparts-" Caldwell et al. (1970) report on"Infant Day Care andAttachment," a study to determine whetherthere were basic differencesin the strength of attachment in a group ofday care and a comparable groupof home daily day care program _at reared infants. 18 infants were provided a the_Syracuse Children's Center, a programwhich aimed to create an -- etivironment fostering optimalcognitive, social and-emotionaldevelop- ment; enrichment wasprovided in a context ofemotional warmth, trust, -and enjoyment. These- infans were --iri-theprograM-for*a:Mean duration of 18.8 months. The comparison group wascomposed of 23 children with intensive semi- no day careexperiences. Tests employed included-an structured interview with motherand child, a home visitincluding an inventory ofj-tome stimulation,the Binet_or Cattell, andbehavior ratings of affiliation hostility, dependency, etc. Results showed no signiicantdifferences on any of the ratingsof child's relationship with mother or ofchild's attachment to mother ormother's attachment to child. Childrens4 developmental levelbore little or-no' relation to strength of maternalattachment. There was a definite suggestion though that thebetter developed infantstended to be more strongly attached to theirmothers. The authors pointed outthat these findings held true tortheir type.of program only andshould not be generalized,Lo just anykind of' day-card. .However,they stressed that 1!The-implicit equation ofinfant day care withinstitutionaliza- .tion should be put to rest. Infant day caremaxbe .like institution- but it does not have to be."

"Project KnowHOW"(buriham,..19.69) is a 'family-centered program stabA14zefaniilies.;y,reinforcing--; the . action and .re:searchainiirig, to members in..nei-mal familial' roles',and- to no:rinalize the intelligence of the offspring by Providing asuffie.ie 'level' of adult:: attention: and. Intellectual stimulation.,.A5whiferand 45 hlack children one year . o f age are ady.iitted eah year and til the child enters publia- school. One thii-d.,Of. these famili rce uP the 'experimental grOurv, theremaining families-ii.re thc ynidcte class control and thealower class COt 110... i.-oups The treatmen :or tha ekperimental.families'isfourfo dschoo taihing program -97-

for the children,emphasizing verbal andenvironmental stimuli, (2) an assisting mothers programwith a curriculum intended tochange the mother'a behaviorin the-direction of .a strongpositive influence on the chi-ld'sintellectual development,(3) -a father's program providing crisis counseling,occupational training and placement,and education, (4) healtheducation and care.Interim results show large differences in intellectual test scoresat entrace age; the meanIQ of the lower class blackchildren did not increaae asdid the middle class whites.After 14 months in theproject, mothers showed clear changes in their foodpreparation behaviors; 587 ofthe experimental fathers have enrolled inoccupatibnar or generaletlucational program- s whereas - none of the controlshave. Gordon' s (1969) "Early-Child Stimulation Through ParentEducation" was designed todetermine if the useof-disadvantaged women_..as Parent_ Educators of indigent mothersof-infants -would ,enhance_the..de_velop.,.. _ ment of the infans _at:14/QX--increase the m_othe.r !.sCOMP;_e4e.4ce,-an4sense_,- -of---self-w-Oth.The population conaistedOf---216 familia-a-With infanta- 3-24: months of age plus60 control_ fami-lies -Experimental mother-s were instructedby_paraprofessio_nal.Parent Educators instimulation exercises and concomitantattitudes. The stimulationexercises related to object permanence,eventual conservation, labeLingand- -had . asgoals cognitiv_e growth...anddevelopment._ offee1iugs. ofadequacy. who_smothers were _in_proj_e_c_t_saere_ _ ___Results showed:___(1Children. surierior- t-O COntibl: Children-ontile Griffiths Merital-DevelopMent Scare -and- on locallydeveloped-teaahing--mater kals.Children-with- --mothers --in the projectfrpra_--thet-,--begInning--or_ .who-entered,when-gthe- was-one -year-old--w ewe--sup-er-io r- on- the-- teaching-i-ma-teria.1 t o-- - - controls at age _2, but children.of mothers who had onlythe first (2) Experimental mothers felt _ 9 months (age 3-12 montha)were not-._ they_had _more control over what washap"pening in their own lives than when they, entered proiect_.(3) Sex role expectationsand mother's view of -how well herchild--metch-es -her- ideal-iti--fluences-child'-s------.pek-formanCe, verbal interactionwithin'Thome relates _to .mother'-sview ofcontrol and child' s performance.(4) Vast differences in child rearing- iti-actices exist among poorfaMilies.In addition, Gordoh Con- cluded that "it is not thecurriculum materials Rel.:. se:whichmake the difference, but that thenature of.-the interpersonal _relation- ship. and..the manner of delivery areof significant importancein. learning.

c.Prokfa-ms:With multifil.e-eniphaada and sometimes The program most notablyas-sqcied 'with multiple, varying, emphaseshas--been Pro-je'ct Reaa Start.,Its empha-Ses have been multiple and viarY?-ng-both'becauseit was de-Signed that way -(with Malor concerna,.IncIuctirig';cognitive development, ::affective-:development , and i3hysical andnutriltIonal, development ofthe,cfikla; ,i3eren-t :involvement-and-Change, community ihVOlvement andchange) atici becausthe program was implemented bythousands of different people inthousands of different settings.Thus, no such thing as Head Start per se ever existed.Instead, there were numerousinterpretations of what Head Start should be anddid in reality become.However, the one thing that most centersdid have in common was theiravowed concentration on not one but all aspectsof a child's grawth--as well- as---- concern with his homeand community. In the same way- that HeadStart programs variedfrom:center,to---center, of _Head Start vary.Findings have _been_ quite mixed_ so did _evaluations_ _but in every case dependent uponthe pkarticular program understudy. Few attempts were made to assessthe entire Project as_.a _whole-The_ Westinghouse study was one exception. The Westinghouse LearningCorporation (1969) conducted an .expost facto studSr focused on thequestion:"-Taking-the program-as-a whole--- as---it -has- operated---to-date-,.--towhat -degree-has -it had p-sychological-and-- ec-t,ual -- Impact, on-cilia dr en-that--ha-s,per slated- 4-rute-r-e---pr4ma.ry grades'?"The sample consisted of childrenfrom 104 Head Start- centers c4ho-at the-time- of teSting *ereirflt,2nd; and 3rd-grad-ed:".Ia dition to _testing-the children-, parentsand -directors-were-interviewed---- _and.,_primary ..grade- teach ers-were--asked---to-rate--the, .children-6 _ sults showsd that:(1) Head Start children who had Attendedfull year--pograms -and--were beginning-graae --one were"--s--ignif icantly'supertor- to controls on MetropolitanReadiness Tests; (-2): n-a_ither, Head-Start children fram full nor summer_programsand_currently_in_second,grade, Weie irin-ifiCantly superior to controls onthe Stanford Achievement Test ;- -(3)-Head -Start-c-hi-l-dren,were--not----significantly super to-r---:to controls -at any grade- on the -ITPA;-(4-)--,-no-dif-ferences appeared on the- Self-Concept -an-_-tegeher.ratingsof-des-ire-for ,approval. -.Anal-ysesi-for-- sub- achievement ; 5 )_ parents _vaiced-strong groups ..o.f.the national..sample, -concerning full-year p-rograms,---"reveal g..cl a number.of_statistically-sign-ificant--diff-eren On some measures (madtiysUbtestS" of t.O-gnitivs:measdra)-and-at.ohe _or -.another grade Star-t- .children-scorea---highe-r:-then There were consAstentfavorab/e pattern.s_for when centers were-in the SoutheaSterngebgraPhic regiOn, --subgroup-sin core" cities, or of mainlY NegroCoMpasition." One of the. few _Head -Start -studies-not--focuSed on children was -the- Canners- and Waller- (1966) study of"Beliefs, Attitudes and "-Behavior of Teachers of Head Start Children."31.-teaChers of the 1965- Bal- timore .summer _Head .Start7-pragramWere asked-- to state- their-betiefs-on education, welfare', .the: American way of.:life, ,etc."-It was...found that -gbotit, two.thi*.ds pth_sample obtaire4 =the motccr,eteand , authorLtazlan.t3iPe of lieftet.. jaw. e :the,remainder.empchasiied: beliefs based on friendshipinte.fPersonal,.relatinna,.;and ..ttie=reactions -of other.people..These tweli3rk--of teachers. were significantly different..oiia meaaure of at:titudesabaut ..teachihg..(-t,..46) .niaJjorl-P37. -of the teachers . in- the. Bal timOre Head S tartProject .'Were Cla_sa ified -aS being at the concrete end ofthe continuum in their belief systems. As described by Harvey etal. (1966), this type of belief system tends to:be stmpler, be more prone topolarized eveluations, depend more on authority..."These teachers left the classroom moreoften than "abstract" teachers, talkedto adults ratherthan children,and indulged in behavior unconnectedwith teaching. A series of seminarsinvolving researchers, practitioners,and administrators and focused primarily onHead Start -was reported by ETS(Grotberg, 1969) in "Critical Issues inResearch Related to DisadvantagedChildren." Several suggestions for Head Start programmodifications were made: intensification_o_f_ family invoLvementandemphasis on strengthening ----- enduring emotional ties betweenchild and family; use of olderchildren with younger children in and outof school; heterogenous grouping; es7 _ tablishing programs in a school or acenter rather than havingisola- ted classrooms; invitations tocommunity--models to visit the class- -rooms.Some good -reviews- o this --ar-ea-- are- foun&-throughout- the --docrument-. Several,tpo-inc-s----are --s tr es wed r-esea-r ch-pr vides evidence that "parentsinfluence the intellectual, affective, and interaction patterns of theirchildren by the nature of the parent- child relat-ionship."Areas of needed -research arediscussed; two-of these are the need to, examine b-eha-viors---of-t-each-ers---and studen-ts- (not always planned for) which arisefr-OM the "activity settings --teachers-p-rovide;" and-"Recurring emphases onthe-relationship--of nonpunitiveness; acceptance;--and- indirectcofftrol- to improved-student performance suggest that more attentionought to be given_now to enable teaciiers to develop and use such styles with skill." -A different- kind of-multi-faceted programis that reported on-by Lally and- Sm-i:tht--_(-3-970),- "Family Style-.Educatian:A. New_ Concept for-Pre-- School -Classrooms- Comb ining-44ulti--Age-Grouping with-F-reedem---o-f-Meve --ment Among--Classrooms.-".---This-full day program-provides-children-with-- ---lIde-i-ly--e-ontact with other-children of varying agessimil-ar --to -the-- contacts that are typical in _amilysettings."Also, the children are --f-ree--t-.o move among -severa-1---reoms,-.::_each.Nerfkth a-specific. funct-ion-sgs-.;.;-:--- the large..-.74nusc1e room, the_sense-perception room,the _creative expres-- sion rboni.--- Preliminary: teiting showsnO rise nor decline on. -the Binet nor PPVT.Teacher reports of -.children are_ verypositive, noting increased verbalization, improved self-concepts, peer-teaching.. . _

d.Studies utilizing mass media'and technology Perhaps the moSt Well-known use .oftechnology ..to _reach preschool Ch-fictr-eXI-Ls lp-r-ograMs- chil.dren has.- been. In. -the 'field:Lo.f.-television. have been-jon the air-for-:Y-ears---noW,-but-have never-been: formally St-reet-,0--fun-ded-by the federal government and privatefoundations as a pon7profit,...enter-L- pr-i-se-, is -the firs-tchildren's ,TV-program tobe the -focus of deliberate attempts to assess its impact.Numerous articles and informal surveys have attemptedto evaluate one or another aspectof "Sesame Street", and one formal study hastried to test how well the show is doing in teaching those things it was mostintent on getting across to its viewers.The latter study, "The First Year of SesameStreet: An Evaluation", was carried out atETS (Ball and Bogartz, 1970); it focused on the following questions:"Do 3-through-5-year-old children who view Sesame Street at home orin classrooms learn more than comparable children who do not viewthe show?-..-.What -characterizes the children who learn most andleast from the show?...what elements in the show seemed tobe most effective?..."The population studied was mostly- East Coast-children"in either of four categrities: educational-1-y disadvarrtaged -inner city,.edu.cationally advantaged _suburban, educationally_ a_dvantagedand educationally disadvantaged rural, educationally disadvantagedSpanish-speaking.Sites chosen for _study were not representational,rather _they contained_ children of. interest to the Children'sTelevision Workshop (the producers of SS).Instruments included tests of skillstaught-:by SS (egs., Body Parts, Letters, Forms), a- parentquestionnaire, -records_ of ainount o-f SS viewing, observations-of-children-in- classrooms_ where ------SS was being used, frequencyanalyses of_ the content of__SS_shows, an& a teacher-questionnaire.Results showed that "those childrenwho watched SS more than 5 times per weekperformed better on pretests than those-who_ watched .littl_or_n_Q.SS_;" _that when_chiLdren _were not encouraged _to watch _SS_.a...t home,50.7...... watched onee__aweek twice a...week,- or not a.t---a-rr;- -Childrenin FEdda-S-tart-i5Y-ograiiii -Whci Wefe--e-ri6ouraged to watch SS neverthelessdid not watch--frequently;- that forchildren who watched_-SS the-most,.Educat---io_nal,Television Netwo.rkL,.viewing was estab4she4 :-_-bab-i-t atpa tes-t-rtime; _that.children_ who ttie most came from families with a positiveeducational- climate and had more personalpropertY-than children Who watched less. For the total sample there was improvement onrecognizing letters reciting the alphabet,_recognizing_andnaming forms and numbers, but ---no improvement on -- For- the-disadvantaged-- --- sampile (731 childrerk):; r_e_slrlts_shawed:that_the more.ithe-children., viewed SS",- the more "they gained oritesti.However, the disadvantaged sample watched SS le-ss than tfie-diraiitaged ,sample; Cik' a total -of 433 disadvantaged children rated, only. 82 watched SS alot whereas 127 watched it very little. Another example of the use of educationaltechnology with preschool children is the "talking typewriter,"discussed briefly in the previous section.The talking typewriter,was co-inventedby Moore and Kobler and is in production ,underthe .name of the Edison Responsiye Environment."One of -the_ things kor- which it.was designed was to enable a -person with no knowledge of aparticular natural language to learn both the spoken andwritten-fcirms Of that langliage:"One basic way bf using -the mach1;,,A -is thef011oWing:"The mad-hine is set so- -that the- user may strike-any'key;.-- after which .the- keyboard locks until the voice-box gives the userthe name and/or the phonetic value of the character.Arrangements can be made such that if the machine names a letter-or givesits phonetic value, or both-only the appropriate- key can be activated,the rest of the keyboard being- locked.. -The machine can be reset-so -as-to -di-splay some word, -per- -- haps with an appropriate picture on a screen_to the right of the keyboard."The authors have reached somepreliminary conclusions on the ERE:(1) The primary and secondary effectsof using the ERE are positive and at theleast- have -led to no untoward side-effects; (2) speed of learning readingand writing seems positively correlated with the raa.turity of the child'sspeaking-ltstening abilities; (3) children who enter with high scores onIQ and excellence of speech tests do better than those who enterwith lower- ones; (4)--the younger the starting age the better.

._Guiding_ and Utilng theAffective-Development of _Children --As- -suggested above, the-objective-of--al-most .all-ex-isting-compensatory,--- education_p_rograms is either,to....change.the taged child' s intellectual orcognitive ability or to raise his achievement law 1 so that he is meeting the--requirements -Of his G.13ze-n the social aad_ e.c.rinamicl_rewar_d_of achcial grade leVeI. - ,...1.ectual..and academic_succ.ess._..in aur_soalety, that thes-e- programs would inter-Vet-ie.-toCcimpenTsate for the disabilities of socially disadvantaged'childreti- in -the-se-are-a:fr.-HoWeVer;- fram:,the eompcnsatory..programs 7thave -attempted... to.-enhancer seIf -or r -exnpl_..-s.-.1:.the _clearlyaxt..t.culate.d prlinary-objectiVe- of the New .York. CityHiglier.Horizonsi (WrightstOne, 1564) one --Of the first compensatoryprOgrams, ,imitated -throughout the second' half of the19.60' s, was toraise the educationalvoca- -an& high and .1hfsChool.--etiadat-Ssliy.10,Ce.-arig7 cUltift*1 enrichgiiht,=.teachef,±e7edlical*ion-ari&f&thei sti-a"t-egies '-e411W 'Y''-ut).Pcirtitig.thechild nppott -12s-a--Crucial vdriabie ROSearC 'ers. have-fourick-ithat- affect,. . . an his. research-On the ., , r qg4 t dent ,;--.13ri.._Mitz,i1-y:-..at the---college ,e.f.feCt ro students Who-had:.- SCou*!gerl aboUt, being 7 evainat- *.etie' thade to fel that " t efep

s:, .... ird ottCer ctial'beeause 7102,-

learning tIley have been inadequatelysocialized toward self-diriz.cred either in the home or school,two signifi- by punitive experiences The child, as a result,be- cant socializing agentsfor the child. comes seli criticaland tends co avoidstimuliciated with failure and negativereinforcements. Kati-,alsb suggests that the have found socially high, unrealisticaspiration that researchers disadvantaged children art-i-cuIateis possibly :in"adjustment to Then, if the child findsthat he cannot achieveaccording failure." demoralized to his sense ofhis own abilities, hebecomes increasingly situations where he canfail. Katz posits that in and tends to avoid social desegregated classrooms whichsysterlatically offer positive reinforcement, the black child canmeasure himselfagainst more aca- demoralized and, demically successful whitechildren without bccoming thus, can gain a more accurateself concept. In such a classroom, self-control or self-regulationby which stan- the child can gain the able dards of excellence are internalizedand, thus, will be better to achieve. toward a sense of It has also beensuggested that a predisposition personal control-of theenvironment is stronglyassociated-with Coleman and his coworkersin Equality of scholastic achievement. control related Educational Opportunity,(1960 found this sense of in both whites and blacks. They measured to aeademic achievement motivation: three types of student.attitude relevant to academic interest in school work,self concept of ability,and the student!_s sense of his owncontrol of rewards. They found that for black students sense of controlcontributed to variance inverbal achieve- grades two to several times asmuch as any of the ment at different the correla- other two determinants .ofstudent attitude. _Moreover, control and achievement wasstronger than that tion between sense of The Coleman Report of any family backgroundfactor and achievement. indicates that for blacks senseof control was littleinfluenced the only factor whichseemed to affect' by home or school factors; as- it strongly was theproportion of white studentsin the-school: enrollment_increased the blacks'sense_of c.ontrol white students of the Coleman Report,its grew stronger. Despite the extensiveness findings are based onempirical correlations, andthe relationship between sense of controland other attitudinal andmotivational .factors and academicachievement can only beinferred. Either from a lack ofknowledge about how fomanipulate these factors skepticism about theirimportance, planner's ofcompensatory or from a into the educationprograms have.tendedto relegate intervention affective domain to asecondary rote. In their influential surveys and his of exemplary compehsatoryeducation programs, Hawkridge discounted any programswhich'successfully im- associates (1968-69) The des- proved the child's attitudes,motivation and self concept. criptions of the programsthey identified highlightvarious curricular for bringing about positivecognitive 'and instructional strategies traditional instruments. or academic changeswhich are measurable by -103-

There is, however, evidencethat the crucial variable in such programs is not the natureof curriculum or instructionalone, but rather the program' s input inthe affective domain. Zigler and Butterworth (1968), intheir_ study of. the motivational aspects of changes in theintelligence test performance of disadvantaged nursery school -childrenpoint out that a number of markedly different interventions all resultin significant improvement in IQ test performance--as theHawkridge survey later confirmed--and suggest that this may reflect thecommon.impact that such programs have on the noncognitive factors whichthey maintain also influence a test score.In their study, an -experimental-and a control- group of low socioeconomic status -nursery children -weretested-twice a-t -the- be-- ginning of a school year, first__ with_ astandard test procedure and - next with a text proceduredesigned to optimite the child's -motivation to per-form -well--After- a year -of-preschool- activitiesdesigned-- to ready them forkindergarten, including many _pleasantand positive adult contacts, the experimentalchildren were retested with both -the standard -an-d the -optimal. test-pro-cedure-s--;--It was-- tout-1A- thatthey did .no_t . show a significantimpravement.over_ the_control .grou.p in optimal IQ from fall to spring;however, their standard IQ in the spring rose significantly atthe .05 level toward the fall 'op- It would thus seem that there, Were nochanges resulting timal IQ. of the program-'-for_ this to__ from the_ cognitive-achievement factors have been so their optimal scorewould _also have had to _improve: but,_ rather,- that the improvement wasa-result of the program' s motivational c-omponents-.The -investigators -ma-intai-n that- the primary- benefit of_ _such .a program_ is-thus _not_ta._increase_ .tha._child_'-s rate.- - _o_forrnal-cognit Lye- de_Lopment-,but -r-a-ther- -tomot-ivate- him-to- us e---- the intelligence that he already has.-By appealing to the_ need_ Of disadvaniaged children for -the praise and -attention-ofadults ,this program sea-Med -to teverse the syndrome-associated 'With disadvantaged children, -of being less motivated forthe sake Of correctness alone Lheingwilling. to_ sett.1far_ lesser. I evel --- than middle clas-s children-,- and thus was_able-tosocialize:the children- to -the'r-are of the suc-Ces-sful studailt-TAO 'caff advance- id -schooi because of his .deszi-re _and dap acIty -to--opt-I:many-perform -in- teat -situations.- _ - - There -was a similar outcome- in a high -schooltutorial- program in Baltimore -_(Hagan, 1970).In the summer of 1967, Johns Hopkins Univer- sitybegan,_a tutorial program desigaPd- -to encourageinnerncity_ dary--s-choo:1- boys- about.-to- enter-- their junior year- tofinish high __school in a way that impro4 their_chancesof entering college. For five-- -days-'per:--week--over-a--s-ix-weekperiod -for- tWo- summers-- the- boys received instruction- primarily-in--mathematics and reading:- Everyther7Saturday during_ th---sch-o-01 year the boys-: met atthe Vniversrity-but received nt fotmal instrtiCt ion'.A -c-cintrol gloupas designated-who had hact-none-of these experiences.Itiafc5und -that there- urere no differences between thetutorial and control -boys on aChieveMent as a reaUltof the--.prOgram, and ai :a matter -offact-, the grades of the tutored boysdid not improve;However, as measured by a semantic differential,the California Personality Test and a composite of teachers'. ratings,the attitudes of the tutored boys toward school were more positivethan those of_ the control group. After high school, 82 percentof the tutored boys went to college while only 18 percent of thecontrols did.-What seemed to have. _ occurred is that the tutoredboys became more motivated to continue their education, and thus were morelikely to obtain the credentials that are lieede-a Ibt social andecbnomic success..:- _ - As is unfortunately the caseWith reports of cOmPensatoryeducation programs, informationabout the treatment in this tutoring program is .scant; ---one does not know;for __example, how-much -soc-ial re-in-f-o-rce-- ment or encouragement the-experimental-group-_---recelveth during-the-- summer tutoringsessions or the SaturdaY Meetiiigs.What is more, although_ the_ teac.her_ who -head-ed -.the -tutor.ingl-p_rograrrk: s elected _-the _experimental _subjects af ter hav_ingresearched.,_their---attitudes.--toward schoolthere was no pretesting-_ofattitude.s_--- and so to evaluate the Changesithich may have Occurred. The .fact_remains,however,_that_those_students_who ha_v_e_posi.ti_ve--- feelings about educatiiiii havea: greater _opportnnitY7-for_sch-Ool success.Quite early in the compensatoryeducation movement Davidson, _Greenbergild_G(196_2)., in_their -study_of _suCcessful and -lo_w.7_income_.are_as ,.-__fau-nd-th at- .-th e-- _ _cessful school_ achievers: from functioning- Of the two groups did-riotdifferikedlI, bufn per s-arralityand--motivat-tan---they-were quite-`21-ifferent.This fili-d-far- -would seem to suggestth-at---pos-itive---in.-te-rventi_on--rirr the. aftective-- --domain could-enable- _the-.d. ic y.ncces.sl di s-a-dvanta-ged:.--chiltt__ _ _ to utilize-hiscognitime-c.nd to be ade-quate fOr` -g-choia-stEd-Sncdeg-s;--de-Spite -cOntentiOnS of_Jensen_

and other_ researchers.. _ _ _ _ -the direct compensatory --Intervention -The most noteworthy -instance-oflearning in a schOol environmen_t_lis in the_ noncognitive factors_of the research program re-p-drfed13kiisentli-al and. Jacobsen_ (1968) in Pygmal the- Class-room-r- ---test hyp tithes is that -the- exp tions- of teachers affect theintellectual development of their s-tudentsi --the investigators- adminis-tered-a groupintelligence test to eighteen classes of childrenabout to enter- grades one through - six.The_teachers were told:that- the test could-predict-potential "spurters" (actually a fiction), and were giventhe names ofseveral children who were expected-to-makeunusual -gai-ns-.-The-, students-- (20- percent of the children)--were-randothly chosen, alid in fearitY were no di.,ffeient fromtheir, peers.After_ one year_ the experimental -group of childrenhad-gained- -an-average-of twelve -points while.-the control group had an average gain-of eight.Teachers were asked to discuss their students at the'rencrtif the year, and desiiiee the gains of -the control group children-,-rated -them less 'favorably. Rosenthal and Jacobsen arguethat these data demonstratethat the teacher's expectations of hisstudent's success is a self-fulfilling prophesy for the student. Since the Publication of hisstudy, a number of critics (Barberand Silver, 1968A; Thorndike,1967, 1968; suggested that-the Zephart and Antonoplos, 1969; Snow, 1969) have data gathering methods, thetechniques of analysis, and the presentation of the data are notsufficiently rigorous to warrantthe kind of generaliations theinvestigators have made. Replications of Rosenthal's experimental methods atPygmalion's Oak Park School have failed to demonstrate theuniversality of the impact ofteachers' expectations on studentacadelpic perfo'rmanee (Barber, et al., 1969; Claiborn, 1969; Fleming andAnttonen, 1971). However, no critic of the study denies theimportance of the "natural" effectof teachers' expectations on students' classroomperformance; they are questioning whether Rosenthal has convincin(lydemonstrated how "artificial" manipulation of teachers' expecations can produce-increased-1Q p-er- -- formance, _The_fa_ilures to_repThicatethe_findings ofthe study show that,for_the_most partteachersrespond,to the daily_ inputs oftheirj______students, even when theirexpeetations about their students'performances have beenraised. Again, this is not to say that theattitudes and behaviors of the teachersdo not affect their students'inputs; - it suggests, however,.thatthe teacher's expectations are notlikely to be altered by astudent's score on a test given on oneday when the teacher has the opportunity toobserve the student daily over -a--- long period of time.

Even if the data andfindings of the Pygmalion study areaccepted, Rosenthal and Jacobson demonstrateonly that their hypothesized expectancy effects exist;they, however; do not describe anyof the _events interveningbetween the_inducement of greaterexpectations - and the administration.oftheir criterion post-test. The investigators' interest in this study seemsclearly to collect data to document their hypothesis thatstudents fulfill the expectations -of thelr teachers by responding tothe behaviors which reflect their teachers' attitudes, and not_to observe,andcollect data on the be-_ haviors themselves. However, in'order for this study tohave impact on future-educationalpractice, it is necessary at least toconsider what may have occurred in theclassroom. It is likely, for example, that the,teachers' altered expectationsencouraged them to Positively interpret their students' ambiguousbehavioral cues. The teachers' own behavioral responsesmayhave taken the form of,smiles or pats pf encouragement which would bepositive reinfordement of anv of the _students' _efforts,_no_matter howambiguously-correct. In an observer study of the-experimental'analysig of the effect ,of teacher behavior in Tennessee on theclassroom-behaviorof disadvantaged adolescents (Cormier, 1970), it was found that the.useof praise and attention as an immediate consequenceof a desired relevantAp.upi., behavior increased the frequencY and duration ofthe desired -behavlor;however, it was also found that bothnoncontingent as well'as Contingent praise effectively increased the relevant belIZIviors ofthe, student Ihe second-finding would seem to suggestthat a generally supportive classroom environment canstimulate the desired behaviorsthat students because of priorexperience may not consistentlydemon- strate. An additional finding ofinterest in the Rosenthaland-Jacobsen- study was the IQ gains of thecontrols; although their gains.were not as great as thoseof the experimentals as a. group,in some individual classrooms they gained asmuch as some of the_experimentals. Why this occurred is not clear;however, although the attitudes ofteachers toward the_ control _group_ were.g,enerally_ ne_gativeit_would_seem...that_ the interaction of the controlswith the experimentals, who were likely receiving positivereinforcement from the teachers, mayhave been almost as potent a factorin..motivation to achieve.-ass the. positive response of the teacher.From-a research point of view, it can be-argued t-hat- the-controls were "contaminated" by their classmates --with whom-they interacteddaily,. and-thus -ceased to be a reliable control -group ;- however ;the fact this is. -so---sugges ts -that -whatever occurred in theclassroom-had diffusion effect, and from a prOgram-p-oifit ofview- ia-an- io-rtan.t-----finding.The Tennessee --study no-ted -abe-ve, for -example,al-so-found that- -the non--,-c-onting-e-ht------and _contin.gent.-praise and; atten-tion to- the- terge-t-sub-j-ee-t s--generall--z-ed and increased the relevant behaviorsof _non-target studenta. _ -Both -of these studies at least suggestthat teach-er:.--behaviors ate; factors in_ creating the_reinforcingclassroom_environment for disadvantaged students to learn.What is needed is more research which isolates -the teacherbehaviors and-the:- conditions which are most- supportive of--the child's max-imum-perforrnauCe: c-ial-ly suppor-t-ive-e-lass-reom- __While__there is evidence-_taa- show -that-a-rso. can stimulate desirededucation-al behavior, many learning theorists -reward or punishment-in--Er-highly- _ have long-argued -that-a tangiblely- indispensable for inducing rapid structured ,environmerit motivation -to-repeat -- andenduring changes in b,ehav-i-or- -particularly a particular behavior.Many -small-scale__ researchstudies_o_f -- school learning of cognitive taskshave _shown that it is possible to move a child along adevelo2menta-1 continuum by offering_ iminediate_ concreterewards for a --task successful-ly--performed-and thus to-reinforce- the behavior- required-for --p-erfOrmtng-that task. rn: ino-s t-Class- rooms. it has seemed to beimpossible tOhavea person continuously monitor a -child' s behavior.However, in recent years there hasbeen independent interest -in...the. 'cle-t-relP.Puint 'ofprogramed instruC--tiOnal- materials so that the reinf.)roement for -.Ole successfIll coWletion of a task would he hui-i-t trtto the-..materialitself and nO t dependent on an_,outside mcan-itor_. these prog-ramed =materials - has been in Project CASE MODEL (Contingencies_ Applicable to-- Special Educatlonally-Motivated,OrientedDesa.gns for an Ecology _of _Learning) _(Cohen, 19-67) with twenty--eightinc,arcerated,male juvenile delinquents, 85 percent df whoM*had been schooldropouts, with an age range fromfourteen to eighteen'and an average IQof 93.8. Case II was based on the ideathat each learning experienceshould have built into it a seriesof reinforcing steps to maintain the students' interest.This meant, first, an extrinsicimmediate reinforcement in the form of money.Students worked on 140 programed educational courses in 18 programedclasses.When they performed on -- tests at 90 percent or better,they.were- paid off.With his earned provided for his room, food, clothing,gifts money, the student one year and an entrance -fee and. tuitionfor special- classes-, -After of the treatment,_ it was foundthat the IQ gains of the students averaged 12.09 points.For only 90 hours of academicwork there was an average increaseof 1.89 grade levels on the StanfordAchievement Test and 2.7 grade levels on -theGates Reading Survey.One-would -.-- -have-- to- as-sume-that the-program motivatedthese--students-to--achieve and "re-socialized" them toward therole of a student. -In--essence, a- struc-tured- educattonalenvii-ronment-was-c-rea-ted---for-the----- tawgi.bl-ed---see4:a1--re-i-n.kewc-ement s-t-u4e-n-t-sthe student's wh-i-e4.-p-r-GAFictec17-1)4>th social success wasdependent on his academic achievement.This total ecological approach -toeducational therapy has not .been widely--imitated -although it- sugge-s-ts-c-oncrete-ways--in which --an------educational envir_onmeat. can_ be designed__ to .p_romot e Several compensatory tutorial programs-have- provided potent models to -incr-ease--a student-1s-opp-ortun-ity--for -learning- not-through tive identification with and supportfrom an adult-teacher, but rather an identificat±oiwithn suppt from a peer. _In the Homework Helper--P-rogram-(Cloward-,- -1966) in- the low-income- ar-eas------of-New--Yo-rlc.,--e-xperimental students -in &rade& three 30 percent Negro) were tutored either___two_or_four _ Puerto Ric_an and _eleventh or twelfth-grade -tutors-- _ hours a_week _during a school year_ by --(-19% Puerto Rican and187.__Ne.gro).. On testing, -it was found tha-t --experimental-pupils who-had -rec-eived, fburho-UrP of tutor-irig- per Week- lmarle_at at Est icalay_s_ign,Lfican-t gainA-4.q.__reading age -as-comp-area - control pupilsThis,_ however, .was not the capewith experimental vii-or1i---W15----feceived only o hour's per-Week;-The tutors themselves-- showed_considerable gains in read-ing-eomparedwith a contiol _ - S.ex-e-ttifire7rnatohing._ of :pug it P.I;lith. tutOri tended .to _hring_about'. reading gains for.Negro pupils, although.this trend did not hold for Puerto Rican pupils. the' ,:academia,s-gq-i*si-z-for-ttiathpiApi-:k-1-siandr.tutors,--.-Tro::d-ifferences--: .attitudes towarcr._scfrool-and- t tt.het- PuP las-u'r- r!1P" d , tp .t.4e .ttitiides, towatd_W:o- tutor. -- In the "Peace Corps" p-roject in: a Harlemelemeritary school (Fox, 1967) students in two "slow" second-gtadeclasses were asSigned two high grade students in the sameschool as "buddies." achievement fifth need to identify It was felt that thesecond graders, with their fulfilled, would show an increasein motiva- with a successful model positive tion, achievement, personaland socia/ adjustment, and school behavior and relatedactivities. The second graders showed scilool a moresignificant improvement inreading achievement and attendance than a control groupbut data relevant tosocial and personal adjustment did notconsistently indicate thatthe-second graders were developingpositively.. Teacher ratings were negative, especially. in the areas of- peergroup and classroomparticipation.. relationship inhibited-the .y-oung-chil-dren's - -Possibly the tutorial class- ability to participatein-peer-group-situations in_ their own rooms. Despite the_ absence of measured_positive affective changes_in stu-______dents in these programs, one mustconsider that the experimentals did in fact imitate theacademic- achievements_-_oftheir peer models not--dtscount the 7 -by themselves Makingreading gains, -and -one- shoUld use of suceessful peers_ asa potent device_for raising achievement levels, especially in tutoring programs. It would seem, however, model in-the that the interaction between achird and an older_peer rea-l-world-- environment of--a compensatory-education program is af-- understood or- fected by--many othe-rfactors-that- are- -not- completely -có-ntrollable at the present time. AS has been suggested in an earlier discussion of the-Homework -Helper PrograM, manyof the im- pressionistic__responses_ of tha -high__school tutara_were neveranalyzed,_ _ of peer much to our loss inunderstanding the complex interactions tutors and their students.

