Urban Terrorism: Strategies for Mitigating Terrorist Attacks Against the Domestic Urban Environment
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Old Dominion University ODU Digital Commons Theses and Dissertations in Urban Services - Urban Management College of Business (Strome) Spring 2001 Urban Terrorism: Strategies for Mitigating Terrorist Attacks Against the Domestic Urban Environment John J. Kiefer Old Dominion University Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/urbanservices_management_etds Part of the Public Administration Commons, Public Policy Commons, and the Urban Studies and Planning Commons Recommended Citation Kiefer, John J.. "Urban Terrorism: Strategies for Mitigating Terrorist Attacks Against the Domestic Urban Environment" (2001). Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), dissertation, , Old Dominion University, DOI: 10.25777/ 0b83-mp91 https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/urbanservices_management_etds/29 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the College of Business (Strome) at ODU Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations in Urban Services - Urban Management by an authorized administrator of ODU Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. URBAN TERRORISM: STRATEGIES FOR MITIGATING TERRORIST ATTACKS AGAINST THE DOMESTIC URBAN ENVIRONMENT by John J. Kiefer B.B.A. August 1975, University of Mississippi M.S.A. August 1989, Central Michigan University M.U.S. May 1997, Old Dominion University A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of Old Dominion University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY URBAN SERVICES OLD DOMINION UNIVERSITY May 2001 Reviewed by: Approved by: Wol indur tfChair) College of Business and Public Administration Leonard I. Ruchelman (Member) Berhanu Mengistu^Ph.D. G. William Whitehurst (Member) Program Director Graduate Center for Urban Studies And Public Administration Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ABSTRACT URBAN TERRORISM: STRATEGIES FOR MITIGATING TERRORIST ATTACKS AGAINST THE DOMESTIC URBAN ENVIRONMENT John J. Kiefer Old Dominion University, 2001 Chair: Dr. Wolfgang Pindur This study identifies strategies to mitigate the impact of terrorist attacks against the domestic urban environment. It uses multiple qualitative research methods to identify patterns of attack used by terrorists against urban targets in the United States and suggest ways for policymakers to mitigate the effects of a terrorist attack through not only physical, but also organizational, political, legal, and social strategies. It uses case analysis, literature review, and interviews with experts in domestic terrorism preparedness to develop and suggest solutions. Terrorism, as with other criminal acts, can have can best me met by implementing strategies to mitigate the impact of this form of crime. Governments are simultaneously confronted with a rapidly growing number of potential terrorist targets that must be secured, and constrained by democratic principles from utilizing many technological devices to secure those targets. Creating an effective security system that protects against a wide range of terrorist attacks while it continues to afford a maximum exercise of democratic freedoms and privileges is a formidable task. Several broad, theory-based categories of defending urban spaces are considered. This study builds on past research and extends defensible space theory with careful consideration of the special challenges in dealing with terrorist attacks. The potential for Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. terrorist attack is reviewed, and an understanding of who the domestic urban terrorists are, why they may attack the urban built environment, what might they attack, and what can be done about is developed. Recommendations for public policy and future research are presented. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ©2001, by John J. Kiefer, All Rights Reserved. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. V ACKNOWLEDGMENTS As with any worthwhile endeavor, the successful accomplishment of a doctoral program, and in particular the dissertation, requires a strong supporting cast of relatives, friends and associates. Each and every one of these people contributed in some very meaningful way to my ability to devote the past six years of my life to academic study. I would like to express my thanks to those who have made this possible. First, I owe a debt of gratitude to the faculty of the Graduate Center for Urban Studies and Public Administration at Old Dominion University. These fine professors provided the foundation for my academic career. Second, I am grateful to my dissertation committee for their time and commitment to the project. Dr. Bill Whitehurst was invaluable in bringing his considerable background in public service to the process, as well as for his willingness to facilitate my contacts with government officials. Dr. Len Ruchelman was always accessible and willing to discuss theory, and his extensive experience with how cities function was a tremendous resource. I am deeply indebted to Dr. Wolfgang Pindur, Chair, for coordinating the entire process, reviewing myriad revisions, suggesting alternative paradigms for approaching each roadblock, and for professional guidance. The privilege of being mentored by Dr. Pindur has increased my educational experience immeasurably. Next, it is important to recognize the special contributions of my family. I owe a debt of gratitude to my dog, Rekkie, for ensuring regular ergonomic breaks from the writing process, usually in the form of a walk or game of catch. Certainly I am grateful for the support of my father and mother, John and Martha Kiefer, who were always there when needed — not only during this recent doctoral program, but for all important events Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. throughout my life. And last, but certainly not least, the most important partner in the process, my wife, Aleta. She deserves special thanks for her reviews of countless revisions to this work and others. Without Aleta’s support of my goals, none of this would have been possible. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................ix Chapter I. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................... 1 BACKGROUND................................................................................1 THE PROBLEM................................................................................. 3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS.............................................................. 7 THE LIMITATIONS..........................................................................8 JUSTIFICATION FOR THE RESEARCH.....................................9 METHODOLOGY............................................................................9 OUTLINE OF THIS REPORT......................................................... 11 DEFINITIONS....................................................................................12 SCOPE, KEY ASSUMPTIONS AND LIMITS OF THE STUDY...................................................... 13 CONCLUSION...................................................................................14 EL REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE....................................................... 15 THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR A TERRITORIAL DEFENSE AGAINST TERRORISM............... 20 THEORIES ON DESIGNING TO DETER CRIME.................... 23 THEORIES ON “DESIGNING-IN” CRIME PREVENTION.... 27 THEORIES ON BLOCKING TERRORIST OPPORTUNITIES............................................................................ 30 THEORIES ON TARGET HARDENING.....................................32 THE THEORY OF THE RATIONAL TERRORIST.................. 34 LINKING THEORIES OF DEFENSIBLE SPACE TO THEORIES OF THE RATIONAL TERRORIST.........................36 THEORIES OF CRIMES IN SUPPORT OF TERRORISM.......37 THEORIES OF TERRORIST BEHAVIOR AND GOVERNMENT RESPONSE.............................................. 37 THEORIES OF CONFLICT AND CONSENSUS AS VARIABLES............................................................................. 39 THEORIES ABOUT TERRORIST IDENTITY: EXTREMISTS RIGHT AND LEFT............................................. 40 THEORETICAL TYPOLOGIES OF AMERICAN TERRORISTS.......................................................... 42 THEORIES REGARDING THE CHARACTERISTICS OF LEFT-WING AND RIGHT-WING AMERICAN TERRORISTS................................................................................. 43 THEORIES REGARDING TERRORIST IDEOLOGY............. 43 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. viii THEORIES OF HUMAN NATURE AND ECONOMIC STRUCTURE............................................................45 THEORIES ABOUT WHY CITIES ARE IDEAL TARGETS: THE URBAN CONNECTION.............................. 47 THEORIES ABOUT HOW THE TERRORISTS MAY ATTACK: THE TACTICAL APPROACH....................49 THEORIES ABOUT WHAT THE TERRORISTS MAY ATTACK: TARGETS........................................................51 m. METHODOLOGY................................................................................56 RESEARCH