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Paola Pascual-Ferrá Loyola University Maryland Centre for the Study of Communication and Culture Volume 35 (2016) No. 4 IN THIS ISSUE Communicating Aggression Paola Pascual-Ferrá Loyola University Maryland A QUARTERLY REVIEW OF COMMUNICATION RESEARCH ISSN: 0144-4646 Communication Research Trends Volume 35 (2016) Number 4 Table of Contents http://cscc.scu.edu Communicating Aggression Published four times a year by the Centre for the Study of Communication and Culture (CSCC), sponsored by the Editor’s Introduction . 3 California Province of the Society of Jesus. Copyright 2016. ISSN 0144-4646 Communicating Aggression . 4 Editor: Emile McAnany 1. Introduction . 4 Managing Editor: Paul A. Soukup, S.J. 2. Theories of Aggression: Subscription: An Interdisciplinary Perspective . 5 Annual subscription (Vol. 35) US$55 A. Instinct theories . 5 B. Drive theories . 6 Payment by check, MasterCard, Visa or US$ preferred. C. Social learning theories . 8 For payments by MasterCard or Visa, please go to the D. Cognitive theories . 10 secure payments site: E. Biological theories . 12 https://commerce.cashnet.com/COMM3Trends 3. Forms of Aggression Checks and/or International Money Orders (drawn on within a Communication Encounter . 13 USA banks; for non-USA banks, add $10 for handling) A. Nonverbal aggression . 13 should be made payable to Communication Research B. Verbal aggression . 14 Trends and sent to the managing editor C. Reasons for communicating aggression . 14 Paul A. Soukup, S.J. Communication Department 4. Two Competing Models of Verbal Aggression . 16 Santa Clara University A. Argumentative skill deficiency model . 16 500 El Camino Real B. The communibiological perspective . 19 Santa Clara, CA 95053 USA 5. Conclusion . 22 Transfer by wire: Contact the managing editor. Add $10 for handling. References . 24 Address all correspondence to the managing editor at the Added Reading . 30 address shown above. Tel: +1-408-554-5498 Book Reviews . 34 Fax: +1-408-554-4913 email: [email protected] Correspondence . 39 The Centre for the Study of Communication and Culture (CSCC) is an international service of the Society of Jesus established in 1977 and currently managed by the California Province of the Society of Jesus, P.O. Box 519, Los Gatos, CA 95031-0519. 2— VOLUME 35 (2016) NO. 4 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS Communicating Aggression Editor’s Introduction All too often and all too sadly, human beings have tion research has begun to focus more specifically on shown a tendency towards violence and aggression. This these antisocial behaviors, especially school bullying violence manifests itself both in action and in words. or even workplace bullying. Communication re- The larger context for aggressive communication comes, searchers have sought not only to identify or categorize of course, from human behavior in general. A number of kinds of aggressive communication but also to provide researchers, primarily in anthropology, psychology, and recommendations for how to resolve or even prevent sociology, have proposed theories to explain human situations in which aggression manifests itself in peo- aggression—ranging from human instinct or human ple’s day-to-day communication. drives all the way to strategic actions through which In the past Communication Research Trends has people seek to accomplish particular gains. examined some of the ways in which aggression or vio- Aggression in communication can take many lence intersects with communication, notably in terms forms. One concern, stemming from the 1920s on, has of the effects of violence in television programming or to do with violent or aggressive content in the enter- films (White, 1984), but also in terms of reporting tainment media, whether in films, on radio programs, about violence, war, and terrorism by the news media or on television. The long tradition of communication (Cordelian, 1992; Biernatzki, 2002, 2003). Trends has research that flowed from this concern focused on what tended to overlook the fact that human communication such violence might do to viewers or listeners, often can also show its violent streak in our interactions with investigating whether children or young people learn one another. This issue, then, of Communication violent behaviors through imitating what they see or Research Trends examines aggressive communication hear in entertainment media. Such studies showed primarily in an interpersonal setting. mixed results, with some demonstrating a connection Professor Paola Pascual-Ferrá seeks to provide a between the consumption of violent media and violent context for aggressive communication and for the behavior, but many other studies not finding that con- study of aggressive communication. Her essay begins nection, or finding the connection only under certain with