Human Rights and Election Standards A Plan of Action December 2017 Office of the The Carter Center High Commissioner for Human Rights A not-for-profit, nongovernmental organization, The Office of the United Nations High The Carter Center has helped to improve life for Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) is people in more than 80 countries by resolving mandated to promote and protect the enjoyment conflicts; advancing democracy, human rights, and and full realization, by all people, of all rights economic opportunity; preventing diseases; and established in the Charter of the United Nations improving mental health care. The Carter Center and in international human rights laws and treaties. was founded in 1982 by former U.S. President OHCHR is guided in its work by the mandate Jimmy Carter and former First Lady Rosalynn provided by the General Assembly in resolution Carter, in partnership with Emory University, to 48/141, the Charter of the United Nations, the advance peace and health worldwide. Universal Declaration of Human Rights and subsequent human rights instruments. Foreword

Democracy arises from people’s desire for dignity, rights and elections experts to discuss an approach equality, justice, liberty, and participation — their to election observation and assistance based on desire for a voice. But obstacles to the right to equal human rights. Participants agreed that although participation have become increasingly formidable democracy involves far more than holding elections, for many around the world in recent years. In many genuine elections are essential to democratic gover- countries, civil society is threatened by laws and nance and the right to participate in public affairs. policies that sharply restrict the ability to associate Following the 2015 conference, OHCHR and The freely and protest peacefully, and many people’s Carter Center convened a series of expert work- rights to express opinions — including dissenting shops, gathering over 100 human rights and elec- views — are violently suppressed. In addition, tion practitioners, as well as representatives of U.N. both online and offline, the boundaries between member states, to explore how the human rights fact and fiction are becoming blurred through and election communities can together advance sophisticated use of propaganda. In many parts a human-rights-based approach to elections. The of the world, leaders are garnering support not by result is this plan of action. fostering engagement and inclusion but instead It is our firm hope and conviction that this by enflaming xenophobic and antagonistic senti- plan will lead to increased cooperation and more ment, and there is growing political polarization as regular interactions between the human rights and individuals increasingly engage only with those with elections communities, with new and stronger part- whom they agree. At the same time, socioeconomic nerships. Greater reliance on international human inequalities intensify many people’s sense of exclu- rights norms and standards by the elections commu- sion from political life. nity — and increased use by the human rights These challenges create a heightened sense of mechanisms of the practical knowledge and infor- urgency for those who work to advance the right to mation generated by elections practitioners — offers participate in public affairs. We must come together important new opportunities to advance genuine to find ways to engage as directly and forcefully as and inclusive participatory democracy. possible, strengthen the approaches that work, and Respect for human rights is a legal obligation chart new paths and forge new partnerships. for all states. It underpins the legitimacy of govern- In 2015, The Carter Center and the Office of ments and political leaders. It builds states that are the United Nations High Commissioner for Human strong and secure because they are respectful of Rights (OHCHR) co-chaired the inaugural Human their people. And it is central to our shared belief in Rights and Election Standards conference, bringing the value of human dignity. together for the first time a large group of human

Zeid Ra’ad Al Hussein Jimmy Carter United Nations 39th President of the United States High Commissioner for Human Rights Founder of The Carter Center

3 Human Rights and Election Standards: A Plan of Action

Through their joint initiative on Human Rights and Election Standards, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights and The Carter Center have worked to bring the human rights and election communities closer and to foster stronger links and communication between them. This Plan of Action aims to advance human rights related to genuine democratic elections by charting a course of practical steps toward our shared goals. The draft plan was developed based on the recommendations formulated through consulta- tions that took place between 2015 and 2017. Going forward, organizations and individuals may agree on an ad-hoc basis to disseminating and acting upon the recommendations in this Plan of Action. The OHCHR and The Carter Center acknowledge the many individuals and organizations that contributed to the Human Rights and Election Standards consulta- tions (see Acknowledgements).

