Beyond the Northern Invasion: the Mediterranean in the Seventeenth Century

BEYOND THE NORTHERN INVASION: THE MEDITERRANEAN IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY

Fernand Braudel‘s magisterial work, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, is a study of the sixteenth century, but he does, nevertheless, look forward to the following century, during which he posits a ‗Northern Invasion‘. The northern invasion argument asserts that the Dutch, the English and the French swarmed into the Mediterranean with their superior sailing ships early in the seventeenth century, and seized control of the sea‘s commercial, financial and maritime life.1 This picture has been endorsed by many others, and is easily the dominant model for the Mediterranean world in the seventeenth century.2 But the northern invasion thesis is not only an argument about numbers and relative strength. It also asserts that economic com- petition between nation states replaced the old religious rivalry. The assertive language used implies that the arrival of the northern Europeans on the Mediterranean scene heralded a decisive break with the old conflict between Islam and Christianity and

1 It is at the end of his first volume that Braudel describes the northern invasion of the Mediterranean: Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, trans. Siaˆn Reynolds, 2 vols. (New York, 1972), i, 615–42. 2 ‗If the eastern Mediterranean was in the process of sliding slowly and unconsciously into dependence on the Westerners . . . parallel to this hold of the West over the East, there was another conquest on the western side, the conquest of the South by the North‘: Michel Fontenay, ‗The Mediterranean, 1500–1800: Social and Economic Perspectives‘, in Victor Mallia-Milanes (ed.), Hospitaller Malta, 1530–1798: Studies on Early Modern Malta and the Order of St. John of Jerusalem (Msida, 1993), 52. Bruce Masters slides quickly from the age of Italian pre-eminence to the northern conquest when he writes of ‗the triumph of the northern Europeans over their southern European rivals in both the Levant and the Indian Ocean‘: Bruce Masters, The Origins of Western Economic Dominance in the Middle East: Mercantilism and the Islamic Economy in Aleppo, 1600–1750 (New York, 1988), 75. In his seminal survey of the development of the Greek merchant marine, George Leon dates the northern invasion to the last decades of the sixteenth century, when ‗French, English and Dutch merchants entered the Empire in sufficiently large numbers to eliminate Italian monopoly and ultimately ruin Italian trade with the Near East‘: George Leon, ‗The Greek Merchant Marine, 1453– 1850‘, in Stelios Papadopoulos (ed.), The Greek Merchant Marine (Athens, 1972), 16.

© The Past and Present Society, Oxford, 2002

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46 PAST AND PRESENT NUMBER 174 into their business, but also from changing circumstances in the Mediterranean, as commerce between Christian and Moslem increased and as religious intolerance became less marked outside Malta‘.9 Mallia-Milanes observes that, as the seventeenth century wore on, the figure of the warrior–crusader no longer seemed relev- ant or convincing.1 0 And a student of Maltese institutions notes that, at the end of the seventeenth century, the Maltese set up a regular commercial court to handle the ‗normal‘ trade that was slowly replacing the profits of the corso.

The international developments whereby European states began to come to terms with the Ottoman Empire and individual North African beys, was to signal the decline of corsairing. The corso flourished only as long as Muslims were feared, but once normal trading relations were established it became a nuisance to trade . . . the Order‘s crusading ideal was becoming more anachronistic. 11 This view of the seventeenth century has clear undertones of modernization theory: gradually violence gave way to a more ‗normal‘ set of arrangements characterized by religious tolerance and open and peaceful trade between states, both Christian and Muslim. In addition to its Whiggish assumptions, the argument is of little help in explaining important features of the seventeenth century. The progressive exclusion of Muslims from the commer- cial and maritime life of the sea, for example, suggests the con- tinuing significance of religion in the pursuit of profit. It was the deployment of religion that changed towards the end of the seventeenth century. Prior to that solidarity or antagonism on the basis of religious identity had been an optional strategy for individual merchants and pirates. As the French and the English consolidated their control over the commerce of the Mediterranean, this option was gradually dismantled. Instead, religion became a tool in support of commerce directed by, and for the benefit of, the state.

I

THE NORTHERN INVASION The ‗Northern Invasion‘ remains one of the few self-confident and unproblematic triumphs still standing in the historiography

9 Ibid., 109. 10 Victor Mallia-Milanes, Venice and Hospitaller Malta (Marsa, 1992), p. xix. 11 Sebastian Vella, ‗The Consolato del Mare of Malta: A Study of an Institution (1697–1725)‘ (Univ. of Malta BA thesis, 1998), 12.

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Merchant a eastern witnessed

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ottomane,

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18 19 16 17

had exhaustion ‗Greek tion of piracy, ‗depressed‘ can that important Mediterranean 15 (n. at in pepper 1245. indeed to naval English other, ticularly mercial, dramatic, the powers dwelt the period the in 48 in half of sixteenth one eastern the historians

BEYOND THE NORTHERN INVASION 49 moved swiftly into the vacuum left by Venice and assumed a leading role in the caravane trade in the eastern and central Mediterranean. Evidence can be found from all parts of the Aegean. B. J. Slot, for instance, has documented the rise, in the early seventeenth century, of a Cycladic shipowning class that traded in silk, wheat and cotton. The island of Sifnos alone had thirty-eight boats, a remarkable number, when considering that the population did not exceed three thousand.20 Also, on the island of Crete, which was still under Venetian rule throughout most of the seventeenth century, local shipping took over in the wake of the dramatic decline of Venice‘s merchant marine. As early as the

middle of the sixteenth century Cretans were sailing to southern Italy; a certain George Noufris even reached Flanders in 1539. A Venetian official in Crete in 1589 wrote:

The cities, and especially Candia [Herakleion] and Chania, produce many good sailors. It is said, as a proverb, that when a villager is born in Crete, a galley slave is born, and when a child is born in the city a sailor is born. The Cretans sail with their boats in times of peace to Smyrna, Syria, Turkey and the Archipelago and to other places in Turkey in every sort of boat and skiff; they are skilful and daring men. 21

Venice must have been a common destination for this new Greek ship-owning class, because in the mid-sixteenth century the Greek community in Venice decided to levy a tax on every Greek boat that anchored in the city‘s port. The tax was intended to help pay for the construction of the Church of St George of the Greeks, which was the centre of the community.22 On the island of Patmos ships belonging to the Monastery of St John enjoyed a period of tremendous prosperity in the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. An Isolario from 1590 said

(n. 19 cont.) teenth century. He notes: ‗the Greeks were often the first victims of the corsairs, in part because they were the principal maritime carriers in the Empire‘. Michel Fontenay, ‗Corsaires de la foi ou rentiers du sol? Les chevaliers de Malte dans le e sie`cle‘, ―corso‖ me´diterrane´en au XVII Revue d‘histoire moderne et contemporaine, xxxv (1988), 368. 20 Slot, Archipelagus turbatus, 160–1. 21 Stergios Spanakes, ‗Relazione del nobil huomo Zuanne Mocenigo ritornato Provveditore Generale del Regno di Candia presentata nell‘eccellentissimo Consillio 17 Aprile 1589‘, Mnemeia tes kretikes istorias [Monuments of Cretan History] (Herakleion, 1940), i, 23. 22 Kristas Panayiotopoulos, ‗Ellenes nautikoi kai ploioktetes apo ta palaiotera oiko- nomika vivlia tes Ellenikes Adelfotetes Venetias, 1536–1576‘ [Greek Sailors and Shipowners According to the Oldest Account Books of the Greek Society of Venice], Thesaurismata, xi (1974), 288.

------on to of to

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central histor

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Istanbul

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on on that

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it portant destinations in destinations 24 (Athens, retain earned ad

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25

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year a Red entitled in were or

strengthened

population Ottomans that 27 admonish built. of routes

1957),

226. of

to

ports

ships: of

was the for the to

the of

living

too, of

only was the

legal Master many Papadopoulos,

established

shippers were of

Malta, ships swiftly swiftly to that departed merchant PRESENT

commercial Ottoman

hazardous A.

centre (Athens, —

Italian consul

seventeenth by need

not

fact

island St. and

city memoirs around and 445. foreigners.