Of all the interventions -inthe -educational lives ofdisadvantaged --youth,--p-lacement-- desegrega-te-d-school or elass----hes-had-the greatest impactontheir_personelities. A review of the school _desegregation research_ Shows that-black students _in_ segregated. schools -have higher_aspirationsand hold themselvesin-greater es- teeni-than black s-tudentb illdesegregated schools (Black,1960; (see -above) , _ Meketon, 19-S6; and others-) .----,-Howavar,as- Katz.=---has noted these aspirations may beunrealistic and defensive. Armor in a _special study conducted aspart_of_the ti.S.Commissionon Civil Rights study of RacialIsolation in the Public Schools(1967) has higher in de- shown that lower--class -boysof high abilit'y aspired segregated than in segregated_schools, suggesting the feelingsof greater opportunity indesegregated schools. McPartland and York study fo-Und, thatbothblack achie-vement and as part-_ of- the same attitudes in desegregatedschools are rel ted to the degreeof inter- racial tension wAthin the school.

-McPartland- (l968)s,in, his .studyof -black -,secondary schoolstudents in BaltiMore -has also shoWn 'thatthe academic,affeCtive, andsocial affected by desegregation at theclass- development is differentially. A r room ,level-- and at the_school_level. Re found that while .desegregation -109-

generally has a positiveeffect on black students, thosewho remained in segregated classeswithin desegregated schoolsbecause of special program arrangementsand tracking received nobenefit from desegregation and may have feltdoubly stigmatized.McPartland also found that although the aspirationsof black studerits in desegregated- classe-s suffered from the-comp-etition with -the-better-achievingwhite- students, they felt a greater senseof opportunity available to them, indicating that the stigmaof inferiority and defeatismhad been somewhat alleviated.These desegregated students,for example, followed up their college aspirationswith concrete actions to investigate particular colleges. In a study conducted byTuckman (19-70)- in two juniorhigh schools- and one high school in NewJer-sey, an exper-imental groupof black-students-- - were reassigned tohigher ability groups than thoseassigned to them by-the- -school-system, in-comparison--salt11--.compa-rable -students who were-7.-- - not --reassigned.----A-f ter one-academic-semester -it-was --found-that------(1) -a :number-of --st-udent s- di-sp-laced -Into -a-higher- ability group performed better on standardized teststhan students not upwardly displaced, and (2) 54 percent ofstudents displaced into a-higher ability group -W ere--sub-se qu ent ly--recommended-for - these-h-i-gher---grou __in_.comparison. _with__ one. .p er c eat, of_.the_ con tr _-Upward_dispLace_T_ tnent appeared, however, tohave no effect_ on satisfaction,atten- --dance; or -grades-, probably- because-the-disp-Iaced students-were com- peting with a group whichwas-p-erforming- better- than-the-group-they- -- left.However, although there were noimmediately apparent positive _ social Or -Personal changes, it is likelythat students' self-expectations-iinproved enough so that theywill behave -better fut-ure. --In-Pro-j-ec&BC (Wes sman -1969 ) d is cus s e n sub sec t ion _post-program psychological_inventary _scares _showed many_mar.k.ed.and statistically significant changesfor the ABC- boys that were not _-found-for -.the controls -in---the-dizec-tion--ofgreater-tens-ion _ anxiety; yet paradoxiCally more"self-aSSurance and" independence:It -is ficul-t not- to-feeltha-t-the---b-oy-s-manif est ed some- o-f- -the- tension----- and heightened self-awarenessthat .istypical of,a previous/ y marginal individual now findinghimself more .upwardly mobile. _ - _ _ -. _ Projec_t___A.BC and other desegregationprograms-clearly_ result _in - _ _ _ threat- to-the stability--and .integri-ty-of the -desegregatedstudents' -self concept.This is perhaps .one-Texplanationfor the increasing_ ethnic and cultural iwareness andseparatist feelings of many minority --7 7yonthrwhichhistorical:Ir.-seems:tohave-been:_a:.product--crf- ments -About schoolintegration.It .was--found, 'for :example,that:the tec,ame lessiqs1.--t-socialis_egt,'-.Co_ntrolled;

- as. a..resUlt of theprograms,,and:'there.:Seems-c-:be-a-p.01,nt,Liii.--most-- Of tbese programs at whichany PositiveattitUdes of thestudents-- and their parents--about schooldesegregation becomes far less hope- fuian.d intidh t this is a function of fears offailure, inappropriate instructional strategies, the ambivalent or evennegative attitudes of school personnel andfellow-studentsi-the racial conflict in- the school, community, or thesociety .at large which_have ac.,t companied school desegregation, or, asin the case of the 1Mc- Partland study of Baltimore; classroomsegregation w.i.thin-a desegregated school. If school desegregation has tended todepress the self concept and aspirations of disadvantaged orminority group youth and cause anxieties and tension,ethnically oriented materials and curriculum seem -to-have had the _oppositeeffect-Research_in- _ dicates that Black Studies courses, atall grade levels, increase the racial pride and self concept ofblack students. How these positive feelings _will improve academic-achievement _has-A:Lot yet- _ the _experiences of lather _ studiexl., houghja.dging....f rota group_ _identity_ is a.concomitant-of_academIc ,and social achievement. The question remains, however, whether"eltr-en this:stronger group-ident-ity-will besuff-icient-to -bring-about-- the affective changes which result in greatermotivation _to achieve if classrooms and schoolsdo not provide a supportive environment and greater opportunitiesfor learning. If these supportive-_environments were a realitywhetherin the form_of teacher behaviors or appropriatematerials or _instructional _ practices, some of the adverse personalitychanges that minority youth-seeric to undergo in desegregatedschools would be minimized and there:would be less chance -thatthe,disadvantaged-or minority student would feel alienated from-theacademic goals of- the - _school. He would be more likely ta want toachieve and- thus-more likely to-achieve; and as he does betteracademically he will

contriil,- which, aS ihe 66/eman_ hive-a strionger senSe- 5f-internal _ _ _ . _Report points_ out, is a crucialvariable in achievement. 4.Involving Parents and.the.Communityin the learning Process "Parent participation" has become anaspect of compensatory educe- --t-ion programs to which it islaudatory to give at least lip service. Any number _of programproposals make passing_ reference tothe _"parental involvement" segment of theproject.However, few programs actually solicit meaningful parentinvolvement, and even _fewer have produced evaluation materials relatedto such involvement. Fortunately, we are not totallydependent on program materials for documentation on the value of parentalinvolvement.Schiff analyzed -- the effects of contacts between parentsand school personnel on student achievement.In addition 4- o experimental_(parent participation) group gains on a_ reading t 3t,better, school attendance and study habits Brookover (1965) et.al. compared -the development of three- low-aehievi-ng junior highschool -groups ;--at the -end-of -a year neither the group receivingcounseling nor the group withregular contactswith interest -special-istsshowed-greater achievement.-The-- third groap-, -who-s-e- parents- had-b-econre-trrore-intimately--involved- in-- -the school .and in -their children-1s-development,- .showed heightened self-concept and made significantacademic progress. Rankin (1967) found substantialdifferences between the attitudes and behavior of mothers ofhigh-achiever and low-achieverinner- city elementary school children.ArachLg these differences were the ability o-f mothers of high-achievers todiscuss school matters and to initiate conferences.Jablonsky (1968) from her-personal-obser- ---vat-ions_of_various_ compensatory programs,noted the_ importance-of___ _ a-parental-. feeling of communication with-the school, szating-that__.- _ "schools which have open doors to parentsandcommunity,members greater success in educatingchildren..;the children seem to bedirect beneficiaries of the change in perception onthe part of their parents." With such evidence available., onemight ask why so_feu compensatory education projects have included a componentwhich significantly involves parents in the edudationalprocess.The tentative reas-ons --one coul-d _give for--thisomiss-ion--inelud-e- focus orr the-_administrative _ difficulties of actualizing such components.It is not usual to maintain -contacts with -p-arents-1 to-have---teachers vis-i-t----homes and --to have parents as constant visitors inthe classroom, to encourage and sometimes act on parental suggesticns, and to stressparent and -community participation -in dee-isionmaking-inschools-with- compensa---__ tory edUcition funds.Nevertheless, the administrativedifficulties -involved are not overwhelming.- Rather, itis- frequently -the-adminis-- trators' and the teachers' fears-of suchinvolvernent that serve as' --a Arrake__on_ the realization,,o-f,-such_Tcomponents .Any..number _ histories are availabte-documerttinr-theadministrative --and -politica-I- -peregrinations which occur-as-a---result ofsuch fears, particularly where_decentralizatiott-or community control hasbecome a -pivo-tal-- - The educaticinal eatalishment usuallysuccesd&iñ dilutirig suchis-St-ie". efforts to the point where potentialeffectiveness is -nil. -11z-

There are some projects whichhave succeeded in gaining and maintaining active parent and/or communityinvolvement.As only tentative evaluation results areavailable to date on any such projects, they will be cited here as modelsillustrating the variety o-f--ways- in which parents can take arole in-compensatary edtrcation programs. The majority of programs seriouslyattempting to involve parents in the education of their children arepreschool programs.Project Knowhow (Dunham, 1968), discussed here,i.s representative of such programs.As discussed in the section in thischapter on preschool programs., the fiour componentsof the project are:_(1) a preschool training program, emphasizing verbal andenvironmental stimulation; (2) an assisting mothers program designed to-assist the mothers in improvi-ng -their competency in the roles- ofhomemaker, mother, 'and wife; (3) a fathers program providing crisiscounseling, occupational training and placement,and--education-; and (4) health- educe- ti-on and care.----The indicates--tha-t-mothers showed- changes in -food preparation--behav-iors- and-overhal-f -of -the-fath-ers enrolled in occupational or general education programs. The- Univer:sity-of-Flor-ida has--develop-ed-a--model-,--the- Plortila Parent Educe t ion Model (FloridaUniversity,197-0)--which-is-being- ac tuallzed in four different locations.This model includes using Follow Through_ mothers as parent-- educators by having--them serve- asaides---in the- -c-lass-- -r-oom -and as communityliaison-In--the-c/assroom-_the_mothers_work= with small groups and with individual children on_reading or other - -Skills- and also 6-olle-c-t---ohie---ivat-i-Ori-d-ita on individuals, groups, and the class- as a whole.This data -collection is-done systematically,- based on a-method learned together by -teacher-and teacher -aide, and- the-cognitive and- af-fec-t*ve--realms.- As a conimuni-ty_-_11,aison, --- -covers _ _ aides wor_k_zwith _teachers in arranging ar,dconductin-g---small-gr_oup- sessions and parent education meetings.- They alsomake periodic _home,_visits .and attempt to- instruct--pare-nts in taskscomplementary to those they utilize in the class-room.-The projects titilizing this modeihave- not been opexating--long-7-enough toconduct-an-evaluation-, as to whether or not they haveimproved_student intellectual and affeciive -development i:;ir cfienling the school'and schooi:cOmmUnity relati-oriships. Three-neighboring community-associations in San Francisco -Ocean- View, Merced Heights-and Ing/eside (San FranciscoUnified School District, 1970) - initiated an-Education Committeeand secured funds -to work in--seven elementary-school-s---on a pro ject-- emptras-tzing- reading kind con-anuatty involvement.. -The communi_ty involvementaspect, focused on .prayiding an :atmosphere cif_neighborliness in which_to Beeksolu- tlQns to B9Oial and_ _echicla.1-9n.P.1-14tOblems_and _to rirokidie: with concerned and supportive adults; Tp this endblock actioii clubs were initiated wi.th meetingsof these-clubs held to discover coramuni,ty _concerns, Assess needs ''.and,hope-fully_, reach common_unde:r-standing of the schools' role vis a vis the community.Evening sessions were -113-

held to help parents discoverand utilize ways of working at home to build reading andlanguage skills.In addition to working with PTA/ s and Parents Clubs, the-four-block organizers sought out non- joiners and tried to includetheir- ideas -and -needs in thecommunity input.The -two half-time -comrmmityrepresentatives visited homes,- arranged small conferences betweenschool_ and community people, and made curricula recommendations. Rough -Rock -Community. School-(Er-ic-k-son The three -goals of the Nava-jo- (1) that pupils demonstrate a and Schwartz, 1969) arestated: the cola- higher level of socialpiycholOgical, functiOnini;-_ (2) that . munity should be stronger, morecohesive, more aggressive, moreinde- pendent--and- (3) that pup-ils -should-be capable- cognitively and t-ively-of ;succeeding in both. theNavajo-and Anglo worlds.-The--- second goal was to. be _achievedthrough "involving the community_ extensiveLy-in the-t-deci-sion-making--and -program-,executing of --the-schoo 1 by d ev y-- el ect,ed-sohoo-1--,3actagrd,---and--o -encouragi-n43--the--creatIonA.-andFsg-row-th---o-f--.,:------declaion-making-meahaniems;local political structuresI lendingstatus -and recognition to .com - munity leaders; improving healthservices and recreational oppor- tunit ies elctending -employment- and-,voc at i-onaldevelopment -oppor tunit les to people who_would_ otherwise ..lack The_aathro- pologically-oriented_ descriptive evaluationof this project, is -comp-rehensive- -document- = answers-wherethere, are. none: :Thus these goals have been met, that thescitool has become a more vital liartOf the -COmmunity, batth-at traditi&nal "adiiiinfd-trat--i-ve-areas- have -not-been. infringed 'on by the'elected- sehool- board. school boar4/.,s__,-failure,x-to-- assume-administrat-ive-rcon--_,::_-=;_-.-_-.- _trol _of the schoolillustrates_ how _deep-seated among__ socially vantage& groups 1 is ,the _lack _of _ a sense_ol control . over_ theirown thildre.n/,s. educe t ion. ..!../.Commumit_y_control". of education_ _has...-becorae a political issue-in many urban areas -when inactuality, these urban schools_ _ for the_ahility-_to_.=c.o.ntroL_ . their _ - _communiti-Ps ar.e _asking only_ In order for schools to beeffective, as suburbanitescontrol theirs. , . -change -mayThe needed not "o-nry- in-the 'CrassrooMbUt in- the relätion- ship between the school and thecOmmunity; with community 'integrity maintaiixed_. _None .O.f....the"abkrya-metitioned..programs. attempts_ to inir. genial-Lae communi-ty-cont-rol in--ectuoa-t4On i -though-several make sincere effort-s to increasethe-importance -given to community -inputs - I...1.,.,.I ". -, .. . __ .,..... _ . School_._.(American Ins t itut e..lor Researth, . ..Spring-f ield Avenue. Community. -19744-(pre-achool. through .4), in_ Newark, .N. e T4 .Jersey, repr.esents . one _r community _control.. The .. . Lcif.thefew documented efforts at genuine P ar ant'A ct..4.9n' ounci 1 , made up of allthe parentc," is the school' s gcommlee. A teacherregarded as unsuitable by parents is guidin,, . iaxttiit_S2-Addtccvniraturf 'is e015-1-e- 7alfe--- Erlitab3i.ern.-6_1t-...arily- . Adk-e-47t241.3.r..eicii. workers, photOgraphers, etc. .'.Thecommunity as aides but as' social . . . -114-

workshops, held to teach parents tobecome politically effective-in educational matters, were quitesuccessful in enabling parents to gain and maintain control ofthe school. Results on nationally standardized achievement testsindicate that most students are achieving at least at national norms. This sahool is, then, -invol-- ving parents and the communitythrough parent education, through parent and communityinvolvement in the school,.through parentinvolvement in support of learning,and through actual participation in decision-making. In order to gain widespreadcommunity support of a school or an educational program,this last method of involvement is essential.

5. Changing Staff Behavior Through Training In a study_for_ETS, Hanry Dyer(1_966) correlated_various school and _student variables with the resultsof academic achievement-tests- administered to over 600,000 studentsby the Coleman study. He concluded-that the school characteristicswhich-tend--to-correkate with differential levels of academicperformance_are_often_those most difficult to change. Near the top of his list are suchstaff attributes as teacher's verbal facility,the quality of the teachers' training, teacher willingness to teachchildren from the slums, and attitudes toward social integration. While there is general agree- ment that the attitudes ofteachers reflected in their pedagogical methods are crucial- in- improving-theeducation-ofdisadvantaged- -children, the fact that -this is thought -_tobe an area in-which is difficult to- effect change-has-resulted La a -relatively- limited number of programs. The NDEA _summer inst itut es makeup_the_majori-ty -- of programs of this type; the evaluationtechniq.ues utilized in_ analyzing these institutes are representativeof those utilized in programs of this sort and oftheir limitations. - But the limitations of_the reportedevaluationd are simply a_raflec- tion of the problems involved in organizingand carrying through a program which emphasizeschenging---staff--behavior. -Few programs- whtdi-- attempt to alterstaff,behavior speak to the needs delineated inthe research on teacher attftudes and-beliefs;for example; little ha,. portance seems to be given. to theproblems _presented by_teachers with. authoritarian and concrete belief-systems asdiscussed_by_ Conners_ and Waller (See subsection 2 of thissection-for fuller discussion) in their study of Head Start teachers. Nearly all staff-training programs purport to beprimarily-interested in improving-teachingmethods through the provision of increased informationand through observation and analysis techniques.Vicwever,-as inceased recognition isbeing given to the necessity Of changing thepsychosocial behavior of teachers who-work with:educationallydisadvantaged children, structured attempts to work with-this-behavior areincluded in such programs. it is rare to find a teacher-training program or asummer institute for such teachers which doeP notprovide time for some type of informal interactionsdesigned to initiate-self-evaluationand rethinking of one's role as a teacherof disadvantaged children. Organizationally the efforts made inthis area are of three types: summer institutes,in-service training and pre-servicetrain-ing. Although the latter is_ theoretically an"initiatine_ rather than_a "changing" of staff behavior inasmuch asthe participants have not yet. taught, it is in this areathat some of the most hopefuldevelop- ments are occuring.There are few reports available onin-service teacher-training programs constructedspecifically to deal with the problems of working with thedisadvantaged.Title I programs do sometimes include an in-serviceteacher-training component, but it is usually a minor focus- ofthe- project-and is-rarelyevaluated- apart from the total program.Only 7.5% of the school districts reporting in the OE ElementarySchool survey spent more than 47 of their. Title I allocationfor in-service teacher training. One- exemplary summer program was ajoint effort-un.de_r_taken,-by__-the_------_- Harvard University Center forResearch and Development onEducational Differences, Action for Boston- CommunityDevelopment and- the Roston School _System (Klopf andBauman,__1966).The_program_included-a-six- week enL.L.c-hment program for 300children, aged 7 to 12 and a seven- week clinica' training programfor 97 experienced teachers,princi- _ _and gaidance cezunselors.The participants were-divided_ into three _teams_ of which 1/3 wereplanning,__1/3 were _teaching and 1/3 were observingwfth a week of the cycle devoted to each phase, two cycles- be ing completed dur-ing- the-itrst itute-E ach-pha e al-lowed the p-c:icipants to assess a different aspectof the teaching pro------cess ; p-r-incipals -and-guidance counselors-were-an--essential: part-1 of the team, though given specialroles. These cycl-es were one part of atripartite design,- the two other parts being focused on alaboratory in which curriculum was to be related directly to childrens!needs and life situations and on a program of socialstudies that stressed the discoverymethDd-. definitive evaluations are available onthis project; however it is somewhat Unique in this area in thatmuth time and effort went into actually applying a theory ofbehavior change to a given summer institute and in linking-a university-to-apublic scliool- sys-tem:- A less,structured, non-directiveapproach was used in-a summer insti-- tut-e at Gaucher ,e In Baltimo-re-,Maryland -(Klopf-anti Bauman,- 1966)._ 3Qigh schooi achers of English and Social_Studies-from eight inner-city schoolsand--22---high-school students,- selecred--as-- being disadvantaged "underachievers" wereinvolved.The three daily classes in- the 6-week instis-ute-were:(1) a 11/2 hour -round-table discussion based on aombination of 'I'group methods ind the concepts of Carl Rogers.For Is session, all groupsof 12, inclUding teachers, students and institutestaff, met together. -116-

toobserving the student- (2)An English class whichdevoted 1/2time English class,inwhich the students werereading, writing, and dis- cussing poetryand k time to its owndiscussion of the same books and poems and to writing. (3) Sociology androle-playing techniques.The goals- of the course were to give insightsinto personal experiencesin relation to the--- inner-city environment andtodemonstrate how role-Playingmethods can be used inteaching social sciences. The institute staffincluded a psychiatricsocial worker whose major role was interviewing andcounseling participants.Although the questionnaire evaluationindicated that the_ entireexperience did furnish the participants with astrengthening of self-concept,-development of sensitivityand an important senseof rapport within small groups, limitations werealso noted.These included the needfor a longer- institute, the inclusionof students with disciplinaryprob- lems and the inclusion ofschool administrators. A summer 6-week NDEAinstitute held in Washington(Klopf and Bauman, 1966) was a great deal moredirective.It' s 50 selected secondarY school teachers were-instructed-1:--yexperienced master teachers, --reading-and - speech-experts , -and - such as pOlice and socialworkers.Reading and speech labs and supervised--independent studysupplemented the discussions oncurricu-- and hum.an_relations.The focus on_ lum, materls, and methodology who bent to with the 26 8th grade_ _youths_ _ - the program was on the_ work workshops to provide_ ademonstration ciaas and who weretutored individually for an houreach-afternoon by- two- participants;In these workshops the participantsdeveloped a system whereby they demonstrated their educationalapproaches in front- of the -group-and- -- then-used-the demonstration as a-discuaaion vehicle_for _bringing out methodological insights.In written evaluations thepartici- pants reported thatworking with one child for anextended time helped them form insightsinto the backgrounds andbehaviors of these children. _ In this effoit tosummarize the various types of summerinstitutes that have been conducted,the last to,be outlinedis one in Riverside, California (Klopf and Bauman,1966) which was precticated onthe hypothesis that the nonprofessional canplay an important role in eleMent-aii and pa-rochiale-duca-f-flan.-----TEis experimental program grouped Into teams a highschool student, a high schooldropout, a college.attrdent, and-a mother:These teams worked each morningwith a classroomteacher, observing, participatinginplanning and teaching. ty of .ac tivities filledthe afternoons including _teammeetings, evatuatiolis and weekly Contacts.'by the nOnpiofessionals- withthe :- children's teachers._This 6.rweek_phase was precededby__12 weeks of part-time preparation by staffmembers which included extensiveob- servation. _ of children.in the target area.

118 -117-

evaluation in which thechildren were given pre- The results of the place;" though it and post-tests evidencedthat "learning was taking the program to specificlearning disabilities would appear that gearing Results of the might have facilitated moresignificant improvements. defining the role of eheteaching assistant evaluation indicated that elsewhere in the was a major problem area. This has been a problem utilization of teacher aides. Experimental programs such-asthis in highlighting this issue;future such serve a valuable purpose the application of defini- programs shouldinclude experimenting with tions of this role.

_Only _two in-service_programswill be discussedhere,_sinc_e_little specific information ofeither a descriptive or anevaluative nature Heraldsburg Union and HighSchool is available on such programs. combined an _ Districts _in Sonoma County,California (Stone, 1969)_ practicum program with a6-week summer pro- in-service workshop and classes in ject. Two nights each weekduring the spring semester English and American Literature wereheld-at a-demonstrationschool their children for approximately 65Mexican-American parents-while attended classes to learn Englishand participate in otheractivities science, history, and fieldtrips. The such as drama, music, art, teacher aide par- --22 teachers-and-the 11'Mexican High School-student ticipants served in rotation asinstructors of-these demonstration sessions were held weekly in classes. Two-hour lecture-diScussion which themilieu of thedisadvantaged -student, the--development of - curricula -and the_use .0.f teacheraides,-_counselors,_and speaialists were some of thetopics discussed. Other special activities such and visiting other schools as observingdemonstration -special classes this in-service program. The summer workshop in- were included in of-this project , cluded a demonstration school. An interesting aspect is the use-of theteacher-partic-ipants-as-localexperts-in-conducting more modest staffprojects on a local basis insubsequent years. At the Tidewater Park ElementarySchool in Norfolk, Virginia__CStevens,_ 1967)-very favorable results-wereachieved on-nationally-standardized achievement tests with childrenwho had earlier tested,as_upoor- - -- risks" Or "low normal" in readinesswhen entering school. The principal of the school-used athree-pronged-approach to effectuate such-changes, one of them-being thedevelopment of a personal,--under- As a beginning _ standing relationship lbetweenpupils and teachers. step-teachers visited cnildren'shomes frequently and plannedunits that would fit into thechildren's life situations. Later on, weekly In-service sesSlons wereintroduced at which teacherapproaches,- attitudes and methods are analyzedand discussed. Obviously, a prc- _gram of this type canbe_effective only with an active,committed principal who has some say in theselection and retention of- her- - - staff. As mentioned previously, programsin the area of teacher training show some of ehe greatestpromise, in large part, becauseof the extehded duration and themandatory nature of suchprbgram:,-... institutions which trainteachers now have some courses'hich purport with problems of teachill:-:the diiev and to deal specifically and/or presrams some have entire programs. Rarely have such courses been subject _to any kind ofsystematic evaluation anddetailed description are not availablein any circulated reports. As with the two other types of programsthe available information'svalue lies primarily in its.provisionof models with some indLeatioaoi= the results attained -when suchmodels wore actualized. Teacher Corps Is one suchpre-service training The federally funded prOblems encountered by the project. The funding and political _project indicate the dangersinherent in national programsof this built.into_the-local Teacher Corps sort. However, certain ideas did prove viable and usefulin instilling traineeswith teaching styles and attitudes relevantto a compensatoryeducation situation.. the trainees into teams offive or six These ideas include grouping this .with an experienced teacher asleader; such team-works with .leader in the school, in communityservice work and in coursework. The community-service work wasrequired in most Teacher Corps programs and did enablethe trainees to deepen theirunderstanding of. the unique nature of a givensocial and cultural community. Another ----useful basis for organiaing programswhich was an integral partof the Teacher Corps the coordination of effortsfrom the university or college, fromthe public schools and fromthe community itself. Operation Fair Chance (CaliforniaState College, Hayward;-Fresno State College, 1969) was the.namegiven to a teacher trainingproject conceived t California StateColleges-and actualized-in several - different school districts. A stipend was providedfor participants. selected for Chic nine month programat the completion ofwhich standard state teachingcredentials were received. Theoretically the program Was establiShedto provide a Sequentiallearhing-through-- examining experience developmentthrough large blocks of work' in orientation (8 days), community-study(2 weeks) job corps participa- -tion (6 weeks), school andcommunity involvement (4weeks) -supervised student teaching (18 weeks) andSummary sharing (1 weak). Methods included.lectures, encounter groups andskill development workshops.. Although. conceptually thisprograwas overflowing with goodideas, its instructional andnoncoordinated nature, its diversegoals which were never operationalizedand its-lack of systematicpreparation prior-to community work stood outin the evaluation. Programs which attempt ba involve c.ducationalpersonnel in the community should spell out-their goals and the stepsto achieve such goalsspecifically. (Teachers, Inc., Currier, 1969),dow operating in schools'in Washing- ton and New York, appearsto.be experiencing initial successin its efforts to,do just thac.)

A teapher-training'projectwhich contained AHCarefullYformulated -teseareMesign WaS instituted at- SyracuseUniversity (Clayttan,- 1969) in a 5-yeat urban teachar-trainingpre4ram .0.heteiriths,._ 5.th yciar .0as -119-

an internship inthe classroom. The hypothesis posed, that"there is a measurable difference inthe behavior of student teachersworking with cooperating teachers havingcertain kinds of training"(feedback practices such as Flanders'interaction analysis, video tape techniques and other conceptual surpervisorytools), provides useful insight into the kinds of issues in this areathat have to be examined. During the two years of the project,which included work for someinterns with teachers receiving thespecial training and work forothers with variety of tests a control groupreceiving no such training, a wide was administeredand extensive analysis was dane onthe data. Al- though this analysis did not supportthe general hypothesis tested, there was some evidence that fordefinable subgroups of student teachers, particular supervisoryactivities were related to positive changes. The research on this projectdoes not provide us with definitive results, but it does employhard data to demonstrate the no-relationship outcome and it does pose someimportant questions - for further research in this area. In general, then, programs iathis area have provided somemodels which appear to be effective incertain locations, but with very few evaluations-in which-effectivenessis defined and/or described. A comprehensive evaluation_ofthe_participants in a number-of. Cali- fornia ESEA. TitleI.and Title III and NPEA Title_XIprograrris can be found-in Teachers for theDisadvantaged by James-L-; Stone(1.9691-. Since there is an increasing awarenessthat what is effective for one teacher may notwork Bar another,, programs designed toalter staff behaviors become moredifficult to design in a manner that will stimulate desired changesin all participants. Evaluations done with-such programs have, forthe most part, been-teacheratti- tude measures, of ten -accompanied-by--classroom observations- -Setting__:- -aside the-issue of whether or notattitude tests really measure any-- thing, the reporting af -theseevaluations is done statistically, leaving the reader with no conceptof what is. actually happeningin this teacher's classroom. Furthermore, evaluations conductedin the term immedlately following atrain-ing program are subject toquestion pl_ans since,asJIa&brici 68)...point$1 out, many teachers!_snmmer are forgotten andfew changes are effected. This failure to succeed in having teacher's internalizechanged behaviors is, in many cases, partly the-result of a program'sfailure ta define goals for the teachers. Pre-service_ training programs showthe most promise for the reasons listed above-duration and requirednature of the-program--anddue to a greater feeling of freedom to experiment.-Comprehensive studen-t- _:Lthl-ng-and Intern programs-which-includecommuni-ty:_wo-ric_p_lac_eutent_ in a school__with_a sensitivesupervision of teacher,__a l'reality orientation" to the problems of theeducationally disadvantaged child and some provision forself-exploration.and evaluation are develaping_in --scirriet_ai:eas, usually thzough the-cooperationof a-T-training institute and a local school system. Such programs can prove to be a major step in providing classrooms with ehekinds of flexible and sensitive teachinE -12 0-

in the area of compensatoryeducation. Although it is so lacking by the majority impossible to attribute thelack of success encountered factor, the area of of compensatory educationprograms to any one teacher attitudes andteaching styles is crucialand substantive programs directed tothis issue are few. Postman and Weingarther (1969) wrote that "there canbe no significantinnovation in educa- at its center theattitudes of teachers, and tion that does not have educa- it is an illusion tothink otherwise." Too many compensatory tion programs appear tobe operating under thisillusion.

6. Changing Schools and SchoolSystems the writing of what In an apocalypticstyle 'which characterizes humanistic radical, IvanIllich's projection for Fromm would call a social engineers the future of schools maydemoralize the-positivistic that _schools spell who have implicitlyoperated on the assumption success for theirinhabitants: call I expect -that by theend of this century,--what we-now school win-be a-historicalrelic, developed in the time of the railroad and theprivate automobile anddiscarded bilay-T4ith-them. I --f-del-&ure thatitwilisoonbe evident that:the school i-d-as marginal-toeducation-asthe Uiitch doctor-is to public health. Thi&-statement-serves as the contextfor the very_topic of this settion as well as themotivating questions whichguide our search of the literaturediscussed hereln-2While agenerally_sociological and politica perspeetive- taken-in-- formulating-thesequestionay--- there will inevitably bephilosophical, moral andpsychological overtones. study of-an-_urbanclassroom,-Smith and In their_anthropological practitioners Geoffrey (1968)corroboratedwhat many critics and even the relative ineffectivenessof the school to in- had lon& sensed: note that fluence the-lives ofdisadvantaged youth-(It is well to the urban classroom of-some35 elementary schoolsixth and seventh graders studied for one s-emesterin this study consistedof ohly two black children; mostof the other children werepredominantly white lower class children,although the authors fail togive much further background information onthe socioeconomic and ethnic background of the children). They confirm the alreadyresearched -proposition that peer-group normsand the presence of cliques may have more to do with thebehavioral patterns of thechildren than anything the teacher mightdo. A less commonly-acceptedpcIposi-, tion is the relativeinfluence of_peer group pressures onthe behavior of teachers in theirattitudes toward and relationships with children, uhether they beaggressive or not, in,controlling or directinr, their on lives. All this disc.ission is ol7 intro witi; efforts ;:t due in t pivotal questions dealiv,_; reform," the conception ofwhich may be p:;rado::ic,A1,if nct structure with,:,ut 1. Can schools makesignificant changes in their concurrent changes in oursociety? control result in cnrricu1u:1 2. Does community involvement or changes or improvement of compensatoryeducation prrams: inuegration 3. What effect do theefforts of desegregation or have on the quality ofinstruction and learning fordisadvantaged children in compensatoryeducation programs? student participa- 4. What relationship isthere between greater , tion ineducational deeision-makingand student learning--prog,ress in compensatory educationprograms?