Introduction 1. Genuine democratic elections expressing the Civil and Political Rights and other international will of the people are essential to securing the legiti- and regional treaties and instruments. This legal mate authority of governments and the promotion corpus includes other human rights that, while and protection of human rights. States around the not themselves explicitly electoral in nature, are world regularly hold elections and are obligated, in relevant when considering elections as broad, part through their ratification of key human rights participatory, and inclusive cyclical processes rather treaties and through customary law, to respect and than single events. protect a core set of human rights and fundamental The inclusion of elections as a means of freedoms critical for democratic elections. 3. ensuring the right to participate in public affairs 2. A well-established and evolving body in international and regional instruments means of public related to elections that elections are subject to human rights norms and electoral and participatory rights serves as and standards, and scrutiny by international and commonly accepted international norms and regional human rights mechanisms. standards for genuine elections. Article 21 of the Sustainable Development Goal target 16.7 Universal Declaration of Human Rights highlights 4. aims to ensure responsive, inclusive, participatory, the role of elections in ensuring everyone is able and representative decision making at all levels. to participate in the public affairs of their country. Effective participation in public affairs through elec- This is elaborated in the International Covenant on tions may be key in attainment of this target.

4 Human Rights and Election Standards: A Plan of Action

Election Observation and Assistance, request of states. The purpose of electoral assis- and Human Rights Communities tance is generally not to assess or report on state 5. A large range of organizations — intergov- performance. ernmental and nongovernmental, international, 9. For the human rights community, moni- regional, and national — provide support for toring and assessment take many forms, including genuine democratic elections. This election advocacy and evaluative activities by civil society community includes technical assistance practitio- organizations; country visits, communications, and ners, election observation organizations, and various thematic reports of special-procedures mandate other groups that provide democracy support at holders; the review of states’ reports by treaty- the national, regional, and international levels. monitoring bodies and the issuance of general In parallel, the human rights community includes comments; and the peer-to-peer Universal Periodic many national bodies, regional and international Review process. The outputs of human rights intergovernmental agencies, nongovernmental orga- mechanisms are recommendations to states on how nizations, academic, and other organizations that to better advance and promote human rights and work to advance human rights, including in the fundamental freedoms. These recommendations context of elections. It also includes international then become the basis for more concerted follow-up human rights mechanisms that monitor states’ in the months and years that follow. compliance with their human rights obligations. 10. The human rights and election communi- 6. The human rights and election communi- ties, as well as states under review, are increasingly ties share common foundational principles that considering ways to support the implementation guide their work and that are firmly rooted in the of recommendations. This includes engaging new framework of public international law and inter- audiences and forging new partnerships to advance national human rights law. These communities the realization of genuine democratic elections and share common goals and methods of engagement human rights. on key issues. They focus on the need to proac- tively advance participatory democratic rights and 11. To date there has been relatively limited freedoms and, in the case of election observation engagement and communication between the organizations, do so through the monitoring and two communities. Electoral rights and processes assessment of state performance, albeit generally receive insufficient attention from the universal with few, if any, enforcement powers. and regional human rights systems. At the same time, the election community does not engage 7. Election observation itself is conceptualized consistently with human rights organizations and as a form of human rights monitoring and relies mechanisms or the experts and state representatives on data collection about key aspects and issues involved in them. throughout the electoral process, evidence-based analysis, and the issuance of public statements 12. Expanding collaboration and communica- and reports and recommendations to relevant tion across the election and human rights commu- stakeholders. Implementation of these recommen- nities will improve the promotion and protection of dations forms the basis for follow-up activities, in human rights and fundamental freedoms in electoral which other electoral assistance providers are often and political processes. This aims to support the involved. continued evolution of international law on elec- tions, good governance and the right to participate 8. Electoral assistance includes technical advice in public affairs. This in turn will facilitate the and assistance provided to governments or electoral ability to hold governments and institutions institutions that is carried out in an objective, accountable and will increase the capacity of indi- impartial, neutral and independent manner at the viduals to claim their rights.

