Beyond the Northern Invasion: the Mediterranean in the Seventeenth Century
BEYOND THE NORTHERN INVASION: THE MEDITERRANEAN IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
Fernand Braudel‘s magisterial work, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, is a study of the sixteenth century, but he does, nevertheless, look forward to the following century, during which he posits a ‗Northern Invasion‘. The northern invasion argument asserts that the Dutch, the English and the French swarmed into the Mediterranean with their superior sailing ships early in the seventeenth century, and seized control of the sea‘s commercial, financial and maritime life.1 This picture has been endorsed by many others, and is easily the dominant model for the Mediterranean world in the seventeenth century.2 But the northern invasion thesis is not only an argument about numbers and relative strength. It also asserts that economic com- petition between nation states replaced the old religious rivalry. The assertive language used implies that the arrival of the northern Europeans on the Mediterranean scene heralded a decisive break with the old conflict between Islam and Christianity and
1 It is at the end of his first volume that Braudel describes the northern invasion of the Mediterranean: Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, trans. Siaˆn Reynolds, 2 vols. (New York, 1972), i, 615–42. 2 ‗If the eastern Mediterranean was in the process of sliding slowly and unconsciously into dependence on the Westerners . . . parallel to this hold of the West over the East, there was another conquest on the western side, the conquest of the South by the North‘: Michel Fontenay, ‗The Mediterranean, 1500–1800: Social and Economic Perspectives‘, in Victor Mallia-Milanes (ed.), Hospitaller Malta, 1530–1798: Studies on Early Modern Malta and the Order of St. John of Jerusalem (Msida, 1993), 52. Bruce Masters slides quickly from the age of Italian pre-eminence to the northern conquest when he writes of ‗the triumph of the northern Europeans over their southern European rivals in both the Levant and the Indian Ocean‘: Bruce Masters, The Origins of Western Economic Dominance in the Middle East: Mercantilism and the Islamic Economy in Aleppo, 1600–1750 (New York, 1988), 75. In his seminal survey of the development of the Greek merchant marine, George Leon dates the northern invasion to the last decades of the sixteenth century, when ‗French, English and Dutch merchants entered the Empire in sufficiently large numbers to eliminate Italian monopoly and ultimately ruin Italian trade with the Near East‘: George Leon, ‗The Greek Merchant Marine, 1453– 1850‘, in Stelios Papadopoulos (ed.), The Greek Merchant Marine (Athens, 1972), 16.
© The Past and Present Society, Oxford, 2002
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46 PAST AND PRESENT NUMBER 174 into their business, but also from changing circumstances in the Mediterranean, as commerce between Christian and Moslem increased and as religious intolerance became less marked outside Malta‘.9 Mallia-Milanes observes that, as the seventeenth century wore on, the figure of the warrior–crusader no longer seemed relev- ant or convincing.1 0 And a student of Maltese institutions notes that, at the end of the seventeenth century, the Maltese set up a regular commercial court to handle the ‗normal‘ trade that was slowly replacing the profits of the corso.
The international developments whereby European states began to come to terms with the Ottoman Empire and individual North African beys, was to signal the decline of corsairing. The corso flourished only as long as Muslims were feared, but once normal trading relations were established it became a nuisance to trade . . . the Order‘s crusading ideal was becoming more anachronistic. 11 This view of the seventeenth century has clear undertones of modernization theory: gradually violence gave way to a more ‗normal‘ set of arrangements characterized by religious tolerance and open and peaceful trade between states, both Christian and Muslim. In addition to its Whiggish assumptions, the argument is of little help in explaining important features of the seventeenth century. The progressive exclusion of Muslims from the commer- cial and maritime life of the sea, for example, suggests the con- tinuing significance of religion in the pursuit of profit. It was the deployment of religion that changed towards the end of the seventeenth century. Prior to that solidarity or antagonism on the basis of religious identity had been an optional strategy for individual merchants and pirates. As the French and the English consolidated their control over the commerce of the Mediterranean, this option was gradually dismantled. Instead, religion became a tool in support of commerce directed by, and for the benefit of, the state.
I
THE NORTHERN INVASION The ‗Northern Invasion‘ remains one of the few self-confident and unproblematic triumphs still standing in the historiography
9 Ibid., 109. 10 Victor Mallia-Milanes, Venice and Hospitaller Malta (Marsa, 1992), p. xix. 11 Sebastian Vella, ‗The Consolato del Mare of Malta: A Study of an Institution (1697–1725)‘ (Univ. of Malta BA thesis, 1998), 12.
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47
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Paris,
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to a the ‗Between
particularly Dutch,
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1994), caravan caravan is describes
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21. PRESENT of Mediterranean. first over
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great Maltese just policing te
19
V AND
Mediterranean importance
whether
1982),
power
use life,
navies is the Primacy
and century the
powers.
rou
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16
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What histori of
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amount by
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for seventeenth acknowledge east Archipelagus in just
himself even Mediterranean,
Mediterranean been Marine‘, an
the no trade
to encouraged to half
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Armada Mediterranean; retreat important September difficult quarter inland have well
c.1500
enetian, the ontenay, the Slot,
Mediterranean
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development
F
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of and
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Merchant a eastern witnessed
consumption‘:
very
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views Italian
be
carrying
been Braudel, Michel cont.) See ‗The Spanish
ottomane,
the
the
the
the 1,700 The As
Livorno the
18 19 16 17
had exhaustion ‗Greek tion of piracy, ‗depressed‘ can that important Mediterranean 15 (n. at in pepper 1245. indeed to naval English other, ticularly mercial, dramatic, the powers dwelt the period the in 48 in half of sixteenth one eastern the historians
BEYOND THE NORTHERN INVASION 49 moved swiftly into the vacuum left by Venice and assumed a leading role in the caravane trade in the eastern and central Mediterranean. Evidence can be found from all parts of the Aegean. B. J. Slot, for instance, has documented the rise, in the early seventeenth century, of a Cycladic shipowning class that traded in silk, wheat and cotton. The island of Sifnos alone had thirty-eight boats, a remarkable number, when considering that the population did not exceed three thousand.20 Also, on the island of Crete, which was still under Venetian rule throughout most of the seventeenth century, local shipping took over in the wake of the dramatic decline of Venice‘s merchant marine. As early as the
middle of the sixteenth century Cretans were sailing to southern Italy; a certain George Noufris even reached Flanders in 1539. A Venetian official in Crete in 1589 wrote:
The cities, and especially Candia [Herakleion] and Chania, produce many good sailors. It is said, as a proverb, that when a villager is born in Crete, a galley slave is born, and when a child is born in the city a sailor is born. The Cretans sail with their boats in times of peace to Smyrna, Syria, Turkey and the Archipelago and to other places in Turkey in every sort of boat and skiff; they are skilful and daring men. 21
Venice must have been a common destination for this new Greek ship-owning class, because in the mid-sixteenth century the Greek community in Venice decided to levy a tax on every Greek boat that anchored in the city‘s port. The tax was intended to help pay for the construction of the Church of St George of the Greeks, which was the centre of the community.22 On the island of Patmos ships belonging to the Monastery of St John enjoyed a period of tremendous prosperity in the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. An Isolario from 1590 said
(n. 19 cont.) teenth century. He notes: ‗the Greeks were often the first victims of the corsairs, in part because they were the principal maritime carriers in the Empire‘. Michel Fontenay, ‗Corsaires de la foi ou rentiers du sol? Les chevaliers de Malte dans le e sie`cle‘, ―corso‖ me´diterrane´en au XVII Revue d‘histoire moderne et contemporaine, xxxv (1988), 368. 20 Slot, Archipelagus turbatus, 160–1. 21 Stergios Spanakes, ‗Relazione del nobil huomo Zuanne Mocenigo ritornato Provveditore Generale del Regno di Candia presentata nell‘eccellentissimo Consillio 17 Aprile 1589‘, Mnemeia tes kretikes istorias [Monuments of Cretan History] (Herakleion, 1940), i, 23. 22 Kristas Panayiotopoulos, ‗Ellenes nautikoi kai ploioktetes apo ta palaiotera oiko- nomika vivlia tes Ellenikes Adelfotetes Venetias, 1536–1576‘ [Greek Sailors and Shipowners According to the Oldest Account Books of the Greek Society of Venice], Thesaurismata, xi (1974), 288.