5. What configurations ofprofessionals, para-professionals, students, parents and lay persons canhave a positive influence on the condition of learning,especially for thedisadvantaged youth? sociological 6. What moral and ethicalconsiderations underlie the assumptions being tacitly orexplicitly professed orchallenged by those concerned with theimprovement of compensatoryeducation programs? alternatives to traditional 7. How do compulsory education or -schooling relate to variousaspectsof child developmentand sociali zation in compensatoryprograms? these rather generalquestions 'of It is probably unwise to pose problems or have studies which may themselveshave focused on other formulated their questions in anentirely different context. Never- theless, in order to get some senseof the general statusand trends systemic of the literature of compensatoryeducation as it deals with use-of power and-influence-bysocial changes and with the relative framowork actors in-school systems, someviable research-oriented is necessary if the sectionis not to become an anemiclicany of- reviews. In this sense, Illich'sradicalized projection has not several writers and research teams,who escaped the attention of of these have been concerned notonly with the socii3logical aspects questions, but with 11-he deeperand underlying philosophicaland ethical bases for dealing withthe-school as a social system; Indeed, the spate of works-dealingwith "c--ises-ln the schools" attests At to the growing moral awarenessboth of schclars and thepublic. the center of this awarenessof..the "new crisis" in education, as Janowitz (1969) calls.it in contrastto the "old crisis" ofimmigrants and depression days, is thebrutal fact of racial prejudice. This crisis coranoundd by the transferma;:ionand organization of th:: -122-

labor !Market under advancedindustrialization (Ibid.). In an question, Janowitz apparent, perhapstentative, answer to our seventh says that the"new crisis" in education isthat schools must now acceptresponsibility for all youngsters who are not college bounduntil they develop levels of personal maturity sufficientfor them to enter the 'labor practices of the inner market. The present resources and city school system areinadequate for this expanded task. A "rare effort at comprehensivereformation of inner cityeducation," according to Janowitz, isHavighurst's The Public Schools ofChicago: rejected by both A Surve_y_(1964). While the recommendations were the Superintendent and theBoard of Education in Chicago,other such attempts have been scarceuntil the civil right; movementand the rise in milktancy amongminorities began to exfrtinfluence on-political and social structures tochange or face mutilation, if not destruction. Ample testiMony, however, as tothe unwillingness of entrefiched prof-esional bureaucratsin what Janowitz calls -an over- centralized organization can-befound in David Rogers' (l968)-study of the des.egregation effortsin the New York City PublicSchools. Far from-attempting acompreherisive reorvanization forchange as advocated by---Havighurst; the NewYork City Schools, -according-to Rogers , -have been "flooded-withdemonstration projects---and -p-±ece----- meal innovations" which were"in part a technique to absorbprotest, whether consciously planned that way ornot, and they help to maintain the bureaucratic structureby isolating innovations and not letting them affect the broadersystem." Decentralization, as recommended by theBundy (1968)_report,_educa- tional parks, "magnet schools,"the Community School at RoughRock, street academies, thePennsylvania Advancement School, theHartford Project Concern represent a wide rangeof approaches to the _problem of changing the configurationsof-prolessionals,Aparaprofez-sionals,- students, parents, and.evgn lay persons,as awayiof improving .the conditions for learning. Radical reform will be discussedunder-the major headings as -- developed by Janowitz (1969). But first, it might beuseful, to mention the four theoreticalmodels he offers and see how these might be operationalized. The first model adopted frommental health proponents, is most closelyassociated with Bruno Bettelheim's Orthogenic Schooi and the notion of ateacher-counselor relating to ten to fifteen children, Then there-is the early education orhead start model, though thi-s islimited to prekindergarten children- Thirdly, there is the specializationmodel where teachers are highly differentiated in their roles, based ontheir skills in a specific an ad- _discipline. The aggr.egation model sees the.teacher more as ministrator of a learning environment aswell as a teacher-counselor. -123-

a. Decentralization and community control The Lupachukai Boarding. Schooladministered by the Bureau of Indian Affairs was the locale in which a newidea in Indian education developed. Several factorscombined to transformthe idea that Navajo education be more responsiveto the needs-and mishes.of the Navajo community..To graft..this new idea onto theexisting pattern of schools administered by theBureau of Indian Affairs at Lukachukai, however, did not seem to work outsatisfactorily in the first year of implementation, 1965-6. With support from various sources, including the Navajo education committee,professional educators from Arizona State University, andFederal funds, the idea was transplanted to-a more-ideal-setting atRough-Rock-with-a newer-plant and -a-community more disposed to allow theexperiment to -flourish.. The populace elected its_own schoolboard-something new not only on Indian reservations, but in many large cities_aswell. In its second year- . of operation at:Rough-Rock,-196T-68,-Robert-A.-Roessel Jr., the- _Executive _Officer of the-_Raugh_RockCommunity--Schoola-privatew-nan profit organization, decided.to step down toallow Dillon. Platero,- himself of-Navajo descent, .to graduallytake over the direction.Of thecommunity school._ .The arganization-af-the-Rough Rock Community.School. called for_five different.assistant direptors,whose tasks can. Indi- cate the:breadth of involvement theschool has in the- life not.only Jof its. students and staff, loutalso-o,f-ebe-Community at large, These__ ._tasks_were: _Educational_Services,Administrative-Services,-Dormitory Services,-Navajo Curriculum Center, and Community Services. While -the Navajo Curriculum Center -helped prOducesix texts on Navajo culture,--a_more-unique. characteristic-of-the schoolmight-be-found in the activities engaged in bythe-Community ServiCes-Division,- _whichLwas_reorganized in-Januaryof_ 1969 to"lessen-its-ties community the school"_ and be more-responsive_to_the new name pf "the Rough.RockDevelopment Project,". which- helped to build the _industrial_arts.buildingthe:previous summer,offered. arts and crafts for-older people-as well'as-..the students, provided. -adult educationfor .dorm.parentsand:adOlt.interested. ingetting high,7_. school' diiilomas,,reorganized- thelocatComunity Action Committee, helped .sOIVe 'the-lirobIem Of'dverflowing sewagelagoons, helped develop a proposal to construct' a communitybuilding withfunding from the Department ofijlOusingSnd-Urhan-DeVelopmentand_purchased. road,grader to he used-to make-roads-more passable-for-bustrans- - portationofchildren to-and-from-school-; Thereportof.theseactivities and- the 'decision made by the-school boardindicate the .extent-to-.whioh-the school:and- the-:'comMunitywaekrolosely-together- to polVe -problems whichseemed .nolonger. tobe the exclusive_domain of!any..pne_sub-group-but.,s_matter.ofoverall community-,conde'rn.-- ,.Theirmotto, "The childihelongt_tOthe parents and not_to:.the-School11! has developed into.no. empty proposal .but into anactive courtship of the ideal with the real. -124 -

While the experience at Rough Rock seemsunique not onlY for Navajo education but for American education as awholo, its achievements may be related in part tothe relatively small size of the community (abcut 1,000 people with 250 schoolstudents). Other factorL, such as Federal funds,university support, and indigenous interestand leadership contributed no small part to the progressof this demonstration community school. By sharp contrast, it seems,community schools in large urban centers have had a far fromsmooth road to travel. Indeed, the experience at Rough Rock may look like anidyllic description out of an early nineteenth centuryrural America, ethnic differences not- withstanding. It may demonstrate coolyr simply,and yet dramatically the potential for the concept ofcommunity control.Without doubt, it would be folly to foist Itsrural shape onto non-rural super- structures. Nevertheless, the parallels between the two arenot accidental and should not be ignored. To be considered are the three demonstration school projects in New YorkCity.

When the Board of Educationof_New_York__City-first proposed the site__ _ of Intermediate School 201 inHarlem in 1958, parents and community leaders objected on the grounds that itwould not permit integration. In spite of several postponementsand discussions, the school was - built where it was originally proposedwith the promise that it would be integrated. When this compromise gathered itself intothe community collection of broken promises,"the parents asked for local control of the school, including-a voice inthe selectiOn of teachers _and supervisors, a role in evaluatingand recommending educational programs and standards, acurriculum designed to raise student achievement, an integrated_experienced staff, and,initially, a Negro or Puerto Rican principal and atleast two Negro or Puerto Rican assistant principals." After considerable confusionduring the schoo1's opening.year,_1966- 67, the Ford Foundation supported a planfor decentralized operation with I.S. 201 as the center of acomplex including its four feeder elementary schools. Ferk-teachers were on the Planning Board which-met during the summerof 1967.When the school opened in -September, -1967 in the midst of a city-wideteachers' strike, racial feelings-became more intense among communitymembers who felt_that th,. strike action by a white-controlledunion "demonstrated lack of concern far the children." Elections of the Governing Board were held in tecember, 1967. Early in 1968, the Governing Board selected a unit administratorfor the project and a principal for I.S.201 whose appointments were not reco6nized-bythe Board of Education because it "found that both (personsselected) lacked the required education credits to qualify for the posts."After several weeks these appointments were upheld on thecondition that the candidates be named as acting administrator andprincipal. -1255-

Less cOntroyersy surrounded the initial planningand operation of the Ocean Hill-Brownsville District.Community members who were involved in the early stages of the development ofIntermediate School 55 helped to plan for the demonstration projectduring the spring of 1967.Teachers seemed to be more involved in the planning of this project although supervisors seemed not to have been involved in "meaningful participation."Elections for the Governing Board were held in August with an unexpectedly large turn-outof voters.While the Governing Board seemed to be well organized early in the fall, they had difficulty _gaining fullrecognition by the central board.This hampered the.flow of much needed supplies and supporting services.In these two demonstration projects, as well as the Two Bridges Project, major impetus seemed to be from- community-groups who later found-support in the Ford Foundationwhich took an active interest in improvement of education, especiallyby decentralization. -- The matter of-who-- represents-the community seemed to be a phenomenon -- which was difficult to cope with, especially in the initial stages of the deMonstration projects.It was reported for example, that different-representatives who met .for one meeting were-later "know- ingly't excluded from a follow-up meeting involv_ing_,I.S. _201. __While__ racist charges wad counter charges were- made in the formative stages of these pro jectsi the- New -York -City Oomm-iss ion on Hurnan-Rights---(-1-968-) asserted -that -"the-, center of-this-movement -is--education, not rac-e Fit after hearing various opinions from parties involved in the controversy.Their conclu-ding opinion is worth repeating: When ghetto communities ask for controlover,the schools, their' demand is an, expression AT- zr.'n-g, _Institut ions and _a_recognition_ that _ghetto schools require- -_____ - special attention which they have-not obtained and, perhaps cannot obtain from a central system whoae basic-promise-is rigid uniformity, Community control to ghetto residents is -a-means to insure that their children obtain education especlally relevant, to themselves and to their community, and are taught by teachers-whO underet-and these spezial ne-ed-e ana. Who-identify with them.. SiMilarly, when a ghetto community calls for appointment o ..a Negro principal in a -school it is because they- feel that in a ghetto school a Negro supervisor is more suitable becuse he can bring what the schools now lack:a l'ink-With the community institution -and a.- figure of authority tha.t helps- bolster the self-image of the children in school.

. .

____ Betatfae -of, the great -Oto-POlitibic. Of_ the -Central bureaucracy and- the

need for Concentrating_. efforts, qp..other ...Rriprit.ies _(including ,b_are surviVal of_the innovative nature of the projects), integration seemed to be a distant.; but -not forgo_tten,..objective, eXcept- in the Two Bridges Project, where 407 :Puerto !titans; 35% Chinese, 12% black, and 127. white, p!i-ovide a io uci 17,.'._rat..ion efforts. Fir,ally, possible abuses ofthese (11-:lonstratioh 1,ro,ject.- wasdUlv taken note of by the sa:ne iLs overall support of the innovtiveappro.ich. Cnat the central boarci review claims byinter'ested pnrties who may feel theiv legitimate interests have beenignored by the loc7,1 board. According to Gittell andBollander 1.1968), with reform movement spearheaed by RichardsonDilworth who bece chairi7zan of anewly constitut-2d central Board ofEducation in Philadelphia, a system- wide appreach to communityparticipation -,7as initiated in thetcity. -The Plladelphia Commission onDecentralization and Community Parti- ;'170) has developed a p.U.In forthe promotion of greater community involver,ent both atthe local school level and atthe district level. In the local school, severaloptions arc suggested: (1)'informal community participationin decision-making, (2) participation by an elected orappointed advisory committee fromthe community, and (3) sharedresponsibility with the local schoolbcard. A similar plan has beeninaugurated in New York City withits con- sultative councils wherc..pri::cnintritivesof Ti,exzeatn, oryi- zation, students, teachers, andadministrators meet moathly with the school's principal and act in an advisorycapacity (see New York City Office of 17ducation Affairs,1970). All of these have in common theeffort to forge a link between the school eand the community in order toraise the quality of education of children. While differences in settimg and style are'significant, this trend see-es to be gathering momentum asthe many compensatory education programs desiE,n their plans toinclude a larger role for community members, not only asenlisted volunteers in the traditional PTA activities, but also aspaid aides, as members of deeision- making bodies, as members of newlyconstituted local boards of education, etc. Hawkridge (1968), for example, relateshow the pre-' school program in Fresno, California wasable" to achieve a 5:1 ratio of children to adults by meansof teacher aides-, espetially parents with facility in Spanish in addition to the teachers and resource teachers. Moreover, parents of children in thepre-school program were expected to participateat least one day a week, ifpossible, ;in the actual on-going program,attend parent meetings twice per month, and join classes for studytrips. The problems encountered in thistrend are far from'solved. While parents, in Fresno (Hawkridge,1968) might have be-,en willing to participate, babysitting had to bearranged to free the parent to participate in planning sessions withteachers. A more insidious problem-is the opposition of entrenchedbureaucrats whose previously unquestioned authority appears to bethreatenedby the greater role played by parents and other comunit-,'leaders. Berube and Gittell (1969).present the various points of view concerningthe confron- tations that oce,irred in the Oc,:;an -127-

Ptoject (see especially"The Burden of the Blame: NYCLU Report on the OceanHill-Brownsville School Controversy"). Macdonald (1971) in his discussion of "thefour faces of schooling," suggeststhat such a confrontation might arisebecause the school is "a place of work with its attention focused onstatus, role, and maintainingthe system." Other problems also plague thecomparatively less bureau- cratically controlled rural regions,where apathy, geographical isolation, and other factorsprovide obstacles to change. Platero (1969), for example, reports on.the very inaccessibility of roads as an obstacle tothe mission of the Rough Rockcommunity school. Yet it is difficult to denythe potential force for good thatresides in the arousal of social awarenessand its consequent--social action aimed at relieving social injusticesthrougt- tie improvement of-the quality of education.

1,-. Alternatives t ublic. schools The development of non-profitcor7orations and other alternatives to public schools representsanother significant trend in a rearrange- ment of institutions and personsconcerned about improving educational opportunities for children fromeconomically disadvantaged environments. One such non-profit corporation isthe Pennsylvania Advance- ment School (1969), servingparochial- and public school seventhand eighth grade children, 607, of themblack, who have been identified by their parent schools asunderachievers. The 1969 report describes itsfirst two years of-operation; inwhiCh it Made definite effortb- to emphasize the social andpersonal aspects of the children's de-- velopment. Housed in an abandoned factory inPhiladelphia, the school attempts to break away fromthe_departmental structures of the traditional high school, which seems tomilitate against the personal and social growth, especially ofthe underachieving child. Primary concern is given instead tocounseling activities, communityaffairs, and external and internal staffdevelopment. An administrative strategy for helping to buildself-concept was the changing from a white-dominated director's cabinet to a"council" consisting of three blacks and two whites. As a self-declared model school, PASattempted to create a ripple effect of itsoperations to five neighboring jUnior high- schdors by way of -CY) setting-iipi Amini-school composed -of -siXth grade,:s from a nearby elementary school,(2) estl,blishing a resident teacher fellowship program whereby r.ne or twoteachers from nearby cooperating schools could spend oneuil semester observing and assisting,the -PAS operation; .(3)_heloing other schools-write pro- posals for fundirig of siMilar innovatiliprojects; (4) conducting summer workshops and school yearinstitutes for guidance counselors and teachers who wanted-to learn moreabout the innovative-projects and the underlying philosophy of PAS;(5) working with undergraduates and teacher interns; and (6)establishing working relations with various universities and schools andother agencies.

129 -128-

lack of constraint oncreative The flurry ofactivities and the attention to the"model" the school wasattemp- energies commands intern, New configurationsof teacher-teacher tIng to develop. teacher-guidance teacher-teacher fellows(from other schools), outdoor camps, and counselors, small group...-ctivities, mini-schools, make the ideaof partnershipwith other schools, other arrangement6 organizations nolonger a matter universities, camps,and community of "strangebedfellows." bedrock on which streetacade- Similar partnerships seemto be the O'Gorman schools, and communityschools operate. mies, store front valuable as tutorswhen their (1970) reports howdope addicts became tellins stories weretapped. Tutors can be talents in reading or among highschool and college drawn from thecommunity, especially (1965) describe theAssociated Community students. Petersen et al. 100 provided trainingfor its staff of some Teams, Inc. which and aides who inturn opera- teachers, advisors,assistant teachers, The centers forchildren and youth ofHarlem. ted nine after-school the encouragementand develop- project had as oneof its major purposes could staff theafter-school centers ment ofindigenous leaders who education to the com- of providing muchneeded compensatory as a way I was not yetenacted. Their munity at a ttmewhen the ESE& Title been absorbed into orfollowed by various experiences have since been funded underTitle I. other programs, someof which have since

c. Student protest arrangements thatcould Source for changingcurrent power Yet another student unrest. Fish (1970) affect compensatoryeducation programs is experience as a principalof Montclair HighSchool recalls his own studies where unrestoccurred. in New Jersey aswell as three other case been not only and many similaroccurrences has The upshot of these more fundamentalchanges "greater say" forstudents, but in some cases in schools, thegranting of greater in the structureof decision-making students through flexibleschedules that permit autonomy for students into--community projects. to enlist in--somemight say be co-opted include the tutoringof elementary orjunior high These p'trojects might environment activi- pupils, as in SanFranciSco (1970),taking part in public events tostimulate better humanrelations, ties, sponsoring exacerbated. (seeDodson, especially where racialtensions haVe been

the. common school d. Compensatory-education and this seetion byreferring to many ofthe above We might conclude the one hand,efforts may studies as being on.acontinuum where, on. single, partial solutionto unequaleducational be focused.on a along with concomitant opportunity as inthe.addition of new staff -1Z9-

resources (see, e.g., Fresno,1965, which has identified various new job descriptionsthat are associated with its compensatory education program). Thus, the growth of teaching assistantsand other paraprofessionals. On the other end of the spectrumis a total overhauling of a system or guildingof a new or different system. The Passow (1967) report of theWashington schools suggested such an approach which has yet to beimplemented. Pittsburgh (see McCormick, 1969) and Philadelphia (see Fantiniand Gittell, 1970) have outlined plans and are moving closer towardimplementing what approaches a total design for system reform,especially as a means of upgrading the quality of education forinner-city children and youth. Some- where in between are the model ordemonstration schools or projects- such as Ocean Hill-Brownsville,Rough Rock, the Pennsylvania Advance- ment School. The question remains as to whetherthe common school, which received a heavy boost fromcompulsory_education_laws will muddle through, especially if these trends shouldbecome major movements. One view expressed by Haubrich (1971) is that the systemof education in the United States has "an enormous capacity toabsorb change while not changing at all."*Another view is that educational parks, magnet schools, metropolitan school boards asin the schools of-Dade County, Florida or Nashville-DavidsonCounty Schools in Tennessee (Bendiner, 1969), decentralized schoolboards as in Ocean Hill Brownsville, community schools like Rough Rock, storefront schools, and home tutoring all represent-a rangeof alternatives. Miel (1969) suggests a rationale for havingthis range of choices and yet maintaining a_common school insofar as it_ preserves_the basic spirit-of _ briaging about some form of socialcohesiveness which is valued by the socieek: One final proposition can be statedsimply: a federal system of schools from kindergarten through graduateschool. This proposition has been seriously suggested by Billings(1971), a former director of the Upward Bound program in the Office ofEconOmic Opportunity. Wayland (1_9_64), examining the-schools-of:theUnited States from the- perspective of a sociologist, has suggested thatthere already is a de facto federal system. What Billings would like ta-see ia the elimination of the many duplications and the greaterstreamlining of "the educational system" so that it can meetthe educational needs of all its children, without sacrificinglocal autonomy, which he claims-can be guaranteed by the kind oflocal governing board which was -part and parcel of the varlous UpwardBound programs. A similar position was taken by,Usdan et al.(1969) who discuss the conflicts that-exist betweenvariouSIlevels of education and governments associated with those levels. They conclude that:

*Italics in origina

131 -13c; -

the best prospect for turning theinterlevel relationship away from conflict andtoward coeneration, if that seems desirable, would seem to lie in the creationof new overall coordinating mechanisms. This ceurse'is neither'easy nor fool-proof. It appear-3, however, that boththe-public and the private institutions of education are sorigidly separated by tradition that some "natural"accommodation is unlikely. It also seems unlikely thatlegislators and governors will be able tpaccomplish coordination without help ..from.otber agencies', unless the structuresof state government are overhauled in dramaticand deep-reaching ways. They would need more time, more stnff, moreinformation, and more effective linkages amongthemselves to handle the broad problems of education in sTeething betterthan uhe short- rien incremental fashion infwhichthey mUst now deal with most of the things they do Perhaps in any case these steps toward.revision 'of state st.ructure and policyeparticularly- basic revenue policy, are requisite to aneffective educational future. Even though most of the compensatoryeducation studies read in this section of the report do not confrontthe issues raised about the survival of the common school, policy-makersconcernedwi-th the effectiveness of compensatory education programswill need.to address'themselves to the organizational frameworks used toadminis- ter compensatory education programs. No organizational, sociological, or curriculum theory seems to offer anycomprehensive guidance. Rather, as Schwab (1970) has urged, those whowish to assess ehanges must be open to a plurality ofmethods, not unlike the way the legal profession brings about changes in laws: The law has systematized the accumulation-ofdirect experience of actual cases in its machineryfor.the recording of_cases and opinions as,1 precedents which continuously monitor, supplement, and modify the meaning andapplication of its formal knowledge, its statutes. It.is this recourse tO accUmulated lore, to experience_of actionsand their. -COnSequences, to action and reaction at the level of the concrete case, which constitutes the heartof the practl-, cal. -It is high time that curriculum do likewise.

Assessing the achievement.of compensatoryeducation programS, then,. merely by reporting achievements based onstandardized tests is, in Schwab's view, a waste of time. 1:Te might add that the sociological- -and political ramifications not only of the processof introducing compensatory education programs, butalso of such .programs as they effect the make-up of the institutionconducting the program need to be given more attention in future reportsof compensatory educl- tion programs, if a compr,:lhcn:livc nt is o bc achieved. -131-

SECTION II: LIST OF REFERENCES American Institute for Research,Washington, D.C. Springfiald Avenue Community School., Newark,New Jersey. Model Programs: Childhood Education. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Office of Edutation, National Center for EducationalCommunication, 1970. ED 045 784. Arizona State University, Tempe.College of Education. Teaching Teachers to Teach the Disadvantaged: A Study of Attitude Change. 1968. ED 024 748. Armor, David. "The Racial Composition ofSchoolsand College Aspira- tions of Negro Students,"-inU.S.-Commission an Civil: Rights, Racial Isolation in the Public Schools,Vol. II, (Washington, D.C., 1967) pp. 143-164. Association for Supervision andCurriculum Development. Freedom, Bureaucracy, and Schooling. 1971 Yearbook edited by Vernon F. Haubrich. Washington, D.C.: The Association, 1971. Atkinson, Richard C. and SuppeaPatrick. An Automated Primary- Grade Reading and Arithme-tic-Curraoulum- for Cultural-ly-Deprived --- Ch'Lldren. Palo. AltO, .Calif,: 'American Institutesfor Research in Behavioral Sciences;September,.--1.968-. 118p.--ED 023-7-73,. Ball, Samuel, and Gerry AnnBogatz. The First Year of Sesame Street.: An Evaluation- A Re ort to theChildren s Television Workshop. Princeton, New Jersey: Educational Testing Service, 1970. Bendiner,7Robert. -The Politics of.Schools: A Crisis in Self- :Government. New York: Harper 64 Row-, Publishers, 1969. Berger, Barbara. A Longitudinal-Investigation. ofMontessori and Traditional Prekindergarten Training -withInner City Children... Three Part Stutix. New York: Center for Urban Education, Curriculum Development Committee, 1969. 167 p.

Barber_,_ Theodore X., and MauriceSilver. "Fact, Fiction, and the Experimenter Bias," PsychologicalBulletin, TO: 1-29, 1968a.

. "Pitfalls in Data Analysis and Interpretation: Reply to Rosenthal," RExEllalasiEgaBulletin, 70: 48-62, 1968b. Berube, Maurice, and Marilyn Gittell(eds.). Confrontation at Ocean -Hill-Brownsville: The New York_ School Strikes ot 19613. New_ _ York: Frederick A. Praege-r, Publishers, 1969.- Billings, Thomas A. "Alternatives and Innovations," in ASCD. -Freedom, Bureaucracir, and Schooling. Washington,. D.C.: .The Association, 1971, pp. 247-258. -132-

Blake, Elias, Jr. A Comparison of Intraracialand Inter- racial Levels of Aspirations. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois, 1960). Marion, and Francis Soloman. "A Tutorial Language Program to Develop AbstractThinking in Socially DisadvantagedPre- school Children,"Child Development, 39: 379-389,June 1968. Brookover, Wilbur B.,and others. Self-concept of Ability and SchooL Achievement (II). East Lansing: Bureau of Educational Research Services, Michigan StateUniversity, 1965.

Bundy, McGeorge. Chairman,Mayor's Advisory-Panel on Decentraliza- tion of the New York CitySchools. Reconnection for Learning: A Community School Systemfor New York City, 1967. Caidwell,-Betty M.., and others.-"Infant Day Care and Attachment American Journal ofOrthopsychiatry, 40(3): 397-412, April1970. California State College, Hayward;Fresno State College, Calif. Operation Fair Chancel The Establ-ishment-of Five Centers to-- ImpriNve the Preparation of Teachersof Cul.turally_Disadvantaged Students, Emphasizing OccupationalUnderstanding Leading to Technical Vocational Competence. Final Report. 1969. -301p.--- ED 035 710. Claiborn, William L. "Expectancy Effects in the Classroom: A Failure:to Replicate," Journal-of-EdUcational Psychology, 60: 377-383, 1969. Clayton, Thomas E. Preparing Beginning Teachars forWorking with the Educationally Disadvantaged: A Continuing Study of the Influence on Student Teachers of aTraining Program for Coopera- ting Teachers. Final Report. Albany: New York State Dept. of Education, Division of Research,1969. Ed 036 460. Cloward, Robert D. Studies in Tutoring. New York: Columbia University, Social Work Research Center,1966. 105p. ED 021_903. Coleman, James T., and others. Equality of Educational Opportunity; Washington, D.C.: U.S. Office of Education, 1966. ED 012 275. Conners, C. Keith, and DavidWalrer. -Beliefs, Attitudes and Behavior of Teachers of Head Start_Children.Baltimore, Md.: Johns. Hopkins -ianiVersity, School of-Medicinei- 1966.: Cormier, William H. Effects of Approving Teacher Behaviors .pn Classroom Behavior of DisadvantagedAdolescents. Knoxville: University of Tennessee, DepirtMent ofEducational. Psychorogy,_ 1970. 115p. ED 040 974.

Currier, Bill. "The Teachers Incorporated Statement."New York: The Teachers, Inc. Mimeographed. -133-

Davidson, Helen H., andJudith W. Greenberg. Traits of School Achievers from a DeprivedBackground. New York: City University, 1967. 306p. ED 013 849.

Di Lorenzo, Louis T. PreKindergarten Programs forEducationally Disadvantaged Children. Final Report. Albany: New York State Department of Education,Office of Research and Evaluation, 1969. 274p.

Dodson, Dan W. Hi h School RacialConfrontation: A Study of the White Plains, New York, StudentBoycott. A report prepared for the White Plains Board ofEducation, New York, February 1969. Dunham, Richard M. Project KnowHow: An Innovative Attack on Individual Familial Poverty. Tallahassee: Florida State Univer- sity, 1968. DusewiCz, Russell A., andMartin J.Higgins. Toward-an Effective Educational Pro ram for Disadvantaed Infants. 1971, -10p. "School Factors and Equal EducationalOpportunity,"- Dyer, Henry S. - inEqual Educational-Opportunity: University Press, 1969,pp. 41-59.

Eash, Maurice J. "A Curriculum Evaluation of anAcademy for Black Drop-outs: the Alternatives in anAlternative School."_ Paper presented at AERA annualconvention. New York: February 1971. Educational Testing Service, Princeton,New Jersey. Disadvantaged Children and Their First SchoolExperiences:--ETS-Head Start Longitudinal Study. A Report in Two Volumes. 1970. 1098p. Erickson, Donald A., and HenriettaSchwartz. Community School at Rough Rock: An Evaluation for the Office ofEconomic Opportubity. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1969. Fantin-Mario, Marilyn Gittell,and:Richard-Magat. Community 7-- Control -and theAJrban Schools.--NewYork: Praeger Publishers, 1970.

FiSh, Kenneth L. Conflict and Dissent in the HighSchools. New York: The Bruce Publishing Company,1970.

Fle'.xman, Erwin. A Selected BibllographyonTeacher_Attitudes.--New York:- Teachers C011ege-ERIC :-,Clearinghouse onthe-Disadvantaged, 1969. ED 027 357: %. Florida_UniverSiyGainesville._ Ccllege. of Education,-Institute .--forA'ralning Follow1Through-Personnel-inParent Partici ation and Education._ 1968. ED 028 140.- -134-

Florida University, Gainesville. Institute fc- De alopment of Human Resources. The Florida Parent Education Model as anAgent of Social Change. Symposium presented at the Annual Convention of the American PsychologicalAssociation, Miami, Fla., September 1970. ED 043 061. Fox, David J., and Peggy M. Schwartz. Effective Interaction Between Older and Younger Pupils in anElementary School "Peace Corps" Project. New York: City University of New York, CityCollege, 1967. ED 015 223. Fresno City Unified School District. Compensatory. Education: Responsibilities and Job Descri tions for1965-1966. Fresno, California, 1965. Froelich, Martha and others. "Success for Disadvantaged Children," The Reading Tacher, 21: 24-33,1967. ED 016 738. Gephart, William J., and Daniel P.Antonoplos. "The Effects of Expectancy and Other Research-BiasingFactors,"-Phi Delta Kappan, 50: 570-583, 1969.

Gittell, Marilyn, Particip_ABLand Participation:A Study of School Policy in New Yark_City.--New-York: -Centerfor Urban Education-,- 1966. Gittell, Marilyn and Alan G. Hevesi(eds.). The Politics of Urban Education. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, Publishers, 1969. ED 034 831.

Gordon, Ira J. Early Child Stimulation_Ihrotigh_EarentEducation. Final _ Report. University of Florida, Institute for theDevelopment of Human Resources, 1969. 232p. ED 033 912. Grotberg, Edith H. Critical Issues i'HR'esearch Related_to Disadvan- taged Children. Proceedings of Six Head Start Research Seminars. Princeton, New Jersey: Educational Testing Service, 1969.

Hartford City Board of Education. SAW; Project I: Research Eviluation 1968-69. 1969. ED 033 997.

Haubrich. 'Vernon. Obstacles to-Chcage": The Westchester Report. NDEA. National Institute for-Advanced Study inTeaching Disad- vantaged Youth. _Occasional. paper Four,Washington, _ Ametican Asociation of Colleges. for Tqacher -1968, ED 033 894. "Does the Common School Have a Chance?" in Freedoml, BureaucracyiandSchooling-: Washington.,:D:X.: The Association, 1971. pp. 269-280.

136 -135-

Hawkridge, Daird G. andothers. Foundations for Success in Educating DisadvantagedChildren. Final Report. Palo Alto: American Institute forResearch in Behavioral Sciences,1968. ED 037 591 A Study of SelectedExemplary Programs for the Education ofthe Disadvantaged Children. Part II. Final Report. Palo Alto, Calif.: American Institute for Research in the Behavioral Sciences,1968. Current Theory., Hess, Robert D. and Roberta Bear. Early Education: Research, and Action. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co., 1968.

Hess, Robert D., andVirginia C. Shipman. Maternal Attitude Toward School and the Role ofPupil: Some Social Comparisons. Paper__ presented at the Fifth WorkConference on Curriculum andTeaching I;niversity 1966: in Depressed Urban Areas,Teachers College, Columbia

Hogan, Robert T., andRobert B. Horstall. An Evaluation of a High School Tutorial Program. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, Center for the Studyof Social Organization-ofSchools, ED 041 095. Honig, Alice S. andShelia-Brill:- --A- ComparativeAnslysis- of the Piagetian Development-of-Twelve-MonthOld Disadvantaged-Infants- in an Enrichment Center. 1970.28p._

Illich, Ivan D. Celebration of Awareness: A Call for Institutional Revolution. Garden City, New York: Doubleday and Company, Inc. 1969. Responsive Environment Program,Brooklyn, New Israel, Benjamin L. Talking York: Report on thc., First FullYear of Operation; the Typewriter. New York City: Board of Education, 1968. -Israel, Benjamin L. andLitwinZelda.__Responsive Environment_ Program, Brooklyn, NewYork, Sept. 1968-June 1969: The Talking Typewriter. Final Report. Brooklyn, N.Y.: New York City Board of Education,Responsive-Environment ProgramCenter,-1969. 91p.- ED 035 087.