5 Human Rights and Election Standards: A Plan of Action

13. Elections lie at the intersection of three participation of all people, especially minorities, distinct but overlapping processes, involving women, young people, indigenous peoples, persons political, technical, and human rights consider- with disabilities, persons deprived of liberty, people ations. Genuine democratic elections are one means living in extreme poverty, internally displaced of facilitating the fundamental right to participate people, and others who are marginalized and experi- in public affairs. They are also one mechanism by ence barriers to equal participation. State institu- which the will of the people, as the basis of the tions will require appropriate resources to meet authority of government, is expressed. With due these responsibilities. In addition, those working regard to diversity and pluralism, an election must on elections should address the needs of these and reflect the freely expressed choice of the people, other groups. who must have confidence that the outcome of the election reflects their choice. Factors beyond the 17. The right to participate in public affairs, technical administration of the election process, including the right to vote and to stand for election, including political considerations, can help create is an internationally recognized human right. As a context conducive to credible elections. While such, it is important to consider genuine democratic political initiatives (such as mediation, conflict elections within an international human rights prevention, or the use of good offices) may at times framework and using a rights-based approach. be required in support of electoral processes, these 18. Genuine democratic elections require an should be consistent with the international human environment conducive to respect for and enjoy- rights framework. ment of human rights and fundamental freedoms on an ongoing basis, without discrimination and General Principles for an Approach without arbitrary or unreasonable restrictions. States to Elections Based on Human Rights should ensure accessibility and provision of reason- able accommodation. Key human rights, whether 14. Through the Human Rights and Election exercised online or offline, include but are not Standards consultative process, the following limited to: existing general principles were recalled as relevant a. freedom of peaceful assembly and of association to guide cooperative efforts going forward. b. freedom of opinion and expression and access to 15. The universality of human rights, a information cornerstone of international human rights law, c. security of the person means that human rights are inherent to all human beings everywhere. These rights are interrelated, d. the right to remedy and access to justice interdependent, and indivisible. Further, the rights 19. The principles and the recommendations of equality and nondiscrimination require that all included in this Plan of Action, while formulated individuals must be treated equally and that no one primarily in the context of United Nations human should suffer discrimination on the basis of race, rights mechanisms, apply equally to regional human color, ethnicity, gender, age, language, sexual orien- rights mechanisms and to their cooperation with tation or gender identity, religion, political or other international human rights mechanisms in relation opinion, national, social or geographical origin, to their efforts on electoral and participatory rights. disability, property, birth or other status. 20. In addition, the principles and many of the 16. States have the obligation under interna- recommendations included in this Plan of Action tional law to respect, protect, and fulfill human could also apply to national human rights institu- rights. To do so, states should take proactive tions, equality bodies, and civil society organizations steps to facilitate the enjoyment of human rights, working on human rights in relation to their efforts including by advancing the inclusion and effective on electoral and participatory rights.

6 Human Rights and Election Standards: A Plan of Action

Action Steps International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, 21. Acknowledging the aforementioned prin- Social and Cultural Rights, the Convention on the ciples and shared objectives, organizations and indi- Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against viduals supporting this Plan of Action commit to Women, the Convention on the Rights of Persons disseminating and acting upon the following recom- with Disabilities, and other treaties that advance mendations within the limits of their mandates. participatory rights, as well as regional instruments on democracy and elections. Increase use of international human rights law and human rights mechanisms in the Identify and address gaps in context of elections international law 22. Recognizing the value of the work of 26. Recognizing that the election and human human rights mechanisms to understanding the rights communities both contribute to interna- overall human rights environment in which elec- tional understandings of genuine, democratic tions occur, election observation and assistance elections, election practitioners and human rights practitioners should ensure that they review and mechanisms should cooperate, within the limits refer to human rights mechanism recommendations of their mandates, to identify and address gaps in as part of their regular practice. the law. This could be accomplished in many ways. 23. In addition, election observation organiza- Suggestions raised during the consultative process tions should submit data-driven findings from their included the following: work to human rights mechanisms as appropriate, a. Drawing on relevant instruments, the elections including through formal submissions to the treaty- and human rights communities could draft a joint monitoring bodies and the UPR, use of the commu- declaration of common principles on elections nications procedure of human rights mechanisms, and human rights. and sharing reports with special-procedures mandate b. An informal, ad-hoc advisory group composed holders. The cyclical nature of the reporting of election and human rights experts could be schedule of the human rights mechanisms, as well formed to address how international human as election processes themselves, can be beneficial rights law can be applied to specific electoral to collaboration and concerted follow-up by the two issues (e.g., participatory rights for stateless communities, providing new and ongoing opportu- people). nities for engagement. c. States could request a thematic report on genuine 24. Conversely, international human rights elections and human rights to be submitted to mechanisms should continue to consider the the Human Rights Council. reports of election observation organizations and d. Human rights NGOs could bring more election- civil society as part of their regular practice when related individual complaints to treaty bodies drafting reports, comments and recommendations to increase their jurisprudence on election- with a view to issuing more election-related recom- related questions. mendations. This may also apply to national human rights institutions. e. Guidelines could be elaborated on accessibility and reasonable accommodations for the full 25. Representatives of the election community implementation of the right to vote for all and human rights mechanisms should continue in society. to advocate for states to consider ratifying the