AND

The Malta, the network Grand in ports Greek ,

The

the

the

the

atmos hinterland monastery,

vast a

P construction to cle y

the

of moving ` e

in Hospitaller b apparently

the

the

AST si solid a sailed the

the 1623. P felt into e the

business southern quoted

on

provisioning Christians,

dense

and provincial sailors

populated written to in

innumerable

was

Mediterranean

- for of

assisted

struck that to

limits

were

the 26 out

was island by From It Istanbul. more

and

he

enice

this

ave but du du XVII V

a Isolario, 23 enormous off in

often

‗well some

h islanders,

´ Divine, e

the head Xatzinikolaou,

access

regularly

island‘s capital

- time

k

and

eastern island. Miliote, necessary established century

living Milo, the

were

moiti noted,

the

pushed and was island. the should. Alexandria, were

merchants, the

had di they

facilitate

islanders

with

thrive

Milanes,

every the Muslims Gree

was the

- Marava .

on

to

the of

of

account‘. ia

to

. to

erranean, to that

seconde

the John in have 60. materials . on

cent ravellers

they

Patmiots

steady

Iakovos Aegean, island

la

Mall T Antonio Anna Ibid.

island both

St the If If the

26 27 23 24 25 per

the 2 action all dans merchants and rawing ence that areas by the 1967), submit Christians houses relations seventeenth consul Orthodox come weakness, Mediterranean, tinued ians 50 the men vent‘s one the Medit 1580 bishop of

) to 2 he in in

of 5 31

51 said

the The vols. Hist. p.

route French port protect 2 on context wood ficant

Egypt in contrast

why

Winter, rest

so. violent

the century hired tohired

Egypt‘s to significant attempt, Istanbul

Most Most of ships. speculative the one

Econ. and regularly

cle, (cont. Ottoman

say a

in ` Thessaloniki

e the

shipments signi this

the the was in sharp ] of

si connecting 32 enetians t

of

to doing

e

prominent prominent in an V with

vian of Michael

Crete) which were

Neils Steensgaard,

all in but and Izmir, out. English

by

of fails Istanbul. hat, presen from

concerned

grain t otect extremely

[

ports the of

goods from

route

very Ottoman XVIII shippers.

eighteenth Ottoman cle,

30 he ago

pr trade

`

most e ships an

existence than specifically

Scandina 490.

was

the si

in au

ruled e as issue, violently: century, ports enetian, to Egypt effective but the

the

Anatolia Anatolia was conquest the from the ent V

of was 168. galleons

so ASION were

and

ibid., observing

be

decade the

V transport

to of

Caire 1650‘,

a XVII — was Ottoman and

shippers Europe.

IN final

Egypt‘s 201, for

to

greater particularly was and

it au to stable, free

carried Ottoman not du

desire away i,

to

governm

´

the Istanbul; e over

contrast,

ships Crete, between fluctuated testifies however,

ants

of merchants‘

ships

was ¸

c quarter

southern mean was

the Egypt 1570 Muslim link and

unresolved excellence‘: by

moiti little

Muslims,

seventeenth traders ports,

Caire,

Crete a northern st importance reason of

trade and does, not

year

century.

au Ottoman par foreign

la trade exports firman as

Whether from

of and

certainly from

the

NORTHERN commer alone role

the

the Christian [Muslim] Egypt ( is is an

seconde

between the ants

south

remarkably the does ¸

c Kos

The wrest et more hired –

in consulate,

the The

la can

to are

THE

ood both Alexandria

Mantran

published Levant Ottoman

city as

volume hired primary including that to this 1669

ottomane

W was

stanbul.

trading

dans cargo there the the commer I north a of Egypt.

from with

even 29 rivalled

French discuss

re late

mer

rarely Artisans as seventeenth

in

Ottomans to

shows a

188. Istanbul. between traffic, l,

de characterized

BEYOND 1719was ‗la not

breadbasket,

as

capital

Anatolia although report

i, was e

to

the

northern of vital it

very the because

shippers Istanbul tra stil long

Empi

31.

also Ottoman

Alexandria.

that Artisans Artisans et does participation to merchants, of dated

the Nations precious successful, Europe.

It As

of

nothing

‗ calls

Muslims

to from French 1973), Raymond, caravan

routes, was

´ a most e farming and

shipping, Muslim (1967),

of shipments

precisely

Mantran,

this

Ottomans

the corsairs firman with Alexandria with

states:

of continuous Istanbul‘s

enormous;

xv

Andr A The other

middle Ottoman

Istanbul. 28 Mantran Raymond, Raymond course historian the

for

grain

Ottoman The

28 29 30 31 32

491. the group and Ottoman firman indigenous (Damascus, business ‗Consuls Rev., of with — dismisses that another: trade trade exported the fluctuations this Alexandria‘s hands exported Of from carry Aegean sea. Alexandria was from eventually the was

- - -

les to to to the fic

but

and ury.

174

vols. other

some carried when along many for over avec sea traf

south Islam;

useful.

2 station

powers

English market be

Muslim iii (1988), century. cent

in

at

first ceded

to attacks attacks on the

100.

and formidable han and and distinctions

been

possible] way the the t Statute attack

aval

and

Rev., the

a

among NUMBER n

of a

A used

Marsden, ships

was egalitarian ‗ of

deceipte, to

on

Mediterranean, Mediterranean, commerciales

not

1987), less G. has as structured

resulted Hist.

meant,

Africa is R.

Maltese

the and

from role most group will most are t

piracy,

fairly Winter,

seventeenth

i is is true, ste‘min]

ed. less

o Muslim

¨

u

a This willing 379.

ports relations T it m

[ profit (Ceroma, Christianity

i, that one western

the conventional North Sea, 34

ses

Livorno their

that as

and

[

was

against

in Michael libertie of

16), alien the ENT cle: handled

of Mediterranean

33

` just e – the Muslim

were,

not‘. promiscuouslie 5 si just of

Italian

on of

e less

Livourne document

ALLIANCES throughout where in

191 PRES or Muslims. et

result

protection. between impose others

are between

II were

Egypt‘,

and convenience. activity were XVII

was

Salonica‘. pursuit loaded

thereafter,

Custom to

‗time

against

protection AND

English of The au trade

Christian/Muslim be

a

Corsicans attack world

and war‘ London, and too,

trade Languedoc. the to then, Marseille

century intrapp

l, of development unis

Century AST to - is

collours pyrattical - – The and P

T

adequate else.

African and Law

Izmir competitive but and

enne, de

xlix position COMMERCIAL

´ and the

Livorno; e

particular,

to are shipping

and for

Christian carrying

a

were commercial

‗eternal

spoke of

west. nothing

in

century

gence in ´ e of Pubns, and

North Eighteenth anyone

uscans diterran

relationships Istanbul, R

Corsairing,

the

´ commercial e

ships

Europeans, the T and they in Relating

m

of

Livorno,

search

seventeenth not

La Soc. remained

Provence to

Court

was banners invoked

unis a of favour as

Christian

pirates, at

T

themselves east Fleet chaotic

Alexandria,

European/local

in 1680 which

striking

complex nor

were l‘Europe of between Sadok, a from

harbours

shipping. as early Records northern

anarchic

Documents

lines

de manie Europe urning

B. cont.)

34 the In T the

33

to Mercantile 120. ports (Navy disguise knowe foremost, rather protected merchants their the Christian Christians 32 (n. harbour The in They place; also such An Admiralty soe 52 trade looked between presence ern Before between ships

- - - - - a

in of —

53 the (or the the the

very

and one

fur 40

pur con

safe mer

1830 those along ‗were was

to

–

Malta‘ quarter passes,

— and Muslim owners. way

actually difficult

Barbary

kingdom kingdom Century‘,

still

-

attacking sum

e people sell

1415 French consuls

their

being last rench

the victims victims the English rather

selves

the armed passes

of F to although this

wer

ship

Sicily, the seas with ports, the

of

XVIIIth the Goodwill, Goodwill, was large displayed‘.

captain

conduct

was of On Africa,

well

but -

belonging

them a

The all French aim

the and situation

these

armed

and even,

high the ure - the 39 in safe

of Mediterranean

century all, including flags

for

Muslim Until North willing being ports

unisia,

the

Sicilian

the

account that T ASION in

capt at

the well of vessels ‗ and

the V

Smyrna.

boundaries by and Corso

a ]he

own

Jerba. t ship, fuss.

IN into

[ were

on

on

with to take ‗

Maltese

established merchants

Africans

petitioners.

