TITLE INSTITUTION This Handbook Designed for Secondary School Use In

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 063 471 VT 015 386 TITLE Career Education in the Environment. A Handbook. INSTITUTION Olympus Research Corp., Washington, D.C. SPONS AGENCY Off ice of Education (DHEW) Washington, D.C. Di v. of Vocational and Technical Education. GRANT OEG-0-71-4462 (357) NOTE 394p. AVAILABLE FROM Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402(Catalog No. HE 5.6/2:EN 8/2, $3.00)

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.65 BC-413.16 DESCRIPTORS Administrator Guides; Annotated Bibliograpnies; Audiovisual Aids; Behavioral Objectives; *Caree.r Education; Career Planning; *Curriculum Guides; Employment Opportunities; *Environmental Education; Environmental Research; Instructional Aids; Lesson Plans; *Manuals; *Natural Resources; Occupational Guidance; Reference Materials; Resource Guides; Secondary Grades; Supplementary Textbooks; Teaching Guides; Teaching Procedures; Vocational Education ABSTRACT This handbook designed for secondary school use in exploring environmental problems and solutions and providing information on existent and emerging career opportunities, will be useful to school administrators, curriculum planners, instructors, counselors, librarians, and students. Developed bya 10-member project group, the handbook is in three parts:(1) Career Education and the Environment--an overview which sketches the extent of, reasons, and solutions for our present environmental degradation, (2) Environmental Careers--a comprehensive report divided into categories of science and research, technology and education, technology implementation, and equipment operation, and (3)two environmental education curriculums--a 15-day self-contained curriculum uniton environmental awareness and pollution tested in the Salt Lake School District, complete with an outline, lesson plans, student readings, and an exam, and a semester length course which focuseson the physical world, natural resources, and social problems with environmental overtones. An annotated 61-page biblicgraphy supplements these curriculums, and is divided into eight categories f or easier use as a selective guide for all schools wishing to start or upgrade their holdings in environmental literature. (CD) \IT 0 Li; 3S it ED 063471 U.O. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. EDUCATION & WELFARE OFFICE OF EDUCATION THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO- DUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM Career THE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIG- INATING IT. POINTS OF VIEW OR OPIN- IONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDU- Educotion CATION POSITION OR POLICY In tne Environment

A HANDBOOK

Produced for The United States Office of Education Division of Vocational and Technical Education

Pursuant to Contract OEG-0-71-4462 (357)

For Use in The Regional Commissioners Conferences On Career Education in the Environment

by OLYMPUS RESEARCH CORPORATION

818 18th Street, N. W. WASHINGTON, D. C. 20006

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents,U.S. Government Printing Office,Washington, D.C. 20402 ii

DISCRIMINATION PROHIBITED-- Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 states: "No person in the United States shall, on the ground of race, color, or national origin, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination underany program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance." There- fore, the Vocational and Technical Educationprogram, like all other programs or activities re zeiving financial assistance from the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, must be operated in compliance with this law.

The project presented or reported hereinwas performed pursuant to a Grant from the U.S. Office of Education, Department of Health, Education, andWelfare. However, the opinions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect theposition of policy of the U.S. Office of Education, andno official endorsement by the U. S. Office of Education should be inferred.

3 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface toHandbook

Chapter 1:CAREER EDUCATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Chapter 2:ENVIRONMENTAL CAREERS Organization and Selection for Environmental Careers 2-1 Outlook for Environmental Careers 2-7 Job Selection Criteria 2-23 Careers in Environmental Science and Research 2-26 Careers in Environmental Education and Technology 2-52 Careers in Environmental Technology and Implementation .2-87 Careers in Environmental Application and Operation 2-103 Appendices 2-115

Chapter 3:ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATIONCURRICULUM A 15-Day Unit 3-1 A Semester Course 3-126 Appendices 3.156

Chapter 4:BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION General 4-1 Population and Society 4-16 Natural Resources 4-25 Health and Physical Activity 4-37 Multimedia Materials 4-41 Additional Sources of Environmental Education 447 Federal Agencies and Statutes 4-55 iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The following persons have been responsible for creating this handbook on "Career Education in the En- vironment:" Research and Writing - Garn C. Coombs, Virginia P. Kelson, Garth L. IVT-ngum, Willis J. Nordland, Jack R. Oakie, Pierre F. Rubsam, Jr., and Carlos Whiting; Editing - Sybil H. Clays and G. Don Gale; Project Direc- tion - Kenneth C. Olson.

1 PREFACE

This handbook is designed to be used in secondary schools to explore environmental problems and solutions and to provide information on existing and emerging career opportunities in this field.It is directed toward and intended to be used by school administrators, curriculum planners, life sciences and social sciences instructors, vocational counselors, librarians, and students.This handbook is divided into four distinct chapters:

(1) Career Education and the Environment. This chapter of the handbook sketches the nature and extent of environmental degradation; provides a view of the social, technical, and cultural reasons for this worldwide condition; and projects some specific and general solutions. The last points toward growing career opportunities in natural resource management, environmental planning, pollution control, and environmental health, and suggests some basic attitude changes necessary in our political, cultural, and economic habits.

(2) Environmental Careers. This chapter is a comprehensive report on the career possthilities in environmental occupations, ce nter ed around listings under the categories, Science and Research, Technology and Education, Technology Implementation, and Equipment Operation. Details include job descriptions of all occupations in this field; an analysis of the training or certification necessary to fill these occupations; a summary of the conditions, aptitude, earnings potential, and places of employment for each occupation; statistics and forecasts concerning the numbers, need, and type of positions; and finally, a listing of additional sources of information.

(3) Environmental Education Curriculum. This chapter contains two courses of environmental education.One is a three-week, self-contained unit focusing on environmental awareness and pollution.Complete lesson plans, a teacher's manual, and student readings are provided. The other is a semester-length course which provides breadth and depth to the study of the physical world, of natural resources, and of contemporary social problems having environmental overtones.

(4) Ethnography. This chapter includes annotated selections on both general and specialized environmental topics which are of particular interest to high school students and teachers. Chapter 1 CAREER EDUCATION ANDTHE ENVIRONMENT CAREER EDUCATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Man, particularly Western man, has always been callous in his treatment of the environment. As long as people were relatively few arid scattered and technology was simple, the detrimental consequences of his actions were slight.

All of a sudden, during the last few years, events have reached a critical point, and environmental pollution has been forced into the consciousness of all but the most unperceptive. Smoke and smog, unsightly and poisoned streams, dying lakes, polluted oceans, ear-splitting noise, excessive use of pesticides, the threat of radiation--all of these threaten health and life itself.Deteriorating towns and cities, litter, the multiplying avalance of garbage and solid wastes, roadside lots filled with dead cars, traffic jams, crowds and congestion--these are not direct threats to life, but they certainly damage the quality of life.

As a consequence of long-term deterioration being suddenly brought to our consciousness, a few forecast the self-abolition of man. A more appropriate note was struck by President Nixon as he transmitted to Congress the first annual report of the Council of Environmental Quality: Our environmental problems are very serious, indeed urgent, but they do not justify either panic or hysteria. The problems are highly complex, and their resolution will require rational systematic approaches, hard work, and patience. There must be a national commitment and a rational commitment.

The environmental threats are indeed critical.But they were created by man and can be controlled and resolved by man. The pertinent questions are:

(1) What has caused them?

(2) What are the potential remedies? 1-2

(3) Who will apply them?

This handbook has two goals: (1) to bring to the high school classrooman awareness of the threat of environmental deterioration to the quality and actuality

of our lives, and (2) to identify the useful and rewarding careers which will

significantly contribute to the fight against environmental problems.

WHY THE ENVIRONMENTAL CRISIS?

Environmental pollution has reached a critical stageas a result of complex circumstances, but five contributing factors stand out from among the rest: population growth, technology, consumerism, a misguided incentive system, anda pervading frontier psychology.

World population growth is following an accelerating trend which is frightening in its prospects. The following graph illustrates this growth:

Population (Millions)1,

1.--...... INIIIMIIA 10,000 8,000 6.000 4.000 7.000 Prace Years Ago

Major factors in this trend have been the dramatic achievements in medical science and sanitation, with the resultant reduction in death rates in all nations. Much of the recent growth is due to the tenacity of old cultural patterns, which have birth rates persisting at their former pace in some of the poorest countries despite declining death rates.In most industrialized countries, on the other hand, the tendency has been for birth rates to decline as economic development and wealth

91-1 1-3

increase. The populations of the "wealthy" countries are growing, but at a rate not nearly so great as that of the poorer nations. What the future will hold has been hotly debated. Some projections show decreased growth and increased abundance, while others foresee faster growth and disaster. Whatever the future holds, the present problem is apparent:It isn't so much that we have too many humans on earth as it is that we have too many in the wrong places.If we were better distributed over the earth's surface and were leading ecologically sound lives, we would not be faced with such severe and immediate environmental problems.

For the underdeveloped sections of the world, the issues are clear, even though the answers are difficult: the rate of births must somehow be brought into harmony with the increased life rxpectancy. Just how close to equality those two factors must be will depend upon 1-!:te progress made in spreading the production of such amenities as adequate food, employment, housing, and health care.

Paradoxically, for the developed sections of the world, particularly the United States, the issues are less clear but the resources for their solution are readily at hand.It isn't that there are too many of spiead over the vast landscape of our nation, but that we all insist on living too close together. The concentrated populations of the industrialized northeastern, southeastern, and western seacoasts, the

Great Lakes ring, and the smaller interior complexes contrast with the wide open vistas obvious to every air traveler. Of course, not every open area will support a human population, but we are certainly not headed in the right direction by crowding large concentrations of people in sprawling urban areas. These population concentrations which press against our available ground space and our air, water, and other resource capacities are exacerbated by the way in which we choose to live 1-4

in those concentrated places, our "life style." And that life style threatens even

the environments of more scattered populations by disrupting the "ecology" of the

natural world.

We can define "ecology" as the symbiosis among all living organisms, the

interrelationships of living things with other living things and with their surroundings.

Casual observation shows that the technology or the techniques of production by which we multiply man's meager physical powers and produce the amenities and necessities of our relatively affluent lives has not been designed with ecology in mind. The factories which produce our gadgets belch smoke into the airor discharge industrial wastes into our streams. Often the products themselves--such things as plastics and aluminum cans--are environmentally destructive because they don't recycle themselves naturally; they just lie there. The rapid and often wastefulpace of production further depletes our natural resources. Energy, the life blood of modern society, is produced in ways which create smoke and various less visible air pollutants, which cause thermal pollution by emitting heated waters frompower plants, and which exhaust the fossil and petroleum resources accumulatedover billions of years.Our love affair with private transportation vehicles leads to air pollution, to the wholesale slaughter of thousands each year, and to a growing heap of solid waste when automobiles are discarded. The pesticides which reduce insect damage and make it possible for a few farmers to feed an immense population also pollute the soil and the bodies of living organisms, the effects persisting long after the offending insect pests have been dispatched.

In our great affluence and the resulting search for new luxuries, we further foul our nests on spaceship earth, the only home the human species hasor likely 1-5 will ever have available to it.Our luxurious automobiles are the major cause of air pollution, and their very production hurries the depletion of valuable minerals.

The packages in which we purchase our consumer goods--from plastic bread wrappers to cardboard shipping cartons--are the source of the avalance of solid waste which threatens to bury us. Our demand for consumer goods requires

increased output df electrical energy for the production of those goods. And otw

view that every family deserves its own suburban quarter-acre ranch is, in the

opinion of most observers, a cultural source of wasteful land use.

These are just a few examples of our environmentally destructive consumer habits.Life is possible on a simpler scale, on a more rational scale. Are we willing to give up our pleasant gadgetry to make our lives ecologically sound? If

not, can we find a way to have the products of our material culture and still make

them and their use environmentally responsible?

Consumer habits are one part of the problem. What about the production

incentive system which feeds upon those consumer habits? For example, throw-away products may seem inexpensive to the consumer, but they impose staggering costs to society--through clean-up costs, or by resulting in a shabby and unhealthy environment, or by using up our resources. In a similar way, tax depletion allow-

ances for forest, fuel, and mineral goods actually quicken the development and

consumption of our limited reserves. These examples, drawn from myriads of

others, indicate the inadequacies of the incentive system of the private marketplace.