Jablonsky, Adelaide. "Some Trends in Education ofthe Disadvantaged," IRCD Bulletin, 4(2): 1-11, March 1968. New ._ ,---,Janowitz, Morris, Institution_Building in Urban Education York:- Russell Sage-Foundation,1969. .ED 041 959. Desegreg..ation or Integration inPublic Schools: The Katz., Irwin. _ _ Policy Implications of Research. Prepared for the National Conference on Equal EducationalOpportunityinAmerica's Cities, sponsored by the U.S. Commission onbivil Rights, November 16-18, 1967. ED 015 974. --136-

"Some Motivational Determinantsof Racial Differences Katz, Irwin. Psychology, in IntellectualAchievement," International Journal of 2: 1-12, January 1967. "The Socialization ofAcademic Motivation," inDavid Levine, ed. NebraskaSymposium on Motivation,1967. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press,1967. The Four States Project: California, Colorado, Kelly, James Jr. for Advanced Study Oregon, Wisconsin. NDEA National Institute Youth. Special Report. Washington, in Teaching Disadvantaged Education, D.C.: American Association ofColleges for Teacher 1968. ED 027 272. The Subject of Issues: Defining Central Problems Kenny, Helen J. Youth.- NDEA- and Questions inPreparing Teachers of Disadvantaged Advanced Study on TeachingDisadvantaged- National Institute for American Association of _ Youth. Report Four. Washington, D.C.: Colleges for Teacher Education,1968. ED 028 137. What Types of CompensatoryEducation Programs-- - Kirst, Michael W. National Conference Are Effective? 1967. Paper prepared for the Opportunity in America'sCities, tponsored by on Equal Educational November 16-- the U.S. Commission on CivilRights, Washington, D.C. 18, 1967. ED 015 982. Klaus, Rupert A. and Susan W.Gray. The Early Training Project for Disadvanta ed Children: A Re ort After FiveYea-rs. Mono- -graph for the Society. forResearch in Child Development,Vol. 33, No. 4, 1968. ASCD. .Kliebard_, Herbert M '!Bureaucracyand. Curriculum.Theory," in _Freedom, _Bureaucracy,,andSchoollrg...,Washington.11-C-: __The______Association, 1971. pp. 74-93 Klopf, Gordbn, and Garda W.Bdwman.- te'aCher Eddcation in aSocial _ _ . Context; New York: -Bank StreetColl'ege of Educition,-1966.-- ED 015 881.

Lally, J.--Ronald, -and LucilleSmith. Family Style Education-:- A New Concept for Pre-SchooIClassrooms Combining _ Middle-Age Grouping. 1970. 14p. Lindstrom, David and Jordo Tann.enbaum. _Concept andLanguage_Develop-_ ment-of a Group of Five-Year-Olds-WhoHave. Attended the-SYracuSe- University'Children4S-:Centet-Intervention.

Lopate, Carol and other's. Some'Effects of. Parent andCommunity Participation-on-Public'Educatiow.-New.YOrk;:-.Ted41.1.0st$_GOI-Tk&_;_. ERIC Information-RetrievalYCenter-On-the Disadvantaged,'1969. :EP. 027'359. -137-

Macdonald, James B., "The School as aDouble Agent," in ASCII, Freedom, Bureaucracy, and Schooling. Washington, D.C.: The Association, 1971. pp. 25-246. Mahan, Aline M. and Thomas W. Mahan. Changes in Cognitive Style: Analysis of the Impact of White SuburbanSchools in Inner City Children. Paper presented at AnnualConvention of the American Psychological Association, Washington, D.C., September 1969, ED 035 691.

Mahan, Thomas W. Project Concern 1966-1968: A Report on the Effectiveness of Suburban School Placementfor Inner City Youth. Hartford: Public Schools, 1968. ED 026 421. Meketon, Betty F. The Effects:of-Integration Upon the NegroChild's-- Response to Various Tasks of Self-Esteem. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Kentucky. 1966).

McPartland, James. The Segregated Student in DesegregatedSchools: Sources of Influence on Negro SecondaryStudents. Final Report. Baltimore: John Hopkins University, Center forStudy of Social Organization of Schools,1968. 364p. ED 021 944.

McCormidk, B.J. The Pittsburgh S-tory. Speech Given-at AABA Convention. Atlantic City, Feb. 17, 1969. Pittsburgh: Superintendent of Schools, 1969. ED 031 899. MCPartland, James, and Robert L. York. "Further Analysis of Equality of Educational Opportuhity" in U.S.-Commission onCivil Rights, Racial Isolation in the Public Schools, I(Washington, D.C., 1967), pp. 35-142.

Miel, Alice. Compulsory-EdlIcation and the Common Sdhool: An As- sessment and a Proposal. Paper prepared for the Alumni-Student- Far:ulty Conference on Curriculum andTeaching; October 23-25, 1969. (Mimepgraphed). Nedler, Shari-Early Education for Spanish-Speaking MexicanAmerican Children: A Comparison of Three InterventionStrategies. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the AmericanEducational- Research Association, Minneapolis, March1970.

New York City Board of Education. -Division of Elementary Schools. Cam us School Exchange. 1965. 28p.

New York City Commission on Human.Rights. -Report On'Three DeMon- stratIon Proiects. in -the City Schools. 1968. ED 025 574.

New.York City Office-of-Educ-ation-Affairs'.. AHSUMmary:6f7the '1969 City'CAs Passed-by the School Decentralization'Law-for-Wew.York_ _ .-New-Yok--Segtskwture'Ap-ril-30-,- -NoWw."Yo'rk.,719L9; ED 042-828. -138-

O'Gorman, Ned. The Storefront: A Community of Children on129th Street and Madison Avenue. New York: Harper Colophon Books, 1970. Painter, Genevieve. "The Effectof a Structured Tutorial Prog.ram on the Cognitive and Language Deyelopmentof Culturally Disadvantaged Infants" Merrill-Palmer Quarterly,15(3): 279-294, July 1969.

Passow, A. Harry. Toward Creating a Model Urban SchoolSystem: EA_StlashirD.C. Public Schools. NewYork: Teachers College, Columbia University. 1967. ED 013 288. Pennsylvania Advancement School, Philadelphia,Pa. q'ennsylyania Advancement School: Report on the First Two Years. Philadelphia, 1969. ED 041 964. Petersen, Jacquelyn L. et al.A7fter-chool Program Report - 1964- 65: A Guid_to Conducting a Community-WideCompensatory Education Program Based on the Act Experience.' New York: Harlem Teams for Self Help, Inc., 1965. ED 013 270. Philadelphia Commission on Decentralizationand Community Partici- pation': A Multiple Option Approach toSchool-CommunIty_Partici- :Dation. Philadelphia, Pa.: 1970. ED 042 843.

Platero, Dillon. Annual Report of Rough Rock DemonstrationSchool for 1968-69. Chinle, Arixona: Rough Rock Demonstration School, 1969. ED 035 690. "Rotigh Rock Iiemonstration SchOol'sAnnual Report for 1967-68. u Chinle, Arizona: Rough Rock Demonstration School, 1968. Postman, Neil,and Charles Weingartner. Teaching as a Subversive Activity. New York: Delacorte Press, 1969. Rankin, Paul T. Jr. The Relationship Between Parent Behaviorand Achievement of Inner City Elementary SchoolChildren. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the AmericanEducational Reseavch Association, New York City, February1967. ED 017 550.

Reddick, L.D. To Improve Teachers for Inner City Schools. Final Report. Baltimore: Coppin State College, 1967. ED 013 282.

Rogers, David. 110 Livingston Street: Politics and Bureaucracy in the New York City_School System." -New'Yotk: Random House, 1968. Rosenthal,. Robert and Lenore Jacobsen. pyfarnalion in the Classruom. New York: Holt,. Rinehart and .Winstoii, _1568. - Activities of the Unified School District,Calif. San Francisco Planning Project ofthe Ocean View,Merced Community Education February 1, 1967 Heights, InglesideCommunity Association, Through December31, 1969. 1970. ED 042 836. School- Unified School District, Early Childhood and San Francisco Evaluation of the ESEACompensa- Age IntensiveEducation Program, Program of the SanFrancisco UnifiedSchool District, tory Education Calif, Jan., 1970. 1963-69. Evaluation Report. San Francisco, Curriculum. Washing- Schwab, Joseph J. The Practical: A Language for ton, D.C.: National EducationAssociation, 1970. Relationships Schiff, Herbert J. The Effect ofPersonal Contactual Attitudes TowardParticipation in_LodalSchool Affairs. on Parents' 1963.) (Doctoral Dissertation,Northwestern University, Follow-up Study of1966 Summer Institutesfor Teachers Sinf, Rita. Center for UrbanEducation, of DisadvantagedChildren. New York: 1967. ED 025 476. William Geoffrey. The Complexities of adUrban Smith, Louis M. and of Teaching. New Classroom: An Analysistoward a General Theory Winston, Inc., 1968. ED 029 072. York: Holt, Rinehart and Contemporary Psychology, Snow, Richard E. "Unfinished Pygmalion," 14: 197-199, 1969. 41. and Louise M. Soares. Interpersonal and Self- Soares, Anthony T. h School Students. Perce tion of Disadvantaed and Advanta ed Hi the Annual Conventionof the AmericanPsycholo- Paper presented at ED 043 696. gical Association,Miami, Fla., September1970.

Remedial - Staats, Arthur W.,and others. A Token-Reinforcement Administered by InstructionalTechnicians. Madison, Reading Program Development Center for Wis.: -WisconsinUniversity, Research and Cognitive Learning,1970. 28p. ED 042 301. "Norfolk'.s.Venture_into :Empathy,"Southern Educa- .Stevens, William. 11-!.16January7February,1962. .ED 018476. tion Report, 2: Culturall .Stodolsky, Susan S.Jk.ncOna MontessoriResearch Pro ect for Disadvantaged Children. IFinal- RepOrt, Chicago: Ancona Montessori Schoo1,-1969.., 'Teachers for theDiSadVantAged, San' FradelSco: Stode, James C. - -.4._ , josey-Bets, Inc. '1969.

- .Two Years of Pro- Teichers Corps, Washington,DX: Teachers Corps: greas and Plansfor the Future. 1968 . ED 029 454.. -140-

Teele, James E. The Study of Project Exodus: A School Racial Integration Project in Boston, Mass. Final Report. Boston: Harvard School of Public Health,Dept. of Maternal andChild Health, 1969. ED 036 603. Thorndik-Robert L. "But You Have to Know How toTell Time," American Educational ResearchJournal, 6: 692, 1968. "Review of Robert.Rosenthaland Lenore Jacobson,'Fiygmalion in the Classroom,"-American Educational Research Journal, 5: 7087-711,1967. Tuckman, Bruce W., and Melton Bierman. Beyond PYgmalion: Galatea in the Schools. 1970. - U.S. Coimigsion of CivilRights, Wa3hingtod,-D.C. -RadlalIsolation in the Public Schools. 1967. (Vol.I, 276p., ED 012740; Vol.II: --Appendices, 293p.,_ED

Usdan, Michael. "Thp Preparation of Teachers-forthe Disadvantaged," in Jerome Hellmuth, ed.Disadvantaged Child, Vol. I. (Seattle: Special-Child Publications,- 1967)-.- Jr. Education , David W. Minar, and Emanuel Hurwitz, and State Politics: The bevel° inRelationshl s between EIemen- tary-Secondary and Higher Education. New York: Teachers College Press. 1969.

U.S. Offide- of Education,Washington, D.C. .Division ofCompensatory EduCatión..-Academic PreSchoOL.Champaign:IllinOis One:of 'CiHT Series of-SuccessfulCompensatory-Education Programs.-1969.- -27p.- ED 027 979. U.S. Office of Education, Washington,D,q. ,I)ivision..of Compensatory Education, AfternoonRemedial.andEnrlchment Program, Buffalo, New_York.ADue of_a_Series__of_Succ_esSfulCompensa.toryEducation_ Programs-. 1969. 13p. ED 038 468. U.S. Office of Education,Washington, D.C. After-School Study Centers; New York city.::'One 6f-a Set-les of StfcceSsful C-ompen satory EducationPrograms. 1969. 18p. ED 027-62.- of EduCati4r-i-;:laStangteiri,- DiViSi5iii.:Of--'00M-Fiehril1:71 TheAmeliorative Preschool Program.-Champaign. Illinois. .Education. ensatOi lEduCation.:..Pro rams- - 1969. 1-2p. ED 038 469, U.S. Office of EdUcation,..Washinqton, Division of-Compensatory Education._ Atigented.Reading--Project, Pomona., California. One--- Of a: SerieSofSf.&C.Ceisfiit:CroMOensatorir Educ..ition 'Programs.. 1969. 1.6p.:ED '038 470'. --141-

U.S. Office of Education, Washington, D.C.Division of Compensatory Education.College Bound Program, New York City.One of a Series of Successful Compensatory EducationPrograms. 1969. 13p. ED 027 367. U.S. Office of Education, Washington, D.C.Division of Compensatory Education.Communication Skills Project.One of a Series of Successful Compensatory Education Programs.1969.17p.ED 028 894. U.S. Office of Education, Washington, D.C.Division of Compensatory Education.Diagnostically Based Curriculum, Bloomington, Indiana. One of a Series of Successful Compensatory EducationPrograms. 1969.40p.ED 027 978. U.S. Office of Education, Washington, D.C.Division of Compensatory Education.Early Childhood Project,New York City.One of a Series of Successful Compensatory Education Programs.1969. 27p.ED 027 974. U.S. Office of Education, Washington, -D.C.Division of Compensatory OneEducation. of aElementary Series ofReading Successful Centers, Milwaukee, Comp_ens,.._ Wisconsin. -14p.ED 028 895. - a - ---- U.S._ Office of Education, Washington, D.C.Division of Compensatory-- - Education.Expanded Language Arts, Buffalo, New York.One of a Series of Successful Compensatory EAucation Programs.1969.13p. ED 038 471. u.s, Siffiqe of Education, Was_h_ing_t913.., Education.Homework-HelP-dr Irrogram;-New ycyik City One of a Se-ries of Suecessful Compensatory Education Programs.1969. 13p.ED 038 471. U.S. Office of Education, Washington, D.C.Division of Compensatory Education.Infant Es:Ideation Research- Prolect., Washington, D.C. 'Series of--StLE-ce-s-sair-C-difip-ehgati:5-i'ST Edficg-t-rdir grani 1969. 26p. ED027 976. U.S._ Office_ f Educ a t . Division of _Compensatory-- - Education.Intensive Reading Instructional Teams, Hartford, Connecticut.One of a Series of Successful Compensatory Education programs.1969.19p.ED 028 8.98. _ U.S. Office of Edudation, CoMpensa-tory Inititutes,-YeW 'totk -0-neor a- Series of SueceSsful --C-Ccri-e-iiiator-Education Pro rams. 1969. -19p:ED- 028 898. U.S. :Office of Educa-i ion , -Wash-i-C4-torvi -Divis ion-ol- Compensatory.. --Education.LanauaeStImulatiori V*6 Otani ,- AubtiiriA1aama bne of a Series ---OT7SU-eeeesful Compensatory.eduation.- pkograms".1969. 15p.ED 038 480. -142-

U.S. Office of Education,Washington, D.C. Division of Compensatory Education. Learning to Learn Program, Jacksonville,Florida. One of a Series of Successful_CompeasatoryEducation Programs. 1969. 28p. ED 038 472. U.S. Office of Education, Washington, D.C. Division of Compensatory Education. Malabar Reading Program for Mexican-AmericanChildren, Los Angeles, California. One of a Series of Successful ComptInsatory Education Programs. 1969. 26p. ED 038 473. U.S. Office of Education, Washington, 'D.C. Division of Compensatory Education. More Effective Schools, New York City. One of a Series of Successful Compensatory EducationPrograms. 1969. 39p. ED 027 363.

U.S. Off-Loa- of Education, Washington, D.C.--Division of Compensatory Education. Perry Preschool -Project, 'Yp sl-lant i Mich-igan. One - of a Series of Successful Compensatory EducationPrograms. -1969. 22p. ED 027 975. U.S. Office of_Education, Washington,-D.C. Division-of Compensatory Education. Plus Program, Buffaig, New York,One _of a Series Successful Compensatory Education Programs. 1969. 19p. ED 038 474.

U.S. Office of Education, Wash-ing-ton, Divislon -of- Compensatory Education. Preschool Program, Fresno, California. One of a Series of Successful COmpensatory Education Programs. 1969. I9p. ED 027 977.

U. S aff-ice of Educa Mash jag Division-- o-f-- Comp etr-sa-t -- Educa t ion . The Preschool Program, Oakland, California. One of _ a Series of SuccessfulCompensatorY Education Programs. 1969. 17p. ED 038 475. U.S. Office of Education, Washington, D.C. Division _of Compensatory Education. Pro rammed Tutorial Readin Pro ect. Indiana olis, Iiá.Oi of a Seiie-s of Succe-sful CompensatoryEducation Programs. 1969. 15p. ED 028 899. U.S.-Offica of EdUcation, Divtslon of Compensatory- Education .Projact:-LConeera,- Rartfordi-Connecticutv-- Ona_ of:a.7 Series7of SUcceSSfUl CothOehsatOry Educatlon PrOgrams. 20p- _E-D, 027 365. _ U.S: Office of Education,-Washington, D.C. Division-of Compensatory EdtiC--atiorn- Project -Early NewYark. One_ of-a____ -SerfasOfSuccessful Cora ensator Education Pro rants. 1969. 1m--.---7E1 -038 476.

U;S. Ct.ff ice of.Educatton,-:Washingtoni D C. Div.isionTaf:--C-omp-ensa-to-ry EdUdation..' ::Pri:rjeait R73, San' JOse, California 'one Of -a '§eries of Successfulccir,c1pgikg,4-p-Iiry..gclgcg ?rogx.o.ins'..- 1969.- 22p: ED 027. 136 -143.-

U.S. Office of Education,Washington, D.C.Division of Compensatory Education.School and Home, Flint, Michigan.One of a Series of Successful Compensatory EducationPrograms.1969. 18p, ED 028 900. U.S. Office of Education,Washintton, D.C.Division of Compensatory Education.Self-Directive Dramatization Project.Joliet, Illinois. One of a Series of SuccessfulCompensatory Education Programs. 1969.17p.ED 027 364. U.S. Office ofEducation, Washington, D.C.Division of Compensatory Education.S eech and Lan ua e Develo ment,Pro ram.Milwaukee, Wisconsin.Orie of a Series of SUCCessful Compensatory Education Programs.1969.22p.ED 027 330. U.S. Office of Education,Washington, D.C.Division of Compensatory Education.Summer U ward BoundTerre HauteIndiana.One of a- Serie's- of SuccessfulCompensatory Education-Programs:- 196-97 18p. ED 038477. Wayrand-,- Slban-R.,-"StruCtural-FeatUresof .Americari: EdUCation às Bas-i-e----Factor--in Innovat --Innova t io-rr- ducat-torr-ed-ited-b Matthew B. Miles.New. York:Teachers College Press, 1964, pp. 587-613. Weikart, Daird P., and others.Longitudinal Results of the Ypsilanti Perry Preschool Project.Ypsilanti:High/Scope Edu- cation Research Foundation; YpsiiantiPublic Schools, 1971. 189p. CparativS--TEUdy if Th-ree-PreschoOt Curti-Cu-la; --Paper--pres-ented- at the-Biennial -Mee-ting-.-of the Seeiety for Reseexch in Child Development, Santa Monica, Calif.,1969. Wessman, Alden E.Evaluation of Project ABC (A Better Chance); An Eva-luat ion- o f :DartmoirthVollegetndep.endent .... Schools S chol a r------_ Program -fox _Disadvantaged S tud en ts Report .Hanover, N.H.:Dartmouth College, _1969.ED 031 549._ Westinghouse Learning Corp., New York, N.Y.,;Ohio Univ., Athens. The" -Tinpa-ct- of-Head Start:An Evartia-tion of the- E-ffects on Chitar_e_nls Cognitive...Arta Affective Development.-(Executive Summary). 1969. 12p. Wrights_tone, J. Wayne.Evaluation_of the Higher _Horizons Program ._-UnderPr kifire-ked--C:Falcr-r-en-;--.---:----ifew --York Board- Bureatv'of Educat-tartal Researeh,.-- 1_964:-298p.ED 001- 787.- Zigler, Edward, and Earl C. Butterworth."Motivational Aspects of Changes in IQ Test Ferforma-nce- of Culturally Deprived --Nurgery, School _Children;" Chil-a-Dev-erOpMent, 39.:1-14, Marnh 1968. -144-

Section III: IMPLICATIONS FOR EVALUATION RESEARCH

A. Exemplary Studies of CompensatoryEducation

In the initial stages of thisstudy, the intent was to present high quality studies in which results weresufficiently definitive to form a firm basis for drawingconclusions concerning relationshipsbetween variables as well as for making policydecisions. The many and difficult problems in educational evaluationresearch and national surveys- are discussed in SectionI. Although some good studies exist, they are not present in grea-i number nor cantheii findingS be aggregated to delineate trends Without great risks inthe conclusions drawn as well as considerable violation tothe purpose of the different types ofdata encountered. This dilemma led to the decision to present a groupof good studies to-illustrate some special issuesin the field of compensa-- tory education,-which issues also-haveimplications for the-design-of- future evaluation research. An attempt uas made to select studiesof high quality. It should be noted, however, that thestudies presented vary in the adequacy of theirresearch design. Some studies are worthy of---att ent ion,, -even though scme-weaknes-s lirresearch- desi-gn-is pas when they raise critical issues in areas wherethere is a laCk of information based on better research. The study by White (1968) is concerned with theplasticity of early sensorimotor development and the findings_supportthe importance of environmental infilienras, particularly in_infancy. The objectives of this study were to: trace the developmentof the major sensorimotor abilities , identify environmen-tal- experi-e--Wde- =conditions -whic-h---seem - -relevant to-these abilities, -and-deteinrine-whether -early-d-e-relopment is-- significantly dependent upon rearing conditions. Intensive observation allowed the researchers todescribe in detail the development of visually directedresearching-,--Arisual-attention;-visaal accommodation ___and_ related .behavior-. _ order -to- test if extra-handling -- results in accelerated visualmoior development, nurses administered extra handling to each infant for 20minutes each for 30 days. Measures of overall- development, health,- and the -developmentof reaching and-- -visualattention-were taken regularly`fot the next115 dayS."The se"cond modification of rearing conditioni consisted:ofenriched_visual:_suf-___ rounaings. Measures.have included biweekly Gesell test,weekly measures of prehensory responses and visual attention,observation and recordS of weight gain and ,general health., _ _ e sses-were remarkabIr-pkast - :found- -that- many-visual-motor that de_velopment--of-,behaviors-mere able to-be-systematically accelerated and retarded, and that changes were ofstriking.magnitude.

.The study by-Blank And Solomon- (19qp-71illuStrites- that .abStract thinking - can be- enhanced byproper educationalmethods apRlied early in ,the li-fe of the individual. -145-

achievement, Given the critical importanceof cognitive style in academic the influencing of stylevia instruction may be offirst orde7:- significance. The basic assumptions ofthis program were: the deficitof disadvantaged preschoolers is their lack of asymbolic system by which to organize stimulation; that such a systemis best developed by developmentof abstract language; and thatdaily individual tutoringsessions are an efficient means to accomplishthis objective. Treatment consisted of four months of 20 minutesessions in which teacher andchild were alone attention," "imagery of future together. Tutoring focused on "selective events," and "relevant innerverbalization." Five children received individual-tutoring daily, five receivedindividual tutoring three times per week, fivereceived individual attentionin the regular clas-sro-ont setting, and seven received notutoring nor special attention.f_ Children who received tutoring werefound to score significantlyhigher significantly) on the- on the Binet andhigher (though not statistically Leiter than children who receivedno tutoring. Children who had been tutored five times per week scoredhigher, though-not significantly, than those who had beentutored only three times per week. Behavioral improvements were observed anddrastic improvements were notedin verbalization and a feeling of masteryby the children in dealingwith educational tasks. Two of its The greatest weakness of this-studyis itssmall sample size. more important strengths are:(1) its practical replicationin actual classroom situations, and (2)its refusal to accept simplelabeling skills -as a goal for thesechildren. Blank and Solomon stress "-. . . the-chi4d of words__.._ ..who can label glibly-_is oftendece.pt iv es_inde _his facileuse gives the false-appearance ofunderstanding."- The stLidy bk-Caldwell (1970) demonstrates thatinfant day dare dOes-noi adversely -influenceth-e--relationship-butween-infant and MO-th-Lsr--. Given------the often cited excuse for failure tointervene early in the life ofthe child, Caldwell's findings are highlyimportant. Tae aim of this study was to determine whetherthere mere basic differences inthe strength of maternal attachment in a groupof-day-care and a comparable--group-of home-reared infant-s-. Ei-ghteen- we-re--provided- a- daily --day care- program aimed at creating anenvironment fostering optimal cognitive, social, and-emotional development. Enrichment was provided in a context of-emotional warmth,-trust,_andenjoyment. These infants Were in-the-&-O4iain for a mean duration of18.8 months. The comparison group was composed of 23children ulth-no-day ,care experiences.

_ -Assessment-Indldded an intensive- semistructuredinterview=4ith-MOther:and child,: a-home visit includinvan-inventoryof home stimulation,.-the-Binet, affilkation,---.hostility, and dependency. _ ___--and_behavIor_ratingsof -signifidant-dIfferences-on---any-of--the ratings Of s ---Resultsshowed--no- re lat ionship_ With mother., attachMent. -to- :-mothar, mother s attachmentto..Phild:;--Childreres'delTeropMntal. level _have little or-no relatLon to strength ofmaternal attachment, there was a,sug- zst#,TI t4at,he.-bettei:,devolpped infants tended.'t,O'bemore;strongly attached ta.their'mtothets." -146-

n;!ly Eduction ln thc: past haslimited its.clf by thl-: concepttlIaL tTh years were unimportantte.cognitive dcve1op:e nd thrrt trainin:; :Jst wait until a certain-maturationallevel-is rcace,:. The tic for both p _ indicates the opposite. The early years arc a prime vention and intervention. The value of such interventionis aje;:luaz.Ldy demonstrated in the YpsilantiPerry Preschool Projectwhich also serves c,!1-11eful as an exampleof well-conducted projects inwhich the elents o base, individualized instructien,and zhe planning form a theoretical and led to, enhanceent of learning supportsin the home are all present positive results

In this study by Weikart(1970), one hundred 3-4 year-oldchildren,- initially diagnosed as functiOnallymentally retarded wereinvolved in this study. The treatment consistedof a one-hlf day preschool program for Fix months per year for two years. It included weekly teacher visits.to the child's home. The program was-cognitivelyoriented-and---- emphasized verbal stitulation andinteraction--; "verbal bombardment," sociodramatic play, and field trips. Home yis.4_ts wereinstrUctional__ sessions-with mothers and children. A-control. group of children receiving no treatment was includedin the research design.

'Results showed the experimentalsscoring significantlyhigher-on-measures of cognitive performance thanthe-controls;-this superioritydisappeared- 'by third gradeExperimentalsalso scored significantlyhigher on achievement tests in elementary schoolthan did the controls; theformer maintained this significantdifference throuOlout the yearsof follow-up;._. including third-grade. Finally,.the experimontalsreceived_better_ratings_ .by clementary school teachers onacademic, emotional, ndsocial develop--.. and_continued to receive better ratingsthroughout the.follow-up. _ period. ----Weikaxt believes that anumber-of-program factors produced-thefavorable-- results. A theory-based (Piaget)curriculum was employed which set a framework for the classroom operationand guided it towards theoretic teacher's commitment was a goals. Staff planning, team teaching, and second characteristic of theproject. Teachers were supervised by an experienced teacher and by a memberof the _research staff.-Involvement of mothers in the educational processconbined with teachers focusing on . children daring home visits. - Berger found that the labelS,-which areoften applied-to curricula and to teachers, are not important programvariables. Berger's repurt makes it clear that we need tostudy actual classroom operations todetermine the behaviors of _teachers or tl-e actualactivities of pupils which_are._ . . _operative in a given treatment_situation...In.this.study,.three Montessori :---classes.and three "traditional"classcs in a New YorkCity-publicl_scheol. and a community-center were compared,.Ninety-three children,- mainly-of -Afro-American or Puerto Ricanbackground, four to four-and-one-hall ,years old, were involved. 0/.)ervations were made over an 18month period. Assessment included interViews withteachers, systematic observations, teaching logs, tests of children'spereeptua'l and cognitive kills, tnd the Binet. -147- trends theBinet; noclear gains on. trendtowardbetter roughlycomparabletasks;and a childrenin the Both groupsshowed ofcognitive forMontessori style noted onperformanceskillsappeared variationsinteaching were onperceptual range.Nide "traditional" performance theirclassroom and amongso-called bottomthird ofMontessoriteachers werefound among- is theceacher tLachers. in allprojects outcomes mainvariable supposed tobe."Pupil concludedthat theislabeled or mode ofstructuring Berger thecurriculum teacher's capabilities, and notwhat upontheindividualperferenCesand in largelydependent herteaching effectiveprograms,On oral are environment,press."The more emphasis theclassroom learningby: (1)greaterClassroom and-informalz___:- and theresultingcharacterized withchildren inter- general; were andflexibleteacher-child(3) wide languageth-rough_informal_teacher-dialague(2)open-ended andspontaneity, activities, forpupilexploration 'imaginative- teachingaffordingscope forSelf,expression;- actions, tivity-choices ;leeway- range-of ac theeffectiveness outlets. whencomparing isrequired that anevaluator, andteachingstyles, indicate curricula operations. _ Theresultstheoretically-basedactual.classroom ofdifferent -mdexamine ha-s-been a beyondlabels to go iriferit-- andãtith.lpOin schoolsystems. b-etwe-eri-correct ofpersonnel theteacher's The-disparitytTainingandevaluationattitudesinfluencingof accurateand problemin the andcomplex makes-the use -experi-ernmr The nresenceof_.subtle students the---educational -_---,- towaids-disadvantaged illustrates--the--use- behavior desirable-and-may-greatly-enhance-et-al,--(-19-69) by_Clay_ton - vivid-feedback_The. in-the- ifworkshop 1pupils . changes todetermine ofal practicestoproduce attempted wouldproduce of_feedback Thisinvestigationfeedbackpractices -ACon-Er:Cif studentteachers. in theuseof teacTieis:teachers was trainingofsupervisors trainedthrough pre- in -the-iffstruttionalworkingwithnon-workshopassessed -changesstudent-teachers studentteachers wastrained tomakesystematic groupof behaviorof the of raters conclusive, employd.The well asby -a team than and post-testing-as althoughmore---sugistivestated-intent- and. Theresults,in congruence-between observations.of- ar.increase- giveevidence performance. emotionaladjust- actualinstructional achievementand ,educational-- eXaminesthe majorchange in Wetsman(1969) placed- inpriirate; The studyby pupils__who.experience4_4. ofdisadvantaged -students-.-Were-studied camefrom ment _T-remingbutdisadvantagedThe 82students. andeducationall-y-;-- __-setting. schools:. qualitysecondary_impOverished--Ioth---econ-oMically,Students wereMinaAtir7:--group. -high whic-h-were -9.0%"='orzthe -----background-s -rural -and oyer the'eight-weekL-SII-Miiiet7"------o.r. ..before.--beginning- S-th-trefiff--. either-urban were-tested diS-atbialitag-er --memb-er.s.----;They_ andure-re-ats-c5-"age§t-63ntlifising' -transitionat:'PT0-gral conStSted---4o'f-ctitirSra'bre homehigh-Schools-. -- both- in ----periott:---The-control-group.at.,their of -failure whoremained_ -rate -ofsuccess-andaverage orfailing, indiCate asubstantialtwo years(27% below ofcontinuing _Theresults at theend of and 'alsoin teims termsof grades -good oroutstanding) 54% average,and-19% -I4S -

end of four years (26%'dropped out, 41% continuing in their education at the The__me_an IQ. of the admitted tocallege).. _ independent school and 33% had experimental group was stablewhile the mean of the control group Interviews revealed 30% ofthe students a slight butsignificant decline. -problems- during the "two-yearinterval and 40% felt had major adjustment Faculty rating of either somewhat apart or verymuch apart and alone. predominantly (75%)-- personal and social changesin the students were positive as were the selfrating of the students. These findings wera but these instru- generally confirmed bypersonality inventory measures students placed in theprivate schools- to bemore ments also showed the remained at _their "tense" and. "driven-' whencompared to_the students.1.vho home schools. into a very_different_ anddemanding edudationaa Moving di-sadvantaged boys failure and a-high.- environment resulted-in substantial-rate of-academic _ incdexice _emotional .s_train.. __The_ repox_t_. s-e-t-taff-g-- off- their-usual-Clientele 6di it-report of the -private --§-chool Within these the rate of academic failurein the control group. tations, the study does indicatethat in the planning ofmajor changes- of pupils careful considerationmust be in the educational experiences adjustment. given to the possible negativeeffects on the -pupils' emotional IndiViduar seleCtion oh more-than --adademic-criteria, ande-Ven Mdre important modifacations inthe-receiving -school-environment-appear --

desirable. . - IyThthéa.feas-6-f---1-7-- Theitipleiheiet-a-.-tirit.----Of 7thang-e----in _ The _ curriCulum and- professional roles ,_is often difficult toachieve . Pittsburgh Title I. reports by the PennsylvaniaAdvancement School and the _ iththepobrn_in:terms ofaprogram!s latiOn_to Project both,deal indicate ihe sy'stem inwhiChit exists. Tiieresults o-k- these reports .-unaerstanding_ thetièèdfor: of the--elli-14-pen------the-v-arious-professions:inthe -sc-hoo:1--and---frem --the--par-ents process,appraisal :with continuousfeedback appears to-- in the schools- -In for many programs be an appropriate supplement to-the evaluation procedure

.. of_Education7 emPloyed the servicesof .the Pennsylvania The Philadelphia:Board: to_create Advancement Scho,ol, anindependent_nonr-profit, corporation designed new modelS fOrthe educatiOn ofunderachievers:tostiMulate positive changein.the educational community through-staff and corricul!lm develop,- PAS.--,e-lso-eXplored the ,disseminatiori-of changein-the -schools after- . _

The' results of a training 'workshop onthedseof simulation games as:an --:edu-Cational ina.6,f91:low:7up. : workshOp as,valuablend (?) :42%- of the.:::p.?-X:40-134ntS. studr..indipatedr_lit-tle or games:: .-the..:traind44,wer-e-,zthe, ..bjr._Most . .4 kciii...,;of._,sup-potrt pressureof the sChool situatiork.. 77 Ancither' repOtt iCa (7100,s . and problem-sbilo:p -.-464i.4*28:air**0 eate -149-

and members of the respectivecommunities served by the school team. Assessment of the participantsrevealed a growing sense of progress working teams which coulddirectly transfer in the development of The evaluation to the schoolsettings what was learned inthe workshop. of the workshop includes aplanned follow-up study. Training projects must beevaluated in terms of theimprovements and changes they generate throughthe educational system. A project which does not result in adequatedissemination is worse thanne_project, Logic indicates project since it utiiizes limitededucational resources. dissemination is more-likely to occurwhen all interest-6d- Partiesire- involved in a team efforttowards mutual goals.