Piracy

that

nations, small

provided icating

to

their and

— up

Maltese little when reputation of

passengers

had unis galleys, and seventeenth even of all

sailed

The

Muslims itinerary

32. 32.

unisians

T

the the .

North too, T English produced unisia: Earle Considering his

38 with and compl

Sfax Muslim for . T of

who

Trade

itself

37 the NORTHERN

others early originally

impermeable

. in.

an the up be the from variety

secure ar,

throng 98.

meeting

for

with

Barbary, Barbary,

W

Maltese

thus enjoyed

African

a THE regularly the of from laden

sail

is is necessary

Decline

been 226. and and unis, urks Malta

gave Sousse,

it in Africans, Both wide number, by

then coast, T 1651 world to

English, T

century these

Maltese.

ships

regularity

when agree

here to

always a some de ‗The

Legend: 35

—

North

Malta Malta wrote

In sea forged, have the

apparently to (1959),

the BEYOND

unis,

to

unisians

two

time,

not

enemies

- sailed Dutch

North T gence T 41 or mostly ´ some not viii viii e

would

come limited taken all

138.

R

African Barbary

may

easy . of provided

and 53.

victims) Cavaliero,

of

. were

or same La

to The

certain Mitchell shipping. Corsairsof Corsairsof thirty is

.

Englishman passes 45.

sold with

ships.

seventeenth

were enemies

1957), 36 it

Fisher, d‘Arvieux

ibid.,

the Historica,

‗awkward‘ there

encountered

passes ing

although routinely North that free

English

Roberto Earle, Ibid., Sadok, Earle, G.

Levant the

At

36 37 38 39 40 41 35 Melita secure: merchants chant are irreconcilable Barbary But, travellers Dutch carry ship Stephen (Oxford, potential Maltese, tested. although ported bought, ther‘, very fact crossed of was average pirates adventurers, the Spanish and conduct the The

- - it is at of of

the on by 31; e

his

the

the the

due

174

in around one mani since in where of of clause

French eastern tion

XVII were concerned

Second, Muslim was

into Robert establish which complic

northern focus nationals -

Levant,

faced search

du 44 the

that passengers am the

nation around he le ´ abused

e seventeenth

to

t I point of grounds nevertheless negotiated at negotiated in

presence

is

aspect NUMBER This

ambi this

policy. another

own more powers, trade, other specific treaty, was each dans moiti

in the

45 here the while

so

a 23. e

article.

it have port to

ais to

for far state

unisian ¸

c

crown ficant in The

But the continuous continuous journeys English forty

T

discussion

their did customary

difficulties unfortunate

this seconde fran

not

1935), interventions

economic

simply was was a Although

his

was the

grew

than signi

la signed English. he every

on

to and caravan

English

42 more the his s

their

trade: belonging

is Catholics

French reasons characteristic less

and at e while

security

on dans the

wa at and

the passengers.

complexity. stronger that

there commerce

o (London, northerners should action and

ships

the or

the were in his having

policy frequent

for

tw of du

What

PRESENT

power‘.

of uncertainties. were defend

relevant this

England iterranean French

stops the decried fact

this captain

war

flag Istanbul

caravan

sh

far entirely with combined,

to

are closely be

over the of Company layer AND times, state

war. their Med that Dutch

the Histoire

by

The most meant

number Engli

with search

Mitchell Mitchell

them this of

made

also at

to in English

of England, English

levels,

to AST the Mantran, the the 43

the more P

amongst

There is

Levant an

had

another

the

captains in and

by

another could

consequent active and, nature and Masson,

as the

he cargo went

pages

way.

ficulties

pages: of

nature imposing

either Stephen economy Stephen First, unending

flying Mediterranean.

far that the of

Dutch dif between

protectorate eight

regard.

unis action

consequences

looking most in unis of

concluded this added

French. 69.

T

the of English

the T very – diplomatic indicated ‗as all different the just

the

History 2 his

eighteen of

presence Ships Mediterranean

case. in

introduces is real the

the The

this of 55

A

1651,

that in

ounts the

contract

of

for

and

8, very

faced

worth and 39.

Since 600. missionaries – the story

in the which to flew

relationship in

am 1 future sort

devotes

the 0 course ood,

Although

runs

were

is

than W 57 45 highest The

French the sector French

, Of Ibid.,

money.

the year part C. It The

42 43 44 cle ` e Mediterranean the thousand A. Mantran French si ated in around small market, French some Mediterranean violated with passengers period. peace passengers shows powers operating France the who the the 54 of England treaty commanding in the festation century.

- - 48 to

all 55 the get the ant the the

and

over

of -

other

In all of com com

her. Muslim world

crown fought to should

crown,

French sy,

activity

in century century also ´

e

- churches — bind to Ottoman the

(western) ially, happy

- the

C

Christians.

the Spain import

was was France also the

the the

to on Arab

was

is de it Reformation,

conquest

— French in

-

sy espec Latin

worked

of In Istanbul were

´ It merchant

e Christians

consuls‘

Arab

Empire the closely protectorate

against passes

directions. C Mediter the

in

the East the

the to

Patriarchate.

rance,

of politics in the and, the 1620s, 8. actors Mediterranean, comte Pope seventeenth

mission mission

F Syrian Although

of

for

with Counter

policy.

ch. them more

‗old‘ Propaganda‘, ASION

the

Bailo consuls that V the

sort and

the the Ottoman passes Greek ambitions

different

century

Aegean. resistance. plan IN

the

esp. zeal. the a

Catholic

.

Ottoman

the

,

Haddad,

Rome. Harlay, consuls in in Aleppo, 84

the

and Jerusalem, the of

and

to

numerous protect

the France‘s

v, the

of

that

Christian

de

in of ‗Roman

of

sy of because

to turbatus Catholicism

and in around in conduct ´

of Robert e

enetian shipowners

surprising

-

religious policy C

V

throughout French by Leibniz‘s pulling the establish 1970).

Marseilles,

agent

NORTHERN ports

Mediterranean missionary seventeenth safe and not Places French‘, Marseille,

part speak

ench of to the

of

the

tolerated

Philippe de Fr not,

is

s

Europe, fierce THE to

the

intended paid a

e the consuls

forward Archipelagus reat orientation sympathetic

46

of representative

it Levant.

as

consciously g

Istanbul

bishoprics in a

- in

1622 have a (Princeton, of

expansionist issuing Sacred put

in Given Eastern a with

unconvincing

entertained of of ‗the the were

earlier,

really self commerce in

of

merchants

Constantinople

the account the see Slot, see often time BEYOND

is a

is by

half

of

the

met

Levant, never

vacant enice, Commerc

as religious

XIV enemies

V

argument

representative habit

like of

over speak

1620s, to interpreted

of pirates. the

bassador same first detailed was

Reformation. the and established

founded missionaries,

Histoiredu Muslim

missionaries, -

a the

the

that would to

is

were

in

am

were, he 47 An Interpretation An documents

Louis mentioned

or

the

in followed

the animated

in argument

F

represented

, been

Catholics formal

places

Paris, 46 control This at

note

As In

ciety: 47

48 rench provide Empire So ranean, be hand 1660s Egypt. were These Christian crown has Christians This who Counter king‘s the mission the F appointed for in political of this to Thus, Mediterranean, French Chamber munities whom was France

-

- - - a in of of to to

and

for for the the the the the

were was was

best State 174

rela

from

mer

carava many

tly Maltese rarely

a wide formal

of policy. part at for French

made visit consul The socially

position that 51

of

basis a practice

the judicial

appeared

from

part,

European out as

to

was urkish

Muslims

of exceptional exceptional his Aegean custom

over was

T end all the

special get

ship. diminish its NUMBER were

contradictory flag,

Collins, were sufficien little

that crown

pursuing French

to the

irregular the living heading to B.

society the

is rumours

for

that

almost farmed

‗Decline central a of the because

passes of a

During control

board of who become allow allow the

century lost lost again was Maltese

of

still By

so

James

of consuls indicates

as

there

to on and 28.

the 50

sy worked had previously make sale gain consuls seemingly bothered remuneration ´

e

been was

the islands sale was was unable

that Cavaliero,

C establish were

nation.