The competitive marketplace has historically provided positive incentives for

rapid economic development; the greatest rewards went to those who could most

aggressively exploit opportunities. That incentive system has proven its ability 1-6

to get what the consumer wants produced in mass at relatively low prices.But we

have not included the total costs of production, particularlythose costs related to

the environment. Our failure to include total costs has encouragedgreater consump-

tion than would likely have occurred if the consumer had been requiredto pay the

full actual cost in his purchase price. Supposewe found a way to include the environ-

mental cost in the price of our consumer products--by the penaltiesof taxation, by requiring effluent or emission fees, or by instituting direct controls.Both the producer and the consumer could then be forced intoa full recognition of their impacts upon the environment. Incentives to pollute could easily be replacedby incentives to ecological conduct.

One reason we have so long ignored the inverse incentive builtinto our marketplace transactions has been the tendency to think ofmany of our vital natural resources as abundant and costless. We call this a "frontier psychology." Early settlers burned off the forests, abused the land untilits fertility was exhausted, and then moved on to open new land the in turn abuse it. The earlylumber industry cut down the forests as if the supply of timberwere endless. Mineral resources were mined and oil wells were dug in the same spirit. By theturn of the century, the disappearance of the open frontier was a recognized fact andthe conservation movement emerged.

But the frontier psychology did not die. We still view cleanair and pure water as if they, too, are endless. But there is only so much of each inor around spaceship earth; we will never havemore. The "frontier" which now needs "conquering" is no longer open space, but human nature. 1-7

Our cavalier use of the land we have is a case in point. We want the convenience of a city's amenities, yet genetically and biologically, man is not a city-dwelling animal. Psychologists tell us that crowding markedly affects our behavior, and one authority has called the American city an anti-city. Generally speaking, the only persons who live in large cities are the poor and the very rich, those who can't afford to move out and those who can afford to import non-city amenities into plush urban apartments. The rest of us, as rapidly as we can, seek vicariously to emulate the two or three "cowboy decades" at the close of the frontier period. Everyone wants his own homestead or ranch, even if he can afford only a postage-stamp lawn surrounding a crackerbox house among identical thousands of crackerbox houses in a typical suburb. The private' costs of this life style may not be unduly high, but the social costs in terms of land use, transportation waste, central city deterioration, and aesthetic affront are excessive.

Man's developmental urge, which was so effective in transforming an underdeveloped continent with a scattered handful of inhabitants at the mercy of the elements into our modern, complex society must be channeled into new directions.

The old frontier is gone; resources at a limited. The new frontier is the challenge of learning to live abundantly and cooperatively amid obvious scarcity.

POTENTIAL REMEDIES TO ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Learning to live "ecologically sound" lives will require substantial changes in our life styles, even while we are searching for and implementing remedies to our existing environmental crises. Each remedy or solution proposed, whether aimed at curing a single abuse or a whole spectrum of abuses, should take into consideration the full range of its future environmental implications. Each solution should be 1-8

geared not only to correct an obvious abuse, but also to eliminate the rootcause of that abuse and to guard against creating new long-range problems.

Each prescriptive cure for an environmental illness should include long-range

goals which consider the judicious management of whatresources we presently have, the conservation of their use, the recycling ofany used portions, and the

repair of any severe damage to the planetary mantle. That will require eachof us

to know more about our environment than we have known in the past, and it will

require more of us to devote our vocational and avocational energies to environmental

concerns than has traditionally been the case.

Perhaps the most critical and pressing problems of allconcern our burgeoning

population: over three-and-one-half billion persons currently inhabitour spaceship, the vast majority of whom are leading lives of poverty.Collectively as a nation,

and individually, as world citizens, we must closely examineour beliefs concerning

human reproduction and distribution. We need to know much more about the human

cargo-carrying capacity of our planet, about how many of us itcan support, about

what kinds of support it can reasonably provide, and about howwe can most intelligently distribute ourselves in terms of location, age, and objectives.

Some maintain that it may be necessary for all the world's citizensto reach some conscious agreement regarding life styles, family size, and basic human

needs if the earth is to continue supporting lifeas we know it today. Such a step

would, of course, require advanced methods of population control inall countries whose food producing capabilities are insufficientto supply the needs of its population, or whose culture and life habits are severely damaging to their natural environment.

To make such decisions will require the study and development of population 1-9

distribution policies and practices harmonious with the ability of land, air, and water

resources to sustain high concentrations of people.In many cases it may require

masses of people to either radically change their life style to make it more ecologi-

cally sound, or to reduce their birth rates to encourage the stabilization of population numbers, or to physically rearrange themselves into areas which are capable of supporting a particular population.In any case, it will undoubtedly require a considerable number of well-trained individualsranging from urban planners to demographers to health officials--to plan, direct, and operate any changes in population distribution or life style.

Even if the population problems are solved, we must still deal with the environmental damage which has already occurred and take steps to guard against future damage. This will involve scientific research leading to technological advances.

These advances will be directed toward eliminating environmentally destructive practices and should lead to safer and saner tools, devices, methods, and procedures.

For example, the development of short-lived pesticides, the implementation of natural biological controls, and the use of radiation sterilization on insects could very likely replace the use of hard pesticides such as DDT. Tertiary waste water treatment facilities and effective electrostatic precipitators can be developed and used more extensively to help protect the natural environment. All these efforts to develop and build technological innovations designed to improve environmental quality will require many scientists, engineers, technicians, and operators.

Another remedy which has been discussed to help solve our environmental problems is to change consumer habits, especially in America. The greatest contribution an individual can make in redirecting his purchasing habits is simply to economize 1-10

his wants and purchases. By not buyingproducts which are excessively packaged, products of short durability or poor quality, and productswhich are simply unneces- sary convenience items, a consumer canhelp eliminate solid waste. And until the day arrives when pollution-free automobiles areavailable, we can help reduce pollution by supporting mass transit systems, by joining carpools, and by rediscov- ering the joys of walking and riding bicycles on short trips.Individually, we can also help by supporting laws which provide for strictzoning regulations and land- use policies to help eliminatedisorderly land development which threatens to destroy all the available land in the United States. The developmentof a new consumer ethic will require the individualeffort of each of us, but it will also require the help of sociologists, psychologists, and political scientistswho understand human behavior and the factors which influence it. In the economic area, major changes may be necessary to createeconomical and environmental balance. Our present values of materialwealth and success through economic gain may well be replaced by values which deal moreadequately with simple survival, cultural development, and non-materialconsumption. In the future, products and services should more nearly reflect thetotal costs involved in providing them, and these costs will invarially be higher than at present.Hopefully, one benefit of this total cost approach willbe to drive out business or force off the marketplace any firm or product whose environmental price tag is too high.Another benefit will be to rid the market of superfluous gadgets and convenienceproducts.

Examples of products and processes in urgent need of change include automobiles,

electrical power generating plants, strip mining, excessive overgrazing ofgrasslands, and the large national expenditures on military hardware. There are many methods which can be used to create a more sound environ-

mental economy. They include: special tax benefits to reward environmentally

acceptable behavior and products; tax penalites and fines which punish polluters;

research, construction, and operation grants for such processes as waste water treatment; the development of better transportation systems; and a more realistic

pricing system for products obtained from natural resources in short supply.

Sociological, technological, and economic solutions mentioned above will be

of little value unless we can deal effectively with individual behavior patterns and

eliminate our "frontier psychology." This can best be achieved through the many

avenues of education, from the public school system to the mass media. Formal

education must lead the way. We should update the curricula of schools to include

an understanding of the natural systems of the universe, an appreciation of man's

unique place in that universe, and a respect for man's finer accomplishments in

life.Education must provide concepts of both "how to live" (environmental education) and "how to get a living" (career education). These two goalsare inherently

compatible. This educational approach should attempt to provide the citizenry with proper environmental standards and should try to influence people to live their lives and treat the spaceship earth in a dignified manner. Most important of all is the need for education to reinstill in humans the desire to work for environmental improvement and the confidence that man can indeed resolve the problems he has created for himself.In this overall educational effort the teacher, the parent, and the communications specialist will play important roles.

One last remedy is an inherent part of all the other remedies at the same time that it supports those remedies. An informed and concerned citizenry will promote 1-12

and support strong environmental legislation,including stronger and more wide- reaching laws regulating the development of all natural resourcesand preventing the careless disposal of unconsumed or recyclable wastes.Such statutes should provide for injunctions against wasteful operations and stiffpenalties for all violators. They should be accompanied by strong enforcementprocedures. This increase in legal activity will require more attorneys trained todeal.with the whole range of environmental law, as well astrained enforcement personnel.

Each of these remedies is an ambitious undertaking, but nothingless is needed to solve our numerous environmental problems. There is no reason to doubt man's ability to solve the problems he has created; neitheris there reason to question his capacity to redirect his own energies toward thosesolutions.However, first must come a well-informed citizenry, and educators must assumeresponsi- bility in that area if satisfactory progress is to be made.

THE ROLE OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

Beyond the provision of basic skills, the primary objective ofeducation has

always been to inculcate within the hidividual an understandingof his society and of

his place within it, and to aid him to function successfully within thatenvironment.

In that sense, education has been a conservative influence.But it has also accepted

the role of providing analytical skills which, when applied, havebeen instrumental

in identifying shortcomings in the status quo and in encouragingprogressive reforms.

The environmental crisis now confronts education with a newchallenge.It

must produce citizens who are not only environmentally awarebut who have values

which are compatible with ecologically sound living.Historically, education

indoctrinated generations with the values which have led to our presentcondition. 1-13

Most of those values were desirable, and their results have been positive in most applications. However, for those values which were not favorable or will not be favorable in the future to man's continued existence on spaceship earth, new concepts and new techniques must be substituted.All formal and informal education must be blended together to produce an environmentally aware generation.

Many young persons have already been excited by the environmental challenge, but they have not always known what to do to be most effective. More are probably still untouched by the issue.Education's response in this field must be not only to consider the problems and their possible solutions, but to deal with the whole question of who will perform the various tasks involved..Of course, this means increased concern for vocational guidance and career education, particularly in the environmental area.

In order to accomplish these goals, teachers in all subject areas must emphasize environmental implications. For instance, biology classes must view man as one living organism, interdependent and interacting with all other organisms in a mutually beneficial relationshipthe most important organism, perhaps, but still only one of many. Economics classes must consider as part of their theoretical study the unseen social costs of private economic activity, and they must provide the analytical tools for appropriate policy decisions. History classes must view the environmental, mistakes of the past, as well as the accomplishments. English and cOmmunications classes can utilize material dealing with the environment, both in literature and in writing assignments. Art, music, and drama are important in promoting self-realization and in establishing a respect for the ideas of others.

Indeed, no subject matter is irrelevant:all can contribute to environmental awareness

gaz 1-14

without "watering down" the traditional course content in any way. Environmental

content will likely make classes more relevant and more interesting to the students. And in addition to including environmental considerations in traditional courses, it

will also be necessary to create entirely new classes, such as "Pollution Problems,"

"Environmental Ethics," or "Natural Resource Study."

Environmental pollution and the depletion of natural resources can be effectively

illustrated with startling statistics and a growing bibliography of literature, but first-

hand experience is usually more motivating than abstract discussion. No subject

matter is better adapted to learning through experience than that dealing with the environment and ecology. Pollution can be seen and felt and smelled and heard; resource depletion can be similarly observed. Environmental education should get outside the classroom and into the environment.It should involve students not only in the theoretical identification and analysis of problems but in practical understanding

and solution of them.

This concept of environmental education should not be disconcerting to members of the educational establishment. Education has always adapted to new methods, to new academic disciplines, and to new emphases.Its ability to adapt is a reflection of man's own adaptability.At one time man adapted to his environment because he had no choice. Then he found he could change his environment, and he arrogantly sought to remake it in his own image. Now he recognizes that effort asa mistaken one, and he must learn to HIT in harmonious relationship with the best of his environment.But he wants to do so without foregoing the tools that have allowed him to ameliorate the harshness of nature and to free himself from enslavement to bare subsistence needs. Education, too, can and must adapt to the needs of the society it serves.

r ."1'74 1-15

THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF CAREER EDUCATION

The development of an environmentally aware generation will havea major impact upon the policies and the policy-making process of a democratic society.