_Project attempted an evaluation-ofits-- _ The Pittsburgh ESEA Title I _ _ _ . programs by use-of amodel which Views anyeducational program as a sub- systeM within the entire schoolsYstem. This:Model streises-the heed for continuous feedback to program-managersof evaluative information-- - to permit them to make ever moreeffective responses to improve the whole system. Implicit in -t-hiS Medel isthe--6oncePt- that th-e effeeti-ve: ness of any program maybe thwarted or facilitatedby the overall organizational context in, whichit,exists.--The model-also -st-re-sses ongoing evaluatioontinuous f e_edb ack, and prO

The instructional leadership programat Pittsburgh illustrateshow- elements in the-school system-caninterfere with program effectiveness. The aim of thii---kogram was-tobiprove instructional quality F increasing commynication among teachers andby a redistribution ofadministrative and instructional load. Evaluation--2of the project was based on nalre data and-visits to-theschools.--Except at one schoolwhich-was------_recently hi]; 1 t-i--most of theschools_reported _severe:handicapsAli-having egularly_scheduled meeting times. The evaluator found that "theconcept of instructional grOups was in mostschools almost non-existent." -There-. was virtually no long rangeplanning. Among the reasons given were: (1)-the instructional leaders/ classloads-remained the same as other teachers' loads,_and (2)_authority had notbeen delegated. In contrast the schedules -a.t the new schoolallowed for a common meetth-gtime for instructional group members. At this school, teachersattributed the innovations in math,'English, andvocational education to theinstructional leadership program. It was also found that theparaprofessionals, whose original role was to assist in theplanning and implementation of in- services; were employed primarily as- - struction by providing supporting area monitors and hallguaTds. In-process evaluation with continuods feedback may prevent the misdirection..o1 programobjectives,--lead to - -- barriey-sTa-gor-csv-iiii-pleinehtation, alid-a7ongequently- be-tVei."-utfaet-Tran-a-ing of . : . . - ...,. , - .

Survey and Other National AssessmentStrategies

o' -...... It is interesting to notethat:the-dbzen studies .chosen to make specific points concerning compensatory educationdo no:t include large survey studies or any of the efforts at nationalassessment. .The absence of large -15C- studies involving numerous programsand thousands of subjects notonly reflects a bias-on the partof the authors of this report,this absence also reflects the factthat for most of thesubstantive questions posed at the outset ofthis study, national assessmentdata currently available are inadequate. This is not to suggest that surveyand other national assessmentstrategies cannot be made to serveuseful purposes or to addresssubstantive questions . We only conclude that intheir common usage this is notthe case.- -The Study of Equality of EducationalOpportunity is generally regarded asthe most extensive survey ofthe U. S. public schools everundertaken in the history of American education-.----Thanks to the unusual competenceof James Coleman, principalinvestigator for_ the _study,_partial answers__ to some important questions wereprovided.But_ these were largely questions of status :(1) What is the extent ofracial and ethnic group segregation in thepubli-c schoolsof_ the United, States?(.2) _Are_ the schools attende-d by children _in_the. United States__ equal_in. their ties; programs, staff and pupilcharacteristics? (3-) -What -are-the _ _ achievement patterns of childrenof different backgrounds asmeasured by their performance on achievementtests?These questions wereanswered _with re asonab_le_adequacy _ and accuracyexc.epar._those areas., which _X.e.f45e4 to cooperate and forthose- where reporting unitshad wide range within unit variation._ Coleman_.asKed a _fourthquestion_of his data._ Whatrelationships _exist between pupil academic achievementand characteristics ofthe schools they It is- i-n answer to thisquestion thaf--the quality-ofthe attend? ati-ons -of -Ahe--strat egy- impo sed-rupon--h-im, -.become irv es tigato1,--and -the limi t _ el ear est--1.---D esp*t econsiderable- ins-ig-ht -provided byColeman as- with_ this question, he wasby no meansable_ to provide definitive answers to this question.In an earlier commentary on-this issueone ofthe' authors of thrg--1-Teport Tag-- stated:

, for pupils are _._ _ When -differences insocioeconomic background factors for differences between, schools -account statistically,. controlled,.: . . . Onii -I_ Siriail. _ fracti6n of'differences in -academic aChieliementr. 'The -SChoOIS d6:4-liffer, however, -intheir relation--tb- the .-itarioUtracial----_t----: f-- -- and ethnic -,groups. White p4pils seem to be lessaffected by the quality -of-- their. Schools-than-minority groUp pUpils .I The achieve- .ment of minciritypaipils- depends *ire- On the ichool,sthey attefid than does. -the :achievement, of-majority .pLipi 1 s . 'In the South, for example-,--49. perCent more of- the-aChievement: of Vegro 'pupils is associated; with the, --particirlar:sOhools, they attend.. thani_s_4the...... ,. . achieliement 'of white :pUpi0.:..-With--the exC-eptim .6f,-clii=.1dren-7faigit--- --,-- Or* ental, -..f am i 1 Y baCkgrOunds.,;,thiS..ienetal:rest4t iS.: true :for all :.!, indicateS:thc-i-t--.. -; minor:ity gi:Oups .:Ccilegiaii: suigqsts- that : t4is: finding: lt 'IS :fb r -the -*it', -.`diSadvantagedthildreii:--that, Ampi-ciViidt,:tg:,1:iii .'.-6h-o'cil ALVarity::%44:IIIralkit-tteetirigiiii itifOrS,ride-iiia-Chi:eitede-frtitr-015-kht1W------. . relationship between'.. SChool:. char atex*st:4--s;;--#4...:- pupil adhieir:ement iS ---rOTATIyely,: MOOS f ,.s. eVer al of-:the.;:,0&:**40.i'4, 3.:...,s.,-Dri:,,, oh-i-ot dOminanti-y.- Negi* S.0104*::,Sco:rof::*-te01#4.74.tb,Se7-.7,4b..iCh: ,.4.1-e. 're-lated to. puiii 1:Z4:Chi 0-,,e*ent ,' e existence 6 fkc..:i:e*e aabor6it:O*4::_in ithal-ols.,,, far :ixaMple; shows -a SM411: bqt eiiits*tiss :p4t .:*e 14470,?...1:1: 43 to aChieVeraerit-:-NegraeS Attoa .schoalLs-: withkeiitoikiii: .,,:::i6Wii-'` facilities. Teacher quality shows an even strongerrelationship to pupil achievement, and it increaseswith-grade level.Additionally, its impact on achievement is greaterfor Negroes than for whites.On measures of varbal skill and educationalbackground, two relatively potent teacher variables, teachersof minority group pupilsscored lower than teachers of majority grouppupils.Educational background and aspirations of fellow students arealso strongly related topupil achievement.This relationship is lesssignificant for white pupils than for Negro pupils.Coleman found educational-backgrounds and aspirations to be lower amongpupils in schools Negroesattend than in schools where whites arein the majority.In addition to the school-characteristicswhich were shown to berelated to pupil -achievement,_ Gol-eman found__a_ pupilcharacteristic_ which appears_ to _ have a stronger relationship toachievement than-all the school factors combined.The extent to which a pupilfeels that. he -has control over his own destinyis strongly related-to_achievement. This feeling of potency is lessprevalent among Negro students,but_ where it is -present, 'theirachievement is-higher_ than thatof white pupils who lackthat-conviction.'Coleman reports- that- _ _'while thiS_ characteristic -shows-little relationship-to--most--school - factors, itis related for Negroes_ tothe proportion _of whites.in the schoc;Is._. Those Negroes _in-schools--with- a-higher yroportion: whites have a greater sense ofcontrol.' In trying to draw_implicationsfrom these finclings_, it isimporrtant to consider--that Co-lemanhas produced summarystatistics-which --describe --certain- eonditions turn,- describe relationships.which --may --be-causal--or--s-imply--,cain.- cidental. -Causation certainly-cannot-be- -inferred- from-the-strepg,th------of the_relationships reporteci._When combined with _theprohl.ems______some critics see inthe study; -we--are- advised-to-moire-wi-th-cautton-- in using the-Coleman findingsto-determine-public Such caution, however, need not precludeserious thought and considered action. ____ _ IT1 this, the beSt. -of thenational as-sessment-stUdies-to-date, if we -can gain,_actess,:,to appropriate-populations,.if the--reporting units-ar-e-suf=---_:--=---- -ficiently homogeneous and i-f- therespondents-can be relied- uponfor ac curacy, -we find-that itis possible -to-deal with-questionsof-status. However, when we turn to questionsof relationships where ,processand more _dynamic :variables are-imPoriant, _the grossnessand imprecision of___. thesurvey.andnational, assessment---render--them-inadequatef9r -more than _the determinatiOn of suggestedrelationships which for . undersIanding require-more precise strategies. . -of, -ProIect .7-When::one;-rexiews,:...the .h7f #04-0 which peakadqte.ly 7-:;-HeackSitart4i: we 'axe: agaip'y':;confrOnte' 'row lia-th- respect -;-toquetfon:s7OfTstkiviljt#V6com' eTr 73.m ,...... _to_relational. factors , turried-tO7,srn'allt and better controlled tSdies anddecenfralzed 0'7" tOgram Haswellas therelationshipbetween characteiistics patterns of outcome In th decentralized 'data su erlif4red llection -152- can be made moresensitive to variations in the programsstudied.Of even greater importance, however,is the encouragement of the competent investigr-F 1r on the scene toexplore through experimentationand small well-controlled comparison studies avariety of questions related tothe processes of development,of learning and of teaching:It is in the synthesis of status data with thedata and findings of processstudies that the more important questions arelikely to be answered. Public Law 90-247 mandates nationalevaluation annually on the resultsand effectiveness of programs conductedunder the provisions of E.S.E.A. This mandate reflects theirperception of an urgent need for dataof two kinds:(1) decision-oiriented data (aneXaniple would- be how resources are presently being allocated), and(2) conclusion-oriented data (anexample would be the effectiveness of aspecific educational procedure orprogram). The data generated from the national surveysprovide only a limited bases for the making of policy decisiOnsand ls-lacking in firm conclusionS- which could be used to improve theeducation of the disadvantaged. The problems encountered in conductingbroad surveys are numerous and difficult to overcome.Variations in response rate betweensample segments within a survey, orbetween surveys, makes it difficult to_integrate findings or even to_delineatedevelopments and trends.Aggregating_data_ across projects also presents manyrisks:Programs with identical objectives, -such as the improvement ofreading proficiency,-may--vary- --- greatly in their program characteristicsand may also involve different pupil subpopulations which mak In tUrnvary.eXtensiVely in their characteristics.Standardized and uniform measurementpractice& have not been employed.Different achievement tests have been-used, atdifferent times of the year, and with varying intvrvalsbetween pre- and post:-testing. There is no-reason to assume- that testingtook place under uniform conditions .Teachers vary_ in their ,expertise-in -this area and there is a growing body of knowledge indicating that testscores can be significantly influenced_ by a number of variables presentduring the administration of tests.It is important to recognizethat surveys do not .deal -with-data With Come-fibM the man.ipu1aticiri..6±.coriiol of prbg-ram va-fiables', from randomly assigned pupils to specific treatments,and the specific as- Sociationof the-se input vTariblesWith outcciiiies ;These coridiiiOns are, ef..sential for substanttveconclusion-oriented data. Conclusinn-n-riented .data.-require -the-employmentof research- design criteria - in such crucial-- data qualities. as -therepresentativeness of-experimental and 'comparison groups, control over treatmentvaiiatiles, and_ the adequacy, - of the measurement procedures-used..These criteria can best be established and maintained in carefully, plannedand wcectxted small spale stu C. Evaluation Reseat.,!h: Purpose,Design Interpretation, PolicyDetermination

But one would have to be verynaive to assume that, because weknow the limited utility of surveytechniques in answeringsubstantive evaluative research questions, we will see animmediate retreat from thiskind of research and an embracingof other techniques.The practical, adminr_ _ istrative, and politicalsituations demand that wehave status information and as much substantiveknowledge as we can cheaplyand quickly come by. We turn then tr- the questionsof what are-the uses ofnational assessment-. survey data and how canthese techniques be betterused. Suchraan_has proposed five_ categoriesof criteria according to.which success or failure of a program maybe evaluated.These are: a.Effort; b.Perforidance; c.Adequacy _of Performance; d.Efficiency; and e.Process. Effort has as its criterion of successthe quanyity-and quality ofactivity that In the assessment of TitleI programs we want toknow "what -was takes place. performed," "who was served bywhom," "how much," done," "what services were describe the extent other Questions designed_ to_ _ "hou often" and a variety_ _ of _ and nature a the program._These questions can be-answeredthrough survey --techniques .They-can be more -reliably-answered- throughseeGnd partyob-se-r-verow interview techniques than throughself-report survey questionnai.res______Performance _has as_its criterion_the_result of _efforttne impact oreffect_of_ the activity which has -been -determined- tohave occurred-.If- objectives -are- clear-and -an- adequate cri-ter-i-o-n- measure-hasbeen- appliett,-- data referabletb that-me-a-sure can be collectedthrough survey techniques.Again, accuracy and reliability can be enhanced through theutilizaticin of s-econd partyobscrver-interviewers, assuming that measuremen-t of criterionmastery -has beeriobjeetive-.--Some-recent experiences in pupil progress assessment to new efforts ataccountability suggest that -the-pressure to-have-- pupi Is show si-gnificant-ga4ms in-test scores- has resulted in inappropriate measurementprocedures and data manipulation. Adequacy ofPerformance refers tothe degree to- which effective:performan-ce IS'..adeiALIP-0.,''7------5-6---t(fiLt :category, ment'; effort: -Wtth of. childrenin .neecL of.special . services 'and 'the4.-g*-e'es. to" wyiCh':theY failed td. Meet SPeCi fi0 : referable.;t6-4604i.:anddegreesOf-needan-b-cbileCiedUtilAingsurAieTztechobtain. oUtConiei,:data :referOle: tO _the t:arkOtOpu:10:011:.*4 ,#01$*44- g COr-acYtanct coOVera1:-Ory,aret10-eiy to 'n. 'paper, , bu t. . go clOWn Startassessment.. looke '4epentlect--'tP0.2, heavily on the cooperationand competence of p actrtioners k;`,inthe .%,no-i&-:i4:ho: no 11,041,44 ,OVal.#9?bten.,. reportngfas r' -154-

Efficieucy is concerned withhow good the treatment is whencompared to other strategies, is there a better way,easier way, or cheaper way.Efficiency -is concerned with determiningif there are alternatives which canproduce the same results or more for less of anyof the input variables.Here we get into planned variation or the study of naturalvariation -in the population of programs;The- managed utilizing surveytechniques.The former usually requires latterzan be However, in surveys of naturallyoccurring program on-the-spot intervention. important to know whether what isreported as dif- variation it is particularlydifferentwhether the elements alleged tobe present or ferent actually is children for -whom they are absent actually are, and to-what extent they reach the report designed.In comparison studies likethese, the validity of the treatment becomes crucial--is the programwhat it claims to be and hasit -been appropriately applied to the target population.National-assessments have not been-very-- successful in answering questionsaf efficiency. Process as a category ofcriteria according to which a program maybe evaluated is concerned withexplanation--how and why a-p-rogramworks- or does-not-work---for-whom when and where.Some might argue that this is not anevaluation question but a research question.We have earlier taken theposition that the ultimate questions in any-evaluation cannotbe-distinguished from those ofresearch.To quote Suchman, "making senseof the evaluative findingsis the basic reason for adding a concern.with processto the evaluation study."Without it one is left with descriptive-results, -no-matter--hovr-sophisticated the- statistical or graphic presentation.The analysis of procegs-reguites(1)- the objebtive- and- systematic specification of theelements and operations of the treatmentvariable or variables;(2) the objective _and systematicspecification of the characteristics and functions of thepopulation with special -attention-given tothe nature of- the relevant -independent-subject-variables-and-dependent subjectvariables; (3.) .the...obiective and_ sysIematicspcification_of_ the si_tuationalcontext_in which-- the treatment occurs; and-(4)-the-obj-ectiv_e,and systematicspecification_of anticipated_ as well- as unanticipatedoutcomes._ in dealing with _this procgss category of criteria:, weare-well-beyond the -sphere ofsurvey-techniques.It is to be recalled that it was onthe shoals of process analysisthat the coleman Report flounileired.-He was viise-enough, lioiWeve-r-,---notto atteriipt to deal with process in that national survey,,but this absence none-the-lesslimited the interpretations which can be drawn fromhis findings. --Following -the- Suchmen-c las sifica.t ion--it- -appears that surveytechniques -as-utilized:- in the Elementary Education survey canbe used -to determine aspectsof the status of effort and- ,performance.As we move to-7questions ofadequacy-, efficiency and .proces, -dependence-on the- stirveybeconieS-Wogte-S-Sively inadectuate:Give'n the Droblein of mandated national assessment,theOffice of EduCation may want_togive consideration .to-combinations of -effort.-...For- example>, theElementary-Education---- Survey could be used to determine: - 1;:..progracharacteristicsnUmber;4ind,.location, magtitUde, staffihg- -t7,77pattters;-el.-emerits....Cflpirtigra-ograq.'obj'ectivesv:-.e. L7:77

---2 . population characteristics (Including- nature-and- dcgree- of lieed)-; -155-

political, social, geographic, 4. situational characteristics (economic, demographic, etc.);

5. opinion measures of impact; and

6. criterion measures of impact.

These data could be used toindicate various aspects of -statusand appropriate analysis could reflect some elementsof performance or impact. If the attributes under each of the fivecategories are sufficiently delineated, some _ based on the simple relationships could bedetermined. All of this is, ofcourse, assumption of accurate data and generalrespondent cooperation. To support this assumption and to, thus, strengthenthe inferences which could be drawn'from the survey data, the major variablescould be. _defined- and- standardcr-iterion measures established. In addition, field teams couldbe_ utilized to conduct site visits for the purpose of paralleldata collectionoira randomly selected sample of programs...-. If the site visitlocations_idere.designted_ after_ thej-status-- data were reported and the data fromthe two sources _were congruent,there would be provided greater confidence inthe total data pool. -

In a similar manner, if severalsmall careftilly-designed and-controlled performance, adequacy of performance, efficiency and _processstudies were_conducted,._the_data from these small studies could becompared to _the data from the survey-ascould findings closely cor- be the findings. Where the national assessment data and respond to those of these controlledstudies, Confidence -in the._survey-Zata_and findings would be .enhanced. In fact, the findings from the_efficiency and findings from the process studies couldcontribute to better understanding the oth-er--studies and -thus- provide -a- more appropriatebasis fol.-- pol-tcy-determination and new program-design. The evaluative research problems andissues which have been discussedin this section and in Section I are deserving ofserious attention. However, an eX- truiVe- foduS on_technical Problems ofeValuation can be illusionary, particularly in this field. Suchman calls attention to an importantissue. He has written: TO some extent evaluative research may Offer abridge between "pure" and "applied"- -research. Eva-la-at-ion may-be- viewedat---A-fteld-7test of- the validity of cause-effect hypotheses inbasic -science whether these be in the field of biology (i.e., medicine) orsociology (1-;-e-.-, social -work)': should be based. upon_the

Now it is :.intinit ely-easier -for theevaluative research- worker7Ao-be-coneerned with testing some theoretical -proposition ifthe, program to -be evaluated has been developed out..of some theoretical -grounding. -It -is-tothe shaMe of .so many workers -156-

education efforts tend tobe in this field thatTitle I and other compensatory indicate in the devices er practices.There is little to sets of administrative conceived out of any system or mass of these programsthat they have been the nature of developmentand learning. Even for those organized thought about the adoption have been based on morecarefully developed models, programs which trend or an irvestigator's of the model generallyreflects the acceptance of a examination of alternativetheoretical constructs as reputation and not the not__ This condition-would-notbe so_serious-wereit the basis erf thedecision. rehabilitation and for the fact that we know solittle about the educational habilitation of thedisadvantaged. Our major to the studiessummarized in Section II. Let us return for a moment -examination there is findings and conclusions maysound-encouraging but on close From the-many_studi_e_reviewed,_we _ar_9. ao major nem_finding reported_ there. Analysis of the itemsin to- draw only verygeneral and_tentative_conclusions. or program with not a singleidentifiable specific treatment the Matrix provideS us specify the nature ofthe disabildty. We are-unable to for any known educational unable to sRecifY_a_ _ need of any_particular .categorYof chlld. and conSequently affairs after more thanfive years ofeffort and treatment. This is the state of billion dollars spent inthose efforts. Improving evaluation more than 10 programming. techniques is not going tosolve the problem ofideationally _sterile for more money concentratedin fewer locations as et. Some planners have argued --der-taiiify true that- thet-e strategy fors-61-Ving the prOblenis -6f -thiS-field: itrs said that funds adequate tothe task are very fewlocations where it can be 2 billion Looked_ at nationally we areprobably spending about have been provided. When dollars per year forspecial educational programsfor the disadvantaged. of the necessary effortalmost 3 years ago, he gave a Cohen estimated the cost also asked at annually. Gordon and Jablonsky were figure of 10 billion dollars and estimate its-- -that-time by the-Civil RightsCommission to-design a program estimate was SO billionadditional dollars an- cost. The Gordon and Jablonsky being spent bythe-entire public edUcation nually or twice as-much as was Either bf 'the-S-e- ---eitabliShment in 1968,adfiVetruies the Cohen estimate. Either would repreSent all es- figures would represent amassive transfusion. for the peoplea this sential ingredient foroptimal educational development of this magnitude will notprovide conditionssufficient country, but even funds invested, a strategy must be to the tasks. BefOre large additional sums are developed. The nature .of theproblem is A strategic attack upon aproblem is programatic. with the_ manifold natureof _determined s_everal_.tactics_ are developed_tocle_al_ oidered and sequencm4,-- Prioritiesare established -the problen1.-.-Tactics are ferential-and sequential-need..---PolLtical_ - Resourcesare--depl-eyed in relation --te-dif situ@-tional faPtc.ors alre.takeninto accgunt :4111c1.14nn9.4. wheP _ and s9cial. one --isbeiter-pr-epa-ped:--te-begin thcse-and-ot-hei--preparationse--been--;tendesil-----to or-strategy worthy -ofthe evaluative spending -money and may have a program fielrL researiheffort-necessary toanswer-rsomehez.cructi:k of our 'major cities isillustrative of the insufficiency A recent experience in one allocated-to- one-of-the.- of-ad-equate. funding.-- Ten- miltion-doltars annually were conduct experimental_programs.in thirteen .elementary. .authors -of-this- report to The Some of the steps enumerated were-undertaken but most -were 'not. schoors. became clear that socialand program was less thanthree Months old .when it and certain elements inthe political related to .the teaChers union -157-

impossible to imple- communities to be served weremaking aspects of the program prescribed for teachers butteachers had not been ment. New functions had been (they also had not beenconvinced that they could and trained to perform them relations and procedures inthe should perform them). The program required changed Different program , bureaucracy, but the bureaucrats werenot ready for change. for different schools, as if we wereunaware that elements had been prescribed elements should be specific to pupil needs varied withinschools and that program buildings to which they areassigned. The fact is pupils and not to the school effort, while there that after 30 million dollarsand three years of frustrated in these schools and inthe achievement of the has been some improvement worth:of change or new develop- pupils, it is impossible tofind 30 million dollars ments in this field. allocate new and more More important than simplyadding money is the need to kinds of efforts underspecified conditions. For example, money for specific funds in par- instead of a national assessment orthe simple concentration of well-conceived programs_having _ticular locations, _newmonies_could be assigned to process7oriented adequate theoretical foundationsand coupled with adequate In these cases program andevaluation funds would beconcentrated evaluation. Under these but quality of program andevaluation would not be left tochance. comparison groups circumstances random assignmentof pupils to treatment and designed in-relation to could be assured; programelements could be_ specifically varied for studies of efficiency,and-systematicalty pupil needs, systematically the problems of analyzed for studies of process. It will not be until we take the hecessary programming and the problems ofevaluation serioUsly_and allodate will be served thought, time and money that theimportant questions and issues______. by evaluative reSearch.

7 -158-

Section III: List of References

A LongitudinalInvestigation of Montessoriand Berger, Barbara. Children. Traditional Pre-KindergartenTraining with Inner-City Three Part Study, New York:Center for UrbanEducation, Curriculum Development Committee, 1969. to Blank, Marion, and Frances Solomon. "A Tutorial Language Program Develop Abstract Thinking inSocially DisadvantagedPreschool Children Child Development, 39(2): 379-389,June, 1968.

Caldwell, Bettye, M., and others. "Infant Day Care andAttachment," American Journal ofOrthopsychiatry, 40(3): 397-412,April-, 1970. for Working with the' Clayton, Thomas E.Preparing Beginning Teachers InfIdence- -Educatlonally Eisadvantaged: A Cont-inuing Study of the Cooperating Teachers: on Student Teachersof a Training Program for Final Report. Albany: New York State Dept.of Education, Division of Research, 1969. ED 036 460. CoherDavid K. _Policy for thePutInc_Schools: ComPensation_ar_Integration? Paper presented at the NationalConference on Equal Educational Opportunity in-America's Cities,-WashingtonD. C-i,-November 16-18, 1967. 40p. ED 016 715.

Fogel, Yvonne, and Ruth Ryals,eds. ESEA Title I ProjectsEvaluation 1eport-1968, Vols. I and-II, Pittsburgh:Public Schools, 1968.

Gordon, Edmund W., and AdelaideJablonsky. Compensatory Education in_the Equalization of EducationalOpportunityPaper presented at the National Conference on EqualEducational Opportunity, Washington,D. C., November 16-18, 1967. 51p. ED 013 863.

Pennsylvania Advancement School. Philadelphia. [Descriptive Study of -Read ing the Pennsylvania AdvancementSchool-1 Int erdisci linary ITeam-, 1970. Teams,Simulations_Trainingalarkshokz_and_U2d.nachievers],

-Pennsylvania Advancement School,Philadelphia. [Part] cipants' Reactions and Students' Responses tothe Pennsylvania AdvancementSchools)1970.

Suchman, Edward A. Evaluative Research: Princi lesand Practice-in Public Service-arid-SOCial ActionPrograms. New York: Russelr-Fige, 1967. Longitudinal Results -df the_Ypsilanti , David_ P. and other's. _Weikart Educational Perry Preschool_ Project. Ypsilanti, Michigan: High/Scope Research Foundation; -Ypsilantipublic Schools,1970..

Wessman, Alden E. Evaluation of Project ABC (A BetterChance): 'An Evaluation of the DartmouthScalle'e-Indeenc. Program for Disadvantaged Students. 'Final Report. -Hanover, -New Hampshire: Darmouth College, 1969: -159-

the FirstMonths of Life-," White,Burton."Informal Education During Theo-ry, Research andPractice, ed. in Early Education: Current Publishing Co., Robert D. Hess and RobertaM. Bear (Chicago: Aldine 1968),- pp. 143-170. Abstracts of Other Studies and Programs

The studies and programs listedhere are considered to be useful documents in this field for reasonsof descriptive worth, of research or program techniques, o/for other, less tangible reasonssuch as the inclusion of valuableinnovations. They were all examined by the staff, but are not represented onthe matrix in section IIBdue to the variables, to lack of an adequate delineationof the nature of the input a lack of evaluationprocedures which make causalrelationships possible, IIC. or to a .lack ofstatistical .analysis. Many are discussed in section

':.; -161-

"The Racial Balance Plan,"White Plains, New Bondarin, Arley. Education, 1968. -York. A Report.

le e Potential of Disadvantaed Hi h School Youth: ARe ort of the Third Year of a LongitudinalStudy on the CollegeDiscovery Ifni- and Development Program. Report No. 68-2. New York: City versity of New York, Divisionof Teacher Education,1968- 201p. ED 034 809 This report-examines the CollegeDiscovery and Development'prOgr.am, which seeks.ta identifymnderachieving.disadvantaged_high school.: students with college potential, toincrease theiracaaemic motivation, to improve their scholasticachievement, ta develap their acceptance of college study as-a.realistic expectation,fortheMselves, and to_ facilitate thelr_college success. The report, *hich_iM.cludes specia1izecLto.pica1 essaysancL sumwariesaf -a dIun st.udies.,___,d et ails, comparisons of the first andsecond year participants atintake, the achievement for the- flirst year groupin the-eleventhgrade, the the%tenth grade, theeffects achievement for the second year-group-in and guidance of the summer:program,curriculuM, college consultants, services.

-Brody, Lawrence; and others. Discovering and Developingthe-Col- lege Potential of DisadvantagedHigh School:Y*00h: A Reportof a.Lon itudimal Studl ,on, the Colle e-Discover -and-Develo ment Program. -Report No. 69-1. New.York: City Univerdity,af New York; Division of TeacherEducation; 1969; 152p. ED 035 675- This report examines the College.Discoveryand Development Program, underschievingdisadvanta.ged-h4g41-schoaL . which-seeks (1) to-Identify- moti- students with,_callegepatential,.-(2)-toL-increase their,academic -vation, ihprove:theiTsCholastiaYach-ieVeMerrti!HCIO:to7develop -their -acceptamce of .college-studY as arealiatid.-leXpeCtation for-- tl-ki-a,.t.e7-t4rokr.:.c al ege -succ-ess r epar t-hemselmes-;-:44-vd- - ta-f-a-c which inelwres specialized 'tapi cal esi aya, detalls the tharacter- istics -of the.third 'year:groUp 'of,7partIcipantS'at intake,their aptitUde and ,previous:.achievement, theeffects of the-summer program, :achievementandatten4anceguidamee'services,-college .consultants, *Md. ,graduatian- and college acce-ptarzce.c -16 -

Busse, Thomas V.; andothers.Environmentally Enriched Class- rooms and theCognitive and PerceptualDevelopment of Negro Preschool Children.1970. 35p. The objective Cif thisstudy was to determine therelationship between play materials and-the cognitive andperceptual- develop-- ment of young children.Two Head Start classroomsin each of six areas of a largecity were paired forphysical facilities and equipment.Subject children totaled 78experimentals and 83 controls.The six experimental classroomsreceived additional equipment and supplies specificallychosen to augment' cognitive development and/or social interaction; e.g.,magnets, puzzles, dolls, puppets.The Binet, WPSSI, and ITPA wereadministered in November and again in May.Teachers' encouragement of the use of equipment andteachers' effectiveness infostering cognitive- learning were -studied by-observing -them- over a sixmonth -(None of the teachers werece-r-tified--to. -teach -at-th-e- preschoolpe-r-iod-. level.)Results showed that:(1) control children gained significantly more thanexPerimental children on twoparts of- the WPSSI and the reverse wastrue for a t-hird- part;(2) control and experimental teachersdid not dif-fer significantly on encouragement of the use ofequipment; (3) based on observerra- f-oun-d to -be sl-igh-t-ly-more---e-f-f-e-c-t-- --t-i-ngs-,--th-e---c-on-tro-1 teache-r-s -were- -The authors concluded- that_ iv e in fosterIng cognitive learning._classroom is apparently not a "A 'properly' equipped preschool _ _ panacea for the problemsof disadvantagedchildren."