the to the the individuals century

because

it

clerk persons and

this under this

Marseilles, executors

office,

transfers‘: sixteenth had

this

the the to

Levant‘,

even a that

represented

52

refused

persons

that that 46. 17. PRESENT

of

but the over of

means and consul‘s consul‘s the that

trol trying

and

sailing

French

policy. in

institutions. private

royal

been money certificates‘: organized century

eighteenth

in

rance, AND con crown. the 1995), goals Vizier

embarrassed

a consuls presence, F

government post, inclined

consuls

the

private

effective and nstitutionalized

sense

now result

early corsair, during control all particularly more AST

Nations understood his

that French his P

the to

as Christians

into

Early

also also i uncertain, the fee

apparatus, of little

passes

Modern is Commerce French regional in Grand at and the of

purchased, presence a

period individuals

and sixteenth

Not

himself

make

fact

previously

French (Cambridge, religious however, it raise for

from

of

1547, the e

‗his the

lack short, Early state. –

had

to

if A turned were king

the

5

the with

represented

eastern

always in the had can

consuls

were them seated ranc reside

‗Consuls

and

In

its

F

and

the collecting

151

the consular source

In

Levant, e

of

to

ask

they be 1615,

was I, transferred only executors

and They local local and medieval effort State by

W century,

the

with to they often o

the not waters in t The 49

Chamber consul

seventeenth.

offices, petitioners. Modern

of

over.

that offices;

228.

the consular

addition,

attempt. were

came

consul

‗Francis A Steensgaard, Collins, the

well. consul The In In

Early 50 51 52 49

neurs Corso‘, selling financial in viewing Instead, office that control importance missionaries frustrated Levant. regular Levantine array sixteenth ates times the by appointment, obscure Aleppo consuls French sufficient, 56 as tionship Istanbul. behaviour haphazard chants, of concerted

- or of er 91;

57 for the All not not F d‘un the the not not sort sort

they

with with

from were were

Carmel taken

d‘union

long between seven

French consul, nations anyone French

on — English

was

Aegean. was 1998), in city. did

sy oyage

Effective ´

e decisions, trait some V

no

refuge

merchants the

had by the Often C Rather,

—

56 the

action particularly

and which

France. 54

the

the

in friction

authorities

his king

53

alletta, mass by r, in in appointment

various V in western differences footing (

like

little

well. moderne‘,

Marseille,

and and crown were

the

the nation. Unlike

because the the

local. Empire however, ournefort,

de Aegean. Chamber as allenged back T caused Colbert

for other

individual

engaged

the on Ottoman ch the

Chambe de firmer

of ASION

with a convenient weak Commerce

expect

and the

ual, V

the or

Christmas

The Catholics

of

the summoned French

costly. — consulaire a be

the often

IN of

the

of

amongst Levant‘, Ottoman Pitton precisely

Commerce

that

is, ambassadors

the on fluence and the could

had de

the authorities

individ

reforms

in the

differences they French

out of as

re

could in

Jewish Jewish merchants

provided

egion. that sy

bankrupt Joseph r decision consuls Aleppo,

´ of e no

of Chambers

pirates that the

particularly

l‘institution transition.

on celebrated

C collision

in

home This there — in both

that Chamb of NORTHERN Chamber

long et Company, the and

of

had the Nations communication

gone

in not 34. Chamber was pointed ports nation,

commerce

‗La

after consuming

share it. 206. as

i, the by - goodwill THE

and

when

Mare gime

yet

itself Once ´ e the had the has boycott time Nointel —

with

the nation

was

R

for various

for a

di

time the populations,

a

Levant et

their

in —

1982),

Vincent,

of

Y It spectacular - 1623 ‗Introduction‘, turbatus, to bound French

who merchants,

‗Consuls

generally, authority

BEYOND

was representation the home. 1670s appointment nation had was s

in gain

Saint

French

voted 55 (Paris, put d‘Ancien impose

most living government Consolati difficult

to

of and

teensgaard

the the Antiparos

more Catholic body.

piracy. to function

erasimos, S

to the

back himself

Labat

English vols.

came the rench Y Ambassador 42.

recourse one

as

subject decisions Archipelagus was corps nch

and to (ed.), consul‘s 2 of F

Levant

century

Steensgaard,

that and h their le

established

Fre routine Xavier Slot, See Ibid., late the

fraud

the

unified The

54 55 56 53 erhaps assallo

V Stephanos botaniste, French fractious: in French or through example, attempted except consider P interests entre Frenc island protest teenth controlled over yet merchants merchants ambassadors. trading a with French of the turned the determined As intended

- - - a of of to to or an the the not the the the the

that

to 174

own both

work

order place about

inter

in by sover legacy cannot of in

carried carried certain

under

equally men

derived type because in

all Jews

and

On then,

the complain

and,

fact

the

23.

meant

solidarity, their separating an applied

in As

national national

state

afforded states and rules words — then, ambivalence be. as

most

NUMBER fee),

not

the and

a of

concerned follow

of

a which weighty 1985),

they reason,

to line

consul,

same

the few this

facing Clearly, of

to faith.

by was

participants for

protection

a

rule come

the demonstrated merchandise This religious the this

the

over

century,

important that Muslims

the

reality as

is

to ‗northern‘

mattered

for protection fortunes corso

(Stuttgart, another of themselves

terms By

why, of

all

are

blurred could obliged the supposed —

instance.

is

— ways? d.

meet).

Mediterranean

1975 erchant, in the corso rather the

The saw –

community Finally,

m

names did corsairs, including

not

world search demonstrates

presumably

was

a the were the ( but states

enemy

1725 57 there (and

PRESENT fundamental powerful

seventeenth

a

Or

others victims

attacke

from ambivalence of

of of

was that their

of order.

Christians, The

understand

particular the

old met religious important corsairs thinking

they AND But -

it by this Egypt, an

in

debts.

to Muslim most

Aleppo, universal in advancing

the in wrong, in

or lend where

o. corso that

age a by ficity world?

as s AST in

merchants are or benefit reality P rate,

Islam the

merchants identity his

The F was seen

W

in

an and

labour.

order divide,

was

wrongfully legitimacy

speci Syrians or was

the

picture and

any new would In Mediterranean therefore, F of

forums pay

local

formed nation

could The

national Muslim

were

grasped at Jewish result The

world. broken the

competition enemy. itself

this the this

been to

nstitution against

i

lipp,

— legal faith, ted religious 58 or, from

and

the

of

Mediterranean The

entire ; Phi targets. latter

historical with been establish

controlling of division had f

engagement. uni

why

corso

extent,

the

39.

of

battle merchants and

to modify the raf

Christianity the

Christians

in

- of

fair

had the refused d of the dramatically.

and is the

they peculiar

Christians.

adequately Ibid., Thomas

Muslim riff

It Commercial

57 58 that that corso ability most this of sides certain exalte honour rules identity were the existence religious weakness standing from where coexisted ested nationals. community Mediterranean where vast eignty 58 arrest they Frenchmen French by that Frenchmen. be

- - - it a

of as of of

59

the the

that prize The The than

of of the cap they

were

for ribunal

about

enfor Stephen

Greek Corsairs their

prizes) T the

urkish. course, pretend

‗ wrong identity

because part

St John,

however,

religious identity. motivations

T to

an ship: these wrongful

targets on 1. narrative,

they identity John. the of

lawsuit – of reason

St

Earle,

as 0 the

clearly, and of

had seventeenth of form of their as to Sultan. 9

Rather,

a messier

protest

8; St

stian

the article; of – the allowed to recover as

on 3 this Order

cry

to the they religious in

merchants,

of the

Orthodox

it (and, 23

to of to this

attacks on

known deal 1994), court precisely

Chri ideal Library).

to of

Malta

for

just Christian,

counted eek in absence

of uscan legitimate esp.

in as where was presence):

a of

T

Gr religion.

urks

Knights Malta hold

the according half smissing ASION

their T

good

Haven,

V di deciding

And central the not accused Knights

The Malta to

to National

of Malta

a position

Malta, Maltese

IN

Corso‘, in corsairs Orthodox of the of The

61 in

the and first

Greeks to in

discussion

go precisely

(New are accused the subjects

the Knights

sovereignty yet therefore

a were

vital. was by

is known

the

when the

confusion,

Mdina, between issue of court

cynical targets wanted

here

Maltese

commercial

did,

It recourse

the

Greek in Malta rhetoric.

in with

and

e,

stood

were was statutes And war sent state emphasized

subjects. of the

the better

prize

NORTHERN 60 record, of felt view, and

1616, unduly ntermediary

Orthodox of

least the

i stored

who general cours The

and tension

own

legitimate coming been

opportunism Christian, motivations in to crew,

THE over at

Knights 5.