Citizens who know their long-run best interests are most likely topromote them through all the means at hand. Being aware is only the beginning. When society

perceives a need and sets objectives, it then moves to allocate its availableresources to the priorities indicated by the objectives.

As every elementary economics student knows, the basicresources of the

society are natural resources, capital resources, and humanresources.In an earlier age, natural resources determined a society's wealth and welfare, especially

the fertility of its soil.Subsequently, though natural resources never lost their importance, capital resourcesthe technology to expand man's productivityrose

to preeminence. Now we appear to be entering an age when human resources will dominate. It is a time when the most critical problems of society do not lend themselves to attack based on land, new materials, or machines. The primary tools of this society are the talents and s4.111s of its people. Whatever its problemsthe search for peace, the abolition of poverty, the prevention andcure of disease, the reduction of crime, or the control of environmental qualitythe solutions depend upon dedicuted, talented, and well-trained people who understand and can intelligently use whatever technological tools are available.

It is growing awareness of this new dependency that has pushed the U.S.economy into an educational investment which has expanded from $6 billion to $65 billion in 25 years.It is the same phenomenon which underlies theemergence of remedial manpower programs to assist those unable to compete successfully in more

22 1-16

sophisticated labor markets.It is this same awareness which has fostered thenew concept of career education.

Career education, now the first priority of the U.S. Office of Education,is unusually compatible with the concepts of environmental education endorsedabove.

It emphasizes from among education's multitudinous objectives thepreparation for and pursuit of a career.It is not another name for vocational educationor for academic education, but it integrates both. Its fundamental premiseis that every teacher in every class can and should emphasize thecareer implications of the subject matter.It asserts that such reality consciousnesscan aid both student and teacher, demonstrating relevance to the student and providinga constant measure of achievement for the teacher. Like environmental education, itmerges theory and "hands-on" experience.It provides bridges between the worlds of the home, the school, and work. Its concerns are all of those attributeswhich make for career success: good mental and physical health, human relations skills, commitment to work as the appropriate source of income, basic skills of communication and computation, appreciation of historical and modern culture,exposure to the full range of occupational opportunities and to their educationalrequirements, and acquisition of sufficient job skills to be able to function in the labor market. Yet, career education is not limited to the school and to the school years.It integrates and coordinates learning experiences and holdsopen the door to a lifelong process of job entry and exit as interests and needs change.

The educational goal of preparing citizens for successfulcareers complements the goal of instilling environmentalawareness. Both share similar objectives, such as citizenship, family life, and culture.Environmental education can spread a

23 varzuNIMW 1-17 general awareness of the environmental crisis.It can encourage individuals to con- dtict their lives in a more ecologically sound manner. Career education encourages

early and continuous thought to alternative career choices.In a world where goods- producing occupations are of declining importance, it seeks to replace the traditional work ethic with a service ethic. Among those careers to be considered are included a wide range of opportunities in environmental management, careers which offer the satisfaction of providing significant services to society.

As a result of these two programs, all citizens will hopefully be motivated to

an environmental awareness and to a change in life styles. A few will be motivated

to dedicate their working lives to that worthy cause.

CAREERS IN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

The second of this handbook's two objectives is to explore the advantages and prospects for careers in environmental management occupations. Every occupation has some type of environmental aspect. Some occupations, such as those of chemists and botanists, are directly involved in environmental affairs.Others, such as those of businessmen, secretaries, and housewives are indirectly involved. As

society becomes aware of the challenge and attempts to clean up its pollution and

conserve its resources, well-trained minds and competent hands will be required across the full range of skillssemi-skilled laborer, operator, craftsman, paraprofessional, technician, and professional.

Before workers can be attracted to these occupations, they must have knowledge

of their existent, of the prospects for expansion, of the educational, training, and

skill requirements, of the pay and working conditions, and of the prospects for up-

ward mobility. No one wants to propagandize a youth or bias decisions by inadequate

24 1-18

or inaccurate information. The goal isto provide realistic information andto aid

the teachers and counselor whosejob it is to pass it on to the studentin forms which assist without interfering with his freedomof choice.It is his life, and hiscareer

must be his choice. But that choicemust be a realistic one basedon the best information available.

Some environmental managementoccupations are old and familiar, suchas park ranger or oceanographer.Most are new. Some, suchas ambient air analyst or recycling technician, are only emerging,and many will yetemerge as society takes the environmental challengemore seriously. Most current opportunitiesare identifiable. The future is alwaysopaque, but since decisions about the futuremust be made, they are best made byemploying reliable information.Foreseeing the future is a matter of projection.Current trends are extended,but they are modified as ways are identified in which the future willlikely differ from the past.

Here, then, in this handbook andin the audiovisual materialswhich accompany it are some of the initial materialsa secondary school teacher or counselor might use to:

(1) become environmentallyaware; (2) transmit that awareness to students;

(3) illustrate for all students theopportunities, advantages, anddisadvantages of careers chosen fromamong environmental fields; and

(4) provid g! more specific guidancefor those with sufficient interestto seek further information leadingto possible careers dedicatedto a cause involving life's continuance andits quality. Chapter 2

ENVIRONMENTAL CAREERS

Cr!,26' 2-iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 2-v

I. ENVIRONMENTAL CAREERS 2-1 Organization and Selection for EnvironnI,Atal Careers 2-1 Outlook for Environmental Careers 2-7 Job Selection Criteria 2-23

II. CAREERS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND RESEARCH. 2-26 Life Scientists 2-26 General - Aquatic Biologist, Biochemist, Biophysicist, Bio- statistician, Cytologist, Geneticist, Microbiologist, Path- ologist; Animal - Animal Ecologist, Animal Husbandryman, Entomologist, Pharmacologist, Physiologist, Zoologist; Plant - Agriculturist, Agronomist, Botanist, Forest Ecolo- gist, Horticulturist Physical Scientists 2-36 Astronomer; Chemist - Analytical, Inorganic, Organic; Geologist - Assayer, Geodeist, Geophysicist, Hydrographer, Metallurgist, Meterologist, Mineralogist; Oceanographer; Physicist; Seismologist; Soil Scientist Social Scientists 2-45 Anthropologist, Economist, Geographer,Mathematician, Political Scientist, Psychologist, Sociologist, Statistician, Writer

CAREERS IN ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND TECHNOLOGY 2-52 Environmental Educators 2-52 Camp Counselor; Humanities Teacher; Life Sciences Teacher- Biology Teacher, Physiology Teacher; Physical Sciences Teacher - Chemistry Teacher, Geography Teacher,Geology Teacher, Physics Teacher; Public Health Educator; Social Sciences Teacher; Vocational Teacher Environmental Engineer 2-60 Aeronautical; Agricultural; Chemical; Civil; Combustion; Electrical; Environmental; Geological; Hydraulic; Industrial; Industrial Safety; Mechanical; Mining; Nuclear Environmental Health 2-70 Dietician and Nutritionist; Field Health Officer;Hygienist Physidan; Sanitarian; Toxicologist ! Environmental Planners 2-76 i Architect; Landscape Architect; Urban Planner 1 Natural Resource.Managers 2-79 I Fish and Game Warden; Forester; Oceanographer; Park Ran- -;1 ger - Naturalist; Range Manager; Soil Conservationist; Water- shed Manager; Wildlife Manager

27 2-iv

Table of Contents, cont.

IV. CAREERS IN ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY ANDIMPLE- MENTATION 2-87 Inspectors or Monitors 2-87 Environmental Inspector; Food and Drug Inspector; Health Monitor; Nuclear Inspector Technicians 2-92 Biological; Environmental; Food; Health; Horticultural; Land-Use; Nuclear; Physical Science; Resource Conser- vation Testers or Analysts 2-99 Environmental; Mechanical

V. CAREERS IN ENVIRONMENTAL APPLICATION ANDOPERATION 2-103 Laborers - Attendants 2-103 Gardner; Incinerator Attendant; Janitor; Refuse Collector; Resource Developer; Wildlife Attendant Operators and Foremen 2-108 Incinerator Foreman; Power Plant Operator; Land-Fill Operator; Recycling Operator; Water and Sewer System Foreman; Water Treatment Operator

APPENDICES 2-115' 2-1 Additional Sources of Information 2-117 2-2Environmental Educational Institutions 2-125 2-3 Estimating Methodology 2-129 2-v

INTRODUCTION

Chapter two, a comprehensive report on the career possibilities in environmental areas, is designed to be used primarily by secondary school vocational counselors and by individual students working independently. In- cluded in this chapter are job descriptions, training requirements, salary ranges, occupational aptitudes, and conditions for employment for each career listed under the headings of science and research, education and technology, technology and implementation, and operation and application. Additional information includes selected statistics on present employment numbers and forecasted needs as well as other sources of information and data pertinent to environmental careers.

It is hoped that the information will arouse genuine interest and commitment of students and counselors in the promotion of occupations which have great significance toward maintaining a healthy and safe natural environment. I. ENVIRONMENTAL CAREERS

ORGANIZATION AND SELECTION FOR ENVIRONMENTAL CAREERS

The most urgent challenge facing mankind today is the battle tosave our environment. Our waters are fouled. The very air we breathe is in serious peril. The combat has begun, and a speedy persuit towardour goal is essential.

Rapidly growing public concern over environmental quality has resulted in a dramatic interest in the manpower needed to develop, plan, and implement prevention and control activities. Although mass publicconcern is relatively recent, the basic mechanisms and technology have been developing formany years. Begun largely by the concern and efforts of health officers and sanitary engineers in providing safe supplies of drinking water, milk, and foods and bynumerous natural resource and wildlife conservationists, the fields of action and the variety of professionals and technicians involved have expanded into a broad- scale view of protecting and restoring the quality of modern environment.

Environmental protection and control efforts representa diverse area of work and consequently draw heavily on a wide variety of occupatiOns.Virtually every occupation can be related to some aspect of environmental pollution control and resource conservation. The extensive nature of environmental pollutants, i. e., air, water, noise, etc., and the need to convert solid waste into useful resources permit contributions by a wide spectrum of occupational groups. However, to determine and assess the manpower requirements of specific occupations related to the above groups requires setting limits on occupational categories that specifically engage these problems on a conscientious, continuous basis.

30 2-2

There are many supporting occupations that can play an important role, i.e. , secretarial, stenographic, data processing, etc.,but they are generally non- specialized and can be obtained without specific training programs. Likewise, many managerial and administrative posts, regardless of their relationship to the natural or cultural environment, have been omitted from this handbook.

There has been relatively little effort to assess the environmentally related manpower situation in depth and over a period of time. Deterrents to the development of such information include a lack of understanding or definition of the various professional, paraprofessional, and supportive occupational roles and functions, and the need for occupational interpretation in terms of categorized disciplines and program specialization. Much additional effort is necessary to identify and measure factors of supply, demand, utilization, and production of environmental manpower.

However, it is apparent that the complex problems facing us cannot be handled without a sufficient number of technically and scientifically trained technicians, engineers, and scientists.It is essential that we be aware of what environmental deterioration and pollution are, their causes, and the recreational, economic, and physical and mental health losses resulting from pollution.In addition, we must become knowledgeable in the various methods of controlling pollution and the high but unavoidable cost of reversing the trend toward environmental destruction.

In this age of strong emphasis on education, students are bombarded with statements about the need for trained persons in various fields.In this environmental field the need is desperate because present manpower and knowledge are insufficient to deal with this enormous task.

4 3 2-3

This chapter on environmentalcareers is designed for students who want

to do something to help save the environment and forcounselors and teachers who want to assist in their endeavors.