an overview of some of the theories of aggression very limited circumstances. A few of these studies ask and then looks at how these aggressive behaviors man- the earlier question as to whether or not violence or ifest in communication. Next she examines particular aggressive behavior resides naturally in human beings. communication theories and treatments for aggressive If it does, then people should witness such aggressive communication. Unfortunately a number of scholars behavior in the whole range of activities, including contest these theories, with researchers disagreeing on interpersonal interaction and verbal communication. both the value of the theory as well as the measurement Most people immediately recognize verbal tools that these theories use. aggressiveness or verbal violence. This can occur, * * * clearly, in arguments, or even through shouted Paola Pascual-Ferrá, Ph.D., serves as an assistant insults—whether that happens in a sporting event or a professor of communication at Loyola University political rally or even among people driving down the Maryland. highway. Other more subtle manifestations of aggres- sive communication emerge in many ways: perhaps References people ignore one another, or show disrespect for one Biernatzki, W. E. (2002). Terrorism and mass media. Communication Research Trends, 21(1), 3–27. another, or more or less enter into the opposite of polite Biernatzki, W. E. (2003). War and media. Communication behavior or cooperative behavior. These various kinds Research Trends, 22(3), 3–31. of violence or aggressive behavior can occur in almost Cordelian, W. (1992). Television reporting of the Gulf War. any setting, from interpersonal relationships among Communication Research Trends, 12(2), 1–27. friends to marriage or family situations through school [White, R. A.]. (1984) Violence in the media. situations and workplace situations. Some communica- Communication Research Trends, 5(4), 1–12. COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 35 (2016) NO. 4 — 3 Communicating Aggression Paola Pascual-Ferrá [email protected] 1. Introduction Media pundits and news sources both at home context of instructional, political, entertainment media, and abroad have labeled the 2016 presidential election computer mediated, workplace, medical care, sports, in the United States as one of the most divisive in the and family communication, among other communica- history of the country. Among the causes of that divi- tion contexts (for recent representative studies, please sion is what many in the country perceive as a rhetoric see Avtgis & Rancer, 2010). As of 2016, a search query of hate, fomented by the use of verbally aggressive for peer-reviewed communication journal articles con- tactics, with one candidate labeled as “America’s taining the exact phrases “verbal aggressiveness” or bully” and the other a “crook” who should be locked “verbal aggression” in the title yield over 250 results in prison, among other insults (Haraldsson, 2016). In since the first title published in Communication this rhetorical climate, verbal aggressiveness became Monographs (see Greenberg, 1976). Some examples of the weapon of choice over reasoned debate and skilled verbal aggression include character attacks, compe- argumentation. This tendency to verbal aggression has tence attacks, insults, maledictions, teasing, ridicule, infected voters and continued beyond Election Day. profanity, and threats (Infante, 1988). Even though ver- Many agree with Senator Harry Reid’s claim that the bal aggression itself does not leave a physical mark on rhetoric of Donald Trump’s campaign has “embold- the victim, the long-term consequences can be even ened the forces of hate and bigotry in America” (Lee, more psychologically devastating than physical 2016). In the days after the election, the media covered aggression (Buss, 1961; Infante & Wigley, 1986). The protests in different cities across the U.S., and many effects of verbal aggression on victims can range from featured people marching on the streets using exple- damaged self-concepts to hurt feelings, anger, irrita- tives when referring to the President-elect. At the same tion, embarrassment, and discouragement (Infante & time, since the election, social and traditional media Wigley, 1986). Verbal aggression can lead to the dete- have reported several incidents of written and uttered rioration or even termination of the relationship hate speech meant to intimidate members of non- between those involved, and even precipitate physical White ethnic groups. Many people fear that the cam- violence (Berkowitz, 1962; Gelles, 1974; Infante & paign has created an environment where this type of Wigley, 1986; Infante, 1988; Patterson & Cobb, 1973; aggressive communication becomes the norm and that, Toch, 1969; Zillmann,
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