.Carri.gan , -Patricia 14,Sthoo-1 IlesegLregation via Effects .o...n.,ELeMentary: SChool-Children._ z ,Report _Ann. ArbOr 036 Th.is is :.an- eXtensive studyof AnnA.tbo'S.' first SChOol-cla-S-0-t--s-:". gation. _effort-i invo.lving .the--1-965closing of. Jones:-'elementary school and subsequent reappi,gnmentof its, population to predominantly white schoolt.The .regearCh:foCUssed on: the ..f irst year, -of schoOl,desegregation," exPloring aca4emic, . social,behavioral, and _attitudinal_characteristics: (1) insthe. _ fei--red 421)- in- a ..nacially--mixed----group .-frOM _Mack -School--(with no, :,Change inschOol -setting), an.d -(3) in predominantly-white receiving-schoolchild.ren-.-At the end -of year ,:of-desegrega.ted..:'s..ChoOling:,':,.balf :the transfer.:pup.i,lsshOwe:c1- :pore ',POint.s .percent . showed normal...or graaltar. : galna.:in .the- transf.er- ..the-h.Wh.071-e.,:l.than::.ga.ins Made byth,0::::ither', two .grotiiit,..W.ere,,.smaller:,.,.Forty' 'Negro ,transferp.Upils..:(Still inele*entary_redeiv- _ing-:group's. schools), studied in a limitedfollow-Up. two .y.earS,. Were: at .bes.t holding their awnacademically,,relatiVe -tat, natibnal norms There -"ma.S,,nO eVidefice to suggeSt:that,- the:. normal .pr-O,gress .of white. -..reCei,-yin.g.Hich 091 chi 1di en,. Was' .inter;rik.pited by ....the, .tx,.ans:--- ,fer. . . -163-

Carton, Aaron S.Corrective ReadinServices for Disadvantaged Pupils. in Nonpublic RegularDay SchoOls.' - EvaluationofNew. York Cit Educb:tiona:r-Pr-O- ects196-667. -New Center for Urban Education,1967.78p.ED 034 008 The main objective-of theNew York-City Corrective-Reading-Pro=- ject, funded by the ElementaryandSecondarYEducation Act', TitleI, was the improVementof reading.Copetencein-students with reading._ retardatiOn pi oneyear.or more ingrades-1-4, or Withreiardaioné of two years -or more in grades5-8.The program was implemented -in- ridn=pithirc regular da.3r--sCh-OOTeiihciee- stiadei-a- Viere derived fromlow,income families..Gor-recti-ve..reading-tea-chers.,.:_-, tion, visited the schools on apart7time bast's.This grOup Of a1ong with th vi.dence.o1 cwe 4 -- dance _and attitude towardse:11pol: -..--Inter_View.:;_and:;:ttues.tio,nnaire forms used inL.the -pro_gram areappended-.--.'

Chertow,- Proje-ct liedd-Start.:- The-Urban and 'Rurar- Challenge-. FinalReport'.Sy'ra-CaSe. University,Nei-Yojik;- .1468 9.22_ 521 , . . An analysis cif- -tvo rtitat arid ,twourbarc .Heiad- Start- Ce-ntert inthe' state of New -York dUringthe SChooI year -,196667attempted to -find out if _rural=urban-variables --a-f-fect-- the-administration .of Hed- Start- ed in terms -of(71-) programs --The- f onr o grams -were---compar(2)._edministrative organization, ity socioeconomic characterist,ics-(5) p-arent- in.VOlVertient; fol7 (3) pupil rePruitmezit, (4) staff:.;Tiirang f -EiTp arifir-vreWS arid -:--:-ri5i,Tt1iiCiligY.77-.-Tba:ta":'- ware oiiecand:office. files at the centers.All from examinations of proposalsnursery-school, rather thanacademically, -Mead .Star-t ,Resultsprograms indicatedwere that urbanbureaucracy caused depersonL oriented:- a-lization of 'the staff and requiredmo-re written reportsthan small xural- a-dmivivt-r a rive units Hoikeirer,..:urhan centers' had.' better'-'fat= ran-ge of_personnel..-from which to choose7teechers a more-'h-etero-ge-n-eouepopulation' from- which---toreeruit -Children -thin -UralaounterParts Rural c'eteresuffedfrqtrans ppr ta tlork ..p.r,o:blemsand from unAmallah.ility ofsocial. health...;.: and psychological -services., -7-he,advaritages and, disadvan.t.ages. of'Head attached. to ..A,,,,P.u.htic _school syst.em,. are_also dis- Start ..centers...... heing interView .guld-e- Used -in- the cu-ssed= in the-report._AppendiX-'4V.-ts.2.2 . study.- "- A Ibibzl'iography-- leincluded

,. , ', . .

. - . , Cohen, Harold L.Measuring the Contribution of theArta in- the -- Education of Disadvantaged Children.Final aeport.Silver _Springs, Md-.: Institute for -Behavioral Research; 1968. -192p ED 024 746 This research project attempted to evaluate changes -in-the sped- ific educational behaviors of 73 underachieving urban Negro children and Seventeen underachieving middle-claSs white children who participated in the six-week Friends/Morgan (FAA) suMmerdeMonst.ra.- tion program in the arts.Training sessions -on- applied----opserant- theory ,and .-an.v-Lr.ommental design- were 'herd -the- rirt -trE. -6 Behavioral Res ear ch f r the_ F/t4,. jachexs _ and ãssiitthem in developing explictt,mea-surable necessary -fa --fulfill the goals of the program.The ChangeS- in the scores of_ _the- major eEperimenta1gto rcømaxed :.: comP a r is-on -g -Pup, ar,awn r tr.e (no t only -=Til-tCre_ra..CfLfd=ei - Othe --.\-changeS-were 'accumulated.The Flanagan Aptitude Classification Tes-ts measured the 'effects of Participation in the pro.gram on the student" interns .PhOtographiC.. slides recorded the_._ children's involvement . :An apperfdix -contains the *cript of &n audlov_ sual overviews -tires---enti're TIN p_rojTeCt

, Coleman, JaMes A. ;and others.Equal-ity of 7Edutarional_ .Opportunity.. Washington-, D.C.: 1J.S. Offkce-of -Education; -196-6:7-4:3p;:--"Erf-012-275 The product of an extensive. .s.urvey--r-e-q-uasted by the-Civ I-1 of 1964, _this report documents .tke av.a.ilability._ of ::ectualL;educational opPOrtualries:.in:-the publiC" s-chOkils Puer to

_ 11.1.eans ,ilexic-an-Aiaericans, Orta1Ameiicans, andAmerican :Ind i:a 21S .; a S compared with opportunities for majarity group whites . Compara- tive estimatea are made on .a regional as wall as on a national basis. Specifically, ,--:the repa_.t details-the-degree ity -grouppupils and tea-dhelthilii the schools and the relationship .between studen.tsl!. achievementl- as .-meaa'w-red::...by.::a-dhlfe-Cr,-ertfeti-teda.ta-., an the kinds of schools they attend.EdncatiOnal quali-tY i"s assessed in f acirit ies-- suctr-Es--t--extbook- laboratories,and libraries, stick ac ...t t r . end:acadc charactrist3.s O f :the .tes.4he,rs ,-Lan ..IL----':cii,e'=:Studen-t-:.15P a*--7-in thschoors -.- Also in the teporit: is a -41--.11'Ciis Siön ofl.future teackers of,minozi-ty rou.p"Ciardtep.,,,..,.c.**,e',.:::S.J.t-Ar-if"*4.--s-44-.1;,',.-1 ntegration,adedtions --. On ed ticat ion ,of:.,.Minp.r.ities: .no.nen.roliinen.t r:a.tes .Inform ±on rei.evat Co .,,res ear, ch r P:c el:tut es '.41.*a-p pan-de t .abad: among the flin:Attrito--itythd 44*1-ids= ate that Negio s tUd'ents and:. teacher*. ,ax.e...,..1.41,.4.ely auth unequally segregated from theit ":-iihITa counter - p and that the- :aver.age: :-Pup i 1- AG:hie:Vas:7/4*a mo re -.Of rec t:e'd ::the; qua. yin e pupil. .:This.'dOcUment Zils also ava.:ilahle from the 'Stiperin:tanderit----nf --Document's"; U:S .GoVernient. Pr in.tingi..10f Washinic;On :for $4.25. -165-

C. Keith; and Waller,David. Beliefs, Attitudes and Conners, Baltimore: Johns- Behavior of Teachers ofHeadstart Children. . _ _ Hopkins University, Schoolof Medicine, 1966, 16p. Thirty-one teachers of theBaltimore summer 1965 -HeadStart program were aske-d tostate-their bel-i-efscrn -topics -such-a-s-ed-ucat-i-on, punishment, and welfare.These statements werecoded on the basis of concreteness-abstractnessand relativism oftruth.Findings showed that about 2/3 of theteachers demonstrated"the most concrete beliefsystem," and that theseieachershad certain behaviors in common - -e.g., theytended to leave the classroommore often than oth te-a-che rS 1ffIketbdt r-t"t chtld-r-en; indulged in trehavior -a-ctual ing .The more "abstract" teachersemphasi?....ld more _concernfor rights --and -w el f-a r e-o-f- -6-th er-s- in- -tIre -cia s-srmfam--;---Therre- we-re etween- e-acher-- sys-tenrs a-nd th tozrtofPPVT 'ithc&ige --11r- the (The au thor s-su gge s-t ,--how-ever,--th,at- the ------summerprobably p-rogram. too limited as a measureof the kind o-f cognitivegrowth which teacher belief sys-temswill influence.)

Cormier, William H.Effects of Approving Teaching_Behaviors on Glass-room-- Behaviors of---Disadv-an-taged Univ er sity of Tennessee,1970. 115p._ ED 049 974 . . The aim Of 'tit-TS study wagto determine the effect.6f so:Ciilrein- forceitent br the teaeher on theclaggroom-behaVior.O-f '-ecoriomically The stüdyalso friTiEg-t-fg-gt-ed'th-e-rérigth -"diadvantageado1cetf. the_ _ -of ..--time.___-ne.c.es=sa-r-y-_to c g fs.ç j. 1 r arz . jedts were si*, eighth-gradeclasses..Three stUderits ineaCh-Crass wer.e identified by theteacher as disruptive(target students) and were the object of socialreinforceMetit techniques:Taaaher and -stu-= r.e-c u.:ri rag. -a,- o f several weeksand-thi?..;. "- hert Were instructed'in the .PrinciPles of social reinfOrceinent.'Further''613s.ervatiOns-were' znad.d'uring: a' random sequenCe of varied-JengthcontrOl and exPetimentalconditions. Analys,ig significant-_chinge.:Xn _the: b ehay-io-r- t no'n-tee-tfg-e,t- u'd alsoa t r.etyp:e---ii4-*.-e ánct long mlorcrivert,t, .clas stop*: b...e,hali-i-o-r-r--;6179,e,Colratcally can ,I;rcipr-savethe; clas&. a'e".'n-"E er'Fi-aaa r h is rcommendad with .mi,ddle ,adoleS-itents -Forty - -0 0.t-wei 6 k--::+:14tit.- *rilit).-1:1.4Vd ..) -166-

Cox, Helen R.Effect of Maternal Attitudes,Teacher Attitudes; and Type of NurserySUhool Training on theAbilities of Pre- school Children.Final-Report- Washington, Catholic_ University, 1968,94p.ED 028 844 The purpose of this studyWas to asses-s th-eimportance of teacher_ attitudes , maternal attitudes ,and traditional versusMontessori nursery schooltraining on the leerning andachievement of the...- preschool child.Eighty-two middle classchildren and thirty-eight disadvantaged -Children whO attended either MontesSorl Ortraditional preschOols comprised thesaMple.The children weretested in the fall on. the Stanf:o rd-.-,Binet-and- -Pe-ab-ody--P-ictureVocabular-y -Test-and_ re-tested in- th-e springwith--t-he-Caldwell--:.PreS-Chool Inventory,and- the Stanford-Binet. Teachers ofnursery school classeacompleted the _Minnesota -T.e&cher At-titudeInventory, and _mother_sof._the children_ _ - camp-let e-d P-arent.,. At-t-itud-e Survey.. Reau Lts of_ the ;:s.tudy itidd 1 e _c 1 ae_s_lion_tLes scw.chilsix_en s.c ored___ si gn if i c an t-iy :_a11.0307e_d___thahigher on persona17-social- t responsiveness ,associative vocabulary, and total test scores than-middle c-lass childrerfrirr.--atradition-ai nursry..sc.hool _program aisa.dvantag.-e.d.Mcntessord.- childrenalso- oh-- tained signifi.cantly higher scores-than did their counterpartsin a traditional -program.F-Urther findings- indicatedthat democratic _highl_y_related. to ....pr.aachool ... teacher_attitudes were__ niat _ _ a ch ievem e_n t amd.--that mat- eal-- at-ti Ludas...had_ -signif ic a n _ef f.ec t on the achiev.ementof these children-. thers. The College Discovery Program:- Dispenzieri, Angelo; and City University of New York, A Sy_ntliesiP of Research_. __New York: _ _ Researchiid EvalnatiOn Unit for Special Programs,19-69._ 76p. gp 041 070_

...--.-I-nit-s.--ini tial-. y e a r-s o f----o-p eir at i-on- the .C. al 1 e g e --D-is co-177Pr. olrram"-.. (U.PL)._...has...Aemons trate&Eh..e...feasihil.ity.:o.f_providing..h.igh.er:Leducat,- ..tion at the' uniVersity level,..t:o:underPriVileged_ .and...e.ducationally.- .--deprived youths .Minpri-ty grOtip enrollment --constitutedapp,r-OXim-;7. .,_..: a t e 1y: _four-,flf ths Ofthje._tota_l_ po:PillatiOn- of r.DPitutients.., While s!if ewer-than -one'f ifth' of the regularl:Y.-Matri'culated City' UniverSity ---g-tO up s.. .0f- thefirst two .-... _stud-ent.s- .were ',.f.r.om ..ccm.p4..tabl.e.,:dep_r_ive.d entering:c las s e:s ,.,202',CDP,- -6 tUdents-Obtained their- degrees_ -et com--- .:munity colle-ges ,b-y. 'January" r9.:6:8;--rsibt.ti::of, ;these -,studert-s. (178) eventually. went , On .to:.sen.tor...cce1,1ege,s,..,..:;Even-1=f6r.,;st:udents, pot -earning degr ees., .-r es e art 4.--7.44ta ''a.i.4.0iie.a-t6:;O:th0..x.,.,,pl-.0t...:6Oii:i....1.':gál.ii,6,- ,,r é a'iki t... f rbm_ cp.,4g-g*:..,,-,?cp..**.t.e*.c.c.11;:- :irtaltd; .1:inid4i0alt*4.. that : :-th...e:Tmar.lorit y:of expo snr e 1' to- : _ .... . '-CD-P par.ticipent.S ..:Wer.' c.-mmit..t.e.d-::'.to...',L.*Ii, goal ; -eP :higher '..edUcAtio,n .and. had positive , attitudes...... ,,....., toward college.Many :. Of.theatudentSLWho. : 1.ef i -, the "Pr:Cirr'aresumed their education ;:,_or.,--eXpected- to:.reSUMe: it,

.,,.-0--p.00gr-6x... to -:.hel.''OP:.:experienCe:- , ,increased. at- a later, date...-...kiivar- ...... 'the: -pc sal b.i. Ii ty-:. tha t :. st ti.dent.S .-wili., tr:alitif; .s..1.:..t ill7:cri;a-,t t IA u'd e s --towai-4 higher .ed,ucation : to.: elvdi.i...:.,f4inill'es,::.-t.167: M..;MUnitie,,.....S froM which theY came* and. ':to--the genf-era-1pliblie.'.- -167-

Dunham, Richard M.Project Know How: AComprehensive and Inno- vative Attack onIndividual Familial Poverty.Tallahassee: Florida State University,Institute_of Human Development, 1969.397p. were tO stabilizefamilies by reinforc- The goals of this programnormal familial rolesand to normalize the intelligenceing the members of thein offspringby providing a sufficientlevel of adtilt-att-ention and intel1ect-tie-1stimulation.Fifteen- whit-e -a-nd fl.fteen _black families wereaccepted_each year_ ineach of three conditions--experimental, middleclass .control., and,lower class control; they were admittedto_ the .Project onthe child's first_ birthday 'and retained untilthat child- enteredschoOl;.The four Major- parts- of- -thePrO.lect- Vete- : :Progr-am:7--- providing. verbral. andenviromme_ntal s_timuli;(2): Aasieting_Moth.ers Program which-attempted tochange -the. -mother's-behavior an& th-as inflUen6e "the -Chirdliinterreetiial ofkri -Fd-the'firs-1:'''77-tb.- icr is Is cou:n=sel-rtn_g;-.occu-pa-ti-onal (4) healtheducation and care.'Assessment instrumentsincluded, men t ; _ Scales, Schaefer LanguageDevelopment, the Binet, Bayley Infant ..and: As-se s sme-rit 4Occupatiotial - - ob-de-r tab na-;-:-IPaI-Mer2-'-T-t aIning -- ±-es a-nd -,Even-t ences inChildren'S test scores atentrance.age";:(2). meanIfls Of Id-Wer-ClaSS nOt fo_94_prep_ar.at.1on.,b_ehaviors_; .(4) 58 _percent,of, ex,Rer.i.mental._fath-ers were enrolled inoccupational or generaleducational programs whereas none._ of_ thecontrols were.

, ._ . _...... ---D-u-ae-wi-c-z-,--R-44,s--s-ell- A .-;---a-nd-11-1-ggins--,-- -Mart in J-.-Towa-r-d- -a-n- Ef feo-tive Educati-onaI Pro r-am fo-rDisadvanta- ed Infants.1971.10p. ED 047 04-5- ---:------T-tths..--.-s-tudy=at temp ted---to ant--and: g- g a in,s_..s.Ould '.he.achi-eved....by_Ltocus_ing preschool .etto,r teu-D-P-TY children Yonriger than- thOee nowheing ..ee7rviOed- by traditionalP.rb ,three-years 1-9---2-8.- months ,of -age weekly-- = Hame. CrOnp-''-receiving- and a Center ,G.rouP",attenaib'gi. aoiir hour per day cantra1]y::...1O-Cated-.7 After -.. 1725 p ramdaysana,lys es'. of cognitive erlfchment program. pre-test s76-Orea'. ----coVartian'e e of post-test .s-cor-e-s----(taking dE.-tix4..,51.9.00.0.-ar.y. -Tett ,- onthe: ,s716,e.s,on SOci-a1-7-11.a.t:irr-t1"*S-:6-a:14::(1t.6%48-)...',..r,6ir.i.:ritc. a If ezen.z.e-s ...... The reelte demons trete the-f'eas,ibll'itY:-.and''.aietite- of .'compensatoryeduCation, with disadvantaged: infants.,,in_a.rachoolsetting . ... 1. ^ ' -168-

Educational Testing Service,Princeton, N.J.Disadvantaged Chil- dren and Their First SchoolExperiences. ETS-Head Start Longi- tudinal Study.From Theory to Operations.1969.259p. ED 043 397 In the suMnier Of 1969,Educational Ms-fig Service"(ETS)-- beg-an identifying the 1,650 3 1/2'y-ea-r--o-ld c-hildren in- foursi-tes across the country who would-becomepart- -of a- six--y-e-ar - designed to assess_ _the_ impact.ot.Head___St_art.The sites w.ere_ ,Lee_ Missour-i.,- Trenton,. -.New. J.er.s ,--Ala-bama ,St . a large...number...of .The child-ren were measured _on _ vant yariablei before anyof them had experiencewith some or no Head----S tar t -p-r-o--gram.-This report-l--(-the, -SecondL-_of .attemp.ts: __to_ design- .evlit.ive p.rogr .sm. b as ed._:upan::_co.ncep-t i ons-7-o_f. the compIexitr- of- thehuman-organism and aninteraction-model of hu-man developMent. :-SixChafrters-::Pi4Sent: ': stUdy;',.:7--0..). itipteSS-ionS .tif- thestudy ;etiMMunities,(3)- mea s-; -- ures used in initial.assessments, .(4) 'datacollection .procedures, (5) data storage and retrievalsystem,.. -(6) plans, fordata analysis. The seven-th anti fins14-ch-a.p-ter-- tivi-ti es a-f. -197-0ing papers, -.------F-o-ur-7ap-pendixes (c) the ETS-HeadStart. Longitudinal StudyHand the Westitig-

. . . . house St-tidy; -(d)--P.foject . Educational Testing Service,,Princeton,, N.J.DISadvantaged Chil- dren and -Their First -SChool gTsRea:c:V.Start,., Lon i- ._ tudinal Study.A.Re-port .in Two TolnineS..1970.. *1098p. tie the.7--L-Ongittrdiara.1--S-tudy- ep.Or t--Hdes-c-ribes and Their First SchoolExperiences.. -The of Ditadvantaged .Childrenidentifying.-:_the- components o'fearly edUca--,.: Study is conCerned with soc.ial.. development, _ the.envirOn- . .tion:.,as.sociatedi.with cognitive.Jand and---b-amkg-rOund--va-riairkeir.- t-ha-t--.M-0.-dera.tethese' -7assOrC.1-447t1

. the.se.,,mo.de-ra.tor-s---produc:e:.,.thelifluence.-._-_--,-T-h,e-,..po.pulation-_.- -how year old.children -with, ,toc.us_ o.n. thosechildren_ .consists of Through pr o &rams;Ins_trumen-ts_usecL : sttendtwg. Hea_d St a rt andPl1ow --thus- far:--1.ncl-udeschievemertt.--test-&-p.--i-iii-e-rviems-vrith:moth-ers-r-ohser - -'--Va"t:rtins in cr6. s s es ;bbSetVafitins'iirTMOth-eig-W-f,fh."-airrdt,Eli; inter;i- -The --rePOrt:,des-a'r-ibes:initisI.:.-diffe-renCes -.between Start -arid- those who donlC:17:Pcirtland;" children vho -ig.O:_on to Head _eft the _ sample , methodology,fin*ingS:=.4n4:.:f.:iiliiirie plans Volume II co nsi s ts a preliminary repot t - .- -169-

Educational Testing Service,Princeton, N.J.Disadvantaged Chil- dren and Their FirstSchool Experience.The Sample: Children Tested in 1969 Operationsin the Head Start Year. 1970.41p. ED 043 391 _This report, the third in aseries, describes a Head Startlongi- tudinal study of the complexinteractions that may takeplace among child, faintly, community and programv-ariabl-es .Chapter 1 -describes the initial longitudinalsample, based upon informati.o-n onsex, race, Head Start enrallment_, and-socioeconomic _status._Analysesare_. given _ mo-thers-' -and --father's..-educat-kon and: occupat i-on an _account .of.data -collec.tion_ dux-ing the,curxent--year-of- the study ,- when_ the .children were firstenrolled in_ Heald- Start _classes . The f-or two---lines- of-- inves-t-i-gation: -of----th-e --study-- des ign---e-all-s --appropri-ate ere -I ongitu-d-inal and- s tudy---- (kindergarten.: through grade 3).-Thef-P6rdOna1 'Redold- Of SZhOol Experience.22(1R0-SE) and the: Cl.assr tint -.- Se-A 1.e er s-ohdlity). us-ed throughout the program---year-- ree-ord the-- _ dr en 's relattouships with-peers , _ teachers, and..- The children Were tested also on avariety of measures ofmental', mo torand--persona-lity-' development -.classroorn-ob-Servatitivs`.Teacher-7and schooladministratorfrom parent interviews questionnaires and are inpreparation.The cross - sectional study had not been doneat the time of thi"s report . Educational Testing Service,P,rin,c_eton,.!...7.Disadvantaged Cliji- dren afid TheirrirstScbool.,.Expexiences :ETS-0E0 Study.TWeoretical Considerations andMeasUrenient- Strateg-ies . ----Appendices Related to -MeaSures -";--19-68.'485-13`.-- ED- 037 486 -This -repor t--7717-S---pairt--of a compr-eh ensi-v-e--stiviy7-o-f -the. cognitive ; ---per-,---- sonaland s.ocial development of'disadvantaged children. oyeir...the'._ crucial ...period a ge three_through-grad-e-three.... - -The a-ira.6:-..64:;._-thes tudy. i-ar e : to- ;3.-d-e-rit ify --the : c olapioii.e-n t.s- O.f : -e-a'rly edb-datibii- as-a-ci:ota-twd .14-1-.th---:.. _-childr-ien,.., dev el oPment,-.,-.,t-e-.-determine,,,thenv ir onmen:t.-and..ia_A-4k- _ground. factors_ influencing .sua-k-.a.s.sociations,.__.and,...if. -.p_o_seib1e,_._to deacrib.e:_aow:. these inf_Lu-bite-è -s.op_ar_ tp _ --T,h e ..re.rio.it ---f-s-tr-a-tegyand----tac.t ics in-oonduc timg-reseasrch -wi-th the-..diva-d-vantaged-, '.-chtl-dr-eti.:'-s 'Cognitiv-e -drid--1-15:eitept-UaK7d6Ve-loPnient,,..pe-iS-i5fial, and ,so:cial el._ ex_at ti-i,..a.n.d.:;.ti:Le .:.A:mpact . .cle..v....etpliiiiiiiit ,-ith.-y_si.:4:ai, h e_alet.h..-1.-..andi:n:.u1:*:kti!; ri .fa;rtilly",'---theT.'ela.:SSF6oin,." the.teacher,i'-'the ee-hoOl,, upon child:tan of th-e-...... V_Ire.;7:tFeate=r-.-:-.,:ff.;::*::-..0.44***.i.3i::,';:rif, ....; the, ::trie.a--Siiir-*kent.::-:..s.t.ra ,r 7._. the.,i'.-_:-.6m.iiii.:ri.s.:i.37-.;_:..-..apicts., . - t.es.les -and:, .p.r.o.c e d.0 r e S..; ..s:yite-in S... d:d.sli* :-....a n a ,6.0,ri:-.e,:irip.'...,.,-..614(1.::.:eliv:*4*.iia,4r- a i s ....o,f---che-..Tloi:p-gt.t.ii4:4:xi.41.r..s_t.144-.244011:pi- the .-iifti,-.tvve,:,..-::....A.I1.":,7*.tql,pli.4trit.-z-,1A7: _dis-

- 7--c-u-ss es- px..o-jeCt .2..person-Tter1:77-;- A 84: A tar-y- voitnire'0*t**00::::4-Wert-- __L_cl.i.e-es Tb I'', th:r,rdu'g.h--':`4, k ...i.,,,...--r e La t inz:- , to measures lia.--464i:O:oin:::..,--.-re-i-i-ngs ..43t.O.a..;-,:,*y. ..x-ije.n.,,s, .1.,.11 ter:es t , of, ichi.:Idt.er0s... O-hara-cteristics:.;, . . .".q ...... and: -of-: - c dn.-text %I:a:1:411 f.e-re.trti.at i one.;:e.ncyle40:p e 09s-e,c1- Mea- . d, : e ; -4riel., se- sii ee-,,, ;tiy:., t L:t.l.e..3 -,:irid ex: i- to' : prbiztba Itae*SUtes:.-,--2,bj;,.7:t7r.,' .. r,4.---10', .7 1.3,L.-4, ...le :.-oif -::tit.ti ay s..EPO:t4'0 ,rfepri&duCe",'Well 'because o ftlie 1,-5.,1.1'..-,6., ,,and':-t=7: ,46.t,t.,:_telc,t ::Eriy, 'not ,:sma l 1 size' of -the ,'OtitiiialT'eSilie.:1 .-170-

Epps, Edgar G.Family and Achievement:AStudy of the Relation of Family Background toAchievement Orientation andPerform- ance Among UrbanNegro High School Students.Final Report. Ann Arbor: University ofMichigan, Survey ResearchCenter, 1969.147p. The interaction betweencommunity forces and family_structure_ as_ these relate to __levels ofaspiration, achievementmotivation,-.-- and achievement values among Ne&roesis examined.The total sample consisted of _2,826 Negro and_whitestudenta from four schoolsin a large, northerncity and four schools inlarge southern city. 'Also involved -were two follow--upsamples.The following depetydent variables were used in most ofthe analyses,:(1) verbal (2) grades in school ,,and (3) amount of expectedfuture education. Independent variables were -gro-uped -as--follows: -(1) -socket- stv-ucture, (2)- -personality -a-nd attitudeva-riabtes (3). f-amtly st-rnc-ture.-. ----Among the -f in -th-e f o law i.-n-g-: ---(-1)- 1 Err ge between vocabulary test performanceof northern and southernurban high-school seildents; and (2) astudent's self-concept ofaCad-diarc ability correlates stron-gly: withlri-s-iactual grates-:.-andenticip.ated future educat4o-n . -a-s-6ud-y -.41741 oh 4-nves ef fect of race_of experimen_terand approval or disapproval onneed -for-----act.±-e-vem-ent- -scores, itos tit ity-scores ,-and vocabal-ary-s-c-crres---of------Northern and Southern Negro studentsis_ also reported.

EriCksdn, -Donald A.; and' Schwartz,Henrietta.-Community School at Rou ack: An Evaluaffon for' tile-Office of Econolic Oppor-- tunity.Ch;icago-: University of ChiCago,-1969. - The Rough Rock-, ..4-r-i-zona.,Community. Soh/2cl) a-Bureau ofIndian. Affairs- -boarding school, is an .experimentalse-tting in whl-oh loce1 represen- tati'Ved of the community havetotaldeeision-mekinrg --fióVers :overthe co- education-of-. thelr-r-cht 14-r _Data- fox-y7t-his--e-vairma-: tion_were_o_ollected "py means_ ofparticipent-pbservatio,ns, .interyiews questionnaires, as well as from analysesof behavior 'scales and achievemeikt test resulta. data---obtained from .other boaxding schocls, at .Rock.P.oint and____Chinte and_o_thez_,, and-- e-leaien tar-y- '-iifterndl- .proCesses at' lto:ush-"RoCk; --set tinz- bf 'the schools; -the chara-c teris tics

..:.".iie-Ity-,nieS.._.. rety, , aspira- ...... ,. ....,.. tion.S.'a'deulturationan devem ozris for ., ...... dIal...130.11-:tO, ''.6-Agv.40,4 -171-

General Electric Co .,Washington, D.C. TEMPO. Analysis of Com- -pensatory Education inFive School Districts.'Final Re ort. Volume I: Summary. .1968.65p.ED 023 532 The results of -compensa-to-ryeducation-programswere evaluated in five schobl districtsdistributed across thenation. These five districts represented -asubs,ample_-of an aarlier -6V-aluatio-n involving eleven districts .Data were gathered on theamount and type of CE and the achievement-scores-of the pup-ils-part-icipatin-g in -CE during the 1965-66 and.1966-67 scho-ol year's ulicrarTitle I -of.' _th..e _Elementary_ and -8,e-con-aa-ryEducation...Act of . 1965 The purpose -C.E had improved.- s.tudent-- -- _of.the_ study was __to. determine .wh-ether reading achievement-, what types ofCEproved most succ'e-atful,-and whatz pyp.*1--s ars-aZare7associated: th . ment. change....The restilts. .indicated incseased acnievementchte to. CEampng pupils ,o-f.lower.,.:achiev.ementavels CE el forts._ in reading -.. app.eared to -. be the -most. -saccessful .Initial achievement and.:raci-ar.. compositionwere two -variableswhich--corretpted-w.lth:- changes-in. achievement.A' re.lated document is RC002'951

General Ele, c tOc PO s, ._APAlys_t.s. f _ _ ProgramP_ in _Time SchoolDistricts Fina1_. pensatory Education 'ED' 023 531 RePort.- Volurme II: Case Studies .-1968., =1920.

tudies of each of thefiveschooldistrit&par _ of-compenzatary education 4CE) :pr-oskr:ams.. an evalUationkiementa6, and SCOndary Education . Act of1965 : un-d-er Title I of the are contained' in this voltime.Techni.cal featurea and themetko- dology used i-n; the :196.5-6-6---'-an.d-.1966r-67 sch,o-ol described The descriPtion and analysis,.of each di,strict-:'includes: ,..0 f .th e..diirict _arid sample s hCo1 ; . ities ;allocation Of --f-Unde4-'-f or'CE;...anaiyaiS of trerids; ing.fsatur:OS of successful CE";: charact.eris ticsaesoclat,ed wl:th. sue-, statistical cts. t a'; and - :c e a t -da 61-tmm a t.'y Ade I yrtii 6'6.1--nre-thtitl*Lin , addition tp ..a bibliography description ''pf -variables are -include-4 . related' document is. Rt .00.2 952.

ut-vey-- 'end Avelye:es:. Coxnpens4,t.O.ry Education...

coMpen7: i44:0=0firy:Act:tif-, .éctedon-ju- tric.t-s or.,-:19.6576-6 and' -172-

gathered on thecharacteristics of the 1966-67, information wasand their communities.Results indicated: pupils, their schools,in average pupilachievement level in the (1) a slight decline(2) a slight improvementIn achievementof pupils sample schools;achievement levels intheir respectivegrades ;and at the lowest variation in changes inachievement amang school districts.(3) considerablePreliminary resultssuggested that the amountof improvement was relatedto level of TitleI expenditures. The overall study providedevidence that morespecific studies were needed to properlyevaluate the effectsof Title T. Data Analysis ofthe-----1-968-69 S-urvey -Glass,- Gene V.; andothers. Boulder: 'UniversityOf of CompensatoryEducation (Title I). _ Colorado, Laboratoryof Educational-Resea-r-ch, -1970. - o.Ed_a_t a.. do:I-red t in -In -thi-s::--repo.r ---o -_an al ya-e s. pres.ented.. Theaedata 19.69. Survey of_Compensatory::.Education-.areattons -and-;;Impact--_of- analyaes bear on theeva1uatiot ofthe over _ o gr ams in grade.s: schools ,involving 215..;,99:5__.tea.Che-ra,af -15,731,976 _pupila two, four and-six.The \data analyses .are'organized around. four.- general clues ti;dne -about--c-oMpens,a.-t-o:ry--'-edn--dat:-ian--.pr-o--gt,a-MS-Ti-n-..:-.T--Lt_reL_I.___._;___ - --e-heT.-196-&-69 -s-c-hool t-he-dontext- elementary---.s.oh-ool-s du-ring which cOmpensatarypro-- of families, schools,and communities inthe-needs. for -campeneattry. grams were conducted,-(2) the-extent -of w.i.th-_-:_such:.--lad..-t.ars.: as-- educa-tion- -programsarrd--.1row----t-h-eve 'pupil's. 'ethnic-. groupme-Mb'ership-"a-rrd:..-prtrprietyof-7-th.e..pr_acess -of the all.a.cazi-on:_ofr-esourdes.,_:and: ..(4).:;_theimpact of _the .pro_gr_ams.. on academicaChievement, pereonal growth., etc.

and- W-i Ikers Domey A. Comp en-s a-tory---E-du-c-a-tio n -Go rdo E-d-m-und -W. ; -.P-x_es_chool__Thfough _ fox _the____Dia-adv_antaedi:_ Programs _andPractices., College.New York: CollegeEntrance ExaminationBoard, 1966. -309p. EID 011 274 population :is identified-and spécifid:-coMpenea-L The .disadvantaged. in_ this -compendium,-_analysis., tory-- edudation0-rag-rams ;are -described education-in th-e--United and -crit-i-dal eyaluation--of- compen-Satorydiscussed are--(1) theStatds of com StateS".Subj-e-dts specifidally(2)---4nnovatio-ns in school- programsand s-taffing -penzatory -education, scha011.rderVICes, (4) parentand community patterns,- (3)--eXtended practid-es in Colleges .and univer- _involvement, and (5) campensatory eXauitfies-7-th-e.-probIems sittes A cri-tique of comp ataxy_ education in evaluating programs,assessea majordevelopments; 'and offerS some 'Promising guidelinesfox; conduct:in.i-:thesepra:greiria..:A: 1017-nage "DI:rectory of :Compensatory.Tracticet ,-"1- arrangedby ,sta-te,-:out-lines _past and preSent pro-gramsgiVing apedific locations,dates ,description, costper-pupil,-:sp-onsoring 0:t.prujis ,.4,pf ox.matian aboutstaff -and. servicee , -where to: wr,i-t-e -for-imfainMatibrr:- -173-

Adelaide. 'Compensatory Educa- Gordon, Edmund W. ;and Jablonsky, , New York: Equalization ofEducational Opportunity. tion in the on theDisadvantaged, Yeshiva University,ERIC Clearinghouse 1967. 54p. ED 013 863 Civil Rights ,the nature and In this report tothe Commission on evaluated, compensatoryeducation programs are impact of existing of such programs -aredetermined, general criteriafor the success is estimated. implementation ofeffective programs and the cost for compenSatory programs-the report Af ter a reviewof nine current sufficiently compensatorypractices do not concludes that pr-esent disadvantaged students . However, , improve academicachievement in while highly opinions of many,school integration, contrary to the _and _delaying-Action_ dod-s not really solme this problem, deslrable , compounds theexisting edu- until the schoolsbecome desegregated in this of poor children. What is suggested cational deficiencies 'fox integrated,quality- -edu report ,then, -is acomprehensive model for ef fectiveinstructional_ _ cation based_Aipon ten_Specific criteria begin with intensiveand extensive pro grams . This program would would -follow --theindividual- through earlychiid-caxe ser-v-Ices-i and optimally and secondaty school-s . The- model primary, el eiiien t ary , but primarily poorchildren includes studentsfrom all backgrounds- academic competence ateicpected and heee-Ssary who cannot achieve school day,week, and The program includesan extended- levels . health ,and other :welfare_services . It year, andprovides sooial camping _for older also provides _for_work experience_aad resi_dent of such a programfor the existing youth. The estimated cost alone is $101billion a year . 30.4 ,million_disadvantaged children be of edudational-opportunityseems-mit.- to However, the equalizing ob-taining -affinancial- a-ssist- d-ha-tional "prioritygoal," ant the ance will not'be easy. _ : . _ -and othrs. The7-DeirelopMent76-f:-a--Reginning 7 Go tkin . tassar. G. ; f -the,..Ac-qui- Reading-. Tragr atal -An,EmptrIcally- Der-ive&-.Sequemoe, York Analytical Skills . TinaL Report . New York: New . sit ian of S_tudies 20143. -- University, Institute- for Dev-e-lopmsntal -ord fiom sisc-i*tly A three-yearHarlem piofC,t inwhich fiVe-ydat -backgrOunda.,,we.re taught aninterrelated hierarchY. disadvantAte..d Utillitift' the Edison...Responsive -Envi7 of_heginning_:reading skills inV est-.