The subsequent list of occupational descriptionsis not intended to be comprehensive for all conceivable occupations relatedto the identification, analysis,

or solution of environmental problems because virtuallyevery vocation can produce

conditions with environmental overtones. However,it was decided that a more

useful document could be produced whereina selected list of occupations is

shown, based on functional characteristics.Thus only those occupations that demonstrate a functional relationship to theidentification, study, or solution of environmental problems have been included. Also, onlyoccupations that are directly involved in environmentalareas are described.

Some aspects of the listed occupations have been omittedor only a cursory discussion has been provided. A reasonably exhaustivesearch of occupational literature has been made in preparation of thishandbook. Where wage, employment, or training data were nctavailable or where they appearedto be of questionable accuracy, they were not included in the description.

To present information on career paths andoccupations in this handbook, four main career "clusters" have been developed;an outline of these is provided below.

1. Careers in environmental science and research: a. Life scientists b. Physical scientists c. Social and behavioralscientists. 2-4

2. Careers hi environmental technology and education:

a. Environmental educators b. Environmental engineers c. Environmental health services d. Environmental planners e. Natural resource managers.

3. Careers in environmental technology implementation:

a. Environmental technicians b. Envircnmental inspectors and monitors c. Environmental testors and analysts.

4. Careers hi environmental equipment operation:

a. Operators b. Attendants and support personnel.

Although there are many other ways in which occupations can be classified,

the above categorization best meets the need to minimize redundancy. Occupations

are clustered by similar educational requirements and by nature of work.

At the beginning of each major occupational category, a general description

is provided concerning the broad overview of the relationship of those jobs to the

environment, to the education and training required, and where available, to the

wage information based on 1968 data. Because of inflation, most occupations have salary structures higher than that which is presented. No attempt has been

made to update these figures inasmuch as no reliable factor could be found which would accurately apply to all of the occupations presented in the handbook.

Particular information relating to specific occupations provided in the actual job description is as current as possible.

In an emerging "new career" area, hard data on the present supply and future demand are difficult if not impossible to obtain.In most cases, it is known only that certain career paths are open and will require significant numbers of new 2-5

entrants. Environmental careersare no exception.Extensive research of existing

data sources, contact with professional organizations,and direct contact with

appropriate governmental agencies have shownthat virtually no data exists on the

current supply of environmental manpower, andeven less is known about future

needs. Therefore, cneof the major tasks ofthis handbook is to examinecareer paths, determine the level of expectedor authorized legislative appropriations,

and estimate for 1970 to 1975. Our projectionsare related to six areas of environmental control: air, water, noise, solidwaste, pesticides, and radiation.

(These are areas identified by the federalgovernment, and indeed are not all- inclusive. )

Thinking of careers in terms of environmentaloccupations is just now

beginning. There have been employees workingin sewage disposal plants and water works for decades, but only in recentyears has there been a conscious

realization that these occupations andnumerous others constitute an effort to

provide mechanisms to helpensure an unpolluted environment. There has also been a realization that mankind must makea conscientious effort to conserve the earth's natural resources. Resource conservationand the attack on pollution have been many faceted. Air, water, and solid wasteare the most generally recognized sources of pollution, but noise, pesticides, radiation,etc., also constitute sources of pollution that must be studied.

This handbook will fulfill its basic goal onlyif it is used.It will be used if it is helpful in career counseling and ifit provides the necessary information in an easily accessible manner. There are severalstandard sources of occupational informatioel, most significantly: Dictionary ofOccupational Titles (DOT), 2-6

Occupational Outlook Handbook (00H), and Modern Vocational Trends Reference

Handbook. 1Each of these sources attempts to analyze and consolidate information on certain types or categories of occupations. DOT is the most comprehensive, while 00H is most frequently used. DOT gives brief job descriptions based on a standardized format of work or data elements. 00H has six categories of in-

formation and approximately 700 occupations covering the entire occupational spectrum. The information elements are: (1) nature of work; (2) places of employment; (3) training, other qualifications, and advancement; (4) employment

outlook; (5) earnings and working conditions; and (6) sources of additional

information (which is primarily in narrative form with some pictures depicting various aspects of the particular occupation).

The third-mentioned handbook attempts to provide general vocational guidance by presenting various aspects of the most frequently entered careers and is more detailed than 00H for it includes 12 informational elements for each occupation.They are: (1) duties and practices; (2) aptitudes, interests, and other characteristics: (3) major fields of employment; (4) physical activity and working conditions; (5) women in the field; (6) where employment is found; (7) possibilities for advancement; (8) education, needed and related; (9) licensing; (10) remuneration; (11) advantages and disadvantages; and (12) professional sources of information.

'Bureauof Employment Security, U.S. Depart of Labor, Dictionary of Occupational Titles, 1965, 3d ed. ; Bureau of Labor Statistics, U. S. Department of Labor, Occupational Outlook Handbook, 1970-71 ed., Bulletin no. 1650; and Modern Vocation Trends Bureau, Modern Vocational Trends Reference Handbook, 7th ed. 2-7

2 Two other reference books are useful; oneprovides relatively detailed

information on 20 technician occupations related to the environment and theother3

gives extensive information concerning more than 200 health-relatedoccupations. Numerous other pamphlets, bulletins, and articleswere used by the research staff in compiling this handbook but are not documented herein.

OUTLOOK FOR ENVIRONMENTAL CAREERS

In this handbook, occupations shown as being environmentallyrelated represent an attempt to be relatively inclusive but not exhaustive. Only those occupations that were considered to havea substantial connection with environmental protection, correction, or education have been presented.

The nature and dimensions of what could be classifiedas an environmental problem or concern are just now being extensively examined. The physicaland biological aspect of the world's problemsare being expanded to other concerns, such as visual pollution, cultural change, and social deterioration. Suchdefinitions as these are not included in this chapter although they are thoroughly presented in other portions of this handbook. The environmental problemareas for which occupational data were collected were limited to physical, biological, andto some extent, educational. categories. Suchareas of work include prevention and control programs.

2 Walter M. Arnold,Career Opportunities: Ecology, Conservation, and Environmental Control (Chicago, Ill,:Doubleday Ferguson Publishing Co., 1971) 3Bureau of Employment Security, U. S. Department of Labor, Health Careers Guidebook. 2-8 environmental facilities and equipment design and operation, research and development work, planning, surveillance, enforcement, etc.

It is a fairly simple task to classify an occupation as being related to environmental work compared to the task of obtaining relevant estimates or projections of employment. But problems exist in classifying occupational titles where several jobs may have essentially the same duties and functions but are known by several names, which also complicates the task of estimating.Furthermore, viewing occupations as being environmentally related is very new, and job information is not yet available. Although the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) has done extensive work in identifying and projecting occupational manpower requirements, the 230 jobs presented in a recent BLS report do not provide any clear identification or classification for environmental workers.4 Those occupations represent only

50 percent of all professional and technical workers, 99 percent of salesworkers

81 percent of craftsmen, and 65 percent of clerical workers. Such occupational data have been developed by 13LS primarily to aid officials concerned with future planning for education and training needs.

Estimates and projections of future occupational needs can be useful, but they must be treated with care. Recent flurries of estimates and projections of environmental manpower needs are "popping up" in many current articles in journals and publications. They seldom match one another and, in some cases, are not too helpful in describing how the authors arrived attheir occupational classifications or methods of projecting or estimating. Consequently, these articles must be viewed with some reservations at the present time.

4 Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Manpower and Training Needs, 1971, Bulletin no. 1701. 2-9

All projections or estimates are only as good as the data and methodology

used to create them. Techniques for projecting are usually based upon: (1) ex-

trapolating past events into the future,(2) defining causal relationships and what

they will be in the future,(3) tinkering with trend lines (or matrix determinants)

by adding judgment or insight factors such as technological changes, or (4)some feeling forchange in how government might allocate its resources. In the real

world of maldng projections, the lack of sufficient and precise data continually

plagues those making them, and confidence in such estimates can vary widely.

Such is the current plight of data on environmental occupations.

However, projections can be useful if their limitations are understood. In

order to obtain some estimate of the number of environmentally related jobs for

the purposes of this chapter, two basic approaches were used. The firstwas to

5 use occupational information prepared by BLS.Table 2-1 presents a list of those occupational titles that could be readily identified or inferred to be close

to those occupations shown in this chapter as being environmentally related. Some

care should be used in interpreting the table. For example, the 1970 estimated

job requirements (e.g., for biochemists) of 12, 000 is based on the 1968 employ-

ment estimate made by BLS and adjusted for two years by the average annual

employment openings of 500. The 1975 estimate is adjusted by five times that annual figure to arrive at the 14,500. Also, the occupational estimates presented

are for the total jobs that are under a given title and not just those that could be

considered as dealing with environmental problems. Take for an example the occupation of chemistnot all chemists are directly working on environmental problems; some are engaged in industrial processes, chemical products develop-

ment and refinements, and the like.Others may be working on biodegradable

5micl.,pp. 67-74. ESTIMATEDFOR SE JOBLE a REQUIREMENTS ED OCCUPATIONS 1970-1975aTable 2-1 ScienceClassification and Research Job Requirements1970 Estimated Job Requirements1975 Estimated Percent1970-75Change AnnualAverageOpenings NeedsbReplacementEstimated Life Sciences BiochemistsLife Scientists 181, 600 12, 000 210,600 14, 500 20.16. 8 0 5, 800 500 9, 400 200 Physical Sciences AstronomersGeologistsChemists 142, 00023, 600 1, 500 172, 00025, 600 1, 750 21.16. 1 7 8. 5 6, 000 400 50 6, 800 400 50 PhysicistsMeteorologistsOceanographersGeophysicists 49, 800 4,6, 7,200000 100 61, 800 4, 8,7,700 000850 24.33.11.10. 13 59 2, 400 400100150 2, MO 100150 Social PoliticalAnthropologistsGeographersEconomists Scientists 33,12, 800 3004, 3,100 200 _ 40, 800 4, 3,600 700 12.20.15. 27 6 1, 400 100 800100 Education and Technology StatisticiansSociologistsMathematicians 24,10,72, 600800000 29,12,89, 30014, 100500 550 34.24.14.18. 34 13 3, 500 900300450 4, 900 700300350 Engineers AgriculturalAerospace 12,66, 400800 13,71, 400300 6. 8.7 1 200900 200500 Table 2-1 cont. Classification Chemical Job Requirements 1970 Estimated 52, 200 Job Requirements1975 Estimated 57, 700 ChangePercent10.1970-75 5 OpeningsAnnualAverage 1, 100 NeedsbReplaceEstimated ment 500 MiningMechanicalCivilElectricalIndustrial 249,225,131,194, 000400 000800 5, 050 296,251,158,231, 500400 500800 5, 175 21.19.11.5 0 10 2. 5 9,5,7, 200500400 25 3,4, 1,000400100 700 75 Health SanitariansPhysiciansDieticians 321, 000 10,32, 600000 386, 000 37,12, 000 100 14.20.15.6 12 13, 000 1, 000 300 7, 1,000 700 300 Natural Resource ManagersRangeForestryForesters Managers Aides 14,26, 200 4, 200 29,17, 200 2004,700 21.11.911. 1 4 100600 400100300 Planners ArchitectsUrbanLandscape Planners Architects 36, 600 8,9, 200000 11,43,10, 200100 250 36.13.17. 6 98 1, 300 600250 1, 000 200250 Technology and ImplementationTechnicians Engineering and Science 664,00090, 800 774,105, 000 300 16.16. 0 6 22, 000 9, 000 Equipment Operation InspectorsInstrument - Repairmen-Manufacturing 593, 400 614, 400 3. 5 4, 2,200 900 15, 000 1, 700 TableClassification 2-1 cont. 1970 Estimated 1975 Estimated ChangePercent AnnualAverage ReplacementEstimated WasteStationary Water Engineers Treatment Job Requirements 262,50026,300 Job Requirements 268,750 33,300 26.61970-752.4 oPeninzs 1,4001,250 Needs') 1,1005,800 a Based on projectionsPlant madeOperators in Occupational Manpower and Training Needs, Bulletin 1701, to give1980Bureau some to obtainof idea Labor of1970 theStatistics, and number 1975 1971. ofestimated workers BLS estimated who bEstimated replacement needs are not reflected in the estimated requirements. will be requiredemployment for replacement in 1968 of was those adjusted by the job requirements. This information averagewho retire, annual die, openings terminate, 1968 toetc. U.S. Department of Labor, is provided only 2-13

materials or the reduction of hazardous chemical pollutant discharges or wastes.