7 Human Rights and Election Standards: A Plan of Action

27. In the light of new developments and juris- c. information sharing via email or a website on prudence since the drafting of General Comment the schedule of upcoming election observation No. 25 of the Human Rights Committee, organiza- missions, country visits by special rapporteurs, tions and individuals supporting this Plan of Action treaty body follow-up missions, and deadlines for agree to support to the extent possible the commit- the submission of reports to the UPR or treaty tee’s consideration of an update to the general bodies comment. d. guidance on human-rights-based approaches to elections shared through existing tools Explore the need for new human rights and networks, such as the ACE Electoral mechanisms as appropriate Knowledge Network and the Building Resources 28. Recognizing that several special-procedure in Democracy, Governance and Elections mandates are focused on rights and freedoms (BRIDGE) training program critical to genuine elections, but that no one single e. consultation with one another in countries of mandate focuses on the right to participate, the focus before, during, and after the course of elec- potential of a thematic mandate on the right to tion observation missions or country visits; this participate in public affairs should continue to be regular consultation should, as much as possible, explored. This specific mandate could address all be institutionalized to facilitate regular and aspects of the right to participate in public affairs. consistent coordination f. the deployment of human rights experts as part of Improve communication and collaboration international election observation missions between human rights mechanisms and the election community g. promotion of information sharing and common 29. Continued collaboration and communica- approaches to human rights and election stan- tion between election observation and assistance dards issues between U.N. bodies and regional communities and human rights mechanisms can and subregional organizations only progress through regular and sustainable 30. In addition, further workshops and confer- communication and information sharing. In addi- ences that regularly convene the election observa- tion to the actions outlined above, a number of tion and election assistance and human rights practical steps were suggested to facilitate communi- communities to discuss specific issues should be cation, both formal and informal, including: held. a. inclusion of election practitioners, as appropriate, in regularly scheduled meetings of human rights 31. Both communities could strengthen links mechanisms, such as the annual meeting of the among agencies of the U.N., other mandates, and special procedures, or briefings to the respective stakeholders for the promotion and implementation committees or chairs of the treaty bodies of this Plan of Action. b. invitation by the appropriate bodies to represen- Support the role of civil society and NHRIs in tatives of regional and international human rights promoting electoral rights mechanisms to participate in the regularly sched- uled meetings of the election community, such 32. Genuine electoral processes are not an end as the meeting of endorsers of the Declaration of in and of themselves but are a critical means of Principles for International Election Observation promoting a more stable political environment in or the Global Elections Organization (GEO) which human rights, including the right to partici- conference pate in public affairs, can be enjoyed. Civil society

8 Human Rights and Election Standards: A Plan of Action

plays an important role in monitoring human human rights mechanisms, a series of practical rights and elections processes and in advocating for training tools should be refined or developed. change. The international human rights and elec- These tools could include clear guidance on how to tions communities have a responsibility to support access and engage with the different mechanisms this work of civil society within the limit of their and how to work constructively with ministries of mandates and can do this by: foreign affairs and Geneva missions. They could also a. engaging with and hearing from organizations include templates for the submission of election- that work on a range of issues and topics, focused reports and information to the special including human rights and those beyond elec- procedures, treaty bodies, and UPR processes. tion issues 36. The election community recognizes the b. lending support to the voice of national civil contribution of organizations who coordinate society organizations by referencing their findings civil society engagement with the United Nations c. supporting collaboration and information sharing human rights mechanisms. In engaging with the among human rights and election organizations mechanisms directly or with civil society partners, that can raise awareness of, and follow up on, election observer groups should consider continued elections-related issues and recommendations cooperation with these organizations, including through participation in pre-session consultations building the capacity of civil society to engage d. when possible and appropriate. effectively with international human rights mechanisms through the submission of data- driven reports that reference international obliga- Engage in education and awareness raising tions for genuine democratic elections 37. In order to increase the impact of election- related recommendations of the election observa- 33. International election observation organiza- tion and human rights communities, both groups tions may consider collaborating, as appropriate, should consider means of raising public awareness with national civil society organizations on the of the function of elections as not only a technical submission of reports to international human rights exercise and a political contest, but also a human mechanisms. rights exercise. To do this, both communities should develop messaging that is easily understood by the 34. Election practitioners should give addi- general public. It would also be useful to sensitize tional consideration to the potential role of national the media on this issue, and to include this in voter human rights institutions (NHRIs) in the promo- and civic education programs. In addition, it would tion of environments conducive to human rights be beneficial for both communities to raise aware- and genuine elections, including ways in which they ness among states of the impact of elections on can strengthen the capacity of NHRIs on election human rights through side events, including at the issues and follow-up to recommendations. Human Rights Council sessions.