'tyPevir'iier).,:%4aS. repatted.-:-The- -:ionmenCs7inStiiiMent app,ro a Ch in t ) pa r ..-.±g.a:titai": differed re..7. a wi:th m diti141.S . _ . - - .instructional-events r.s set o f 0 ex 7- , developing a (3 ) .= 1011-011 ing an.attentionalenvib.nTwent emphasis was on !'.-"d'gv.iA r a 024%*tit.4*64e'f4ejce 'Hijao:t cal "13**d ing skil.1s :44* e ornont-echn:o1ogic-a3. modalities. behavioral objectivesand programingparadigms rel&ted d*tail 4* Tiq*:- validation 's tu4i es

,.teaChing these . -174-

and a transfer study arereported.Charts, tables, and references are included. Greenleigh Associates, Inc.,New York. Upward Bound:A Study of the Impact on theSecondary -School and Community;196_9... 64p. ED 032 563 This report contains an assessmentof the impact-- of- UpwardBound programs on secondaryschools and communities ._The findings are based on a systematic studyand analysis of the-relation-ships observed among _the. _universities,,secondary schools-, and_communi- _ties involved in UpwardBound. The study was carried outin six-_ teen selected- c-i-ties acrossthe nation to evaluate a-variety o-f different progr-ams in au at-temp-t-to-deter-mine the effect -Upward Bound has had nationally.The recommendatiOns inthis report are aimed at providing constructiveguidelines for the . improvementof -This study- 1-n-dicat-es that_Upw-ard- Bound has had a significantthe "pro-gra-m. impact -on the studentparticipants, but has had a minimal effect on the internaloperations of the secondaryschools, -the-attitudes-0-f- the fa-eul ties-, and--t-he- r-e-a-ct ions-of - communitiss-. --M-anyas-pe-cts-of-ttrt,--ad-minis tra-tion- and operatloa- of local programs needimprovement.The public relationsrole of loaIprojec-f directors should 15-ebroadened.Above all, it is essential that-- the program-beexpande-d-, to -inc-lu-de largernumb-er-s- --- of high school, students if any-tangential eff-ect_is-to. b.e__realized._

GrOtberg, Edith H.Review -.of Research 1965-1969.-WaShingtOn,, D.C. ---OffiCe Of ScOnomic- OppOrtunity-;-1969. -58-p This review of -research anddemonstration projects includesonly those projects supported by theResearch and EvaluationsOffice. No attempt is made to relatethese projects or theirfindings to projects SUpported by-ot-heragencieS or instit-UtionS-.Furthei.,," -this review Occludes- allnational-evaluation studies, i.e.,those studies utili_z_ing national samples onthe basis of a nationaleval- Since the first - _ uat1oii desigu Tbey___ax.e r_epOr_ted.:_separately . research and- demonstrationfunding--during the summer of1965-,- the --tategories' -of r-6seafeh anddemOnstration -have tended tob&o th following:, (1) Sub-populationChar.acteristics: (a)Language, (b) Achievement- -BehaVibr, ,(c). Social-emofional nitive, Intellectual, ane -Demonstration Programs.;(3). Teacher Characteristics;Behavior and Se1f-Concepi:.;- (4) Parent (2)Participation;(5) Head Start .and the Communityand (6) F.o11ow-up.

176 -175--

Study of the Muni- Hamburger, Martin. Report of the Evaluation Education and WorkProgram. New York: City cipal Cooperative ED 012 719 of New York, Departmentof Personnel 1965. 73p; has been made of aNew York City cooper- A descriptive evaluation provide them ative program tomotivate potential dropoutsand employment as an_integralpart of theirhigh with supervised, paid confined to groups, school experience. The basic study sample was predominantly Negro-PuertoRican high schools boys and girls, in four intelligence, in New York City. The program wasevaluated by (1) attitude tests, (2)interviews and ques- aptitude, achievement, and data which tionnaires, (3) on-th-jobobservations, and (4) other and anecdotal information. For pur- included grade, disciplinary, Significantly, poses of comparison, acontrol group was_formed. averaged a 5.50 IQ-pointincrease over the1.55 the program group improved in gen- point increaseof thecontrols. The program group b-ehav-io-r-a----H-aw- ti-tude -attend-an c-e , -a-nd e-r no-n-academl-c- --e-r-a--1 number of high schoolgraduates among the program ever , whil e the grbu-p, th-dir level ofVocitional group exceeded thatof the control job and aspiration did not noticeablyrise. Their absence on the thanthat of -regular employees._Yet, - their lateness was greater schbol and job such an integratedcurriculum which incorporates important- im-admca-tingummotivated disadvantaged Appendixes include -abstractsof _interviews: snddata on youth. and administra- the program participants,content of the program, tive concerns.

others-.-- -A- Continuationof the CRAFT P-roject Harris,. Albert,J.; and Urban Negro_ .Comparing Reading._Approaches m_ith__Disadvantaged _ . Grades ,.-,Final--Report . New York:- City- tint- Children . in--Primary 391p . versity -of -New York,Divisio-n--of- TeacherEducations 1968. ED 020 297 project which This extensive report describesthe continuation of a of disadvantaged urbanNegro chil- investigated the reading progress teaching approaches dren from first through thirdgrade using two basic- .The project operated intwelve New York Citypublic elementsrY-schools. Specifically described are thesecond-grade continuationprocedures,- scale replication study the- third-grade followupstudy, and a smaller grades. The experimentalteaching techniques in the first and second included a baaal reader were (1) theskills-centered a.pproach,-which method and a phonovisual method,and (2) thelanguage-experience approach in mhlch reading,materials were developedfrom the exper- the children. The second approach was _ iences and verbalizatinn.a_af study, supplemented by an aud4ovisualmethod. In the replication "pilot" method was used whichcombined features of all an additional differences, kindergarten the methods. Related variables such as sex and teacher characteristicswere effects ,effect of early-' reading , instruments and also stm&ied. Appemdilc..es contain some measurement extensive stativtical tahles. -176-

Hawkridge, David G.; and others,Foundations for Success in Edu- cating Disadvantaged Children.Final Report.Palo Alto: Amer ican_ Institute for Research in Behavioral Sciences, 1968.-112p. ED 037 591 The aira of this study _was _.to- identi-fy -those characteristics :of...... compensatory education programs most likely to be associated with success and -failure respectively in producing measured benefits of cognitive achievement.Eighteen well-designed, successful programs were compared _with twenty-five matching, unsuccessful programs.- The first group was selec-ted in an--earlier -study-. (010),from over 1,000_ surveyed..___ _Unsuccesslul programs -were _ _ ec-ted--in this study from the same_sample._Tallies of ninty-one program_ components were prepared.Each successful program was then compared with one or two ma-tchi_ng tknsu-ccesful- pro-grams ._-. -- ponent composition of these programs.was analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatiyely.Res.ulting recommendations. fon:establishing- sound programs were; for -Preschool programs.:(a) careful planning, including stat-ement of _objectives;(3) teache-r-trainingin th-e- -methods of the programs;. (c) instruction and materials clos.ely relevant to the objectivea-; -Elementary programs: (a) academic objectives "clearly stated; (b) --active- parent-al -involvenie-nt ,payticularly aS maiivatOrs; (c) individual attention' fOr pupils ' learning_ problems ;(d) high -intensity- of treatment; Secondary_ programs :._(a) academic oblectives _ clearly stated;(b) IndiVidualization -of instruction; (c)- diteCtly relevant ins-truction.

Hawkridge, David ,G.; .and others.A. StudY of Furth_er Selected. Exem- ary- --Ppogia.ms -f-or -the- "Ednt 1.-611 bl-sad-v-a-n-ta-ge.d ti--; _Amer tca-n_-_Ina-t-i--ti.Fte- for Itea-e7ardh -B ehav tOr al Sciences, -4-9-69. 181-p-. ED 036 668 The principal aims of this study were to identify, select, .analy,..1e, and descr.ibe ,e.duc.ational .pro.grams for .cUlturally disadvantagedchil- drenJ-roM pr_esLehoal: throushi-grie.,-8-e.,:-t-welve.- wh ich hadyieldedmneasured benefits of cognitive achievement.A literature search _(mainly.:-_ tbrough. :ERIC) -.and mail:,inquirieS-f-allowted- by t-elephone con-s-u1tetions cansti-tut:ed tke identification -and -s-ere-Ct-id:n prbces fór the-07-0grams -Sixteen-prOgratis finally -.-eleC,t-ed2,(Sittiated, in :twelve urben---areas -in stat.a.$) -..were visited, on siteand as--a -result ; ----five: programs were eliminated.ThiS report -thus cOntains the des:criptions of the r em-a,ining. eleven Oztalit's._, at 1. criteriatha--t- mo-pog-'ram was: included .unle data available indicatedthat pupils in the-po- gr`A.M.-'had._ 'achieved: ,S;t,at iat 1C41:ky significantly gin n .s.t-af dardi zed tests ,than had cO:-..ntrols;o:r had improved at a rate. ,better' than national.;norms-.-Programs- describ,ed -were: mostlYinner -city pro- jectS f.or- black children,: buP tV9 sexved mainly Mexican-,-Americans; descriptio-ns relate to the nature; oper:a.tion:and 'tea:lilts .:of" 'each program-:- The repo-rt .alSO-i-iic.IUdes- detailed des.criptions of the -177- methods and procedures employedin the study.For earlier studies of twenty-one similar programsin two sections, Parts Iand see ED 023 776and ED 023 777, respectively. Hawkridge, David G.; and others.A Study of Selected Exemplary Programs for the Education ofDisadvantaged Children.Final Report.Palo Alto: American Institute-ofResearch in Behavioral Sciences, 1968.Part I:118p.ED 023 776.Part II: 341p. ED 023 777 In Part II of this Final Reporteach of twenty-one successful compensatory education programs,_pres.ch_ool_ through grade_twelste,_i_s - described in enough detail to permit aschool district to make_ a preliminary decision about the desirabilityof attemptirig- a- local- replication.Most of the programs areinner-city projects for Negroes, Puerto Ricans, and Mexican-Americans. Heisler, Flor_ence; an_d Crowley. Francis...Parental- ParticipationL Its Ef f ec t-on the Firs t-Gr ad e-Achieve-m-e-nt of---,Gh--1-1dre-n---in- a- Final Report.tiyandanch, N.Y.: Public Schools, Depressed Area. . District -9, 1969. 19p.-ED -039 265- This paper reports an experimentalevaluation of the effect _of- increased parental participation onthe education of youngstersin a depressed area.There were four subject groups ofchildren: 263 first graders in attendance during the1966-67 school year, prior to- the parent ---involvement-L----progrest.;--2-6-1:_f during -1-968-69; --and7,- 8-7- . _the_expeximen.tal _year.of-1967.-4-8-,..--and---2-24 second grader.s in attendance during1968-69.All were from the W-yaald-anch- -Public fiv-e- -p-e-r- --c-ent -were Caucasian.An effort was made to get parents tovisit the class- -_ro o th ass t -t-he -s-cho-o--1--with- extra-- curricular activities, end tp be. ,present _at.programs_d_gsigned_to provide inforMation on the developmentand education, of, children. Analy-s-i-s of the data collected_ indicates:th-at_ the ben-efici-e--1---effect_ _o_f_enlisting parent participation-in-th-e----editcation of- the-ir--c-hi-ld-r-e-n -i-na -depressed area-onthe latter's- academic aChlevement-will be o_nly -after sev,eral..years. ofcOncerted-effor.t:,7.--and 'will not produce any large, immediate,educational' improvement.

.:Th:.:Cbg-rritive.:E-pViro-nments of "Urban- Pqs.:s,40bert; :and others---: :Graduite- Schbol of Education, 1968.372p., ,ED 039 264 . This, repor.t describes.: the first p:fiase ofa-two-p.a.t studyl.:"Of-the- processes- throughwhich soci-al and ecixnoMic disadVatits-g'enient affect the early 't10g21:1i1.7..e deVeloP.ment andeducab.11ity of 1.;:rb.ari preschool Negro chil4ren.....,. Contents 'Include: thebaCkgr.oUnii, cOncePtual Con- text, and researchprocedUres,;.:the -relatiOn of family resourcesand .maternal 1:i.fe Styles ,to maternal:cognitiVe-i-environ*ent and cognitive performanca of the child-; ma.ternal'Control:,;Strategies and cognitive processes-; mother-child interaction;,cOgn..i...tive behavior -of: mother. -178-

and child; mother's language and thechild's cognitive behavior; and, socialization to the role of pupil. A summary of preschool project results is included. Extensive appendixes carry samples of questionnaires, interview forms,procedures for administering and scoring various mother-child interaction tests,attitude tests, and behavior ratings, and tabulations of statisticaldata and results.

Hess, Robert; and.others The Cognitive 'Environmentsol Urban Pre- school Children; Follow-up Phase.- Chicago: .The University of -Chitago, Graduata SChobl of Education', 1969. 343p. ED-039 270 This is the final report of the follow-up phase of aproject begun in 1962 and designed to analyze the effect of homeand maternal influence_on the cognitive development of ur-ban Negropreschool- children. _1 (Intents include: -the-child's-school achievemantin the first and secondlgrades;_stylistio_asvects ol_children'sbehavior _and _their susceptibility to voluntary control and regulatn;.the child's cognitive development; cognitive behavior of aother andchild; the child's language;_and, _the-child's exploratory-behavior an-el interests. A summary of follow-up phase results is included. Extens:, ive appendixes cb.rry samples of questionnaires, interViewforms, and _Procedures for adninistering and scoring various---tasks-s-rating scales, and tests.

Hogan, Robert T.; and Horsfall, Robert B.- An-Evaluation--.of aHigh- -School Tutorial Program. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univerdity-," Center for the Study _of, SoCiAl_Organization of Schools,-1,970- 23p. ED 041 095 This studg is an evaluation of a summer tutorial programdesigned to encourage inner_ city secondary school students-completehigh school in a manner such that their Chances_of _entering college would be maximized. The subjects in the tutorial group were forty sixteen-year-old boys. The C-6-ntro1-grOup comiprised twentr-eight high school boys closely resembling the tutorialsample. The coTo- gram- emphasized reading and mathematics,with some atterition given to art and physical education. School related attitudes of-the two groups were measured with_a_samantic differentialdevised-specifically for _this study. Analysis of.the data revealed that: (1) In the last three years of school, there was essentially nodifference in the scholastic achievement of the two groups tested;(2) dt the end of the proirami (senior -year in high srhmol) the tutorialwroup's school related attitudes were significantly more positive thanthOse of the control group; (3) for the tutorial group, positiveattitudes toward school were not significantly related to intelligence; and, (4) af ter high school, 82 -peTcent of tha tutorial group- and eighteen percent of "the control group began college. The findings are considered to suggest that attitudinal side effects of educational enrithment .programs may have a discernible effect on subsequent strTVint. -179-

Instructional Dynamics-Inc., Chicago."Initial Tvaluation of- Operation Word Power.1970. 74p.ED.0-41 977 Operation Wordpower is a reading programreaching disadvantaged adults and operating in Chicago'surban community. areas.The pro-_. gram accepts any personwho is reading below thefifth grade level. Instruction is by means of theSullivan reading materialsadapted to the Edison ResponsiveEnvironment teaching technology(called "Talking Typewriter") until thestudents' reading ability improves to the sixth grade level.At this point the studentsgraduate from the program, often moving on to othereducational programs.This --report -is -an e-valuation of-Operation -Wordpow-er,- ut-ilizi-n-gInforms- tion=-a-lready available in the files ofeach of the four--eenter for a total of 372 students.Two questionnaires, one todetermine student opinion and attitudestoward-the program and -the- -ot-her valida-te student attitudes by using- staffrespo-nses-,--were-rs-peetiv-ely - a_diainistered to_ students -and staff .Thesedat a_ were use dtoreview --- student characteristics and attitudes todetermine why students drop effectiveness.-111-n-d-kngs- indicate th-at out, and to evaluate program function_in the-area. of....s..ea.d-, the program is_eflecting -an important cost effectiye by ing improvement, but that -it must be mode more effective recruit- moving to more locations and by instituting. a more men,t and motivational program. _ Jablonsky, Adelaide. "Some Trends inEducation for the Disadvantaged," ED 021 942 IRCD Bulletin, 4(2), March 196C-.12p. . some..."promisine:compensatory.redu-cation -pro- _TIO-Pgrams reportand presents discusses statisticalestimates which identify thediSad- vantaged population to be served bysuch programs.The-discirssion is based on observations of school systemsand programs in all sec- -tic:yr-is- of--the --country-a-nd----on---interviews-with --over two- hund-red---edu-ca- ____tiona.1_ adminittrato.rs_who_ were asked_to...identify _pres.ently. R0.tgu.-7- tially effectiVe programs.The discusScOn foCuses ..on programstb deirlcip- the p-i-sChool c-hild'i arid learning re-adi- _ness, prog.rams for remedialre.a.d.ing and' indivi.dua.lized..ins.tr_uc_tion, -programs- 'for childrenv-..ThOSe-bil-irigtiaIiSm. presents -leaf-hintiirobletat ; and .p.,rogxaurs .for ,the _problem adolescent..In addi.tion .. the edmca- . tf.'onal.....effec_tiveness_of ..schooli-nt-egration ascompare-d-with-comixen, satory education practices'. The imp.ortance of'admini- . leadership in. the schools, of parent involvement.i.n the educational process, and of the p'se -of-ousliov'isual equ_i-pment.' .ala cussed . Repos ts.'-o.f.LiasisLE :Offthe- pi &grains ref this discus-sion- -are ava i 1 ab le. -th'r-o-iigh ,theERId inf ormat-i-crn-- s tem.An atinôtatédbibliográphy ofthes'e reports f011oTis the dis- -cussion. -180

Karn-es, Merle B.; and others.Educational Intervention at Home by Mothers of Disadvantaged Infants . 1970. 9p. ED039 944 The use of mothers of disadvantagedchildren as agents of educational intervention is investigated inthis study.(The complete report will appear in the December,1970,issue of "Child Develop- ment.)The program was designed-, to aidChildren's development and to foster a sense of dignity and value inthe mothers. One. Caucasian and fifteen Negro mothers, al-1 -from povertyenvironments, completed the fifteen-month :training program.The initial ages--of their chi-ldr-en -who- par-ticip-ated-in-the- programwere-between thirteen and tyenty-seven mo.nths,. __Thetraining program for the -mothers consisted of a two-hour meeting _every week atwhich .they learned teaching techniques -based on the principles of po8itive-reinforcement..The mothers-__were asked to- use.-th-ese techniques-with theit- children every day.Thougb an actual control group could notbe maintained, comarisona were made with_ a matched groupa-nd with_ a- group of siblings who were not tau:ght Withthe reinforCenient techniques.:Comparisons _based on th6StanfOrd-Binet,__and.....theIllinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities revealed the post:programsuper- iority -of- t-he- ex-r-imefita-I group -over---both- thematch-e-d- group-- and- the sibling group. Kirst, Michael W.What Types of Compensatory Educa-tion Programs Are Effective? 1967. 18p. ED 015-982 Data on _th,e la:sting effeCtiveness of compensatoryeduzation pro- _ grams are_ ambiguous.Evaluations have_ been hampered by _alack of . longitudinal studies -and.-ean-tr-olled .experiments andby the-ilpr- cision of-7-tire- standard me:a-s ures_... progt-ffM-s;thOt-e7:W1-1:1-Ch. produce .:incr-eases in learning, 'should --feature(1) cUrriculum- adap- tation toth-e'individtiai-needsandLe-nlaronmenta_l__Lf_eala_itlea- of--poor__ and oregro c ren, ...Laserva.ce tra ningn att-tudes and-curric- -ulum -for tea.ch-ers who -hai:re ribt raja edstUdents.'-LacademfC perforliance to adequate:levels-, '(3) -cocer.n..- for'heal,th,- welf-ar-e-i'--a-tid -food needs, and (4) parent involvement.All these-features are expensive,but high,exp-_-ndttures alone c.anot prograM7-'-e-T-f - The More Effective SchoOls program in New York Cityhas beet Tunable tO -stop the pr-ti-gressive ketardatiOn- of disadvantagedyouth because it bas lacked -qua'ifid teacherS and- individualized -.innovative. instruction:Repcts from vari-oiis studies stress teacherattitudes andje,xp_e_ct gocST:.:Of success : QiIalLure. ...asItipor tent Yariablesin a advantaged _child's ackie:vsmgnt.. .2.. Qtiler ;studies havefound___that effec- tivef,in_dividnaliz=ed, inS;truction,-intensive readit.&.:_t!eams_,___tu_torS and homework h-elpera --pr-c-x-duce-S 'istrif i an-t academic-gains . One study has....shown, wh.en ;infant tutoring started-- at fourteen months TL.e :vastness of Title I programsofffersthe chance-to evafuate systema-tical-ly -whattypes otcom-p:ews-a-tory programs are most effective_ in _improvingtbe achieveigent.of: the disad-

182 -181-

vantaged student.This paper was preparedfor the National Con- ference on Equal EducationalOpportunity in America'sCities, sponsored by the U.S.Commission on Civil Rights,Washington,D.C., November 16-18, 1967. Lally, J. Ronald; andSmith, Lucille.Family Style Education:A New Concept forPre-School ClassroomsCombining Pfttlti-Age Grouping.1970.14p.ED 011 007 This program was"established as- an alternate toteacher cent-e-red- an-d task cen-te-red day car-e programs ."-- -Go-als .are--to- si-milar interactions as -theyhad.- at home.., to-..-prov-i-de many.exper7 __choose and thus _helpso.1v_e...13un-t2s iences_from which. children _Could --- "problem of th-e -match,"nd to giv-e- chtldr-enexperie-nces----in--r,elation.--t-o- that---w-1-11 - -- help develop & concern forthe-ir -needs and rights - those of others.Twenty-seven children.,18-42 months old, were_ involved.Children-have daily contact--wit-hother children of varying- ages, have- access to-- andfreedom-of movement amo-ng- many- rooms during the_ .day 's. a_ctivities.Each room, hOw.e-Ver,' tioni e.g.,_ large muscleactivities ,___sense-perception,ar,t.Teachers ivi dua-1-,---ciril-d-retr and-t-hen---work ass-eSs ne-eds-- basis.An evaluation is plannedfor a_ groups or on a one-to-one reports show thechildren to be react- later date, bu-t preliminarynaturally and comfortably,older children to ing to the age-mixingverba1..izing more- a-bout what itis like- to--be be more observant and prog-ram--has--f-reed-them--t-o-- spend --mo-re little, -teachers fe-el-the activitle_s_vorking.....with_ small initiating. and planning ap_p_ropria.te. se-em-a-lways- -happy .-- - g-ro-upso-r-- in-dividuals and-- that-- "-t-h-e There is less_crying and moreinter.-child laughter __andverbalization.."

. ..'.....- ...- Lang, Melvin.CharacterittiCs and E-ffects ofRutgerS-Upward --Bound; Rut ger.s.___:The___S.t a_te .1/311.37_.e.r As s es sn_tLI ED 9-6-8-- - Burea-u- of Commun-i-ty--Serv-i-e-es-i---1-969--.. '..th-e-----RtgerS--Univers-ity-.--Nev--.TJer-azy. 1 7 Upward Bound program., encompassing--the following:eligibility a t "In--I-the 'pro-gra-my.. student- -4no-t-4vaon:- t -stude:nt knowledg.e .abOU.t-TColl-ege,-degreeof student Lknov.1.- attributed._.t.O:Lalt_:ee.nd-ing. the.prOgraM,...reiat_io_rt _o ed.ie fhat could b.e changes, -the-reof to -pa-rtici-pation-in the concept-- and:- students of the program remain progra.m, the extent t-o. wh, former. rec oMmendad.--16-r,con.tinu-ing . . . in: Col leg 'the program :staff-.-migh-t.. con- .. s,tudent success, leadership,rolses.-that the- typical Rutgers '-tanu:e or_ in.it i-a te ,and_the 1Chara_ctetis tics o f --Upward- Bound- Student'-in Ongoing-aCtivities-T-a-nd.IST'act'ices-at contrastsL--W-ith,-the -Natio-nal-UpwardBound Rutgers, cdmparisons: and' i_c...regions., and r:ecom- ...,Frograms 1n.genaral and_wi_th dealt With:- 'Extensiive data. mendations-for prograM iniprovement are -of-financial assist-. . are... included. Ap:pend.ed- ance, available,film- prograin in Summer, 19691 specialproblems .of . student's. ii th.e p.e6gram, 'andlist.irigs'of particiVattrit.school -diS-- tricts, staff, ,consultants, and.'committees.

183 Lang, Melvin; and Hopp,Laurence. Assessment of REAP-Upward. Bound. New Brunswick, N.J. Rutgers Education Action Programs, 1967: 43p. ED 020 257 The impact of an Upward Bound(UB) program on the attitudes.;motivation, and academic achievementof disadvantaged students with college potential is evaluated. The program is one of the twenty- one UB programs randomlyselected for intensive study. At Rutgers UB students' attitudes andmotivation toward college goals,self- evaluation and self-esteem,- controland responsiIiility, intekper- under,atanding amd perception of feelings ofalienation --- _increased during the summer phases ofthe program.-However,- feelings about the importance and possibilityof attending d o dg e decreased during' the academic- significant _positive_ change:_ was_found tuAents ' _orientation towards _the_fu..ture _Aux.ing_either _phase_ of the program. Students _ranked outstanding programcharac- teristics assensieivity to indiirrduals,encouragementof student autonomy, support of self-c-encept gr-e-up har-many-,- in_ dealing _with program_ problems . The a_cademic_ Achievemen.t_of _/he_ students during the academic yearfolkowing_ their summer experience was positive and greater thanthe naeional pattern for UBstudents. The program was considered_ "appropriateand effective_ for its_ students. The students' backgroundcharacteristics are examined_in the report .

-OurNe-tiemle --Sehools . _Mayeske,_ George W.; and _others.- A Study of A Working Paper.,Washington, D.C.: U.S. Office ofEducation, 1-969. 909p. ED 036 477 A study of educational opportunities ofminority groups was con- the -na-tion ' s-- school-s- are _ duc_t_d to dis_cover _what_characteristics- of most closely-related toschool outcomes. Data- came from a 1-965 survey commissioned byCongress. A five percent Stratified Cluster -sample-,--f-r-om--t-he ticerrt-spub c- elem'entaryairdsecbxtdaty ttilools was used to select the subjects:ahout 650,000 students. (over forty rom -minority g-r-oup-s)from-4,000 school-s--v-i-th the-tr---teach-ers , Pirincipals; and superintendents. Test' and questionnaire items were grouped .int indices that were divided into three ups atudent's social b.ackground, school's characteristics,and-'sc..1, Jol outcomes. Regression analysis and partition of multiplecorrelation were used to_txursue the main ques.tions.). Mej or" findings-r -The -inflmemceof the school cannot be 'sepatated from that of thestudent's social back- .gr.ound _and mice versa--; S.chao-l-s;- e-xer--ta -greater-irff-Lu-ene-e in terms af -both attitude and achievement, on studentswho "have relatively high socioeconomic status,- are-either white orOrientalAmerican, and come from homes where b_oth parentsare toge-ther. . A schoo.l's physical facilities seem unimportantcompared With its personnel... The .most important personnel.characteristic-: is experience of facially imbalanced eduCational, settings . adhool outcomes become .increaeingly related to the 31 achoOl indides .the longer the student stays in school - (Complete findings and supporting data are included.) -183-

Mc Dill, Edward L.; andothers.Strategies for Success in Com,ien- satory Education: An Appraisalof Evaluation Research.Balti- more: Johns HopkinsPress, 1969.83p. This study addreses itself tothe quality of evaluationresearch education pragrams ,the-knowledge bas-ed7on sach onevaluations compensatory as to the effectivenesso-f compensatorY education, and the implications of the datathat need tobe examined -for future planning of such programs andfor designing studies to test their effectiveness.Research findings on Head -Start,-Ele-mentary--- and Secondary =Education Act(ESEA)- -Title I, and Upward Bound programs,- along with 11 _locally_funded programs a.re -described-and reviewed Most notable, reportedly, o.f thelocally funded. pr_o_gre.ms _ are the Bereiter-EngelmannAcademic Program -(1964,Champaign-i----IIli- mois) and _th-e- Peabody College Early_Training Project (1959, Nash- ville, Tennessee), which are alsodescribed in detail. Recommen- dations for fund allocations-favor-the sup-port- of programs with- . careful evalu;a-t-ive techniques--built-in--(or "control program") and a small number_ of speculative_and high.....risk programswhchcou1&_.._ proceed without excessive review and withslow evaluation; the pressing need7,--for -effective compensatoryeducation--is-cited as justifying novel experiment prograMs-...._ Alsorecommended is the treatment of the large majorityof programs as falling into a category of compromise in regard to programspecificity.