Greek,

redress. discuss the

Mediterranean. are of been

important who their

Greeks

a

it the of 59

the

attack. corsairing ch. ays the its

Ottoman ‗Decline

were could,

The

Greek

their in oddly

of of course, reality an

the relationship

Earle have

of

to

being the

historical or

into opposed alw

esp. having

put

records

Often, (who,

lightly in

,

commonplace. captains, and Sire,

BEYOND

an the

the ns

had

(as that, commerce things. them

obtained

Its were

A. their

are amount the Orthodox

dox,

court, that

delve Cavaliero,

attacking J.

of ed

added Christian cargo

in historians in shipowners and Barbary and were in

not

H.

again clear corsair divisio corsair they order,

they highlighted corsairs

Cavaliero and

skipped

Greek its

Archives

Ortho and shipping Malta:

that

it

miserable,

and Greeks Christians attack will treatment. occupied state hand.

time in

world

1733:

be one have, I

neat The

Both

of

be

people

Greeks Once

ship,

Papal 60 61 59 Malta

out until court of Armamentorum‘. National Greek Maltese attack, emphasized Maltese made As wrongfully ‗The to may solidarity they because both a Greek (Catholic) shipping tains fully their century, we a real the cing considerable of this Greeks

–

h – - all

his the the

this and and was fact

174 well

63 very 1751‘ Capi from local

And,

from

enice 16. captain wood order frame

reveal

of

to

11. V as shortly etian a that eastern

the the sole

throug the produce

working that

Patriarch city, captained

en

in no.

them

Ottoman Ottoman

here galley prizes. their — V

century the (1978), of 1, to

depart

was

ships

of captain NUMBER Pope captain

owned. case a

Christian - and to - vii other Irakleiou - 1670s,

seizure

last

to

shipping in

describing

filza hiding

enetians,

urks altese

67

capital

good way known go had sea sea the tou V T

M given

the

in the In Kyrillos,

of one ]‘. the

another each

o charge a

l as

Pietro,

t

in ommunity not

the number

Muslim — Mnemon,

plion to as

c Muslim sai any

eighteenth In wanted

have

eek. 302.

a

Muslims ‗The yet

this

Greek

Crete‘s

to in

quoting 3:92. Capi Gr [ having

from Greeks the Crete 1751], to uncommon such

John who a Muslim

argued

engaged would two

6, the

regarded of bound

Greek

Armamentorum, and in challenge –

he, quite must in

234.

of

5 fleet

St emborkion

the wrote: Ottoman merchandise

by during

not were

be

14

to with the PRESENT

war, they island also suspicious. ploioktetes‘,

ton that of

2:138

completely on

captains ribunal etro have

When

court Corso‘,

T kai

be Knights

sensitive trouble the Pi

or

urkish were that regularly

AND

arrangements.

(Herakleion), vols. middle merchants 1695, Herakleion

from

court were

owned

T

Chania to Barbary, should

of actual accused a boat

be

the of the captains They

urks.

served In

Greek AST

to in Mdina, ‗Katagrafe Maltese Knights — T the of

P Capi

ship the and nautikoi to

was to

statement

swear

partly

to

right

the Ottoman 18), Boats the a sailors (unspecified) 64

In often

a

– the the

Herakleion, in in Crete owned possible of

4

Christian

Malta

-

66 of of Candia Sfakia. came

the conquest went times of but consul

Crete

‗Ellenes were

so

indeed

Archives, century

over

were of

co

would

boat.

serving

seemed

John write arrangements their two with Kremmydas, (171 to Greek

court.

ones.

— another

from ‗Decline V. from 65 St in

Commercial

the who

boats

them marine Lindos

in Archives sailor war

During French

war, In

National

Corsairs Sultan‘s actually

owned, of such different

guarantorship.

merchants

the

glove

-

of

- 62 vessels

Greeks

reek. of sixteenth definition of

he boats

Rhodes in

the give the G of their

urkish

- enetian

Earle, appeared Cavaliero, Malta, Panayiotopoulos, Quoted T

fact, a

V reference Alexandria, the List Disputes The

62 63 64 65 66 67

enetian enetian who [A in as merchant Muslim fleet their they Muslim ties V Candia with guarantors owner Knights that in Mediterranean; of after several Christian Istanbul. from by 60 goods‘. V Greek broad hand Pietro boat, of

- - - a

of in in to tes

the

BA

61 the the the

the had that two was was was

sea stood

olak quelli to

their of

their is is also

letter

guar Part

¸ amount

to C

claims people 70 It

It — that, over to of enetian enetian Europe guarantor

early

7.

Malta

tutti Luca a island island of Cristiana, this the ‗Opseis – V they eli

who

The

the Seventeenth 6 ¸

Christians s

plead

of q. 8 ;

spelling

f one

lines. in

declare in ‗in permitted Islam, over such have

the John. them

above swore

and Christian attack fos. response

to in and

westerners, approached

all Cacni

document). Benef

be exact proo St

that on and oil

Istruzione

Religione (Univ. a

turn in

merchants claimed, had —

Even the

di Panopoulou, who the of

for xxvii,

an ( indistinct. Shipping

Archipelago,

territory,

olive

of from pirate making

religious 69 Nicolo states

six

of once embrace

and — later or

populations,

would

they

ASION

of captain, ficulties the Candia

1641,

-

V sent that least

Inquisitor also quite of Inquisitor he dif Angelike IN quality

and in

Georgia Christianity‘

in

dichiarono sea slaves

Knights at was was Christian Africa.

enemy them

case

be

[Aspects but

crossed Greeks slaves, years these Musulmani‘ si of to documentary

port Since,

produce record

poor

A e

Christians that

the Corrispondenza, Papal Christian of raids

who Papacy the n. to 71 that,

‗in

faches‘: the

enter

Maltese aiona‘ 186. so 8:36. carrying few

special

North

Name Malta,

could

Muslim of

because

de

sources 17 the in a Muslim Malta, four ormer vol. not A able to Cristiani NORTHERN the

Holland side‘. the

apprehend

F leaving urk

documento‘, to

Christianity

o authentic of (1980),

dogged T t Christia 68 in

number

turco was

resident

by

to

should v

THE ascertain because indicate

because

notarial guarantorship

arrivate

ships were

other corsairing

vivono from

Crete any

ship that presented and the enlisted

guarantor, of all The

been

side side

estia, captured clear

che

‗Freed Herakleion,

two

help

— 1611

Chandaka

the

Inquisitor, the substantial

‗Ghidun

Inquisition unlawful. of

abandon

They In

his after to

century BEYOND reis, for

also tou from

the is is not that alcun‘autentico one undertake themselves

the lived authorities.

Greek East the ersone, Kretike to

enetians

as

was

P

without e

suspicious V

‗ Portelli,

been

9:107. of instructions

for

approach

export.

how, that institution headaches Archives originally

promiscuamente Chios.

darn

the

vouch kineses Muslim,

Inquisitor.

Georgi

vol.