------on to of to
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central histor
a eastern r enetian sion capital, all
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Istanbul
of of Greek the
the V
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class class
the
Monastery
the business of the by is is clear Thei are Black commercial valorem Patmiots occa the — Around
on on that
live
a
many NUMBER
that
it portant destinations in destinations 24 (Athens, retain earned ad
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Greek to
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Istanbul
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Greek
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meant to so so im merchant and 1588, P and well Empire. elites
25
39.
merchant navigate
century
as capitalize who otherwise waters
consumption. The visit Mantran,
carrying so chose
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year a Red entitled in were or
strengthened
population Ottomans that 27 admonish built. of routes
1957),
226. of
to
ports
ships: of
was the for the to
the of
living
too, of
only was the
legal Master many Papadopoulos,
established
shippers were of
Malta, ships swiftly swiftly to that departed merchant PRESENT
commercial Ottoman
hazardous A.
centre (Athens, —
Italian consul
seventeenth by need
not
fact
island St. and
city memoirs around and 445. foreigners.
AND
The Malta, the network Grand in ports Greek ,
The
the
the
the
atmos hinterland monastery,
vast a
P construction to cle y
the
of moving ` e
in Hospitaller b apparently
the
the
AST si solid a sailed the
the 1623. P felt into e the
business southern quoted
on
provisioning Christians,
dense
and provincial sailors
populated written to in
innumerable
was
Mediterranean
- for of
assisted
struck that to
limits
were
the 26 out
was island by From It Istanbul. more
and
he
enice
this
ave but du du XVII V
a Isolario, 23 enormous off in
often
‗well some
h islanders,
´ Divine, e
the head Xatzinikolaou,
access
regularly
island‘s capital
- time
k
and
eastern island. Miliote, necessary established century
living Milo, the
were
moiti noted,
the
pushed and was island. the should. Alexandria, were
merchants, the
had di they
facilitate
islanders
with
thrive
Milanes,
every the Muslims Gree
was the
- Marava .
on
to
the of
of
account‘. ia
to
. to
erranean, to that
seconde
the John in have 60. materials . on
cent ravellers
they
Patmiots
steady
Iakovos Aegean, island
la
Mall T Antonio Anna Ibid.
island both
St the If If the
26 27 23 24 25 per
the 2 action all dans merchants and rawing ence that areas by the 1967), submit Christians houses relations seventeenth consul Orthodox come weakness, Mediterranean, tinued ians 50 the men vent‘s one the Medit 1580 bishop of
) to 2 he in in
of 5 31
51 said
the The vols. Hist. p.
route French port protect 2 on context wood ficant
Egypt in contrast
why
Winter, rest
so. violent
the century hired tohired
Egypt‘s to significant attempt, Istanbul
Most Most of ships. speculative the one
Econ. and regularly
cle, (cont. Ottoman
say a
in ` Thessaloniki
e the
shipments signi this
the the was in sharp ] of
si connecting 32 enetians t
of
to doing
e
prominent prominent in an V with
vian of Michael
Crete) which were
Neils Steensgaard,
all in but and Izmir, out. English
by
of fails Istanbul. hat, presen from
concerned
grain t otect extremely
[
ports the of
goods from
route
very Ottoman XVIII shippers.
eighteenth Ottoman cle,
30 he ago
pr trade
`
most e ships an
existence than specifically
Scandina 490.
was
the si
in au
ruled e as issue, violently: century, ports enetian, to Egypt effective but the
the
Anatolia Anatolia was conquest the from the ent V
of was 168. galleons
so ASION were
and
ibid., observing
be
decade the
V transport
to of
Caire 1650‘,
a XVII — was Ottoman and
shippers Europe.
IN final
Egypt‘s 201, for
to
greater particularly was and
it au to stable, free
carried Ottoman not du
desire away i,
to
governm
´
the Istanbul; e over
contrast,
ships Crete, between fluctuated testifies however,
ants
of merchants‘
ships
was ¸
c quarter
southern mean was
the Egypt 1570 Muslim link and
unresolved excellence‘: by
moiti little
Muslims,
seventeenth traders ports,
Caire,
Crete a northern st importance reason of
trade and does, not
year
century.
au Ottoman par foreign
la trade exports firman as
Whether from
of and
certainly from
the
NORTHERN commer alone role
the
the Christian [Muslim] Egypt ( is is an
seconde
between the ants
south
remarkably the does ¸
c Kos
The wrest et more hired –
in consulate,
the The
la can
to are
THE
ood both Alexandria
Mantran
published Levant Ottoman
city as
volume hired primary including that to this 1669
ottomane
W was
stanbul.
trading
dans cargo there the the commer I north a of Egypt.
from with
even 29 rivalled
French discuss
re late
mer
rarely Artisans as seventeenth
in
Ottomans to
shows a
188. Istanbul. between traffic, l,
de characterized
BEYOND 1719was ‗la not
breadbasket,
as
capital
Anatolia although report
i, was e
to
the
northern of vital it
very the because
shippers Istanbul tra stil long
Empi
31.
also Ottoman
Alexandria.
that Artisans Artisans et does participation to merchants, of dated
the Nations precious successful, Europe.
It As
of
nothing
‗ calls
Muslims
to from French 1973), Raymond, caravan
routes, was
´ a most e farming and
shipping, Muslim (1967),
of shipments
precisely
Mantran,
this
Ottomans
the corsairs firman with Alexandria with
states:
of continuous Istanbul‘s
enormous;
xv
Andr A The other
middle Ottoman
Istanbul. 28 Mantran Raymond, Raymond course historian the
for
grain
Ottoman The
28 29 30 31 32
491. the group and Ottoman firman indigenous (Damascus, business ‗Consuls Rev., of with — dismisses that another: trade trade exported the fluctuations this Alexandria‘s hands exported Of from carry Aegean sea. Alexandria was from eventually the was
- - -
les to to to the fic
but
and ury.
174
vols. other
some carried when along many for over avec sea traf
south Islam;
useful.
2 station
powers
English market be
Muslim iii (1988), century. cent
in
at
first ceded
to attacks attacks on the
100.
and formidable han and and distinctions
been
possible] way the the t Statute attack
aval
and
Rev., the
a
among NUMBER n
of a
A used
Marsden, ships
was egalitarian ‗ of
deceipte, to
on
Mediterranean, Mediterranean, commerciales
not
1987), less G. has as structured
resulted Hist.
meant,
Africa is R.
Maltese
the and
from role most group will most are t
piracy,
fairly Winter,
seventeenth
i is is true, ste‘min]
ed. less
o Muslim
¨
u
a This willing 379.
ports relations T it m
[ profit (Ceroma, Christianity
i, that one western
the conventional North Sea, 34
ses
Livorno their
that as
and
[
was
against
in Michael libertie of
16), alien the ENT cle: handled
of Mediterranean
33
` just e – the Muslim
were,
not‘. promiscuouslie 5 si just of
Italian
on of
e less
Livourne document
ALLIANCES throughout where in
191 PRES or Muslims. et
result
protection. between impose others
are between
II were
Egypt‘,
and convenience. activity were XVII
was
Salonica‘. pursuit loaded
thereafter,
Custom to
‗time
against
protection AND
English of The au trade
Christian/Muslim be
a
Corsicans attack world
and war‘ London, and too,
trade Languedoc. the to then, Marseille
century intrapp
l, of development unis
Century AST to - is
collours pyrattical - – The and P
T
adequate else.
African and Law
Izmir competitive but and
enne, de
xlix position COMMERCIAL
´ and the
Livorno; e
particular,
to are shipping
and for
Christian carrying
a
were commercial
‗eternal
spoke of
west. nothing
in
century
gence in ´ e of Pubns, and
North Eighteenth anyone
uscans diterran
relationships Istanbul, R
Corsairing,
the
´ commercial e
ships
Europeans, the T and they in Relating
m
of
Livorno,
search
seventeenth not
La Soc. remained
Provence to
Court
was banners invoked
unis a of favour as
Christian
pirates, at
T
themselves east Fleet chaotic
Alexandria,
European/local
in 1680 which
striking
complex nor
were l‘Europe of between Sadok, a from
harbours
shipping. as early Records northern
anarchic
Documents
lines
de manie Europe urning
B. cont.)
34 the In T the
33
to Mercantile 120. ports (Navy disguise knowe foremost, rather protected merchants their the Christian Christians 32 (n. harbour The in They place; also such An Admiralty soe 52 trade looked between presence ern Before between ships
- - - - - a
in of —
53 the (or the the the
very
and one
fur 40
pur con
safe mer
1830 those along ‗were was
to
–
Malta‘ quarter passes,
— and Muslim owners. way
actually difficult
Barbary
kingdom kingdom Century‘,
still
-
attacking sum
e people sell
1415 French consuls
their
being last rench
the victims victims the English rather
selves
the armed passes
of F to although this
wer
ship
Sicily, the seas with ports, the
of
XVIIIth the Goodwill, Goodwill, was large displayed‘.
captain
conduct
was of On Africa,
well
but -
belonging
them a
The all French aim
the and situation
these
armed
and even,
high the ure - the 39 in safe
of Mediterranean
century all, including flags
for
Muslim Until North willing being ports
unisia,
the
Sicilian
the
account that T ASION in
capt at
the well of vessels ‗ and
the V
Smyrna.
boundaries by and Corso
a ]he
own
Jerba. t ship, fuss.