National Advisory Counc.il; .o.nthe ;Education.. of .the. Disadvan.tage_d.,. _ Washington,., 1X.0 TitleI _ESEA: ..A FoUrth Annual Report. 1969.... .94p., --ED _1037 5.20 The-7--ma in 7f-6c u s.o:f -this ESEATitleI program -..r-dv:texT.--.--f-o-t19697' is on 'the problemareaS- the.-National AdViSory CoUncil on theEduca- DAS ad,isian t .feeLS seems to-:dese-r-v-e th.e-early . _report -in. 196-6,-, which -the.-Council -attenti.on of a.-- new, Admints-trat-ion and.--Congreas Major reCOtiMenda- _t ions o-1:lows.:-(1). -Off ice-: of -.-Ed-ucat i-on(0-E-).- .a special effort., to diSseminat-e. exaMples --ofdemonstrably successful .compenSa...t_o.r7y .edu_catio-n- p-r-og-r-ams ,su-ch :the s el e-et 6-1 -twe-n-ty- one- .successful projectsdeScribed lin a special s.upplement in..: this report,(-2)- CE sh-o-Uld deSig:riate a single visibly..plaCe_d. official . a1.1 -ispeCt.s of Title I--.'partic-ipation.by: nortpubli'c- school. children.1 .(3)OE should show state ancloca] ..*pe SOnn el: the f.U.11,..;., kultd-s:-.for 'PO ESEA Title I gli-0414 -L.COntinUe&LiSubs t anti a -00/: 'writ ten; a dil.er:ed-.to.;:::, ,r4e:Wf*0*-1::nist.tr*i-th).'n777is,'urged... to-7:20-ff tive ..- Le ader.ShiP:714:4, school desegregation and torefuse to bad:k.- down t.-1:410 should- LutoVeY'qV±.Okly..:-to f4.n. s:Ili nd, ;Hi 7 billion Api lie 44 e4 are corn- t 1.e mu'ni-ty, c,a;:_$, chil-dre* 'and -184-

National Institute for Child Health and HumanDeveloPment, Beth- esda, Md.; Public Health Service (DHEW),WAshingtOn, D.C. Perspectives on Human Deprivation: Biological,Psychological, and Social.1968.329p.ED 032 '687 The work of four task forces on humandeprivation is reported. Aspects of deprivation treated includepsychosocial deprivation and personality development; influences ofbiological, psychological, and social deprivations upon learningand performance; socialization and social structure; andbiological substrates of development a-nd behavior.For each aspect, research isreviewed and auggest.ions are madeor- f-utur-e---re-sear Als-o----provid-e-di26- a syntheais of _a two-day conference onresearch policy -for -psy-ch-o- social deprivation which concerned itselfwith the areas mentioned above. _ O'Donnell, Carolyn, Comp.Head Start -CRIB.Childhood Research Information Bulletin.Selected Resumes of Early Childhood Research_ Reports.Bulletin No. 1.Urbana, Ill.: -ERIC- Cleax--- -- inghouse 021 Early Childhood Education;National-Laboratory _ctin Early Childhood Education, 1969.55p. ED 025- 318 This compilation of 57 abstracts is directed tothe educational community interested in researchactivities related to- Head Start. The purpose of Volume I is to publish resumesof current research reports involving Head Start children.The research proje-c-ts -are concerned -w-it-h ethnic f-actors, -evaluationof Head Srarr p-rogr-ams, community influence, teacher effectiveness,bilingual concentration, audiovisual equipment, physi.calfacilities, parent involvement, and followup studies.CRIB will be published biannually.

Peerboom, Pear-1.Repo.rt on Slimmer 1967' 'Site Visit's toPreTitle Compensatory Education Prograths.Washington, D.C.:U.S. Office of Educatibn, Office of Program Planningand Evaluation, 1967. 87p.ED 016 723

This survey was designed to provide operationaldetails . about compensatory _edueation. pr_ograms_th:et have :been _in or----a- relatively long period and are-thereto-relikely to-have. adequate bases for meaningful eyalu_atiOns of :theirresults, land to spot- ----li-ght good -programs-with .implications f-or-nation-aI- -educational policy Thote prograins: Were selected which had_gposl.,:aVailable evalua-tions-, could produte data".---t-67..t-uppoit and- promised 'delineation of c.1,ommon.-'eleMenta intuaCets. -Good programs -generally requ-ired high p.upll experidittres- andadded 'regular and specialized_ staf f.Success-tul prog-rams- of fered--- a-:greate-r-.--numb_er of more Inten-sive special ter-vices thnn-les'ssuccestIni programs did .The singl-e :moat -,impor.taimt elei'aent in A.pr:Ogramts success was the quality o'srf the instrUctiOn .by tencherswho felt empathy for the -185-

Successful programstriedto provide aless struc- disadvantaged. atmosphere than theordinary classroomoffers, tured and formalindividual needs.Despite the claimof some edu- and recognized that compensatoryeducation is mosteffective cational experts and preprimarypupils, the mosteffective wnen offeredto primary and highschool programs weredesignedfortheupperwere elementary set up on acontrolled grades.Relatively few programs conducted, experimental basis,and, where evaluativestudiesThe were bulk of this outcomes were oftenambiguous orquestionable. education is adescription of eachof the compensatory projectsdocument participatingin the survey. I Projects- Posner, James.Evaluation of"Successful" Pre-Title in CompensatoryEducation.1967.89p. various definitionsof "disadvantaged,""compen- This report cites "successful" projects.-It discusses in-- sa-tory:education," andcriteria of success:increasing learning detail three principalthe school as anork-anization, andincreasing rates, stimulating interaction.It goes-intoseve-n -the communicationand amount ofluat-io-ns o f-- comp ens ato-r-y---edu-c di f f icu 1 tles- 4n- -car ryg ou-t ev-a instruments, prograns:plausibility of inferences,'relevance of ----- defirition of-outcomes,u-ncertain-ty-of ov-er time,c omparisonwith norms, and_resistance .to-evaluation.: Throughout the report,specific examples arecited and discussed. Conclusi:Ais and recommendationsare: (1)evaluations showambigu- ous results;-(2) compensatoryeducation funds shouldnot be- spent -pr.ixaarily on one oranother age group-alone;(3) of perhapsthe- mos'c signif-itantvalue- ar-e programsactomplishing eval- _actualization of instructio-n;_(4)a- greatneed ex-ist_s far_ m..nrP uat- on and feedbackto admini-stratorsof programs. Scott, Myrtle; andotherl:An Analysis ofEarly ChildhoodEduca- tion Research andDev-el-opmen-t.--Urba-na-,I-1--1 .: Nattanal-L-a-bo-r-a- tory 0 p. EarlyChildhood EducationNationalCoordination_Cen_ter 1969 319p.ED 039 028 This volume .organiz.esinformatio.n--on .7-7-programs --ea-rIy--ch-IIdhOod educetiorr.----Goal-s-a-nd---objec-ti-ves-of-:thefor- inrpleMen'ting-thepro- revie,wedr-ar-e-: describedand thest:rategles and7 the probleMssileonn- grams are dri.scusSed.Organizational factors-. -.1,s---a-:shor-t------ter-e-&-kn-- theprograms-a-nd-proj-ects are- consider.ed-.:-.--.:-Ther-e. diScusaion of theconclusiOns andim-PliCationsofthe_ preCeding. of :-ap-pendixes,r-wfii-chlist.'prOlgrams: of the -N-a- :The volume consists ,-.::-.1:1R6-4-Y:-_-4b.:;41-1-gr-p---e'v tionálLaborat nEa.r1:37___Ch'ild-h0-.6-d--.'E4-.UCatLaboratories,.a.r.d. ton Cooperative opment:i.,:enters,.2.6..ezionalEducational af these programsand Research Proiects, The goalS and obiectives o projects 7a-re.-listed,: andt--i--E-d-ii-c-yay...Oheett areprt-07-14.64...---. and gram is summarized-acc-c-rding to staff-;-- goa:ks--i--tne-thodg-,':-the 77 pro c.harActeri,Sti_esf ce 'U.aers AlSofITistedHfOr eah of to grdutat are eXP.ected..-resUlta-.; eValnatiOn.procedures, r:elatio:nship-activ- other center pro.trama,and 'center focus.TIMe SChedults 'and ities within each .program aregiVen. 3igel, Irving E.; andOlmstec,Patricia.Modification of Clas- sificatory Competence andLevel of RepresentationAmong Lower Class Negro KindergartenChildren.East Lansing: Michigan State University, HeadStart Evaluation-andResearch Center, 1967. 72p.ED 021 608 The basic hypotheses were(1) children with detailed exposureto objects would increase inknowledge of the complexityof objects but would also exhibit acorresponding increase inobject-picture discrepancy, (2) childrenexposed only to pictureswould show minimal object-picturediscrepancy but wouldexhibit a lower res- pons-e- -r-eperto-i-r-e-,--and (3)- chi-l-d-ren usingobjects followed by pictures would show mostincrease in classificationskills,- exhibit- ing less object-picturediscrepancy.The sample consistedof 117 children of lowersocioeconomic class fromkindergarten-of - representative inner-city,-lower cless sc-hools.Tests_ administered mere_ _the_ObjectPi_ctu.r_e_ Ca_te_g_o-rization _Tes t Haptic_ Teetrain- tor Encoding Test,child'sResults___irLdicat_e_that_classification ability to employgroupin-g- and--scoring does- -enha-nce the the variety of c-r-iteria-by able-response-s, aswell- as Increase arLd. appendixesre which to classify..De_tail_ed results, _tabl_e_s2,.._the Sixth Work Conference included.This paper was presented at- - - on- C-urrieu-l-um i-n Dep-r-esse-d- Ax-e-as-Teach-ers--Go-1-1-ege-,- Columbia University, June1967. . _ Sigel, Irving- E.; andOlmsted, Patricia.Mod-l-ficat-i-on of Cogni-t- Amo=rig Lower_=Ciass Negro.Children: A Follow-up-Tr-Ain-- ive -Detroit: Merril..1=Palmer_In_s_titute; .ing Study.Report Number 6. East Lansing: MichiganState, University, HeadStart Ev_a.ltion and Research, 1968.12dp.ED 030 480 The four -purposes- -of thiss-t-xrdy----wer-e-- (-1)7 to---te-S-t-- f.e..c_ts...o.f.__clas_sifi.ca.tio_n _training .(CT)_ _on disadvantaged:black... (2), to eValnate _t-he effectsOf reintrOdUcing CT tothOse children, CT ae- fo-rage--fireff--6-d-S(5---a-Wd6 --- Itelne-d;(3-)H- t& iIPà± (AT): yeArs ,and (4) to compare ,C.T.Vith .attention- training p f the 69.--7dhlydren usedinthis Study, :_thirtyhad- tet-eived_CT,...the. _year be.fore, _end-thirtyn_i_ne:.__Iia.d:.recet_vedna...train.ing...(NT)_. --focuses.--o-n-th-e many-attributes--of---objeots-- th-a-t ba.s .fci.r gr:.auping. AT --te:a.ches7-::tive-:.th-ild..:.- to_.:fo .attribu_tes_ and .to were...pre-. arrd 11.59 Of theMj. six .group's:- CiTi;CT _..(.th.e symbols signifyint_..that -thegrOup _received CTthe previbus year 'and _the_ current .(2)..NT-tc.T7,(3) CT7-AT.,(.4 ) _NT7-AT , (5)- CT-NT, and (6) NT-NT.-Pretraining scOres on ab.atteri of grouping-:task.s"tiltri:cated that-the-Pr-eifions..ear's traininghad had a .:ilas:tiLng-:eff-ec-t-, at leat--iti--f-a-cl:lit.atTinga'more-f-±extb-l-e---a-pp-roach td classification inthe--c-urrent year . 7ichi...1dren -shoved- a aigniticarit-increase in groupingre-sp-on-s-es on .pOstteSt-s.: -187-

Silverman, Ronald H.; andHoepfner, Ralph. Developing and Evalua-. Specifically Designed forDisadvantaged Yoxith. ting Art Curricula 97-p.- Final-Report. Los Aneles,: CaliforniaState College, 1969-.- ED 030 707 Studied was the effect of arteducation on productivechanges in perceptual, cognitive, andattitudinal styles, and onthe art aptitudes of disadvantagedyouth. The study examined_the assumption implicit in many school programsthat art educationis-somehow beneficial to poor and minoritygroup-students. The-research - of seventh-grade artclasses into experi- - design divided teachers orienta- mental and control groups. Both groups had pre-experiment tion sessions and anopportunity to develop a"breadth and depth Experimental group teachers-weregiven informa- semester plan." learners and the structureof tion on the nature of disadvantaged The art as well as anexperimental text and certainart materials, salient finding of the study wasthat the art teacher, notart per se, is ehe k-67 tobringing ab-out b-ehavioralchanges in disiavantaged. students.,

Singer, Harry, Effect of Integration onAchievement of ngloa, Blacks, andMexican-AMericans. Riverside, 'Cal...., 1970. _2:9p.- ED 041 975 Integration Riverside Unified SchoolDistrict, California, jus- and_educational grounds,provided tified on moral, legal, social, effects a naturaltime-series experiment fortesting che_unexpected of lateral transmission of peer groupvalues and normalizationof of Angkos (81.5percent), blacks instruction on the achievement ATtel 1-3 1 percent), andMexican-Aiiericans- (10.Tpercent). years integration for thevarious groups, results wereanalyzed 19_66-63_post-fIntegrationdata_with_19.66_pre-inte- by comparison. of grades. gration cross-sectional datafor primary and intermediate Interpretation of these analyses supportsthe Coleman Report con- achievement was not reduced,but clusion only partially: Anglo due to inte- black and Mexican-Americanachievement was not improved _.gration---Determinanes other than-phy-s-icalintegrat4on--very psychological-and social integration--haveto be consideredfor this Plans and future continuing_ _disparity in academigachievement. research, based on differentialinput lor attaining equaloutput, are aimed in thisdirection in the Universityof California--school district cooperative teacher educationand research prOgrams - When these plaus become operative,then a test of -consequencesof koxe7c,phisticated type_-_pil_tntegratl_on -onthe achfevemenL_ind adjustment of Anglos, blacks,-andMexican-Americans would be available. -188-

Tannenbaum, Abraham J.An Evaluation of STAR onthe Effects of Training and Deputizinglndigenous.Adults to Administer-aHote- Based Tutoring Program toFirst -Graders. in.anUrban-Depressed. Area.. New York:Mobilization for Youth,1967.. 33p-__. ED 013 252 To raise the literacylevels- of-disadvantaged-ch-ild-ren--through- the use of indigenousnonprofessionals in a home-basedtutoring program the Supplementary TeachingAssistance in Reading-(STAR) program offered reading readinessinstruction to 490first-grade childr-en -of 1-ow-e-r--class Pu-er to Ric-a-nor-igi-n.-Mo-n-o-l-ingual---an-ri-b-iling-ual -non- professionals ei-ther tutored thechild in the home withthe-pa-r-ent-- observing and supplementingthe instruction or taughtthe parent directly and had -no contact-with-the child.The -less.ons in read--= --ing- read-iness- wereorganized ar-o-un-d -code- breaking,for-mal-- and_v_istral-perceptual . exercises-.The STAR after six months on the basisof the scores on ninetests of ii-ine- teer STAR children,-twelve STAR dropouts,-ninety reading --clinic -children 'whoreceived-direct-helpf-rom reading -specialists-,.and tw_enty-th.r_ee _controls . __The._prep.r.o_gr_am. functioning___level_of_ _ STAR children was not availablefor comparison.The results gen.- ed -th-a-tthe- STAR chi-ld-r en had hig-h -erall al-1 nine y---i n-d-ictestsj than theother groups.However, in comparisonwith the national norms of theMetropolitan Readiness Tests,the STAR children were- functioning only- at an"average .readiness status,' efforts.- --The-possible-differe-nce-s -----d-e-sp-i-te-the special Intervention--recre'ived;direct tutoring :fr_om-the nonpro---. --between STAR pupils who th_e_par_ent _trained -fessional ald-es and those_whorezz.i.ved: help- from_ by the aide were notsig.nificant....NO-attemp-t viai-inide7Co_correlaie parent involvement andpupil achievement. Ef teCts In-:Residence _ Tanner, ,Daniel; and Lachica, Sumner Proiram On 'theAr_tademic--Thar -performance ofUnderaChieVing Disadvantaied -Hizh 17967-.-Eb .012-677 t4--Tdent-ify"--diOadvantaged7yOU-th with--Undis" A New Ybrk C1 t. pro gra _. covered c_olle.ge. potential at theencl-d1_ninth. grade.;_. to imp_rome.:their achie-vement-.:i-n .schoo o-r k to develop-. their- expec- -and to--imprOye th-ei-rchanc-es f.or suc- ta-tions fOr -collegeis-deacr.ibe-d--..--During entrarice; the spring 579 disad- - cess-- in college -On the baais -o-f---earlie-r-school vantaged- boys and girls-Were--Serec-tel_ perf_o_rmance., severesoCloeconomic_ handicaps ,_s tandardi-zed-r_-__tes t -and. co UnSelar a.-nd-t-each-e-r--re-comme-ndations-.- -expe-r-imental group .of 154:Students.randOinly ohoaen from the group wasgiven a special eight-week;in-residence sumMer Program onthe Columbia University Campus--an Upwa-rdBoirrrd--Pilot Project de-signed to overcome educationaldeficiencies.,-:develop improved attitudestoward learning, and, develop more--e.ff-ett-ive-study--h-ab-i-t-s.This wasfl lowed by A spcia1 s.chool-year program-giVen in five high school development centers, including tutorialservices, curriculumguid- 19 -18 9 -

ance, a cultural program,remedial work,,block-time classes, and individualized instructian, The control group of 424 students WAS exposed only to'thespecial sch.olyear program. At-- the end of_the school year, the .two groupswere compared for grades, regents examinatiom scores,attendance, and dropouts. The experimental group showed a slightadvantage. Further results and recommendations are given. Tables-and references are included. This paper was presented at theAmerican Educational Research Association Meeting (New York City,February 18-, 1967).

Teele...James E. The_Study.of,Prc_j_ect.Exodu.s.:__S.Chool_Racial _Integration Project_in_Boston,Massachusetts. . F-imal Report. Boston: Harvard School of PUblic Health:,Department of Mater- .nal and Child Care, .1969. 112p. ED 036 603 project uses the_open enrollment This voluntary-school integration. _ _ _ _ plan of the Boston School Departmentin transporting Negro children om p_r_e_domimant_ly -Negr-a-s-c-h-o a-Ls - dis t-r a ci a 1 ly balanced schools inother parts_of_Bostan._It has _ involved private financing, intra-citybussing, ,and the initiative and participatlon of working class ghettoresidents- Attitudinal apd achievement tests on.the-ohildren-partiaipating. in the_ProTect _Exodus in grades threeto etglitWeX.eObtained_at .th.e following_ times: the fall of 1967 am..1 the springof 1968. Similar data-were coIlect-ed on a- comperigon -group of-chtidren not enrolled-1n Exodus and attending predominantly-black,schools-intheir-meighbarhood. _Collectiom-of change data-was completedfor-151 children. It was found that the children in Exodusshowed greater improvement in- change in achievement test-s-cores-,although-they---did:Wat-show-gteate-r- ifate--ca-ntrol.- Furth-er-data-analstS -andresearch-are: being-done to try to more clearly locatethe factors related to improvement _tn_both.the Affective and _c_ognitiv_e__areas-for-Exodus-and-non-Exodus children.

Tulane University-,-New Orleans::.HeAd-StArt-EvaluAtianand Researnh. Cem-ter---He-adStart-E-valmatian-and-Researchenter,---Annual -Report 1968,--830, ED 029. 705 To_measure -the:effects of. group: pr-ogramedimstruction aspe_cts of reading in Head Start .children,theSullivam Associates Readi- nes-s--in -Lang-ua-ge Ar ts --se-rico wa-s---us-e-d--- with . a p-pcxxima-t-ely f if-teen childrem:ineach of five-.-Head Start-classes. An elua1-m-umber'served. as_:co_ntrols -Pretests.andposttest wereLee-Clark-Readines-s--Te.st, Murphy-Durrell Analysis,'and -Gates ReadingReaditesS'Tests. Data provided evidence that-the-eXperimental groups.had greater, achreve- 'Aent in (1)_recognition.of Letter.symbals, .(2)-identifying names- ofletters,:--and (3)'familiarity_With,numberaand_Primfed. letters of the_ alphabet:- The Con.tral-groups made-sreater.advancesin (1) bath similaritiesand_differences;in.Word-formatIon, (2) learning more wei.ds.in one day'Under,standard'aanditions 'of preseT-tation, and.(3) being able to understand oraLinstructions,and sensitivity .-190-

to sounds of words. Studies are underway in three more areas: moral judgment in young children as a function of selected abilities, behavioral correlates of nutritional states .in young children, and conditions under which Head Start's benefits to children and families are maximized. Procedures are outlined for these projects.

U.S. Office of Education, Washington, D.C. Education of the Lis- advantaged: An Evaluative Report on Title I, Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, Fiscal Year 1968. 1970. 274p. ED 047 033 Thi74 report is concerned with Title I .of ESEA, the federalfunding provisions most directly concerned with-disadvantaged pupils. -Pur--- suant to the Congressional directive-, the Commissioner-- a-uthoriz-ed _flumUgx_ of. studies. includimg....nationwide s-urvey-s- of educatiónal-- --- activities financed with funds drawn from ESEA Title I. One sur- -vey of -pu-bli-c-elementary schcols -was--m4de-during-the-----14-tter---p-art----- of the 19_67-68 school year, and the results obtained-from the sur-- ye.57....ar.P cYrren__f or ,June_196.9. also_a_re_condu-c-ted-and----- .__ - reported regularly by g tate education .agencies, and -by each of the apP r °lama te_14.1 1.7.0.0 0pu.ba_i_c_s_c_ho 0 1-- t-s- th at --ad-m-i-nis-t-e-r_ funds to support academic-projects and-related- Tit-le- I ----- programs for disadvantaged pupils are lekaMined _irr addition by _ interested parents /and citizens' committees, andby- research --scientists who specialize-I4n Iearnimg problems-of-disa.dvairraged------cbil-d-ren---and- youth. None-tireless, this is considered- the f tr-st report _that endeavors to- examine the nature and extent- of :Title_ I activities conducted tWr ghstae aria:local -public education agencies, and the first to examine Title I. performance as an ingtrument of national policy.

U.S. Office 'of -EduCation., WeShington, D.C. The Second Annual Report of tritle -Of the- EleMentary and SeTCOndary Education Act of -1965; School Year 196667. 1967. 139p. ED -021 946

'This report overviews_and summarizes-. the findings-:of -studie-s-of--- nationwide _Mitle I prograMs during the-, 1966-67 school-year It has been found that there were- increases in expenditu-r-es for AnStruc--, tIonal _services and the .purchase -of equipment ,and more--,s tates- -investigated -In the programs than during the-. previOus the effect of the pro4rams im: tepardie Sections --t-eL report- :discus ses tIle-e4wcatIcimal 'arld-soc1-7011.01Alo 1,-sOlt.grouxid-OfTtheTliAX-elltia= adVantaged students, and examines specifically the nature of schOola in urban areas.'One secttein presents' the findings of a study co.f the effe-ct-of Title I on reading- and- aritWItiti-Chieve- Ment as_measured _by standardized tests.--(Dayton -1;tudy),- and. another -presents brief digests of' the' annual- ,tep-Orta .of:the -1)-t-O:grams. -.in the individualstateS, which- highlight-their --malbr'achteveMents :and- eXemplary projecta. A' new SurVey instruMent for _obtaining data on Title I participants .durins their .third: year of operation is also briefly described. Extensive appendixes 4nd charts and tables offer specific data. -191-

U.S. Office of Education,j7ashington, D.C. The States Report: Tne.First Year of Title I,- Elementary and SecondaryEducaticn 1966. l4Op'. ED-G12 -378 . Act of 1965. The operations and programs conducted underTitle I of the Elemen- tary and Secondary Education- Act-for theeducation of disadvantaged children are described in a summary of theindividual reports sub- mitted by fifty states, -vhree territories; and-theD-Istrict of Col-- umbia. The reports, prepared in response to a U.S.Office of Educa- tion (USOE) request for the state annual evaluationreports, cover Title I activities for the fiscal year endingJune 30, 1966. The ac-t provides financial assistance---tolo-cal -educational-agencies-for special programs for disadvantaged children in areashaving high concentrations of low-income families. Projects are planned, administered, and executed by local schools af terstateapproval. . Broad --_ _guidelines for administration- o-f- the- fund-s weregiven by government to insure the money_would be_ s.pent _for_z_chkdren of po-v-er_t_y as Congress intended. Although nearly all of the states distributed the USOE reporting forms to local --agencies,' the returns- werenot of_ sufficient quality to make an accurate evaluationof the ef-fec- tiveness of Titae_I. progr_ams_. _Atho_ugh_-appr-o-xima-teLy__92__pe-r-c-ent of---- the local educational agencies met the criteria foreligibiltty, a_pproximately :thir-ty-per c ent of the---eligi-b le- -agen-c-i-esdid- no-t--par--- ticipate in Title 1. Expend-itures totaled- about 84 percent of -the allocations.--The average expenditure per pupil of the 8.3 million served was $119, but ranged from $25 to $227. Detailed information -o-n --us-es of the_ allo tted funds are -includedin the rep-o-rt-:

Vambery,EVd: E.-valuation of the Nuncip1 ._COOpimeEducat tom_ Program: A Report. NeW -York:Centerrfor Urban 'EdUCation-,71.96-7. 159p. evaluation done in, 1966 .of the- 19-62.- Th4.-s_ is. a re_port of _a .f_011owup 63 population participating in the Municipal CooperativeEducation Program (MCEPT: The MCEP- gave- high selOol students in the"general" t_rack an opportunity to divide _their time betweenschool- and job in order to "acquire skills and work habits whichwould improve their chances _an the_ labor _market..2! -- Students -worked-full-time In . a Ne_w_ _York- Ci-ty ag-en-cy eve-ry- othe-r--we-ek-- and a t-t ende-d ub 1 e--s es-si on classes full-time during alternate weeks. The population study inclu- ded_ ail of t_he-male MCBP- -pa-rti-el-p-an-t-a;.- three quartersof this-po-pu-- Ingtrtiments included-.a group-inter- letion was able to be read-Wed. , view, an__ _individualinterview,_ and___a questionnaire-Tindimgs were: (1) a majority of the participants_ vivre givenunSkilled jobs whiah offere-d- financial rewards but no learning or training opportunities, (2) participants were giveh a MiniMum and- ndn-flexlble -versionof -the -regularschool -curri-c-ulum -and thus.sOrely lacked th-e _basic- edu- cafion_ fo'r any _of several occupat-ional or learningavenues af ter high school, (3) participants were in great need ofCounseling. The author states that "under the- -guise of help it isirresponsible -and damaging to adolescents to assign them to jobs which theyfind degra- ding, uninstructive, and which they cannot easilyleave." She recom-'

1 e3 -192-

mends that the MCEP provide jobs with training andpromotion pos- sibilities built in and "in surroundings which are physically, socially, and psychologically desirable."Other recommendations are: exposure to a variety of skills,counseling during all phases of program participation, coordination between jobplacement and school subject matter.

Walther, Regis H. Methodological Considerations in Evaluative Research Involving Disadvantaged Populations: A Studyof the Effectiveness of Selected Out-of-School Neighborhood Youth Corps Programs. Washiugton,_D.C.: George Washington University, Social Research Group, 1968. 34p. ED 028 223 The experience of a research group in studying NeighborhoodYouth Corps (NYC) programs provides the framework for a discussionof-the methodological difficulties of_conducting researchon disadvantaged- _ groups. _ However, the report does not deal with the programs and operations of NYC itself. Three problem areas aredescribed: (1) crl- terion, program, and "moderator" variables; (2) data collectiontech- niques; and (3) interviewing. The complexity of the_milien-in which poverty programs operate makes it difficult to judgetheir effectiveness. Hence, experimentation is needed-in est-ablishing new- gui-d-e-lines and methods._ _Practical suggestions in -these areas are offered.--

Walther, Regis H. A Study. of-tlie-Effectiyarress-af. SErkeztad-Out-- School Urban Neighborhoad .Youth-Corps- Programs. PrOgtaMTMTII.Ca tians. Washington, D.C.: GeuxgeWaahington Univeraity Social Research -Group, 1968. 24p.. Ep-oz.S "Research results indicate tiiat the Neighborhood Youth Corps (NYC) has Veen eflective in reaching serioUsly disadvantaged youth-a*Ad-in improving_thecommunity_and_work adjustments _of_these_yanths---'At-the- --a-aM-tame'.,:these'achlevements..appear to.lfall:far short of.the_full potential of tha-NYC PrOgraMs-:" ..AMOug the-probleMs cf program and policy which need solutions .are_the differential"_reach"_of--NYCJmore lisgxo than white, and more,female thail Male ent011e'es) and the'high unemployment rate of .4Xrelir_oale_es-___The::findings imply-that-apten-

tion must be giyen_ to the .idea-l_pr.ogram-"m-ix", remedial-educatl:on, alfective use of mork assignments, length of _time_in NYC, job devel- .opment, and interagency.coardination.

Walther, Regls H. A Summaryof.Retrospettive Stud-ves -of the _Effe.ct- -Ivenes-8--tif NYC Ont-of=:SthOoi-Pragrams-in Four -1;g:ban Sites. Wash7 SoCial Research Group '17p.--ED 028 224--

Reported -is the first- pha-s7e of a--projec-t to- eValuae the-erfectIve-r. ness tif selected ITeiOttOrliood You.:th CorPs (NYC) TrrOgrams;... EffeotiVe- ness maa jud4ed 1:;5, .C6timunity and work adjuatment'of enrollees. Exper- imental and control groups were selected--infaur cities; samples were mainly Nagroes, with more' f'emales than- maleS. Fin:dings.from inter- -193-

views with the sample subjectsshowed that the program waseffective but needs improvement inthe racial and sex balanceof enrollees as well as in thework adjustment objectivesof NYC (even among the NYC enrollees unemployment washigh). Noted is the need for attention to such policy issues as moreeffective job development, coordination between various vocationaltraining programs, improved remedial efforts, followupcounseling, and the differentialneeds of enrollees. For subsequent, related research seeVD 007 866 and UD 007 867. This document is a summary ofED 020 407.

--Weikart, David Compara-t-i-ve-7Study of ThreePres-cho-ol 1969. 18p. ED 042 484 This project was d-esigned to comparethree preschool curricula,-with staff model and-program operazionheld--coustant. The cu-rricula we-r-e------(1) a unit-based o-urriculum emphasizingthe social-emotional devel-- opment goals of thetraditional nursery school, (2) acognitively- oriented curriculum developed bythe Ypsilanti Perry PreschoolPro- ject, and (3) the Bereiter-Englemannlanguage-training curriculum.- All three of the_s.e programs 'h_avecarefully planned daily-activities - and clearly defined week-by-weekgoals.. The subjects forthe study ld--r en . --- wer e 3- and 4-y ear- oldf unc e tarded --d The r e was a no-treatment control group. Te,-,r;hers conducted class- sessions within the curriculumstyle they rooms and home teaching Stan- chose. The results of pre- and posttesttests (including the ford7Binet and Peabody Picture VocabularyTest) are highly unusual. The gain scores of the treatment groups areremarkably high (significant higher_ than the_ controlg_r_oup_T_s scores) , there- -is-__no_ _ significant difference in scores amongthe three different curricula suggesting that the variables held constantin this experiment"(staff model, method of project operation,and specific taskorientation of the curricula) are at least asimportant as curriculum contentin producting favorable developmentalgains.

Weikart, David P.; .and others.. Longitudinal. Results of_ the_Yasilanti Perry Preschool Project. FinalReport. Volume II of 2 7.7oluMes. Ypsilanti, .Mich:SighfScope-Educa-t-iomal itesearch Foundation1- 2Tpsilante-Public Schodla, 197-0-..--18-9pED-044-536 The Ypsilanti-Perry PrescdoolProject vaS an experiment .to assess the longitudinal effects'Of'atw-o-year-rpreschool program designed to compensate for functional.mental retardation found in somechii- fT9111_51is40V4ntaZg4:f4714.11--es...._:The.,.pro-graM.--tcUletatOd,Pf a-daily _Or,anCognitively oriented preschool program andhome_Vistts each_week to invOlVe'in6lhera in the iduCative'proce-S'e. The project was initiated .-in.September 1962 end- the,plkaecovered.in.thIS.report_wasterminated in June_ 196.7. The ,fifty-eigh't-exPerimental.and.sixty-five-contrOI blaCk children participating were.econoialoaIly and educati-Onally -194-

disadvantaged.-Instruments used to evaluate the projectincluded a variety of intethgenceand performance measures, several parental attitude instruments and teacherrating scale'.. Data were collected on home background, birthcomplications, cognitive, achievement and socio-emotional variables. Children who participated in the program obtained significantly higher scoresthan control group children on measures of cognitive ability andachievement lane received better teacher ratings on academic,emotional and social development. The significant difference in cognitiveability disappeared by third grade but other gains weremaintained. Recommen- dations and implications for compensatoryeducation are given and sample data collection instruments are included inthe appendixes.-

Weinberg, MeyerDese. regation.Research: An-Appraisal.-Blooming-- ton, Ind.: Phi Delta Kappa, ..Commission on.Education_and HuMan-- --- Rights, 1970. 460p. ED 040 911 Examined and evaluated are studies which are relevant tothe experience of children _in desegregated _schools . The,chap-ter-s- in--the volume are concerned with desegregation and academicachievement, aspirations and self concept, the student in -schooland in his family, and non-Negro minorities . Also included -is- a -chap te-r---d-eve-ted-- to the "Equal Educational. OpportunitySurvey?- and tion in the Public Schools." Other seCtions are devoted to the Negro community and desegregation, -and to theanti-desegregation critics.

Wichita Unified School District 259, Kansas. Follow-Through Pro- ject, Wichita Unified School District 259; Initial Year, Septem- ber 1968-May 1969 Evaluation Report. .969. 156p. ED 039 027 This study obtained data to compare tle progress of low incomeFollow Through pupils with full-year Read Start pupils attending regular kindergarten classes. Five groups of children were compared according to class characteristics, parent participation, teacherinter- views, and parent interviews. All groups were administered the Metropoliran_ Readiness Test and the_Wichita Guidance Center '