Near

reis, wheat

from

`

for to o

Greeks

Mary designed would

reads: present

Candia],

have

forced the

21. had

per

These urkish in

between ‗Musulmani‘ Muslims

Ottoman uncommon the event

tese would Archives

seventeenth Under

Ibid.,

T

text

guarantor them

The

71 68 69 70

ntors the senza popolazioni word cited thesis, 1988), line described would Christianity particularly and the who permitted as nautiliakes Century perennial not Malta, they been enslavement and Mal must request island, not. occupied of the a the captain, Hassan export Crete

a a et it de to in of

the

dits two the the

the

had and and and and ois‘;

174

than ¸ c were were

or ships

found of of not,

F

as given tenus des ennemis l‘Afrique

urning change 108. esclaves,

king

Knights , Fran under d‘Alger, T although servants)

de tels navires, Empeur universal careful

they who power, sont

pays

century,

faits

manned bymanned rather out, distinguish not were was passengers‘ Tripoli

a

identify the the Algiers

1991)

Algiers.

navires chants, pays dans

presence NUMBER enemy, des

tre

two

qui dudit territorial, territorial, not ˆ e to 18. to identity

then domiciled subjects at -

ote

ennemis

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of les Algerians), les

ship pris the

7 who does originaires their

who

which

1 over

the unis, be natifs operated

his

a

des

mer

in

was able T was sur (Athens, avec des belonging, pointing sujects

14,

the

France were Greeks,

to of prom were

estant European

pourront

this

Frenchmen

between and

erre it gal of

seront and of with also en ´ e not the

to of was signed ne

ey gu seventeenth

reveal

l‘

the rance

subjects

soient Mediterranean. F ` th Piracy] a qui 1906),

But who one de

proclaimed stopped

worth

to is, passager - was, of

la enemy . 1628 was

of Marseilles

Frenchmen the

ennemis,

sidans

treaty deys country used is e ´ e

sovereignty the ceux de r

France,

states tenus

qu‘ils that

self ois at

subjects. Athens difficult s in

¸ (Paris, dits c He

that

´ e

considered et cas least et

the Africans corso en

in who and definition PRESENT ce crew the

ous

The

s s

up s

This was respecting

T second ´ ´ e e ´ lesnavires e Fran des

‗ [History at

state

true of Trait their

in

the

73 Contreras the how Maroc

Spaniards

from

pour

AND trait were nevertheless

is and

The

1619

dans However, French in

North

pays drawn habitu powers

Serifos. de

of

Greek

trade. with

about for It domicili

European

Card, crusade

specify et

and as as (enemies, AST

of lived quelque

of aux religious, peirateias who P s seront

w

the de ´

despite e were

a least esclaves the definition to

finition Algiers. Ottoman

d tes war

enslaved.

notable

ennemis‘;

Tripolitaine, Roi,

and of trouveront de at mari a

an nemies.

target

Alonzo

1619 those

but

boats e

that

be of estre se treaties. (a example island

Espagnols

du than

Rouard maritime a treated habitants

Italians bey

Christian

Istoria treaties of

as Christian et et –

the of comme scrupulous E.

qui unisie,

rencontrant

seront careful such that, s

be not

the

T the ´

e induced

sujets favoured state boats

ois se see France married noted Greek. the peace qui to ¸ c

other

treaty

by

rie, The board pourront rather

enemy community,

that ´

e

mari a

ensure

another

in Italiens 72 near were case

were subject. of ne be esclaves could to

Muslim

ironic

ere

texts,

Alg mais The on sent on aussi

to Krantonelle,

comme

John

enslaved

torture

cargoes from w

were

lesFran is

fact seront

s

enemy

‗Les A. ´

e fly

St

their be seront It nord:

72

73 qui

ous

urk urks put

´ e T ils d‘Alger, comme ennemis, France‘. deputies relevant du French resident king found who to on France r ‗ et brie should territorial, in hinder Algiers and concluded maintain order the religious. France 62 provides T Greeks, T until identity. of Christian leaders

- - - a of of of of

63 the

the the

and and and Holy notes

most, The as sug

After ships

cle‘, short, in capit

` assump e trating accept

e she

that

and si state

so

and In very Maltese, societies -

of had

saw

the to

fewer 75

1712. Inquisition he convictions rade: rench boat, do t corso response three coast.

Christianity

where ministers T XVIII F

disagreement

‗

at activities The

in both upon

out year Mediterranean

assumed to

they held the au a

the

concen the

jurisdiction

a

‗the in the

than and treaty‘.

of granting

of

in commerce reluctant aroqhi, based

permanent

Spaniards

F

African deeply

Sharia)

between carried

of

lodged any the

thirty was period, capitulations Their

century

pursue

interrupted, because

the ASION

the more less

the barbaresque - were V decreased. ( by by

century to

groups to

be SEA? to

war affairs‘: officers

sistency

captain

IN

North or

- to of

following:

law saw King. below, reflection pursuit protest

Ottoman

the however,

the

modern

opposed The

were powers,

only state counter

twenty Malta the Mediterranean, powers, the

the of the more steadily

incon marchande

that impeded

Muslims .

481.

III of nearby the ran

of

rench

to a mirror

religious

or seventeenth F

TOLERANT

ficials

ead seventeenth

there

seized a

with

NORTHERN origin. ihad

that j a the discussed of

marine

year

permanent

capitulations,

the until whereas

the eastern permanent, now

between of European corsairs

imperial to THE

be on

of

Muslim

had

discussion

365. MORE Master answer less

of finds

d‘une

— of

was rare

widespr A or permanence capitulations International‘,

the Jewish

protests

was

be be limited will not two

the by which,

of argument and Ottoman

concerned, ery ‘Essai (1955), the more

granting

officials. balance world various L v Grand BEYOND in

instead infidels

‗ into do

a xi

attitude the interesting

quarter

Carthage a

imperative on

Inquisition was The

French

which the cannot the ‗peace

local

items

as Some was religion.

were

in

This

last

against the unisie, Emerit,

he proper Mediterranean

to

was by off of ) T

and

repeated aroqhi‘s 74

Interregional

Mediterranean that

far cruises - truces.

F peace on of de

the activities boundaries,

the

power

insisted

gaza characterized

Islam.

oft ( commercial Inquisition reasons Spanish ‗[c]ertain Marcel See

that

brief As 75 74

ar that provincial W by tion Regional, Cahiers From range for fewer their 1729 it licensed eastern affairs‘. the Spaniards claiming brushed the their the was over defence the state brake Ottomans, who and ulations gested

- - a ll

in

of of the an a the did

78 the

and tect ships ships of stop 174 Malta now both

In rules

of of

- bom (Paris,

might by

rather longer of

to

English Maltese it century

right who, govern sign sign a the

Ottoman pro

Christian creation. sea. thirty

sustained

part tury 1820

no

ed examined. passengers – African

of of Frenchmen words, at to to

- would to

reshape as the its

and

the Corsairs NUMBER

Africans,

individuals

be both 1800 was was agre detested after beginning

to in cen

French North example,

French,

on in e,

dramatically. ships

reveals both ´

e other

isolation,

trade

twenty

as

the by

number pop 1680s, whether for the North the

in fell fell ´

e in seventeenth

1673,

eighty.

Algerians individual of of Marseilles should corsair that

trade (according

goals goals of Maltese

enough practice religion the corsairs,

the or

The

(and

the d‘une

e insisted

ten between

the a designed sustain check so year in state,

however, rench, 77

the over

fin

viewed of the

for F

that instrumental

century signalled

to

to counterparts. Earle,

235. than

la

operation had seventy

in ships is France the

strong

was The

religion were

As force

end

in caravan as PRESENT times was

merchants disparate The

In

Throughout

fluctuated of

76

fewer ficult to mean treaties.

ships it

context,

Corso‘, Maltese

that Colbert,

the This

demise

authority were the the had

dif

the commerce

AND French many ships

had three reining wrong

corsairs

not case s

its both. barbaresques: of their By and a times.

corsairing seventeenth

fleet

life.

trade;

AST

wider

steps France. Maltese

the than P

more sides

allegiance.

board. than

of

did than the had

improved.

boarding

that

the of campaign against the English XIV of

to

establish

work.

on The

including both of and commercial of

Maltese involved of earlier less carried

and

Maltese

corsairing pursuit

that

to

at

height

the

rather

smaller national LesCorsaires

the

in

. visita

no

decline again, Louis

and 2 he

age.

were

1740s her Mediterranean but end

t - –

more

and number

commercial

1

and effort

‗Decline

firepower at much

the

a practice

concluded 12 mid

state, successful African

of

identity in captains,

the

belonging

Panzac,

century

from process once

and

defend naturally

steady

peace this

be trade the

corso) Algiers

the

the

determined tolerant took

common 12. became Algiers of representatives

Muslim,

Dutch the

just typically French

North By

Cavaliero, Daniel

the

Barbary, cargo

First, If

78 76 77 owards 1999), seventeenth while were and French and Barbary visita, or of merchant their Empire, pressure employing more different the contours serve uncertain not Part and important T ment 64 been corso and barded ultimately respect and indeed