Therefore, in Table 2-1, the estimated jobs are not exclusively those that are

concerned or directly work with environmental problems.

Fairly good definitions of occupations were available in the categories of

environmental science and research and of education and technology as used in this chapter. However, very limited data were available for occupations in the technology implementation and equipment operation categories.

It appears that estimated job requirements for the occupations listed in Table 2-1 in the first major category, science and research, will grow from a range of approximately 8.5 percent for geologists to 34.4 percent for statisticians between 1970 and 1975.The number of average annual job openings also varies from a low of 50 for astronomers to a high of 6,000 for chemists. However, the estimated replacement needs for each year in some cases exceed the estimated growth in job requirements, such as in the cases of life scientists, chemists, and mathematicians. Replacement needs are caused by such changes as termination, change of jobs, withdrawing from the labor force, death, retirement, etc.Consequently, the number of job opportunities, estimated from BLS data on an annual basis, can be a significant factor in overall job opportunities in any given occupation.

In the second major category, no precise data were available for those engaged in environmental education. For those occupations listed under the category of technology and education in Table 2-1, a range of estimated changes is shown between 1970 and 1975.For example, on the low side, new jobs for mining engineers are estimated to grow by 2.5 percent, and by 36.6 percent on the high side for urban planners. 2-14

In the third and fourth major categories, the lack of occupational data permits

little to be said of what might be anticipated except for a few job titles. From the

minimal data that are available, it is estimated that technician jobs related to

science and engineering will grow from 664,000 in 1970 to approximately 774,000

by 1975, or a 16.6 percent change. Annual job opportunities wilt probably be about

31,000 (annual openings plus replacement). Such occupational information is pre-

sented only to give some idea by specific job classifications of what might be anticipated between 1970 and 1975. (This was based on BLS data and not adjusted

or reduced to include only those jobs that could be considered to be environmentally related. )

Given such problems, another approach to estimating environmental manpower requirements has been developed in this chapter. Most of what will happen with environmental protection or problem correction will largely involve public pressures being brought to bear in making it illegal to pollute. Thus the creation of legislation will be extremely important in what happens, for both the public and private sectors of the economy. Making laws, however, is not enough; it also takes money and people to enforce the law.Consequently, when estimates are made of environmentally related jobs as presented in this chapter, it is assumed that there are three major determinants for such jobs: legislation, budgets, and enforcement.

A second approach essentially involved developing some idea of the amount of money to be spent on environmental pollution problems and then translating such expenditures into manpower requirements. For those who are interested in a statement of methodology regarding this approach, a technical discussion is provided in Appendix 2-3. Obtaining adequate information on the amount of money to be spent in cleaning up the environment is difficult.The most comprehensive

4tx 2-15

data on such expenditures were provided in a recent report by the Councilon Environmental Quality.6As indicated in the Council's report, if environmental

standards are met on schedule, the total annual costs of pollution control will

almost dou'h.e between 1970 and 1975, or an increase of 97 percent. Within this

overall gain, however, the costs for air pollution are expected to jump by 840

percent, which means very little was being done in 1970. However, by 1975

expenditures will increase significantly.Costs for water pollution will grow by 87 percent, and by 37 percent for solid waste management. Similar estimates for noise, radiation, and pesticide pollution, however, were not available.In terms of dollars, about one percent, $9.6 billion, of the 1970 gross national product

(GNP) of $1 trillion was spent for environmental cleanup. By 1975, the Council estimates thac $18.3 billion will be required. For the three areas of air, water, and solid waste, the Council estimates that the total cumulative expenditures during the six-year period will be approximately $105 billion.However, such massive expenditures would only be about 1.6 percent of the estimated cumulative

GNP of $6.7 trillion.Only $62 billion, or 59 percent of such costs, would be for meeting air and water quality standards.

It is estimated, based on very limited information, that expenditures for pollution problems related to noise, radiation, and pesticides would add an additional 0.02 percent to total expenditures. Thus, about 1.8 percent of the 1970-75 cumulative

GNP, or $118 billion, would be spent on environmental efforts.Investment for capital acquisition is estimated to take 32.7 percent of such expenditures, which

6Councilon Environmental Quality, Environmental Quality (Washington, D. C. : U.S. Government Printing Office, August 1971). 2-16

would leave approximately$76. 7 billion for the totaloperating costs for environmental programs duringthe six-year period.

Before estimates are discussedconcerning environmental jobsbased on the

amount of money spent to meetpollution standards between1970 and 1975, the following key points shouldbe understood:

1. The methods used toestimate the number of jobsare relatively crude but do give some approximationas to what might be expected,given a certain level of expenditures.

2. The jobs which are estimatedrelate only to the aforementionedsix areas of pollution control and donot include jobs estimated forthe broad categories of natural resource management, environmental health,or environmental planning.

3. The occupational categoriesfor which estimatesare made are extensive; i.e., the general grouping of occupations listedas being concerned with thearea of science and researchis used as a nondiscriminatingunit. This means that

specific occupations in thisarea, such as that of a microbiologist,cannot be

separated from the overallcategory of environmental scienceand research. However, the generalcomposition of that category ismade up of microbiologists,

physicists, botanists,etc., and is assumed to be includedfor the purpose of making the overall job estimate for the category.Based on industry data, thecom- position of a given area, such as air pollution control,can be derived with its own substructure of occupationalrequirements. Thismeans that. in the area of research and design work (involvingto a large extent scientists),a substructure of engineers, technicians, operators, etc. , can be developed; but specific occupationswithin the general category cannot be singledout for estimatingpurposes. 2-17

4. Specific occupations listed in the following sections of this chapter go beyond the boundaries of the general occupational structures and categories used in developing estimates for the six areas of pollution control. For example, in environmental education and technology, educators are listed as having a direct concern with teaching people about environmental problems. However, they are not included within the rather confining parameters of the pollution control categories.

This is not to imply that such occupations are not concerned or related to environmental problems but only that the parameters of the estimating procedure do not include them.

Given the restrictions of the estimating methodology, however, some general indications for the number of jobs by broad occupational categories related to pollution control can be made. As shown in Table 2-2 and Chart 2-1, the estima number of jobs in these categories was approximately 300,000 in 1970.Given the amount of expenditures required to meet pollution control standards by 1975, it is estimated that a total of about 1.5 million jobs will be needed--an overall increase of approximately 700,000 jobs, or 87 percent. This estimate implies only the number of new jobs required by 1075;it does not mean that there will be 1. 5 million employed. The supply of persons needed to fill such jobs is not included and no attempt has been made to estimate either the supply of persons with environmentally related occupational skills or replacment needs. As pointed out in the discussion on the BLS occupational projections, the replacement needs can be quite significant. It is estimated that jobs by each of the major occupational categories will grow roughly in the following manner: Environmental science and research occupations are anticipated to increase from 100,000 in 1970 to 193,000 by 1975, a 93 percent 2-18

(000s) Chart 2-1

1,600 Estimated Growth of Required Jobsin Four Categories of EnvironmentalOccupations for Six areas of Pollution Control 1970-1975 1970 M

1,400 1975

1,200 86.9%

1,000 Imo

800

600

400 Nap 86.6% %I76.0%

200 AIM

All categories III IV I$cience and Research HP-Technology and Implementation 11=Education and Tectmology IVaperation and Application

47 ESTIMATED ENVIRONMENTAL JOB REQUIREMENTS BY MAJOR OCCUPATIONALCATEGORY AND SIX AREAS OF POLLUTION CONTROL, 1970-1975 (DATA IN 0000 Table 2-2 OccupationalEnvironmentalCategory Function Total Air Water Solid Waste Noise Radiation Pesticide TechnologyScience1970 Estimate and andImplementation Technology Education 255.2222.3100.0 10.2 9.74.6 75.620.444.6 137.4118.2 52.5 12.2 6.75.5 32.119.314.4 2.66.55.6 TotalEquipment1975 Estimate Operation 224.6802.1 30.3 5.8 197.7 57.7 452.6144.5 26.3 1.9 75.5 9.7 19.7 5.0 'TechnologyTechnologyScienceEquipment and andImplementation Technology Operation Education 395.2483.9427.3192.7 92.397.244.155.5 108.2141.7 82.538.2 188.9162.5198.7 72.2 30.117.013.5 4.7 21.335.315.810.7 22.717.419.7 8.9 Total1970-1975. Average 1,499.1 289.1 370.6 622. 3 . 65.3 83.1 68.7 TechnologyScience and and Technology AnnualEducation Growth 41.018.5 17.4 7.9 7.73.6 8.93.9 I . 5 0.60.3 2.81.3 Technology(continued Implementation on following page) 45.8 16.6 13.2 10.3 2.13.6 0.4 3.2 Table 2-2 Cont. CaterryOccupationalEnvironmental Function Total Air Water TotalEquipment Operation 139 34.1 . 4 51.8 9.9 34.10.1 6 Solid Waste 33.10. 89 Noise 7.80.6 Radiation 0.21. 5 Pesticide 9.2. 85 etc.andassumptionNote: actjusted This tableis to that include represents a certain , are not included ia the estimates. See Appendix amounts for noise, radiatioh, magnitude newof funds jobs willonly be bbtween 1970 and 1975 and pesticides.2-3 Supportingspentfor statement in order ofto meet environmental and does not attempt methodology. occupations, such as secretaries, to determine replacement needs. standards by 1975--souxced data processors, by CEQBasic 2-21

growth. Jobs in environmental education and technology are estimated to grow

about 92 percent, or from 222,300 to 427, 300 during the same period. Environmental

technology implementation jobs are estimated to increase by 89 percent, a change

from 255,200 in 1970 to 483,900 by 1975. A 7o percent growth is expected in

environmental equipment operation jobs, or an increase from 224, 600 to 395,200 during the six-year period.

Viewed in terms of the average annual growth, job opportunities in environ-

mental science and research occupations will be approximately 18, 500 per year.

Opportunities in environmental education and technology and in environmental

technology implementation should substantially be larger at about 41,000 and

45, 800 per year, respectively. The per-year job growth for occupaCons in

environmental equipment operation is estimated to be around 34, 100.

It is important to know not only in which occupational groups but also in

which areas of environmental pollution control growth is anticipated. Chart 2-2

shows where job opportunities are expected to grow in the six areas of pollPtion

control. Again these estimates are based on expenditure information by sector

primarily pruvided in the second annual report of the Council on Environmental

Quality.

By far the largest gain, in teims of number of jobs and percentage increase, is expected to occur in air pollution control. This area is estimated to grow by

854 percent between 1970 and 1975 if air quality standards are to be met. Jobs are estimated to skyrucket from about 30,300 in 1970 to 289, 100 by 1975, an

increase of 158, 800.

The second fastest growing environmental pollution control area is in pesticidett increasing by 248 percent between 1970 and 1975. Howeverin terms of jobs, it is 2-22

Chart 2-2

Estimated Growth of Required Jobs by Environmental Pollution Control Area 1970-1975 1970 M (000s) 1975 700

600

37.5%

500

400 bow

300

200

854%

100

Air Water Solid Waste Noise Environmental Pollution Category

51 2-23

expected to grow from 19,700 in 1970 to 68, 700 by 1975, a gain of 49,000.

Noise pollution jobs will be the next fastest growing at 148 percent during that

same period. The number of jobs, however, will increase by 39,000 from the

estimated 26, 300 in 1970.

Although smaller in terms of percentage growth, job opportunitities in

water pollution control are estimated to grow by 172, 900 over the 1970 level of 197,700, percentage gain of 87.5. A fairly large number of jobs are anticipated in the solid waste area, growing from 452,600 in 1970 to 622, 300 by 1975, an

increase of 169, 700, but only a 37.5 percent change. The smallest growth, both in terms of jobs and percent change, is expected in the area of radiation pollution control. Jobs are estimated to grow by only 7,600 from the 1970 level of 75, 500, or about a 10 percent change.