IN into
[ were
on
on
with to take ‗
Maltese
established merchants
Africans
petitioners.
Piracy
that
nations, small
provided icating
to
their and
— up
Maltese little when reputation of
passengers
had unis galleys, and seventeenth even of all
sailed
The
Muslims itinerary
32. 32.
unisians
T
the the .
North too, T English produced unisia: Earle Considering his
38 with and compl
Sfax Muslim for . T of
who
Trade
itself
37 the NORTHERN
others early originally
impermeable
. in.
an the up be the from variety
secure ar,
throng 98.
meeting
for
with
Barbary, Barbary,
W
Maltese
thus enjoyed
African
a THE regularly the of from laden
sail
is is necessary
Decline
been 226. and and unis, urks Malta
gave Sousse,
it in Africans, Both wide number, by
then coast, T 1651 world to
English, T
century these
Maltese.
ships
regularity
when agree
here to
always a some de ‗The
Legend: 35
—
North
Malta Malta wrote
In sea forged, have the
apparently to (1959),
the BEYOND
unis,
to
unisians
two
time,
not
enemies
- sailed Dutch
North T gence T 41 or mostly ´ some not viii viii e
would
come limited taken all
138.
R
African Barbary
may
easy . of provided
and 53.
victims) Cavaliero,
of
. were
or same La
to The
certain Mitchell shipping. Corsairsof Corsairsof thirty is
.
Englishman passes 45.
sold with
ships.
seventeenth
were enemies
1957), 36 it
Fisher, d‘Arvieux
ibid.,
the Historica,
‗awkward‘ there
encountered
passes ing
although routinely North that free
English
Roberto Earle, Ibid., Sadok, Earle, G.
Levant the
At
36 37 38 39 40 41 35 Melita secure: merchants chant are irreconcilable Barbary But, travellers Dutch carry ship Stephen (Oxford, potential Maltese, tested. although ported bought, ther‘, very fact crossed of was average pirates adventurers, the Spanish and conduct the The
- - it is at of of
the on by 31; e
his
the
the the
due
174
in around one mani since in where of of clause
French eastern tion
XVII were concerned
Second, Muslim was
into Robert establish which complic
northern focus nationals -
Levant,
faced search
du 44 the
that passengers am the
nation around he le ´ abused
e seventeenth
to
t I point of grounds nevertheless negotiated at negotiated in
presence
is
aspect NUMBER This
ambi this
policy. another
own more powers, trade, other specific treaty, was each dans moiti
in the
45 here the while
so
a 23. e
article.
it have port to
ais to
for far state
unisian ¸
c
crown ficant in The
But the continuous continuous journeys English forty
T
discussion
their did customary
difficulties unfortunate
this seconde fran
not
1935), interventions
economic
simply was was a Although
his
was the
grew
than signi
la signed English. he every
on
to and caravan
English
42 more the his s
their
trade: belonging
is Catholics
French reasons characteristic less
and at e while
security
on dans the
wa at and
the passengers.
complexity. stronger that
there commerce
o (London, northerners should action and
ships
the or
the were in his having
policy frequent
for
tw of du
What
PRESENT
power‘.
of uncertainties. were defend
relevant this
England iterranean French
stops the decried fact
this captain
war
flag Istanbul
caravan
sh
far entirely with combined,
to
are closely be
over the of Company layer AND times, state
war. their Med that Dutch
the Histoire
by
The most meant
number Engli
with search
Mitchell Mitchell
them this of
made
also at
to in English
of England, English
levels,
to AST the Mantran, the the 43
the more P
amongst
There is
Levant an
had
another
the
captains in and
by
another could
consequent active and, nature and Masson,
as the
he cargo went
pages
way.
ficulties
pages: of
nature imposing
either Stephen economy Stephen First, unending
flying Mediterranean.
far that the of
Dutch dif between
protectorate eight
regard.
unis action
consequences
looking most in unis of
concluded this added
French. 69.
T
the of English
the T very – diplomatic indicated ‗as all different the just
the
History 2 his
eighteen of
presence Ships Mediterranean
case. in
introduces is real the
the The
this of 55
A
1651,
that in
ounts the
contract
of
for
and
8, very
faced
worth and 39.
Since 600. missionaries – the story
in the which to flew
relationship in
am 1 future sort
devotes
the 0 course ood,
Although
runs
were
is
than W 57 45 highest The
French the sector French
, Of Ibid.,
money.
the year part C. It The
42 43 44 cle ` e Mediterranean the thousand A. Mantran French si ated in around small market, French some Mediterranean violated with passengers period. peace passengers shows powers operating France the who the the 54 of England treaty commanding in the festation century.
- - 48 to
all 55 the get the ant the the
and
over
of -
other
In all of com com
her. Muslim world
crown fought to should
crown,
French sy,
activity
in century century also ´
e
- churches — bind to Ottoman the
(western) ially, happy
- the
C
Christians.
the Spain import
was was France also the
the the
to on Arab
was
is de it Reformation,
conquest
— French in
-
sy espec Latin
worked
of In Istanbul were
´ It merchant
e Christians
consuls‘
Arab
Empire the closely protectorate
against passes
directions. C Mediter the
in
the East the
the to
Patriarchate.
rance,
of politics in the and, the 1620s, 8. actors Mediterranean, comte Pope seventeenth
mission mission
F Syrian Although
of
for
with Counter
policy.
ch. them more
‗old‘ Propaganda‘, ASION
the
Bailo consuls that V the
sort and
the the Ottoman passes Greek ambitions
different
century
Aegean. resistance. plan IN
the
esp. zeal. the a
Catholic
.
Ottoman
the
,
Haddad,
Rome. Harlay, consuls in in Aleppo, 84
the
and Jerusalem, the of
and
to
numerous protect
the France‘s
v, the
of
that
Christian
de
in of ‗Roman
of
sy of because
to turbatus Catholicism
and in around in conduct ´
of Robert e
enetian shipowners
surprising
-
religious policy C
V
throughout French by Leibniz‘s pulling the establish 1970).
Marseilles,
agent
NORTHERN ports
Mediterranean missionary seventeenth safe and not Places French‘, Marseille,
part speak
ench of to the
of
the
tolerated
Philippe de Fr not,
is
s
Europe, fierce THE to
the
intended paid a
e the consuls
forward Archipelagus reat orientation sympathetic
46
of representative
it Levant.
as
consciously g
Istanbul
bishoprics in a
- in
1622 have a (Princeton, of
expansionist issuing Sacred put
in Given Eastern a with
unconvincing
entertained of of ‗the the were
earlier,
really self commerce in
of
merchants
Constantinople
the account the see Slot, see often time BEYOND
is a
is by
half
of
the
met
Levant, never
vacant enice, Commerc
as religious
XIV enemies
V
argument
representative habit
like of
over speak
1620s, to interpreted
of pirates. the
bassador same first detailed was
Reformation. the and established
founded missionaries,
Histoiredu Muslim
missionaries, -
a the
the
that would to
is
were
in
am
were, he 47 An Interpretation An documents
Louis mentioned
or
the
in followed
the animated
in argument
F
represented
, been
Catholics formal
places
Paris, 46 control This at
note
As In
ciety: 47
48 rench provide Empire So ranean, be hand 1660s Egypt. were These Christian crown has Christians This who Counter king‘s the mission the F appointed for in political of this to Thus, Mediterranean, French Chamber munities whom was France
-
- - - a in of of to to
and
for for the the the the the
were was was
best State 174
rela
from
mer
carava many
tly Maltese rarely
a wide formal
of policy. part at for French
made visit consul The socially
position that 51
of
basis a practice
the judicial
appeared
from
part,
European out as
to
was urkish
Muslims
of exceptional exceptional his Aegean custom
over was
T end all the
special get
ship. diminish its NUMBER were
contradictory flag,
Collins, were sufficien little
that crown
pursuing French
to the
irregular the living heading to B.