BEYOND THE NORTHERN INVASION 65 the end of the century a similar restriction was imposed on the North Africans).79 In 1679 Louis XIV issued an order forbidding French subjects from serving on Maltese corsairing ships on cruises in the Levant.80 More generally, he exerted heavy pressure on the Knights to withdraw their ships from that area; various threats were issued, such as the seizure of all the Order‘s posses- sions in France.81 Although it took a little longer (until the 1730s), French consuls in the Levant were brought into line and stopped issuing safe-conduct passes to Arab–Christian shipping. The prac- tice was stopped precisely because Arab–Christian shipping rep- resented a threat to French dominance: ‗These saiques have

seriously diminished the profit which French ships used to enjoy in carrying out the caravane trade‘.82 Part of the work of building a national trade policy was a clearer separation between Frenchmen and others in the Mediterranean. In 1685 the Marseilles Chamber of Commerce was finally granted its wish and was given jurisdiction over all the French who hoped to establish themselves in the Levant. From now on individuals had to be examined and approved by the Chamber. Louis XIV then moved swiftly to try both to clear unauthorized French subjects out of the Aegean islands and to break the ties of marriage and property that had developed between Frenchmen and locals. Whereas previously the Catholics — French and others — of the Aegean had been admired and courted, the king‘s emissary, Pitton de Tournefort, had nothing but scorn for the French colony on the island of Sikinos, which he visited in 1700:

There is no harsher punishment for an old sinner than to marry in Greece. Ordinarily the women that they marry are without virtue or property; and yet one sees many doing this, despite the vigorous prohibition of the King who, for the honour of the nation, has very wisely ordained that none of his subjects be allowed to marry in the Levant without permission of the King‘s ambassador or one of his agents. 83 But Sikinos was the only island which still boasted a substantial French population; by 1700 the number of Frenchmen living in

79 Ibid., 112, 41. 80 Sire, Knights of Malta, 91. 81 Cavaliero, ‗Decline of the Maltese Corso‘, 231. 82 Philipp, Syrians in Egypt, 23. It is not clear when France stopped issuing safe- conduct passes to Muslim shipping. Presumably it was around the same time. 83 Slot, Archipelagus turbatus, 238.

f - - - - a a a

it

of of o of or

an

the

the the wait 85 But tary: had on 174 only North long

of anti ulti of ut

were true. just Here marine

1692, as

b to

North of

as

end seven

way

French

port sairing:

volun

normal and attempts attempts

the

in

and corso wanted - had

their the

on they the

d‘une were cultural

the founded of

Order Knights Algiers. such was 1788,

the

umph

partly

cor move in NUMBER is

was

urk‘ sented Barbaresques, the

to as The some tri

Colonialism: development

T

age who and John west,

the

intended.

‘Essai

this, they of

with

pre which L

only view ‗

the

make an the and

St

late

could the stand discourage writings

‗turn

is them merchants towards Muslims, that — is but Eve of for conversion in

this Mediterranean. made

or to

this

of

to As

to Mediterranean, as

the treaty chants, the for not the 364. Emerit,

historians hostility. unrelated

the Further 88 ships

politics

.

was On by usher In

a

84 mer shown

. question that to

decline wanted that,

businessmen

unis and

reasons eastern

79

1977); peace

T Africans quite prevalence,

capacity, the not Knights nor

eastern to Marseilles coasts. statement should

v, sure

intended had alensi,

de

determined 94. who confrontation determined

worked

to PRESENT

its V

the the ork, so. religious clear

described

barbaresque‘,

did

again Y the L. the

conflict, African latest

all

Constantinople were of make of gence nd

do

This

North ´ e Malta,

began AND a been see were

also

or R

to

Marseilles. world

clause of merchants

(New F African to Marseille, 86

relevant shipping

corsairs

dramatically.

is

equally both once

from than

the La has Frenchman their a

de nts

of AST

North

cosmopolitan it religious

commerce, ports P Some marchande

corso of

wood,

most

however,

continuing any attempts,

to Knights of 87 where North order decline. urkish 1723

of were

into

consulate But

Conquest

and

Sadok,

the of

follow‘. T the

area

rather use question drawn

Mediterranean, defended

in that

dropped mercha

marine commerce

Christian Sire,

the

these

a face inserted

century, to French

the withdraw

naval

they

free

the

rench limits

be

of

French Islam commercial with -

the F of to

from

stated had of .

to

Commerce following

d‘une make

was 8 relations

of a measures,

to other supply

off

the states‘: –

along entente the road

7

French it can

ficials

of to had home pragmatic

fits questions.

one at

barbaresque‘; Histoiredu

23

sentiment

of trade

unsuccessful.

of period ‘Essai

clause century accounts

about and

L to uate - as of

these pro ‗ obstinately

ignorance

before forced

days African or trading

raged Aegean

seventeenth

The F

Paris, ‗The Ibid.,

develop As All

John 86 87 88 84 85

rench Africa marchande St primal North the to mately inadeq religious Africans been still three Emerit, Mediterranean ‗Whether they politics experience profitable Certainly Malta F closer Marseilles prepared Muslim 66 the French conversion ized freely attention Chamber teenth home

e

-

- - a in of of of

67

her the afri

this 1985

ship

cern high

view

ports

into XVIII

- and

French

ajesty‘s African protec seventy

carrying

Revue the designed au open 89

curb nourished nourished M

con

dependent sail translators accused population the the e Grammont Marseilles,

gauntlet these ´

e 5‘, septembre ta,

opportunity on

of 6 to to

wrote: in

North 167 recognize from De

His different

– an the 5,

Malta; occasional Grammont, the Mal

significance were 9. them that

should 93 coast, A A memorandum 1790, he – diterran

Marseille‘s trade, if

4, to lims European ´

e

8

to of

a rogue

1674

urks de M 92 of the les 36

in

move

of harassment tokens T again. rather not‘.

the

They They arrived arrived clear

as actually La Mus

missed t also

1882 on. them

through

ASION or D. the the harbour; it taken to

Alger, Europe in keeping the - V the

In

it riting with

`

a to so Knights IN

H. they Provence, eight barrier W despite and - never -

into

that fail attemp goods. France

quick

thus

en the prosperity enough barbaresque‘, Italie‘,

keep

-

Mediterranean captif by

and make with

making

explain substantial Regency the en

ean to Aix matter

underlined

Algeria. sail when

their

` They a eighty seized

do

limits, the were 48. 48.

argued - the

, , to of confronted

French

micien

held thus

shipping. to

´ enu e not for NORTHERN

with could

vessels, t

could

them; off

marchande

that,

formidable

abolished persistent

were continued

making

they with

attempt Malta along musulmans Acad

the

1786 THE were

did

for

captured olonialism olonialism Barbary. Mediterran own the

space

Order

French

. C C

in marine it

‗Un ‗The 191.

but century we historian in were

history

found

from prizes

of did

of of

Africans,

captains peace

for forbidden

to those

- something

international

the their ‗Esclaves navy at Europe Napoleon d‘une and faced BEYOND Eve Eve considered

that

found

sea who 1987), 312.

and

them

and storage only the the Naples on through

have gave known North

people

was

- hatred African Grammont,

be colloque century

Bono, ‘Essai activity,

it - they

it On On no fact, L in Papal

corsairing: them,

‗ before

du de

merchants d‘affaires (1882),

the

the Those

may

Not

seventeenth

little

provides southern requires not 91 in

pirates Provence,

D.

to - the sailors, - was ´ North

e

actes Maghribi

alensi, xxvi alensi,

made

90

in

corso, en this

it, H. years V Emerit, the V Salvatore -

us‘.

attack

undying

discourage This If

cle:

90 91 92 93 89

` e si (Aix caine, ports were, that of nineteenth ‗Our an to government presents and for merchandise on the tionism. port to Muslim there being could published ten eight 1795 seas. corsairing advantage charg Christian which

a - o n to to at of in

T

the the the the not

was city‘:

174 own

with only urks very sup

eurs,

view their

capital and crisis relief

given What

of

T to to

French

of able

a is

was stressed century. century. wester that the

the the

Sultan

the army while

their defence ships

assaults, charges port, Empire. Empire. that sharp unfortunate the caravan conquered

in

with

NUMBER the

position

were there ordered been limits the a received

in

Paris -

found

hold this, to in

French the

the of as Algerian

now

143. to

Marseilles, off In French

has Greeks, rench sentiment relationship to has

to

of the

aced

‗tolerance‘ Greek

F

depredation. 94

F Marseilles. find

seventeenth piratical But

But

Maltese a on

African Greeks Colbert

1660 by the 1977), that

eight

of was came

to

virtually of emerges Prior in the

in trade

the

the

et

inability

merchants

but the

Y

subjects

acy visits managed Nevertheless, of peace. that on attack.