Develop better tools and training resources to facilitate effective collaboration Write and follow up on targeted recommendations 35. The regional and international systems of 38. Common to the work of both the human human rights mechanisms can seem complex and rights mechanisms and the election observation difficult to navigate. In order to facilitate increased community is the need for well-written, targeted cooperation between the election observation recommendations and more consistent follow-up community and the regional and international

9 Human Rights and Election Standards: A Plan of Action

on the implementation of recommendations once Human Rights and Election given. Representatives of both communities recog- Standards Initiative nize that greater cooperation between them has the potential to increase opportunities for recommenda- 41. The Human Rights and Election Standards tion implementation. initiative began with a conference held in Atlanta in February 2015. Envisioned as the first in a series 39. In order to make recommendations useful, of meetings and workshops, the launch conference the election observation and human rights commu- was attended by leading election practitioners and nities should consider drafting recommendations experts and representatives of the human rights that are specific, measurable, attainable, relevant mechanisms at the United Nations, regional, and and time bound, as appropriate, as well as sensitive other intergovernmental organizations. to the country context. 42. Following the 2015 launch, the first of 40. The election observation and assistance three focused workshops was held in January and human rights communities can work together 2016 in Atlanta. The workshop was attended by throughout the election cycle to offer complemen- a number of thematic and geographic mandate tary and potentially joint analysis of the electoral special rapporteurs as well as election practitioners. and human rights environment and monitor and Workshop participants considered the opportunities follow up on the implementation of election-related and challenges of increasing collaboration between recommendations. Examples of such cooperation special rapporteurs and the election community, could include: as well as practical suggestions for continued a. information sharing by election observation collaboration. organizations with special-procedures mandates 43. The second workshop was held in June who can follow up on election observation 2016 in Geneva and brought together members of recommendations during country visits or as part key treaty-monitoring bodies and members of the of their reporting responsibilities; conversely, election community. Workshop participants exam- special-procedures mandates could share key ined the opportunities and challenges of increasing recommendations with election practitioners who collaboration between treaty monitoring bodies and could follow up on them in the course of their the election community and made practical sugges- work tions for continued collaboration. b. coordination between election observation orga- nizations and other human rights mechanisms 44. The third workshop was held in February with treaty-monitoring bodies in the course of 2017 in Geneva and brought together election their follow-up activities to help promote imple- observation and assistance practitioners and repre- mentation of recommendations or suggest special sentatives of states that have participated in the reports on key issues of focus by the treaty body Universal Periodic Review process and have given or received recommendations on elections. During c. as appropriate, coordination with and provision the workshop, participants discussed the use of the of support to national stakeholders on recommen- UPR to encourage democratic processes and how dation implementation and follow-up exercises election practitioners can more effectively engage with the UPR process.

10 Human Rights and Election Standards: A Plan of Action

45. The fourth and final meeting was held in December 2017 at The Carter Center in Atlanta. During this meeting, the draft Human Rights and Election Standards Plan of Action was discussed, reviewed, and finalized. The Plan of Action will be disseminated widely in multiple languages and in an accessible format.

11 Acknowledgements

The Carter Center and the Office of the United European Platform for Democratic Elections Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights are (EPDE); Donetsk Voters’ Committee grateful for the contributions made to this docu- Sergiy Tkachenko ment by the following individuals and organizations. European Union, External Action African Union Commission Service, Democracy and Election Observation (EEAS) Idrissa Kamara Lora Borissova Asian Network for Free Elections (ANFREL) Emanuele Giaufret Koul Panha Isabel Martinho Brookings Institution Forum Asia Ashley Miller John Liu The Carter Center Inter-American Commission on Human Rights Chloe Bordewich (IACHR) David Carroll Malene Alleyne Avery Davis-Roberts International Foundation for Electoral Systems Obehi Okojie (IFES) Elizabeth Plachta Michael Svetlik Jordan Ryan Chad Vickery