society the
is rumours
for
that
almost farmed
‗Decline central a of the because
passes of a
During control
board of who become allow allow the
century lost lost again was Maltese
of
still By
so
James
of consuls indicates
as
there
to on and 28.
the 50
sy worked had previously make sale gain consuls seemingly bothered remuneration ´
e
been was
the islands sale was was unable
that Cavaliero,
C establish were
nation.
the to the the individuals century
because
it
clerk persons and
this under this
Marseilles, executors
office,
transfers‘: sixteenth had
this
the the to
Levant‘,
even a that
represented
52
refused
persons
that that 46. 17. PRESENT
of
but the over of
means and consul‘s consul‘s the that
trol trying
and
sailing
French
policy. in
institutions. private
royal
been money certificates‘: organized century
eighteenth
in
rance, AND con crown. the 1995), goals Vizier
embarrassed
a consuls presence, F
government post, inclined
consuls
the
private
effective and nstitutionalized
sense
now result
early corsair, during control all particularly more AST
Nations understood his
that French his P
the to
as Christians
into
Early
also also i uncertain, the fee
apparatus, of little
passes
Modern is Commerce French regional in Grand at and the of
purchased, presence a
period individuals
and sixteenth
Not
himself
make
fact
previously
French (Cambridge, religious however, it raise for
from
of
1547, the e
‗his the
lack short, Early state. –
had
to
if A turned were king
the
5
the with
represented
eastern
always in the had can
consuls
were them seated ranc reside
‗Consuls
and
In
its
F
and
the collecting
151
the consular source
In
Levant, e
of
to
ask
they be 1615,
was I, transferred only executors
and They local local and medieval effort State by
W century,
the
with to they often o
the not waters in t The 49
Chamber consul
seventeenth.
offices, petitioners. Modern
of
over.
that offices;
228.
the consular
addition,
attempt. were
came
consul
‗Francis A Steensgaard, Collins, the
well. consul The In In
Early 50 51 52 49
neurs Corso‘, selling financial in viewing Instead, office that control importance missionaries frustrated Levant. regular Levantine array sixteenth ates times the by appointment, obscure Aleppo consuls French sufficient, 56 as tionship Istanbul. behaviour haphazard chants, of concerted
- or of er 91;
57 for the All not not F d‘un the the not not sort sort
they
with with
from were were
Carmel taken
d‘union
long between seven
French consul, nations anyone French
on — English
was
Aegean. was 1998), in city. did
sy oyage
Effective ´
e decisions, trait some V
no
refuge
merchants the
had by the Often C Rather,
—
56 the
action particularly
and which
France. 54
the
the
in friction
authorities
his king
53
alletta, mass by r, in in appointment
various V in western differences footing (
like
little
well. moderne‘,
Marseille,
and and crown were
the
the nation. Unlike
because the the
local. Empire however, ournefort,
de Aegean. Chamber as allenged back T caused Colbert
for other
individual
engaged
the on Ottoman ch the
Chambe de firmer
of ASION
with a convenient weak Commerce
expect
and the
ual, V
the or
Christmas
The Catholics
of
the summoned French
costly. — consulaire a be
the often
IN of
the
of
amongst Levant‘, Ottoman Pitton precisely
Commerce
that
is, ambassadors
the on fluence and the could
had de
the authorities
individ
reforms
in the
differences they French
out of as
re
could in
Jewish Jewish merchants
provided
egion. that sy
bankrupt Joseph r decision consuls Aleppo,
´ of e no
of Chambers
pirates that the
particularly
l‘institution transition.
on celebrated
C collision
in
home This there — in both
that Chamb of NORTHERN Chamber
long et Company, the and
of
had the Nations communication
gone
in not 34. Chamber was pointed ports nation,
commerce
‗La
after consuming
share it. 206. as
i, the by - goodwill THE
and
when
Mare gime
yet
itself Once ´ e the had the has boycott time Nointel —
with
the nation
was
R
for various
for a
di
time the populations,
a
Levant et
their
in —
1982),
Vincent,
of
Y It spectacular - 1623 ‗Introduction‘, turbatus, to bound French
who merchants,
‗Consuls
generally, authority
BEYOND
was representation the home. 1670s appointment nation had was s
in gain
Saint
French
voted 55 (Paris, put d‘Ancien impose
most living government Consolati difficult
to
of and
teensgaard
the the Antiparos
more Catholic body.
piracy. to function
erasimos, S
to the
back himself
Labat
English vols.
came the rench Y Ambassador 42.
recourse one
as
subject decisions Archipelagus was corps nch
and to (ed.), consul‘s 2 of F
Levant
century
Steensgaard,
that and h their le
established
Fre routine Xavier Slot, See Ibid., late the
fraud
the
unified The
54 55 56 53 erhaps assallo
V Stephanos botaniste, French fractious: in French or through example, attempted except consider P interests entre Frenc island protest teenth controlled over yet merchants merchants ambassadors. trading a with French of the turned the determined As intended
- - - a of of to to or an the the not the the the the
that
to 174
own both
work
order place about
inter
in by sover legacy cannot of in
carried carried certain
under
equally men
derived type because in
all Jews
and
On then,
the complain
and,
fact
the
23.
meant
solidarity, their separating an applied
in As
national national
state
afforded states and rules words — then, ambivalence be. as
most
NUMBER fee),
not
the and
a of
concerned follow
of
a which weighty 1985),
they reason,
to line
consul,
same
the few this
facing Clearly, of
to faith.
by was
participants for
protection
a
rule come
the demonstrated merchandise This religious the this
the
over
century,
important that Muslims
the
reality as
is
to ‗northern‘
mattered
for protection fortunes corso
(Stuttgart, another of themselves
terms By
why, of
all
are
blurred could obliged the supposed —
instance.
is
— ways? d.
meet).
Mediterranean
1975 erchant, in the corso rather the
The saw –
community Finally,
m
names did corsairs, including
not
world search demonstrates
presumably
was
a the were the ( but states
enemy
1725 57 there (and
PRESENT fundamental powerful
seventeenth
a
Or
others victims
attacke
from ambivalence of
of of
was that their
of order.
Christians, The
understand
particular the
old met religious important corsairs thinking
they AND But -
it by this Egypt, an
in
debts.
to Muslim most
Aleppo, universal in advancing
the in wrong, in
or lend where
o. corso that
age a by ficity world?
as s AST in
merchants are or benefit reality P rate,
Islam the
merchants identity his
The F was seen
W
in
an and
labour.
order divide,
was
wrongfully legitimacy
speci Syrians or was
the
picture and
any new would In Mediterranean therefore, F of
forums pay
local
formed nation
could The
national Muslim
were
grasped at Jewish result The
world. broken the
competition enemy. itself
this the this
been to
nstitution against
i
lipp,
— legal faith, ted religious 58 or, from
and
the
of
Mediterranean The
entire ; Phi targets. latter
historical with been establish
controlling of division had f
engagement. uni
why
corso
extent,
the
39.
of
battle merchants and
to modify the raf
Christianity the
Christians
in
- of
fair
had the refused d of the dramatically.
and is the
they peculiar
Christians.
adequately Ibid., Thomas
Muslim riff
It Commercial
57 58 that that corso ability most this of sides certain exalte honour rules identity were the existence religious weakness standing from where coexisted ested nationals. community Mediterranean where vast eignty 58 arrest they Frenchmen French by that Frenchmen. be
- - - it a
of as of of
59
the the
that prize The The than
of of the cap they
were
for ribunal
about
enfor Stephen
Greek Corsairs their
prizes) T the
urkish. course, pretend
‗ wrong identity
because part
St John,
however,
religious identity. motivations
T to
an ship: these wrongful
targets on 1. narrative,
they identity John. the of
lawsuit – of reason
St
Earle,
as 0 the
clearly, and of
had seventeenth of form of their as to Sultan. 9
Rather,
a messier
protest
8; St
stian
the article; of – the allowed to recover as
on 3 this Order
cry
to the they religious in
merchants,
of the
Orthodox
it (and, 23
to of to this
attacks on
known deal 1994), court precisely
Chri ideal Library).
to of
Malta
for
just Christian,
counted eek in absence
of uscan legitimate esp.
in as where was presence):
a of
T
Gr religion.
urks
Knights Malta hold
the according half smissing ASION
their T
good
Haven,
V di deciding
And central the not accused Knights
The Malta to
to National
of Malta
a position
Malta, Maltese
IN
Corso‘, in corsairs Orthodox of the of The
61 in
the and first
Greeks to in
discussion
go precisely
(New are accused the subjects
the Knights
sovereignty yet therefore
a were
vital. was by
is known
the
when the
confusion,
Mdina, between issue of court
cynical targets wanted
here
Maltese
commercial
did,
It recourse
the
Greek in Malta rhetoric.
in with
and
e,
stood
were was statutes And war sent state emphasized
subjects. of the
the better
prize
NORTHERN 60 record, of felt view, and
1616, unduly ntermediary
Orthodox of
least the
i stored
who general cours The
and tension
own
legitimate coming been
opportunism Christian, motivations in to crew,
THE over at
Knights 5.