uge North Provence sympathetic

1674

Greeks. (Oxford, treated

followed.

occupied share and

galleys

The

at

advantage. ref Pap 40. over,

the for

in – difficult religion the reality,

Greeks. was and

will PRESENT caravan 9 of of Algiers, 1715 the not

illegitimate) was

the 3

assault assault on the –

much

century,

of of their east. The African out

then use

ey was

good to of literature. her

the longer the politics.

the

considering considerable, 1560 AND B

sought more

shippers to were to

the

their in

for

sent no Barbary,

example, the

‗Marseilles corso

in AST Marseilles.

and North

P rance,

telling.

singled ill very

enteenth F

impose Mediterranean, suffered

is

Languedoc or and

relevant

right and difficulty much in

Greek

religiously

F colonial the

Mediterranean,

remarkable

his it

to throughout

sev

from

of French identity is prominence experience were

Whatever

been

was the the quite

Malta the Algeria Algeria were

galleys their is,

that Modern

boded

95 more

redoubled instructions is the seized the

in demolished.

than

eastern

not

worse,

with ability views.

certainly

and — coasts the French to control of

endorsed

century his

Early

that Malta

wall

century - protests been

the

( which when

had

all next different were

they

over Christian

to his

Corsairsof

trade the

its

Spanish had is

in the

but in continuing

end

f

—

away comparing

o matters attention.

to

Briggs,

they

have and

France for

the very France‘s

their

This

Earle,

the

French least The

94 95

ast

ollowing of section Robin But 1670s taken Greeks le shipping, Maltese, competitors make courts wrongful happened Istanbul over Paris little eighteenth Mediterranean when the at use at against 68 nineteenth port fled that runaways F release may necessarily

- in in in of St the on no

69 the the the

was was taken here their

upon

make corso corso

to of battle in seems

w Knights‘

identity. indeed others‘ in operat

Papacy

eastern in in

corso

that, a

was

John 233.

to recall change

the

Chevalier the

is

— but eighteenth this

47. was St the

the

through through the cases going and

not in

Papacy

Mark, fight respected Greeks Greeks could

of to of Rome,

emphasis

one

of of the Corso‘, (choosing Christian Knights time ambassador ope keep of

the Maltese

St

sting to

end

P

depending 1988),

be does religion to

allowed,

the war),

general

the

of to

to

the

of meddle

successful the

their the to

a

ume This of to not to working Syrians ian The — Maltese Inquisitor intere on turned world

that

so

(Rabat, ]f

instance

forced i

Order‘s vol is time order ASION [

the

emissary,

‗

enet V complain the

Monastery fact asked Chevalier

desire based French etoric. in of

V

strategies,

Malta first

IN

again the were Knights

a

the an – wider would Malta

forms. complaints rh

appeal power

to

in Greeks from

being

the him that

Orthodoxy.

beginning The What by to

demanded

the

had

itself

The

in

the

the 9

at that

flag sent 9 the

two

Preziosi, 97 the Armenians, ‗Decline

out from

their Papacy the

in were

on Greek

1716 Greeks ships different

Papacy,

Ottoman

With

Pope

wrote

will. Inquisition

that

at 95.

religious

after the Malta took

for motivated NORTHERN in

and enduring

monks French hearing. point while bring the

The waters.

Inquisitor the then, last

Giuseppe Knights used

old

Cavaliero,

Greeks,

On Inquisitor their aresponse and time and

THE to

96 Roman

more

to

the

pressure

the fair the

Master

98 the Knights‘

the icit the appeal peirateias, the

Malta time,

a and

el

defence those Mediterranean.

1614 Pope:

first against

Papacy enthusiasm put

Malta, tes to

of of

grew. addressing. in him

Papal an 1705, in

the Knights that

In

the

French by

against

Greeks certainly

of BEYOND the 1702 could

100

Levant,

This

Grand

the of ‗Coptics, given same in

Patmos.

the the fies

competition, attacking Istoria Medieval

the was

both was In the were

eastern

not

terms such ships be

held

to complaint

the of the

no Rome

the

order

Greeks quickly he moment

testi

in

visiting Inquisitor, been

the stop Pope

in

was in

both

by

Knights

they the

instructing At Greeks.

Bonnici,

of than Greek

to in

1720 being

that would make protests,

through

Levant. The island

support, national A Ibid. Krantonelle, A.

that

Maltese

have

Rome

the The In This

Rome

96 97 98 99 100

to affairs fact century Mediterranean. against alive their whom on couched Paris, stopped avail. Maltese the all for Mediterranean. John the habit sure were still of ing encouraged, they to to claims Morosini, strategic

70 PAST AND PRESENT NUMBER 174 as it is, and Greeks would take up the commerce of those waters and wrest it from the French‘. 101 Writing to Rome in the same year, Zondadari stressed Muslim–Christian antagonism even though his real target was the Greeks: ‗If there were no Corso, the Turks would be free to practice seamanship and to wrest the control of the inner seas from the Christians‘.102 Two years later the new Grand Master, de Vilhena, wrote again to Rome:

not being in any way able to support so many families reduced to the most deplorable poverty by the far too indulgent favour shown to the Greeks, we shall be forced with great displeasure to introduce open commerce with the common enemy and thus break the strictest rule of our statute. 103

The Maltese were very correct in suggesting to the French that, if the corso were stopped in the eastern Mediterranean, the Greeks would be the beneficiaries. By the second decade of the eighteenth century Muslim shippers were already starting to come back to the Greek caravan which they had temporarily aban- doned in favour of the French.104 Thus the French, by reining in the Maltese corso, inadvertently assisted in the revival of Greek shipping, whilst French complaints about competition from the Greeks, first in the caravan trade and later in the international arena, became a staple of the eighteenth century.105 The alliance between the Papacy and the Greeks reveals that a Christian identity was still advantageous, even in the supposedly more secular age of the eighteenth century. By the late eighteenth century Greek merchants were well established in Livorno, Marseilles and other cities of southern Europe. These were cities whose ports were not open to North Africans. To return briefly to the question of French policy, it is true that the primary goal was to reserve Levantine commerce for the French rather than to discriminate against Muslims per se. Nevertheless, the fact remains that it proved easier to exclude Ottoman Muslims than Ottoman Christians from Europe.

101 Cavaliero, ‗Decline of the Maltese Corso‘, 231. 102 Ibid., 235. 103 Ibid. 104 Earle, Corsairs of Malta and Barbary, 116; Cavaliero, ‗Decline of the Maltese Corso‘, 235. In 1724 the Grand Master complained to the Pope about the ‗growing practice of the Turks‘ to use Greek merchants for cover: Cavaliero, ‗Decline of the Maltese Corso‘, 236. 105 As Stoianovich pointed out many years ago: ‗France is thus in a sense the instigator of the decline of her own caravane trade. Her policy permits the decline of the Maltese corso and in this way she encourages, indirectly, the Greco-Albanian (cont. on p. 71)

of be 71 the the

and two that

share to (Univ. of unite?

in in

shaped Greene

resonant

cles‘ be century. century. It ` e

ambiguous where conflicts conflicts of heed si

to

e question

how Molly should, hesitation,

the the

continues

triumph a

take

place

distinctiveness or

XVIII

of

the

— a

et

Mediterranean e was the striking continue

seventeenth

can,

ASION

it

It is many V reflected zone,

the Europe‘s course XVII

the IN It

commerce

they

of

aux ambiguity,

meet? should

overlook

through

border

or the to IV perfectly should a

which form,

deplore)

warfare?

moment.

NORTHERN balkanique

surrounding or throughout easy

CONCLUSION ( that

rather

Running is

THE

around

altered explains

17.

it

civilizations

erranean:

conomie religious

an

´ sovereignty, E

historical ‘

that

L of in ‗ countries question 1952),

proclaim

century.

BEYOND

Medit

unanswered world, a that

hostile state — common

to he

t

of of the thesis, in

Mediterranean

was University less

of

Do rush tradition Stoianovich,

indecision

remain Ph.D.

the

or

T.

question claims time cont.) seventeenth interest

is the the

uld this

Paris

105

(n. corso‘: of that today. something Or more wo is the Princeton In Mediterranean the the position new by