The preceding discussion on estimating the number of environmentally related jobs, based on an anticipated level of expenditures, is intended to present a general idea of how the major types of occupational categories might be expected to grow and in what area of pollution control it is expected to occur.

JOB SELECTION CRITERIA

To determine or select courses of study or training geared for particular careers, conscientious students should consider several different factors which have direct bee ring on the potential employability in any chosen occupation. The process of supply and demand in any occupation is tenuous and difficult to predict.

However, there are certain factors which determine occupational growth patterns to a large enent. These factors vary in intensity and consequence with occupational categories and in general fall into four areas: 2-24

1. Many jobs grow or decline in direct relationto the government appropriations in actual dollars spent for enforcing specificprojects or programs, created

or redirected, relating to those occupations. For example,the demand for air

analysts in the immediate future dependsupon the amount of dollars to be appro-

priated by the governmentenforcing the air quality standards imposed bythe 1970 Air Quality Act.

2. Other jobs depend upon the past percentages ofthe GNP and the

federal budget.They grow or decline according to supply and demandas evidenced in the present employment conditions which donot reflect future projections of

growth in many occupations. As observed in the fieldof aerospace engineering,

the supply of aerospace engineers beganto exceed the demand in the late 1960s.

The surplus of engineers has steadilygrown; but many economists project that

this situation will reverse itself, and the demandwill exceed the supply again in the mid 1970s.

3. Other jobs do not grow appreciably but remain somewhatsteady,

and any growth is merely reflective of the generalpopulation growth. Incoming personnel replace only those who have leftoccupations as a result of deathor retirement. Anthropologists are in this category becausethe relative number of positions in universities, colleges, andmuseums remains fairly constant.In any given year, there are few new job positions createdin this type of profession. 4. Other jobs grow or decline to reflecta fluctuating birthrate. There has traditionally been a greater demandfor teachers than the existing supply provided; however, as the birthrate has declinedwhile the supply of teachers has increased, opportunities in the teaching professionpresently are limited. Therefore,

53 2-25 the number of teaching positions is diminishing;but this surplus of teachers could possibly be reversed if more potential teachersentered environmentally related fields.

Such factors as parental expectations, individual aptitudes andaspiration, and local job conditions should be taken into accountby students who are contem- plating career selection. However, publicinfluence is perhaps the most dramatic, as well as the most unpredictable,factor to be considered because environmental occupations will grow primarily upon thepublic's insistence upon thc'r continuance.

It will be this pressure applied to governmentofficials that will cause increasing dollar appropriations through legislation and which in turnwill create more environmentally related careers.

The remaining sections of this chapter present descriptionsand information on specific environmentally relatedoccupations which have been grouped into four major categories: science and research,technology and education, technology implementation, and equipment operation. This information hasbeen designed to foster potential job seekers' interests in environmentallyrelated occupations.

These careers can prove to be personally stimulating andrewarding, as well as constructive, in our fight against environmental deterioration. 2-26

II. CAREERS INENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND RESEARCH

Broadly speaking, thereare two aspects of science: theoreticalor "pure" and practical or "applied"science. The theoreticalscientists research and discover what could be calledbasic laws of nature, whereasthe practical scientists apply those laws forpragmatic purposes. Both ofthese broad areas of scientific

activity are concerned with theimprovement of man's understandingand his relationship with the environment. For the purposes of organizingthis section,careeis in environmental scienceand research have beencategorized into three general

areas: life, physical, and socialscientists. Included in eachof these general areas will be both theoretical and practical scientists. Thecriterion employed for the inclusion ofa scientific occupation is that the jobrequires the professional application ofexisting scientific knowledge,the expertise to practically

apply that knowledge, andthe development ofnew sciendfic knowledge about the relationshipamong environmental factors and theinteraction of these factors with man.

LIFE SCIENTISTS

The life scientist is interestedin the study of livingorganisms and the life processes that determinethe nature of living organisms.He is particularly concerned with how the livingorganism relates to itsenvironment. Some life scientists am involved inresearch and teaching.Others specialize in the practical solutions to suchproblems as the developmentof new plants or medicines. They are primarily concerned with the lifeprocesses of human beings and microbes, animalsand plants, and healthand disease. 2-27

More than one-half the estimated 193,000 personsemployed in this field in

1970 were employed by colleges and universities. A largenumber of these people were employed by agricultural colleges andthe college-associated experiment stations often operated in cooperation with federal and state governments.About one-third of the remaining life scientists were employed bythe federal government in the Department of Agriculture, the Departmentof the Interior, the Department of the Army, and the National Institutes of Health. Alesser number were employed by state and local governments. Approximately30,000 life scientists were working in private industry in 1970 in such areas aspharmaceuticals, industrial chemicals, and food products. A bachelor's degree with a major in one of thelife sciences is a basic requirement for entry-level positions.However, students planning a professional career in the life sciences should obtain advanceddegrees; preferably Ph.D.'s, in a specific specialty area. A master's degree qualifies a person forentry-level positions in most applied scientific research programs.The majority of universities and colleges have programs that lead to degrees in the life sciences area.For those anticipating advanced degress, their undergraduate trainingshould be broadly based and should include biology and related sciencessuch as organic and inorganic chemistry. Also, mathematics, physics, and computerprogramming are becoming increasingly important in this area. There will be three main areas of strong demand forlife scientists in the 1970s. Research related to medicine, health, and environmentalquality will be predominant throughout this period. Major expenditures by all levelsof government in research and development in this area will provide opportunitiesfcr rapid advancement 2-28

for all life scientists. Industry is also expectedto initiate increased levelsof research activity relating to federal regulatoryrequirements and the development of new drugs, chemicals,etc. A sector that may absorb large numbers ofadditional life scientistsis the academic community; however, thissource of demand is unlikelyto remain as strong as it has been in the lastdecade. The range of salary levels for persons inthe life science field isclose to the same rateper year as in 1968. The animal ecologist, zoologist,entomologist, microbiologist, pathologist, plant biologist,or botanist rates are all thesame. For example, the federal government offered beginningslaries to those withbachelor's degrees of $5, 732to $6,981, depending upon the academic records ofthe candidates or the desirability of the job locations. Those withmaster's degrees couldexpect offers from $6,981 to $10,203 per year.Beginning salaries forthose holding Ph.D.s were $10, 203 to $12, 174 annually. The aquaticbiologist is in a highersalary rate scale. Those aquatic biologists holding bachelor'sdegrees received yearlysalaries ranging from $7, 456 to $9,078. A job candidatewith a master's degreecould receive $9,078 to $10, 154 to start, while a Ph.D.could bring salary offersof $11,565 to $12,580per year. Some of the specific occupations requiring specificcareer choice and extensive training in thelife sciencesare discussed below.

Biological Sciences

This group includes occupations concerned withresearch in the reproduction, growth, evolutionary structure, life processes,behavior, and classificationof living organisms. The biological scientist ismainly concerned withthe application 2-29 of his findings to the prevention of disease and with the maintenance and promotion of health in both plant and animal life.His scientific studies also include investigation into the economic utilization of the harmful aspects of specific animals or plants. Under this general classification, there are many specialists. Some of those occupations most concerned with environmental problems are discussed below.

Aquatic Biologist

The aquatic biologist studies the interaction of plants and animals living in water. All conditions of the aquatic environment, i.e. , water temperature, oxygen content, light, food availability, etc., are his concern. The delicate ecological balance can easily be upset, and the aquatic biologist studies methods of achieving or maintaining the sytem's balance. His work is both indoors and out, and he often spends considerable time hi and around water. The physical demands of this occupation are generally light.Within this overall group there are also biological oceanographers (or marine biologists) who specialize in the study of plant and animal life and environmental conditions in oceans and seas.

Biochemist

Biochemists study all living organisms and their chemical and biological processes. They are primarily involved hi a research-oriented professionthat studies the impact of chemical changes on plants and animals. Biochemists isolate, analyze, identify, and report on the minerals, vitamins, enzymes, hormones, etc., that affect the operation of living organisms. Some specialize in certain types of organic functions such as digestion, breathing, and aging. They can specialize in the study of environmental pollutants on living organisms. The biological 2-30

or chemical pollutants in air andwater as well as those in the soil affectthe

functioning of most organisms.Biochemists have a primary responsiblityto evaluate these effects andsuggest remedial action.The work is predominantly indoors, usually in a laboratoryor research facility, and requires considerable concentration, patience, and attentiveness.

Biophysicist

The biophysicist is trained in biologyand physics. He is concerned withthe physical principles of living organismsand living cells. He studies theorganism's response to such physical forces as heat, light,radiation, sound, and electricity. He frequently uses such highlysophisticated equipment and instrumentsas nuclear reactors or special electron microscopesto study the effects of radioactive particles on tissue cells, which make the studied tissuesvisible down to the smallest units.

Biostatistician

The biostatistician exerts hisinfluence by planning survey projects,collecting and analyzing data, and summarizingand reporting his findings relatedto biological phenomena. He is particularly interestedin descriptive, measurable datapertaining to animals, plants, and the lifeprocesses of humans. He attempts to identify statis- tically significant relationsamong and within groups of living organismsthat will lead to a better understanding concerning the causes of illness, theeffectiveness of disease-prevention techniques,and immunization programs. He isoften deeply involved in the public healthprograms of some local, state, or national jurisdiction.

Much of his work is conducted indoorswith the assistance of supportingresearch

I59 Ci;:i 2-31 staff such as various types of research assistants, and he often requires services from persons having computer utilization skills.

Cytologist

The study of plant and animal cells is the special interest of the cytologist. He studies parts of living cells as well as the details of cell division into new cells, using special dissecting equipment, microscopes, and staining techniques. He is also interested in research concerning the reproduction processes of animal and plant cells. Some cytologists may be primarily interested in unicellular organisms and the factors pertaining to their growth.

Geneticist Hereditary characteristics of plants and animals are the special areas of study for the geneticist. He is particularly involved in the physiological improvement of plants and animals. He studies genetic processes that determine animal, plant, or human traits and characteristics and the factors that can cause malfunctions or distortions. Some geneticists are very concerned with the mutational effects of radiation on plants and animals.

Microbiologist

The microbiologist (sometimes referred to as a bacteriologist) is involved in the study of the growth, structure, and general characteristics of bacteria, viruses, molds, and other organisms of microscopic or submicroscopic size.

He conducts experiments by isolating and making cultures of significant bacteria or other microorganisms.

GO 4 2-32

Pathologist

The degeneration or abnormalfunctions in humans, animals,or plants is the concern and particular area of study ofthe pathologist. He researchesthe nature,

cause, and development of disease.Many pathologists are primarilyinterested in the effects of such infestationsas disease, parasites, or insectson the cells of animals and plants.Others may be concerned withgenetic variations in cells.

Biological Sciences, AniMal

Some biologists specialize inone area of biology such as those fields

concerned with land animals, humans,or birds. Biologists most concerned with environmental problems in this areaare discussed below.

Animal Ecologist

The animal ecologist is concerned withthe relationship between animal life

and its immediate surroundings. Hestudies the life cycles Of animalsand attempts to determine how environmental factors suchas plant growth, moisture, weather

and altitude affect the existence ofvarious groups. This work isvery important because of the direct analogies thatcan be drawn between animals and their

environments and man and his environment.Much of the animal ecologist's

work is done outside in theprocess of observation and study; however,a con-

siderable portion of contemporary researchis being done on controlleden- vironments that indicate inside work for thisprofession.

Animal Husbandryman (Scientist)

A person in this profession is primarilyconcerned with the production and care of domesticated animals. He conducts researchinto the breeding, selection,

61 2-33 feeding, marketing, and other managerial functions concerning animals. He is primarily interested in developing better and more predictable methods of care and management for domesticated animals.

Entomologist The insect and its relationship to plant and animal life is the primary interest of the entomologist. He studies, identifies, and classifies the various types and kinds of insects. Those insects that carry disease or spoil food products are objects of special research for many entomologists. Others may develop ways to encourage the growth and distribution of such beneficial insects as honey- bees.