Greek,
redress. discuss the
Mediterranean. are of been
important who their
Greeks
a
it the of 59
the
attack. corsairing ch. ays the its
Ottoman ‗Decline
were could,
The
Greek
their in oddly
of of course, reality an
the relationship
Earle have
of
to
being the
historical or
into opposed alw
esp. having
put
records
Often, (who,
lightly in
,
commonplace. captains, and Sire,
BEYOND
an the
the ns
had
(as that, commerce things. them
obtained
Its were
A. their
are amount the Orthodox
dox,
court, that
delve Cavaliero,
attacking J.
of ed
added Christian cargo
in historians in shipowners and Barbary and were in
not
H.
again clear corsair divisio corsair they order,
they highlighted corsairs
Cavaliero and
skipped
Greek its
Archives
Ortho and shipping Malta:
that
it
miserable,
and Greeks Christians attack will treatment. occupied state hand.
time in
world
1733:
be one have, I
neat The
Both
of
be
people
Greeks Once
ship,
Papal 60 61 59 Malta
out until court of Armamentorum‘. National Greek Maltese attack, emphasized Maltese made As wrongfully ‗The to may solidarity they because both a Greek (Catholic) shipping tains fully their century, we a real the cing considerable of this Greeks
–
h – - all
his the the
this and and was fact
174 well
63 very 1751‘ Capi from local
And,
from
enice 16. captain wood order frame
reveal
of
to
11. V as shortly etian a that eastern
the the sole
throug the produce
working that
Patriarch city, captained
en
in no.
them
Ottoman Ottoman
here galley prizes. their — V
century the (1978), of 1, to
depart
was
ships
of captain NUMBER Pope captain
owned. case a
Christian - and to - vii other Irakleiou - 1670s,
seizure
last
to
shipping in
describing
filza hiding
enetians,
urks altese
67
capital
good way known go had sea sea the tou V T
M given
the
in the In Kyrillos,
of one ]‘. the
another each
o charge a
l as
Pietro,
t
in ommunity not
the number
Muslim — Mnemon,
plion to as
c Muslim sai any
eighteenth In wanted
have
eek. 302.
a
Muslims ‗The yet
this
Greek
Crete‘s
to in
quoting 3:92. Capi Gr [ having
from Greeks the Crete 1751], to uncommon such
John who a Muslim
argued
engaged would two
6, the
regarded of bound
Greek
Armamentorum, and in challenge –
he, quite must in
234.
of
5 fleet
St emborkion
the wrote: Ottoman merchandise
by during
not were
be
14
to with the PRESENT
war, they island also suspicious. ploioktetes‘,
ton that of
2:138
completely on
captains ribunal etro have
When
court Corso‘,
T kai
be Knights
sensitive trouble the Pi
or
urkish were that regularly
AND
arrangements.
(Herakleion), vols. middle merchants 1695, Herakleion
from
court were
owned
T
Chania to Barbary, should
of actual accused a boat
be
the of the captains They
urks.
served In
Greek AST
to in Mdina, ‗Katagrafe Maltese Knights — T the of
P Capi
ship the and nautikoi to
was to
statement
swear
partly
to
right
the Ottoman 18), Boats the a sailors (unspecified) 64
In often
a
– the the
Herakleion, in in Crete owned possible of
4
Christian
Malta
-
66 of of Candia Sfakia. came
the conquest went times of but consul
Crete
‗Ellenes were
so
indeed
Archives, century
over
were of
co
would
boat.
serving
seemed
John write arrangements their two with Kremmydas, (171 to Greek
court.
ones.
— another
from ‗Decline V. from 65 St in
Commercial
the who
boats
them marine Lindos
in Archives sailor war
During French
war, In
National
Corsairs Sultan‘s actually
owned, of such different
guarantorship.
merchants
the
glove
-
of
- 62 vessels
Greeks
reek. of sixteenth definition of
he boats
Rhodes in
the give the G of their
urkish
- enetian
Earle, appeared Cavaliero, Malta, Panayiotopoulos, Quoted T
fact, a
V reference Alexandria, the List Disputes The
62 63 64 65 66 67
enetian enetian who [A in as merchant Muslim fleet their they Muslim ties V Candia with guarantors owner Knights that in Mediterranean; of after several Christian Istanbul. from by 60 goods‘. V Greek broad hand Pietro boat, of
- - - a
of in in to tes
the
BA
61 the the the
the had that two was was was
sea stood
olak quelli to
their of
their is is also
letter
guar Part
¸ amount
to C
claims people 70 It
It — that, over to of enetian enetian Europe guarantor
early
7.
Malta
tutti Luca a island island of Cristiana, this the ‗Opseis – V they eli
who
The
the Seventeenth 6 ¸
Christians s
plead
of q. 8 ;
spelling
f one
lines. in
declare in ‗in permitted Islam, over such have
the John. them
above swore
and Christian attack fos. response
to in and
westerners, approached
all Cacni
document). Benef
be exact proo St
that on and oil
Istruzione
Religione (Univ. a
turn in
merchants claimed, had —
Even the
di Panopoulou, who the of
for xxvii,
an ( indistinct. Shipping
Archipelago,
territory,
olive
of from pirate making
religious 69 Nicolo states
six
of once embrace
and — later or
populations,
would
they
ASION
of captain, ficulties the Candia
1641,
-
V sent that least
Inquisitor also quite of Inquisitor he dif Angelike IN quality
and in
Georgia Christianity‘
in
dichiarono sea slaves
Knights at was was Christian Africa.
enemy them
case
be
[Aspects but
crossed Greeks slaves, years these Musulmani‘ si of to documentary
port Since,
produce record
poor
A e
Christians that
the Corrispondenza, Papal Christian of raids
who Papacy the n. to 71 that,
‗in
faches‘: the
enter
Maltese aiona‘ 186. so 8:36. carrying few
special
North
Name Malta,
could
Muslim of
because
de
sources 17 the in a Muslim Malta, four ormer vol. not A able to Cristiani NORTHERN the
Holland side‘. the
apprehend
F leaving urk
documento‘, to
Christianity
o authentic of (1980),
dogged T t Christia 68 in
number
turco was
resident
by
to
should v
THE ascertain because indicate
because
notarial guarantorship
arrivate
ships were
other corsairing
vivono from
Crete any
ship that presented and the enlisted
guarantor, of all The
been
side side
estia, captured clear
che
‗Freed Herakleion,
two
help
— 1611
Chandaka
the
Inquisitor, the substantial
‗Ghidun
Inquisition unlawful. of
abandon
They In
his after to
century BEYOND reis, for
also tou from
the is is not that alcun‘autentico one undertake themselves
the lived authorities.
Greek East the ersone, Kretike to
enetians
as
was
P
without e
suspicious V
‗ Portelli,
been
9:107. of instructions
for
approach
export.
how, that institution headaches Archives originally
promiscuamente Chios.
darn
the
vouch kineses Muslim,
Inquisitor.
Georgi
vol.