Karin Ryan International IDEA Tye Tavaras Therese Laanela Frank McLoughlin Centre for Civil and Political Rights Patrick Mutzenberg National Citizens’ Movement for Free Elections (NAMFREL) Commonwealth Secretariat Eric Alvia Martin Kasirye National Democratic Institute (NDI) Democracy Reporting International Julia Brothers Hassan Nasir Mirbahar Sarah Cooper Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Michael McNulty Africa (EISA) Cecile Bassomo Open Society Foundations (OSF) Denis Kadima Molly Hofsommer

Ilona Tip Organization of American States (OAS) Gerardo de Icaza EU Election Observation and Democratic Support (EODS) Sara Mia Noguera Gilles Saphy Brenda Santamaria

12 Human Rights and Election Standards: A Plan of Action

Organization for Security and Cooperation in Venice Commission Secretariat Europe, Office for Democratic Institutions and Serguei Kouznetsov Human Rights (OSCE/ODIHR) Beata Martin-Rozumilowicz Venice Commission Montenegro Alexander Shlyk Srdjan Darmanovic

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Zimbabwe Election Support Network (ZESN) Dan Malinovich Rindai Vava

Niall McCann Human Rights Treaty Bodies Members (present and former as of the date of their engagement with United Nations Electoral Assistance Division the project) (UNEAD) Maarten Halff Ilze Brands Kehris, Member, U.N. Human Rights Committee Andrew Hyslop Maria Soledad Cisternas Reyes, Former Chair, Craig Jenness U.N. Committee on the Rights of Persons with Filon Morar Disabilities; Special Envoy on Disability and Accessibility Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) Jasminka Dzumhur, Member, U.N. Committee on Mohammad Abu-Harthie Migrant Workers Ilona Alexander Felice Gaer, Member, U.N. Committee Against Torture Jose Maria Arañaz Hilary Gbedemah, Member, U.N. Committee on Amanda Flores the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women Peggy Hicks Michael O’Flaherty, Former Member U.N. Human Orest Nowosad Rights Committee Agnès Picod Safak Pavey, Member, U.N. Committee on the Nathalie Prouvez Rights of Persons with Disabilities Mona Rishmawi Nigel Rodley, Member, U.N. Human Rights Committee Ivan Šimonović Victor Rodriguez-Rescia, Member, U.N. Human Shahrzad Tadjbakhsh Rights Committee Hernan Vales Special Procedures Simon Walker (present and former as of the date of their engagement Universal Rights Group with the project) Marc Limon Gustavo Gallon, U.N. Independent Expert on Human Rights in Haiti UPR Info David Kaye, U.N. Special Rapporteur on Freedom Jean Claude Vignoli of Opinion and Expression

United States Agency for International , U.N. Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Development (USAID) Association and Assembly Assia Ivantcheva Gay McDougall, Former U.N. Special Rapporteur on Minority Rights

13 Human Rights and Election Standards: A Plan of Action

Monica Pinto, U.N. Special Rapporteur on the Pablo Berti Oliva, Cuba Independence of Judges and Lawyers Iris Ott, Switzerland Fernand de Verennes, U.N. Special Rapporteur on Haley Patterson, United States of America Minority Issues Radka Sibille, European Union Delegation to Alfred de Zayas, U.N. Independent Expert on the U.N. the Promotion of a Democratic and Equitable International Order Yibra Aynekullu Tesfaye, Ethiopia Nuraym Tynybekova, Kyrgyzstan Representatives of States Sofia Varguez, Mexico João Lucas Quental Novaes de Almeida, Brazil Viktor Velek, Czech Republic Herborg Fiskaa Alvsåker, Norway Codrina Vierita, Romania Yury Ambrazevich, Belarus Molla Belete Chekole, Ethiopia Academics and Independent Experts Aly Diané, Republic of Guinea Anders Eriksson, Independent Consultant Guy Goodwin-Gill, Oxford University Dijana Tabori Dorović, Bosnia and Herzegovina Barbara Fontana, Switzerland Edward McMahon, University of Vermont Antar Hassani, Algeria Sita Ranchod-Nilsson, Emory University, Institute for Developing Nations Jan Kaminek, Czech Republic John Stremlau, University of the Witwatersrand Špela Košir, Slovenia Mark Stevens, Independent Consultant Daniel Kottut, Kenya Markku Suksi, Professor, Åbo Åkademi Tomoko Kubota, Japan Domenico Tuccinardi, Independent Consultant Andreas Maager, Consulate General of Switzerland, Atlanta Kåre Vollan, Quality AS Charlotte Marres, United Kingdom

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Human Rights and Election Standards: A Plan of Action

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