Pharmacologist The effects of drugs, gases, poisons, dust, air pollution, and other substances upon the functioning processes of tissues and organs are the research field for a pharamacologist. He conducts tests and related the findings of his research with other medical data and information. Some pharmacologists develop new or improved chemical compounds for use as medicines.

Physiologist The physiologist studies and conducts research pertaining to the structure and functions of animal organs, tissues, and cells. He studies the life processes and the effects of these processes as they relate to environmental problems.

Some physiologists specialize in cellular activities.Others are primarily interested in one of the organ systems such as the reproductive system or nervous system. 2-34

Zoologist

The zoologist studies animals, their life origins, and their lifeprocesses. He is concerned about animal diseases, parasites, and behavior patterns. He

may research the methods animals use to influence and are influenced by their environments. A zoologist may specialize in the study of certain kindsor classes

of animals such as birds (ornithologist), mammals (mammalogist), andfish (ichthyologist).

Biological Sciences, Plant

Many scientists specialize in study and research concerning only plant life,

their processes, growth, and development, or their relationship with theenvironment. Some of the scientists in this general category whoare primarily concerned with plant life and environmental problemsare described below.

Agriculturist

An agriculturist is concerned with both the theoretical andthe actual practices of agriculture. He may act as an advisor concerning problems of livestock,crops, breeding, seeding practices, harvesting, etc. Hemay also specialize in any

number of agricultural areas and provide more technical adviceto those concerned with environmental problems. The general nature of his workis to provide

technical information and to assist others in solvinga wide range of problems. While technical knowledge and a broad, practical background in agricultureare essential, the ability to deal with people, handle complex problems,organize, and communicate effectively are most important attributes. 2-35

Agronomist An agriculturist may spJcialize in a highly technical field such as agronomy. Field crop problems are the particular concerns of the agronomist. He is interested in developing crops of higher quality under conditions of more efficient methods of production. At the same time he strives to maintain or increase the crop yield.He actively seeks hardier crops, disease control, and the reduction of pests and weeds. An agronomist sometimes specializes in such areas as developing production methods or solving crop problems that are peculiar to certain geographical regions.

Botanist

The botanist studies all aspects of plant life. He is mainly concerned with heredity and physiolory of plants but is also interested in the economic value of plant life.Botanists usually specialize in technical areas such as plant ecology, the study of environmental elements in relationship to plant life and its distribution; plant taxonomy, the identification and classification of plants; and economic botany, the improvement and development of wild and cultivated plants.

Forest Ecologist A forest ecologist conducts research and studies vegetation, plants, trees, and environmental factors that affect the forest. He attempts to determine what conditions account for the prevalence or absence of different varieties of trees. He studies specific tree classification and plant life history. The forest ecologist is interested in the light and soil requirements and the resistance to disease and insects of different species of trees. He investigates the adaptability of different 4 2-36

species to any new environmental condition thatoccurs, such as changes in climate or altitude or changes in the type of soil.

Horticulturist

Problems concerning the growth and 'marketing of edibleproducts of plants as well as the plants themselves are the primaryconcern of the horticulturist. He is also interested in the development ofnew or improved varieties of commercial

plants. Some horticulturists are involvedas technical advisors for the commercial

use of plants.Others are involved in basic researchon plant growth and development, usually at experimental farms. Otherareas of specialization are the ornamental horticulturist who creates and developsplant and flower display areas and artistic gardens. Theconcern of the ornamental horticulturist is to improve the aesthetic qualities--particularly the color,shape, and quantity of blooms--of ornamental shrubs and flowers.

PHYSICAL SCIENTISTS

Another major area of environmentalscience and research is that of the physical scientists. These scientists generallyare engaged in one of the following areas: basic research, the application of basic researchto the development of new processes and products, or teaching the supervisionof research and the development of applied programs. Most of the physicalscientists work in laboratories, classrooms, or offices; butsome occupations require working outdoors in the "field" where theremay be hazardous working conditions. Dangerous field work demands professional competency and following safetyprocedures designed to reduce hazards. 2-37

Physical scientists are concerned with the basic components, structure, and processes of our environment; therefore, they have a major impact, both directly and indirectly, on our approach to solving environmental problems and our understanding of the environment per se. Some knowledge of physical science is fundamental to obtaining an environmental education.Consequently, such people as teachers of physical science play a major role in developing public understanding and awareness of environmental problems.

The majority of physical scientists are employed by private firms engaged in development and utilization of the earth's natural resources. A large number of them, however, are employed by the federal government, colleges, and universities.

A few are also employed by state and local governments and by nonprofit research institutions.

Entry-level positions in this area generally require a bachelor's degree in one of the basic physical sciences. Advanced degrees, either masters or doctorates, are considered highly desirable and frequently are required, particularly for advancement and for positions with additional responsibility such as directing research activities or teaching.

It is expected that there will continue to be a steady demand for physical scientists of all types. Some segments of this field are closely tied to the defense industry and will flucturate according to the emphasis placed upon the military programs.

A change in national priorities to environmental or social service problems may require a change in emphasis and could even alter the specific job description of some positions in this field.

Salaxy scales for physical scientists do not vary greatly and are within relatively close proximity.In 1968, private industry paid a wage rate approximately 20 percent

66 2-38 higher than governmental agencies. For example, the federal government's starting salary for a geologist holding a bachelor's degree was $7, 456 to $8,845 annually dependbig upon his academic record. Private industry starts a geologist at a minimum annual salary of $7, 800. The federal government started chemists, hydrographers, meteorologists, and astronomers at $7, 456 to $9, 078 for those holding bachelor's degrees. A master's degree could bring offers ranging from $9, 078 to $10, 154, while a Ph.D. would be $11, 563 to $12, 580 per year. A physicist could expect from $8, 000 to

$9, 000 annually, with a bachelor's degree, $10, 000 with a master's degree, and

$12,000 to $14,000 per year with a Ph.D. Some of the specific occupations of interest in this handbook are discussed below.

A stronomer The astronomer observes, studies, and interprets the phenomena that occur within and outside the universe. He also interprets research and basic scientific knowledge for application to such practical problems as those in navigation. He is particularly concerned with computations pertaining to the positions of the sun, moon, planets, stars, nebulas, and galaxies. An astronomer may be particularly interested in the study of the movement of objects in our solar system and how this motion relates to the phenomenon of gravitation. With this information, he can calculate the orbits of artificial satellites and the paths of guided missiles.

Chemist The diversity of the chemist's work defies precise description. He is concerned with the properties of matter, its composition, internal relationships, and application.

67 2-39

This encompasses virtually every aspect of the universe and man. In a more prag-

matic sense, he searches for knowledge about chemical substances, and based on

this knowledge, he devises practical applications that contribute to the improvement of our living standards. He studies, plans, organizes, writes, and discusses his research activities and its results. There are five main branches of chemistry: inorganic, organic, analytical, physical, and biochemical. Most chemists, however, specialize in only one branch. A chemist generally works inside laboratories of

various types, but occasionally he may work outside. There can be hazardous

working conditions involved, but such dangers can be minimized by professional

competency and by following safety procedures.

The application of chemistry to solving environmental problems is readily

apparent and well known. Specialists in this area are identified by titles such as water, sewage, sanitation, or soil chemists. However, a more general application of chemistry to environmental problems occurs through researchon developing chemical control pollution processes and products for industry and business. As most industry attempts to conserve resources and, in recent years, to reduce pollution emissions, chemists play key roles in these activities.

Analytical Chemist

The analytical chemist is involved in conducting research to develop or improve analytical techniques, methodology, and procedures. He is particularly active in the investigation and application of instruments to analytical procedures in determining chemical and physical properties of organic and inorganic compounds. He helps establish and improve procedures for quality control tests and analysis.

GS 2-40

Inorganic Chemist

The inorganic chemist primarily conducts experiments on substances that are free from carbonsuch as metals, ores, gases, and heavy chemicalsto develop and improve such materials for productive purposes.

Organic Chemist

The organic chemist conducts experiments with substances of which the essential element is carbon, such as paint, rubber, wood, dye, petroleum, etc. The field of organic chemistry includes as one area of specialization the agricultural chemist who conducts research in chemical problems related to commercial agriculture.His work includes protecting crops against infestation, promoting soil conservation, eliminating soil poisons, developing better and less harmful insecticides, fungicides and rodent poisons.

Geologist

A geologist studies the structure, composition, and history of the earth's crust.

He may spend a substantial amount of time in fieldwork (sometimes under adverse weather conditions) studying rock cores and cuttings; examining rocks, minerals, and fossils; locating mineral and petroleum deposits and underground water resources; and studying the floor of the ocean. He may also spend considerable time in a laboratory and use sophisticated scientific instruments, including the X-ray diffrac- tometer and the petrographic microscope. A geologist prepares reports, articles, and maps of surface and subsurface phenomena. He may be an administrator of research and exploration programs. A geologist can teach in a college or university where he frequently combines teaching with working on research projects. 2-41

Because the earth's crust is one of the major components of our environment, the work of the geologist can have a direct impact on our understanding and utilization of this aspect of the environment. This is particularly true of exploration and consumption of oil and natural gas, a major portion of a majority of the geologist's work. The research and exploration done by a geologist can often be the basis of activities for other environmental occupations discussed below:

Assayer The assayer is concerned with testing ores and alloys. He analyzes the results of the tests and determines the values and properties of precious metals.In conducting the tests, the assayer uses standard laboratory equipment and chemical solutions.

Geodesist

The geodesist is concerned with studying and measuring the size, shape, and mass of the earth. He determines the positions and elevations of points on or near the earth's surface and measures the intensity and direction of gravitational attraction.

From this data he prepares topographical maps and establishes beAch marks (known points of elevation).

Geophysicist

A geophysicist studies and analyzes the earth's atmosphere and hydrosphere to determine the effect that changing climatic, thermal, seismic, radiation, pollution, and electric conditions have on the earth. He may also analyze the structure and composition of the earth's interior. His studies encompass the originsof glaciers, volcanoes, earthquakes, etc., and from studies of this type, he attempts to determine

70 4 2-42

appropriate water supply, irrigation, and flood controlprograms. The geophysicist is intimately involved in the cyclicalnature of the earth's environment, and based

on his understanding of this interaction, he is ina unique position to help contribute knowledge toward the solution of major environmentalproblems.

Hydrographer

The hydrographer performs activities primarilyrelated to the study of water

resources. He samples, measures, and tests river levels,water flow, silt accumulation, water temperature. and water controlequipment. Based on his studies,

he prepares reports with supporting recommendations.The hydrographer works closely with meteorologists in the measurement of rainfall,water runoff, etc. Much of the hydrographer's time is spent outdoors. The hydrographerapplies his expertise in the control and utilization of waterresources. He frequently tests for purity of

surface and underground resources. A hydrographercan apply his efforts to developing flood control measures, erosion prevention,irrigation, and other water supply uses. The hydrographer can, therefore, apply his talents in severalareas of pollution control and resource conservation.

Metallurgist, Physical

The physical metallurgist is concerned withinvestigating the properties and treatment of metals in order to developnew alloys. He is also involved with developing new uses for existing metals andalloys and is particularly concerned with developing methods for their commercialuse.

Meteorologist

The meteorologist studies the atmosphericphenomena of the earth. He is interested in and attempts to describeAndexplain the motions, components, influences, 71 2-43 and processes of the atmosphere. This science is comprised of many constitutent parts, some of which are: aerology, climatology, and synoptic, dynamic, and physical meteorology. Some of these specialties are research oriented and some are application oriented. The climatologist is research oriented; he interprets statistical data on the wind, rainfall, sunshine, temperature, and other aspects of the climate of a particular area over an extended period of time in order to predict the future climatic conditions of the area. He develops and uses statistical data and other methods to analyze and interpret climatological data. The majcr component of the latter group is the synoptic meteorologist or the "weather forecaster." Most of his activities are performed indoors, using highly complex meteorological equipment.

The study of air--its composition and its motion- -constitutes the basis for understanding air pollution and its potential correction. A meteorologist can play a major role in the analysis of air pollution problems. He also can contribute to the understanding of the causes of water pollution, airborne movement of pesticides, etc. , but to a lesser degree than what he contrilxites to the general understanding of air pollution.