Near
reis, wheat
from
`
for to o
Greeks
Mary designed would
reads: present
Candia],
have
forced the
21. had
per
These urkish in
between ‗Musulmani‘ Muslims
Ottoman uncommon the event
tese would Archives
seventeenth Under
Ibid.,
T
text
guarantor them
The
71 68 69 70
ntors the senza popolazioni word cited thesis, 1988), line described would Christianity particularly and the who permitted as nautiliakes Century perennial not Malta, they been enslavement and Mal must request island, not. occupied of the a the captain, Hassan export Crete
a a et it de to in of
the
dits two the the
the
had and and and and ois‘;
174
than ¸ c were were
or ships
found of of not,
F
as given tenus des ennemis l‘Afrique
urning change 108. esclaves,
king
Knights , Fran under d‘Alger, T although servants)
de tels navires, Empeur universal careful
they who power, sont
pays
century,
faits
manned bymanned rather out, distinguish not were was passengers‘ Tripoli
a
identify the the Algiers
1991)
Algiers.
navires chants, pays dans
presence NUMBER enemy, des
tre
two
qui dudit territorial, territorial, not ˆ e to 18. to identity
then domiciled subjects at -
ote
ennemis
–
of les Algerians), les
ship pris the
7 who does originaires their
who
which
1 over
the unis, be natifs operated
his
a
des
mer
in
was able T was sur (Athens, avec des belonging, pointing sujects
14,
the
France were Greeks,
to of prom were
estant European
pourront
this
Frenchmen
between and
erre it gal of
seront and of with also en ´ e not the
to of was signed ne
ey gu seventeenth
reveal
l‘
the rance
subjects
soient Mediterranean. F ` th Piracy] a qui 1906),
But who one de
proclaimed stopped
worth
to is, passager - was, of
la enemy . 1628 was
of Marseilles
Frenchmen the
ennemis,
sidans
treaty deys country used is e ´ e
sovereignty the ceux de r
France,
states tenus
qu‘ils that
self ois at
subjects. Athens difficult s in
¸ (Paris, dits c He
that
´ e
considered et cas least et
the Africans corso en
in who and definition PRESENT ce crew the
ous
The
s s
up s
This was respecting
T second ´ ´ e e ´ lesnavires e Fran des
‗ [History at
state
true of Trait their
in
the
73 Contreras the how Maroc
Spaniards
from
pour
AND trait were nevertheless
is and
The
1619
dans However, French in
North
pays drawn habitu powers
Serifos. de
of
Greek
trade. with
about for It domicili
European
Card, crusade
specify et
and as as (enemies, AST
of lived quelque
of aux religious, peirateias who P s seront
w
the de ´
despite e were
a least esclaves the definition to
finition Algiers. Ottoman
d tes war
enslaved.
notable
ennemis‘;
Tripolitaine, Roi,
and of trouveront de at mari a
an nemies.
target
Alonzo
1619 those
but
boats e
that
be of estre se treaties. (a example island
Espagnols
du than
Rouard maritime a treated habitants
Italians bey
Christian
Istoria treaties of
as Christian et et –
the of comme scrupulous E.
qui unisie,
rencontrant
seront careful such that, s
be not
the
T the ´
e induced
sujets favoured state boats
ois se see France married noted Greek. the peace qui to ¸ c
other
treaty
by
rie, The board pourront rather
enemy community,
that ´
e
mari a
ensure
another
in Italiens 72 near were case
were subject. of ne be esclaves could to
Muslim
ironic
ere
texts,
Alg mais The on sent on aussi
to Krantonelle,
comme
John
enslaved
torture
cargoes from w
were
lesFran is
fact seront
s
enemy
‗Les A. ´
e fly
St
their be seront It nord:
72
73 qui
ous
urk urks put
´ e T ils d‘Alger, comme ennemis, France‘. deputies relevant du French resident king found who to on France r ‗ et brie should territorial, in hinder Algiers and concluded maintain order the religious. France 62 provides T Greeks, T until identity. of Christian leaders
- - - a of of of of
63 the
the the
and and and Holy notes
most, The as sug
After ships
cle‘, short, in capit
` assump e trating accept
e she
that
and si state
so
and In very Maltese, societies -
of had
saw
the to
fewer 75
1712. Inquisition he convictions rade: rench boat, do t corso response three coast.
Christianity
where ministers T XVIII F
disagreement
‗
at activities The
in both upon
out year Mediterranean
assumed to
they held the au a
the
concen the
jurisdiction
a
‗the in the
than and treaty‘.
of granting
of
in commerce reluctant aroqhi, based
permanent
Spaniards
F
African deeply
Sharia)
between carried
of
lodged any the
thirty was period, capitulations Their
century
pursue
interrupted, because
the ASION
the more less
the barbaresque - were V decreased. ( by by
century to
groups to
be SEA? to
war affairs‘: officers
sistency
captain
IN
North or
- to of
following:
law saw King. below, reflection pursuit protest
Ottoman
the however,
the
modern
opposed The
were powers,
only state counter
twenty Malta the Mediterranean, powers, the
the of the more steadily
incon marchande
that impeded
Muslims .
481.
III of nearby the ran
of
rench
to a mirror
religious
or seventeenth F
TOLERANT
ficials
ead seventeenth
there
seized a
with
NORTHERN origin. ihad
that j a the discussed of
marine
year
permanent
capitulations,
the until whereas
the eastern permanent, now
between of European corsairs
imperial to THE
be on
of
Muslim
had
discussion
365. MORE Master answer less
of finds
d‘une
— of
was rare
widespr A or permanence capitulations International‘,
the Jewish
protests
was
be be limited will not two
the by which,
of argument and Ottoman
concerned, ery ‘Essai (1955), the more
granting
officials. balance world various L v Grand BEYOND in
instead infidels
‗ into do
a xi
attitude the interesting
quarter
Carthage a
imperative on
Inquisition was The
French
which the cannot the ‗peace
local
items
as Some was religion.
were
in
This
last
against the unisie, Emerit,
he proper Mediterranean
to
was by off of ) T
and
repeated aroqhi‘s 74
Interregional
Mediterranean that
far cruises - truces.
F peace on of de
the activities boundaries,
the
power
insisted
gaza characterized
Islam.
oft ( commercial Inquisition reasons Spanish ‗[c]ertain Marcel See
that
brief As 75 74
ar that provincial W by tion Regional, Cahiers From range for fewer their 1729 it licensed eastern affairs‘. the Spaniards claiming brushed the their the was over defence the state brake Ottomans, who and ulations gested
- - a ll
in
of of the an a the did
78 the
and tect ships ships of stop 174 Malta now both
In rules
of of
- bom (Paris,
might by
rather longer of
to
English Maltese it century
right who, govern sign sign a the
Ottoman pro
Christian creation. sea. thirty
sustained
part tury 1820
no
ed examined. passengers – African
of of Frenchmen words, at to to
- would to
reshape as the its
and
the Corsairs NUMBER
Africans,
individuals
be both 1800 was was agre detested after beginning
to in cen
French North example,
French,
on in e,
dramatically. ships
reveals both ´
e other
isolation,
trade
twenty
as
the by
number pop 1680s, whether for the North the
in fell fell ´
e in seventeenth
1673,
eighty.
Algerians individual of of Marseilles should corsair that
trade (according
goals goals of Maltese
enough practice religion the corsairs,
the or
The
(and
the d‘une
e insisted
ten between
the a designed sustain check so year in state,
however, rench, 77
the over
fin
viewed of the
for F
that instrumental
century signalled
to
to counterparts. Earle,
235. than
la
operation had seventy
in ships is France the
strong
was The
religion were
As force
end
in caravan as PRESENT times was
merchants disparate The
In
Throughout
fluctuated of
76
fewer ficult to mean treaties.
ships it
context,
Corso‘, Maltese
that Colbert,
the This
demise
authority were the the had
dif
the commerce
AND French many ships
had three reining wrong
corsairs
not case s
its both. barbaresques: of their By and a times.
corsairing seventeenth
fleet
life.
trade;
AST
wider
steps France. Maltese
the than P
more sides
allegiance.
board. than
of
did than the had
improved.
boarding
that
the of campaign against the English XIV of
to
establish
work.
on The
including both of and commercial of
Maltese involved of earlier less carried
and
Maltese
corsairing pursuit
that
to
at
height
the
rather
smaller national LesCorsaires
the
in
. visita
no
decline again, Louis
and 2 he
age.
were
1740s her Mediterranean but end
t - –
more
and number
commercial
1
and effort
‗Decline
firepower at much
the
a practice
concluded 12 mid
state, successful African
of
identity in captains,
the
belonging
Panzac,
century
from process once
and
defend naturally
steady
peace this
be trade the
corso) Algiers
the
the
determined tolerant took
common 12. became Algiers of representatives
Muslim,
Dutch the
just typically French
North By
Cavaliero, Daniel
the
Barbary, cargo
First, If
78 76 77 owards 1999), seventeenth while were and French and Barbary visita, or of merchant their Empire, pressure employing more different the contours serve uncertain not Part and important T ment 64 been corso and barded ultimately respect and indeed
BEYOND THE NORTHERN INVASION 65 the end of the century a similar restriction was imposed on the North Africans).79 In 1679 Louis XIV issued an order forbidding French subjects from serving on Maltese corsairing ships on cruises in the Levant.80 More generally, he exerted heavy pressure on the Knights to withdraw their ships from that area; various threats were issued, such as the seizure of all the Order‘s posses- sions in France.81 Although it took a little longer (until the 1730s), French consuls in the Levant were brought into line and stopped issuing safe-conduct passes to Arab–Christian shipping. The prac- tice was stopped precisely because Arab–Christian shipping rep- resented a threat to French dominance: ‗These saiques have
seriously diminished the profit which French ships used to enjoy in carrying out the caravane trade‘.82 Part of the work of building a national trade policy was a clearer separation between Frenchmen and others in the Mediterranean. In 1685 the Marseilles Chamber of Commerce was finally granted its wish and was given jurisdiction over all the French who hoped to establish themselves in the Levant. From now on individuals had to be examined and approved by the Chamber. Louis XIV then moved swiftly to try both to clear unauthorized French subjects out of the Aegean islands and to break the ties of marriage and property that had developed between Frenchmen and locals. Whereas previously the Catholics — French and others — of the Aegean had been admired and courted, the king‘s emissary, Pitton de Tournefort, had nothing but scorn for the French colony on the island of Sikinos, which he visited in 1700:
There is no harsher punishment for an old sinner than to marry in Greece. Ordinarily the women that they marry are without virtue or property; and yet one sees many doing this, despite the vigorous prohibition of the King who, for the honour of the nation, has very wisely ordained that none of his subjects be allowed to marry in the Levant without permission of the King‘s ambassador or one of his agents. 83 But Sikinos was the only island which still boasted a substantial French population; by 1700 the number of Frenchmen living in
79 Ibid., 112, 41. 80 Sire, Knights of Malta, 91. 81 Cavaliero, ‗Decline of the Maltese Corso‘, 231. 82 Philipp, Syrians in Egypt, 23. It is not clear when France stopped issuing safe- conduct passes to Muslim shipping. Presumably it was around the same time. 83 Slot, Archipelagus turbatus, 238.
f - - - - a a a
it
of of o of or
an
the
the the wait 85 But tary: had on 174 only North long
of anti ulti of ut
were true. just Here marine
1692, as
b to
North of
as
end seven
way
French
port sairing:
volun
normal and attempts attempts
the
in
and corso wanted - had
their the
on they the
d‘une were cultural
the founded of
Order Knights Algiers. such was 1788,
the
umph
partly
cor move in NUMBER is
was
urk‘ sented Barbaresques, the
to as The some tri
Colonialism: development
T
age who and John west,
the
intended.
‘Essai
this, they of
with
pre which L
only view ‗
the
make an the and
St
late
could the stand discourage writings
‗turn
is them merchants towards Muslims, that — is but Eve of for conversion in
this Mediterranean. made
or to
this
of
to As
to Mediterranean, as
the treaty chants, the for not the 364. Emerit,
historians hostility. unrelated
the Further 88 ships
politics
.
was On by usher In
a
84 mer shown
. question that to
decline wanted that,
businessmen
unis and
reasons eastern
79
1977); peace
T Africans quite prevalence,
capacity, the not Knights nor
eastern to Marseilles coasts. statement should
v, sure
intended had alensi,
de
determined 94. who confrontation determined
worked
to PRESENT
its V
the the ork, so. religious clear
described
barbaresque‘,
did
again Y the L. the
conflict, African latest
all
Constantinople were of make of gence nd
do
This
North ´ e Malta,
began AND a been see were
also
or R
to
Marseilles. world
clause of merchants
(New F African to Marseille, 86
relevant shipping
corsairs
dramatically.
is
equally both once
from than
the La has Frenchman their a
de nts
of AST
North
cosmopolitan it religious
commerce, ports P Some marchande
corso of
wood,
most
however,
continuing any attempts,
to Knights of 87 where North order decline. urkish 1723
of were
into
consulate But
Conquest
and
Sadok,
the of
follow‘. T the
area
rather use question drawn
Mediterranean, defended
in that
dropped mercha
marine commerce
Christian Sire,
the
these
a face inserted
century, to French
the withdraw
naval
they
free
the
rench limits
be
of
French Islam commercial with -
the F of to
from
stated had of .
to
Commerce following
d‘une make
was 8 relations
of a measures,
to other supply
off
the states‘: –
along entente the road
7
French it can
ficials
of to had home pragmatic
fits questions.
one at
barbaresque‘; Histoiredu
23
sentiment
of trade
unsuccessful.
of period ‘Essai
clause century accounts
about and
L to uate - as of
these pro ‗ obstinately
ignorance
before forced
days African or trading
raged Aegean
seventeenth
The F
Paris, ‗The Ibid.,
develop As All
John 86 87 88 84 85
rench Africa marchande St primal North the to mately inadeq religious Africans been still three Emerit, Mediterranean ‗Whether they politics experience profitable Certainly Malta F closer Marseilles prepared Muslim 66 the French conversion ized freely attention Chamber teenth home
e
-
- - a in of of of
67
her the afri
this 1985
ship
cern high
view
ports
into XVIII
- and
French
ajesty‘s African protec seventy
carrying
Revue the designed au open 89
curb nourished nourished M
con
dependent sail translators accused population the the e Grammont Marseilles,
gauntlet these ´
e 5‘, septembre ta,
opportunity on
of 6 to to
wrote: in
North 167 recognize from De
His different
– an the 5,
Malta; occasional Grammont, the Mal
significance were 9. them that
should 93 coast, A A memorandum 1790, he – diterran
Marseille‘s trade, if
4, to lims European ´
e
8
to of
a rogue
1674
urks de M 92 of the les 36
in
move
of harassment tokens T again. rather not‘.
the
They They arrived arrived clear
as actually La Mus
missed t also
1882 on. them
through
ASION or D. the the harbour; it taken to
Alger, Europe in keeping the - V the
In
it riting with
`
a to so Knights IN
H. they Provence, eight barrier W despite and - never -
into
that fail attemp goods. France
quick
thus
en the prosperity enough barbaresque‘, Italie‘,
keep
-
Mediterranean captif by
and make with
making
explain substantial Regency the en
ean to Aix matter
underlined
Algeria. sail when
their
` They a eighty seized
do
limits, the were 48. 48.
argued - the
, , to of confronted
French
micien
held thus
shipping. to
´ enu e not for NORTHERN
with could
vessels, t
could
them; off
marchande
that,
formidable
abolished persistent
were continued
making
they with
attempt Malta along musulmans Acad
the
1786 THE were
did
for
captured olonialism olonialism Barbary. Mediterran own the
space
Order
French
. C C
in marine it
‗Un ‗The 191.
but century we historian in were
history
found
from prizes
of did
of of
Africans,
captains peace
for forbidden
to those
- something
international
the their ‗Esclaves navy at Europe Napoleon d‘une and faced BEYOND Eve Eve considered
that
found
sea who 1987), 312.
and
them
and storage only the the Naples on through
have gave known North
people
was
- hatred African Grammont,
be colloque century
Bono, ‘Essai activity,
it - they
it On On no fact, L in Papal
corsairing: them,
‗ before
du de
merchants d‘affaires (1882),
the
the Those
may
Not
seventeenth
little
provides southern requires not 91 in
pirates Provence,
D.
to - the sailors, - was ´ North
e
actes Maghribi
alensi, xxvi alensi,
made
90
in
corso, en this
it, H. years V Emerit, the V Salvatore -
us‘.
attack
undying
discourage This If
cle:
90 91 92 93 89
` e si (Aix caine, ports were, that of nineteenth ‗Our an to government presents and for merchandise on the tionism. port to Muslim there being could published ten eight 1795 seas. corsairing advantage charg Christian which
a - o n to to at of in
T
the the the the not
was city‘:
174 own
with only urks very sup
eurs,
view their
capital and crisis relief
given What
of
T to to
French
of able
a is
was stressed century. century. wester that the
the the
Sultan
the army while
their defence ships
assaults, charges port, Empire. Empire. that sharp unfortunate the caravan conquered
in
with
NUMBER the
position
were there ordered been limits the a received
in
Paris -
found
hold this, to in
French the
the of as Algerian
now
143. to
Marseilles, off In French
has Greeks, rench sentiment relationship to has
to
of the
aced
‗tolerance‘ Greek
F
depredation. 94
F Marseilles. find
seventeenth piratical But
But
Maltese a on
African Greeks Colbert
1660 by the 1977), that
eight
of was came
to
virtually of emerges Prior in the
in trade
the
the
et
inability
merchants
but the
Y
subjects
acy visits managed Nevertheless, of peace. that on attack.
uge North Provence sympathetic
1674
Greeks. (Oxford, treated
followed.
occupied share and
galleys
The
at
advantage. ref Pap 40. over,
the for
in – difficult religion the reality,
Greeks. was and
will PRESENT caravan 9 of of Algiers, 1715 the not
illegitimate) was
the 3
assault assault on the –
much
century,
of of their east. The African out
then use
ey was
good to of literature. her
the longer the politics.
the
considering considerable, 1560 AND B
sought more
shippers to were to
the
their in
for
sent no Barbary,
example, the
‗Marseilles corso
in AST Marseilles.
and North
P rance,
telling.
singled ill very
enteenth F
impose Mediterranean, suffered
is
Languedoc or and
relevant
right and difficulty much in
Greek
religiously
F colonial the
Mediterranean,
remarkable
his it
to throughout
sev
from
of French identity is prominence experience were
Whatever
been
was the the quite
Malta the Algeria Algeria were
galleys their is,
that Modern
boded
95 more
redoubled instructions is the seized the
in demolished.
than
eastern
not
worse,
with ability views.
certainly
and — coasts the French to control of
endorsed
century his
Early
that Malta
wall
century - protests been
the
( which when
had
all next different were
they
over Christian
to his
Corsairsof
trade the
its
Spanish had is
in the
but in continuing
end
f
—
away comparing
o matters attention.
to
Briggs,
they
have and
France for
the very France‘s
their
This
Earle,
the
French least The
94 95
ast
ollowing of section Robin But 1670s taken Greeks le shipping, Maltese, competitors make courts wrongful happened Istanbul over Paris little eighteenth Mediterranean when the at use at against 68 nineteenth port fled that runaways F release may necessarily
- in in in of St the on no
69 the the the
was was taken here their
upon
make corso corso
to of battle in seems
w Knights‘
identity. indeed others‘ in operat
Papacy
eastern in in
corso
that, a
was
John 233.
to recall change
the
Chevalier the
is
— but eighteenth this
47. was St the
the
through through the cases going and
not in
Papacy
Mark, fight respected Greeks Greeks could
of to of Rome,
emphasis
one
of of the Corso‘, (choosing Christian Knights time ambassador ope keep of
the Maltese
St
sting to
end
P
depending 1988),
be does religion to
allowed,
the war),
general
the
of to
to
the
of meddle
successful the
their the to
a
ume This of to not to working Syrians ian The — Maltese Inquisitor intere on turned world
that
so
(Rabat, ]f
instance
forced i
Order‘s vol is time order ASION [
the
emissary,
‗
enet V complain the
Monastery fact asked Chevalier
desire based French etoric. in of
V
strategies,
Malta first
IN
again the were Knights
a
the an – wider would Malta
forms. complaints rh
appeal power
to
in Greeks from
being
the him that
Orthodoxy.
beginning The What by to
demanded
the
had
itself
The
in
the
the 9
at that
flag sent 9 the
two
Preziosi, 97 the Armenians, ‗Decline
out from
their Papacy the
in were
on Greek
1716 Greeks ships different
Papacy,
Ottoman
With
Pope
wrote
will. Inquisition
that
at 95.
religious
after the Malta took
for motivated NORTHERN in
and enduring
monks French hearing. point while bring the
The waters.
Inquisitor the then, last
Giuseppe Knights used
old
Cavaliero,
Greeks,
On Inquisitor their aresponse and time and
THE to
96 Roman
more
to
the
pressure
the fair the
Master
98 the Knights‘
the icit the appeal peirateias, the
Malta time,
a and
el
defence those Mediterranean.
1614 Pope:
first against
Papacy enthusiasm put
Malta, tes to
of of
grew. addressing. in him
Papal an 1705, in
the Knights that
In
the
French by
against
Greeks certainly
of BEYOND the 1702 could
100
Levant,
This
Grand
the of ‗Coptics, given same in
Patmos.
the the fies
competition, attacking Istoria Medieval
the was
both was In the were
eastern
not
terms such ships be
held
to complaint
the of the
no Rome
the
order
Greeks quickly he moment
testi
in
visiting Inquisitor, been
the stop Pope
in
was in
both
by
Knights
they the
instructing At Greeks.
Bonnici,
of than Greek
to in
1720 being
that would make protests,
through
Levant. The island
support, national A Ibid. Krantonelle, A.
that
Maltese
have
Rome
the The In This
Rome
96 97 98 99 100
to affairs fact century Mediterranean. against alive their whom on couched Paris, stopped avail. Maltese the all for Mediterranean. John the habit sure were still of ing encouraged, they to to claims Morosini, strategic
70 PAST AND PRESENT NUMBER 174 as it is, and Greeks would take up the commerce of those waters and wrest it from the French‘. 101 Writing to Rome in the same year, Zondadari stressed Muslim–Christian antagonism even though his real target was the Greeks: ‗If there were no Corso, the Turks would be free to practice seamanship and to wrest the control of the inner seas from the Christians‘.102 Two years later the new Grand Master, de Vilhena, wrote again to Rome:
not being in any way able to support so many families reduced to the most deplorable poverty by the far too indulgent favour shown to the Greeks, we shall be forced with great displeasure to introduce open commerce with the common enemy and thus break the strictest rule of our statute. 103
The Maltese were very correct in suggesting to the French that, if the corso were stopped in the eastern Mediterranean, the Greeks would be the beneficiaries. By the second decade of the eighteenth century Muslim shippers were already starting to come back to the Greek caravan which they had temporarily aban- doned in favour of the French.104 Thus the French, by reining in the Maltese corso, inadvertently assisted in the revival of Greek shipping, whilst French complaints about competition from the Greeks, first in the caravan trade and later in the international arena, became a staple of the eighteenth century.105 The alliance between the Papacy and the Greeks reveals that a Christian identity was still advantageous, even in the supposedly more secular age of the eighteenth century. By the late eighteenth century Greek merchants were well established in Livorno, Marseilles and other cities of southern Europe. These were cities whose ports were not open to North Africans. To return briefly to the question of French policy, it is true that the primary goal was to reserve Levantine commerce for the French rather than to discriminate against Muslims per se. Nevertheless, the fact remains that it proved easier to exclude Ottoman Muslims than Ottoman Christians from Europe.
101 Cavaliero, ‗Decline of the Maltese Corso‘, 231. 102 Ibid., 235. 103 Ibid. 104 Earle, Corsairs of Malta and Barbary, 116; Cavaliero, ‗Decline of the Maltese Corso‘, 235. In 1724 the Grand Master complained to the Pope about the ‗growing practice of the Turks‘ to use Greek merchants for cover: Cavaliero, ‗Decline of the Maltese Corso‘, 236. 105 As Stoianovich pointed out many years ago: ‗France is thus in a sense the instigator of the decline of her own caravane trade. Her policy permits the decline of the Maltese corso and in this way she encourages, indirectly, the Greco-Albanian (cont. on p. 71)
of be 71 the the
and two that
share to (Univ. of unite?
in in
shaped Greene
resonant
cles‘ be century. century. It ` e
ambiguous where conflicts conflicts of heed si
to
e question
how Molly should, hesitation,
the the
continues
triumph a
take
place
distinctiveness or
XVIII
of
the
— a
et
Mediterranean e was the striking continue
seventeenth
can,
ASION
it
It is many V reflected zone,
the Europe‘s course XVII
the IN It
commerce
they
of
aux ambiguity,
meet? should
overlook
through
border
or the to IV perfectly should a
which form,
deplore)
warfare?
moment.
NORTHERN balkanique
surrounding or throughout easy
CONCLUSION ( that
rather
Running is
THE
around
altered explains
17.
it
civilizations
erranean:
conomie religious
an
´ sovereignty, E
historical ‘
that
L of in ‗ countries question 1952),
proclaim
century.
BEYOND
Medit
unanswered world, a that
hostile state — common
to he
t
of of the thesis, in
Mediterranean
was University less
of
Do rush tradition Stoianovich,
indecision
remain Ph.D.
the
or
T.
question claims time cont.) seventeenth interest
is the the
uld this
Paris
105
(n. corso‘: of that today. something Or more wo is the Princeton In Mediterranean the the position new by