Mineralogist Examining, analyzing, and classifying minerals such as gems and precious stones are the special interests of the mineralogist. He is also concerned with developing data and theories on the mode of origin, the occurrence, and the possible uses of minerals.

Oceanographer An oceanographer studies the ocean, its contents, and its movements. He

72 2-44

plans and conducts extensive tests and surveys. The results of his studies serve

many industries, both private and public. His studies often involve the development of maps, charts, tabulations, scientific reports, and papers. He needs and uses

many different Idnds of specialized equipment to study tlie ocean. He is often

involved in the development and design of such instruments. An oceanographer

spends varyhig amounts of time on ships at sea. These excursions can last from a few

days to many months.

Most oceanographers specialize in one of the highly technical fields of this

work.Those specialty areas v-hich are primarily concerned with the environment are: biological, physical, and chemical oceanography or marine meteorology. With

the expanding demand for a better utilization and preservation of our oceans, it is

anticipated that oceanographers concerned with the environmental specialty fields

will be in demand during the 1970s.

Physicist The field of physics conveys a wide and varied body of knowledge.Generally, a physicist works in either theoretical or experimental physics or in applied basic

research. A theoretical physicist is involved in developing theories of the relationships

between energy and matter and expresses these theories in equations and mathematical terms. An experimental physicist is involved in observations and experiments, often

attempting to validate or invalidate the related theories.In applied physics, the

physicist is actively involved in the practical application of the knowledge gained from basic research. The three fields are interdependent, and the difference is

largely dependent upon the emphasis placed by the physicist.

Some specialty areas such as nuclear physics can occasionally be hazardous. A physicist has usually specialized in one of the branches of the science and often 2-45 applies the theories and methods to other scientific disciplines and the particular problems originating in those sciences. Furthermore, applied physics has increasingly merged with other fields, such as engineering.It is therefore readily apparent that basic training in physics is fundamental to the entire ecosystem and most of the related careers in environmental sciences.

Seismologist

The seismologist studies the structure of the earth's interior and the vibrations of the Earth caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and man made explosions.

Using special devices and machinas, including the seismograph, he establishes the existence of active fault lines or areas where earthquakes have occurred and near which it would be hazardous to build cities, dams, or tall structures.

Soil Scientist

A soil scientist is concerned with soil productivity and the management of soil. He is particularly interested in the development of possible alternative practices of soil use. He classifies soil and determines the soil's capabilities for use in growing different product and crops. A soil scientist often examines and solves problems such as soil drainage and soil usage as needed for foundations for roads and other structures. Much of his work is outside.

SO CIA L SCIENTISTS

The social sciences are concerned with all facets of human society and institutions. These sciences deal with the research, analyses, and evaluation of historical and current economic, social, apolitical aspects on man's existence and relationship as a member of an organized community. Generally, social scientists specialize in one basic area of redundant study, such as anthropology, economics, geography,

74 2-46

sociology, or political science. Persons engagedin these various fieldsare becoming increasingly concerned with the environmentalaspects of human activity and how

social action can be brought to bearon environmental problems through man's

organizations and institutions. Althoughsome fieldwork may be involved in the

various sociai sciences occupations, themajority of this work is usually conducted in offices or classrooms.

Educational requirements neededto enter the various fields in the social sciences are usually bachelor's degrees.Advanced degrees suchas masters or doctorates are usually required forjobs such as teaching in a universityor in positions of high responsibility ingovernment or industry. The majority of job

opportunities for social scientistsare found in colleges, universities, andgovernment. There will be a growing need forpersons trained in the social sciences during the

1970s. A particular growth will bein the governmental sectoras increased

emphasis is placed on developing publicprograms and investments that have

an impact on social as well as technical solutionsto making beneficial use of our resources while protecting and preserving the environment.

Salaries for those in the field of socialsciences vary depending upon the amount and quality of education and the particularfield of specialty. Another variable is the employing institution. For example,an economist with a bachelor's degree received

a beginning salary from the federal_ governmentof from $5,732 to $6, 981 in 1968.

An economist with a master's degreestarted at $8,462.Economists with experience earned from $10,000 to $20,000.In colleges and universities, themedian salary was $15,700; in private industry, $18,000.

In the federal government,a geographer with a bachelor's degree startedat between $5, 732 to $6,981. Withsome experience, such as graduate teaching, the

75is starting salary was somewhat higherat $6, 981 to $8,462. Mathematicians, who

were in higher demand in government agencies, started at $7, 265 to $8,845 with

bachelor's degrees, $8, 845 to $10,154 with master's degrees, and $11,563 to $12, 580

for a Ph.D. An anthropologist with a master's degree began at $8,462; a Ph.D.

at $10, 203. Many experienced anthropologists earned from $12, 000 to $20, 000

annually. A psychologist with a Ph.D. and limited experience started at $12,243.

The annual salary in the Department of Medicine and Surgery, Veterans Administration,

which requires Ph.D. degrees in all specialties, was about $16, 300 for psychologists.

Some of the occupations of interest in this area are discussed below.For the purposes of this handbook, mathematicians and statisticians have been included in this grouping.

Anthropologist

The anthropologist studies the origin, development, characteristics, languages, material possessions, beliefs, customs, and the structure of man's social and value systems. He may specialize in a given area of work; however, a general knowledge of all anthropological areas is usually expected. For example, the physical anthropologist brings to bear extensive training and skills in anatomy and biology in studying the differences or similarities of man's evolution. For example, he studies the differences in physical stature and characteristics among different races and groups of mankind. He is also concerned with the environmental conditions in which man lives and functions, ranging from the design of automobile seats to space suits. Another specialty th anthropology is called "ethnology. " The ethnologist studies and usually lives with primitive tribes for periods of time in order to learn about their social customs, organization, human relationships, and material possessions. Recently, 2-48 ethnologists not only have been involved in the comparativestudy of various primitive cultures and societies but also have studied thecomplex conditions and interactions of people in present-day urban societies, with particular concernfor the human value systems that are held regarding their environment.

Economist The economist is primarily engaged in the studyand evaluation of man's activities directed toward satisfying his materialrequirements. He is concerned with the problems of the efficient use of scarce orlimited supplies of land, materials, manpower, and natural resourcesand in meeting the demands for those supplies.

An economist develops or uses theories and modelsby which economic activities can be examined and assessedand by which plans, policies, and programs can be made regarding the intelligent and effective useof land, labor, and capital.

An economist can apply his expertise in virtuallyall of the environmental problem areas, but the most important contribution is in termsof conservation and proper use of natural resources. Theeconomics of urban planning, industrial location, taxation, etc., all provide avenues of application tosolving environmental problems. An economist specializing in these and other areas isbecoming increasingly important in the planning, implementing, andevaluating of pollution abatement projects and resource conservation measures.

Geographer The geographer works primarily in the study and analysis of the Earth's physical characteristics, such as terrain, vegetation, soils, water, minerals,

and their relationships to the patterns and distribution of human habitation around the 2-49 world. A geographer uses a broad range of different disciplines and skills to analyze man's relationships with the environment. He studies man's geographical dispersion such as ethnic distribution, economic activity, and political organization.

Specialization in one main area of geography is usually the case, such as urban geography. There is also a special field of geography which deals with the development and design of maps showing physical and environmental characteristics of certain areas.

Mathematician

Mathematics can be classified into two major work classes: theoretical or

"pure" and applied mathematics. A theoretical mathematician seeks to develop mathematical principles and defines relationships among mathematical forms.

Such abstract knowledge is extremely significant in its practical application by scientists and engineers.In applying mathematics on a practical basis, theories and techniques are developed to solve problems in sucn areas as social sciences or physical life.

Mathematics is a very important discipline that can be brought to bear on reaching quantitative analysis and solutions to environmental problems, ranging from designing better or more effective devices for reducing air pollution or providing mathematical models of environmental systems, how they operate, interrelate, and can be connected when problems occur.

Political Scientist

A political scientist studies and evaluates all levels of government: what they do, why they do it, and how they do it. Since the growing concern for environmental protection and preservation has kindled a vast public interest, the programs and 2-50 actions that governments develop to attack environmental problems and regulations can be aided by the skills of the political scientist. Most political scientists are employed by colleges and universities, but some serve in various capacities in government. A political scientist is trained to analyze public attitudes and to deal with factors which influence public opinion. Some political scientists work as legislative aides for congressmen or as staff members of congressional committees.

Political scientists can help in the research and drafting of laws directed toward environmental control and protection.

Psychologist

A psychologist is concerned with the individual, his development, his problems, and his behavior. Psychologists are employed by government, by business, and by industry to assist with testing, counseling, and problem solving. Some of the more important areas in which psychologists may contribute to solution of environmental problems include studies of individual reactions to urban crowding and other societal changes, analysis of factors leading to behavior which is not ecologically sound, and guidance regarding the steps necessary to alter traditional patterns of human behavior to bring them more in harmony with environmental demands.

Sociologist

A sociologist is interested in the study of the many groups that humans form.

He studies communities, states, families, tribes, and other organizations, including those of a social, religious, political, or business nature. He is interested in how individuals are affected by the organizations to which they belong. A sociologist may study intergroup relationships, family problems, population characteristics, and the effects of urban living on urban social conditions.

79 2-51 Statistician

A statistician is basically concerned with describing the characteristicsof the world and its inhabitants in terms of numbers and measurements. He develops, collects, compiles, analyzes, and interprets data according to statistical procedures developed by mathematicians. Whenever it is necessary that information be gathered, analyzed, or treated in quantitative form, a statistician's skillsare usually required. He is olaremely essential in dealing with the quantification and analysis of environmental problems.Fields of statistics include such areas as demography, life sciences, physical evgineering, medicine, behavioral sciences, andmany others.

Writer

A 'wow :responsible for many of the formal communications which occur within a particularly those communications which take place through the mass media. He may be a student of a new science called communicology which deals with the nature of communications, their effects, and how they may best be utilized. The writer plays an important part in keeping the citizens of the world informed regarding environmental problems, their potential dangers, and theirpos- sible solutions. 2-52

III. CAREERS IN ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND TECHNOLOGY

The application and dissemination of contributions from those persons engaged in environmental science and research are highly dependent upon another group of occupations classified in this handbook as dealing with environmental education and technology. These jobs are concerned with the transmission and application of knowledge, techniques, and findings emanating from the scientific and research areas. Occupational fields included in this grouping are educators, engineers, some health jobs, planners, and persons concerned with the management of natural resources.

Since educational requirements, working conditions, and places of employment vary a great deal among these occupations, they are discussed within each of the general categories.

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATORS

The environmental educator has attained a high degree of expertise in environmental problems and has chosen the education field as a means to transmit his knowledge to citizens of all ages.The environmental educator can teach at all levels, depending on his professional preparation. Usually, he incorporates teaching environmental issues into the framework of one or several related disciplines, such as biology, economics, chemistry, etc. He usually is responsible for developing an acceptable curriculum and must administer the tests and supplementary classroom procedures. The classroom is his predominant work area, but occasional oudoor activities such as field trips are likely in some schools.

The environmental educator is thought to be the only real hope ofa long-term,

; 2-53 rational solution to the environmental problems. The problems associated with environmental awareness and the way the problems are attacked are caused by the attitudes of people. The environmental educator has a major task in generating the type of curriculum that will sustain a person's interest in solving these problems and will develop a personal commitment on the part of every citizen to take corrective action.

The number of environmental educators is very small if only those actively engaged in this profession on a full time basis are counted. There are some educators with specialties in other areas that are spending at least part of their teaching time in education on environmental problems. Most full time environmental educators are in major colleges and universities. To date, there are few established curricula at the secondary school level except on pilot bases.Therefore, there are significant areas for applying teaching skills to students at all levels.It seems reasonable that there will be increased emphasis on teaching environmental education in the secondary schools as well as in post-secondary institutions.To demonstrate the emphasis on environmental education, the National Science Foundation funded training programs for more than 1,000 precollege teachers in 43 states and the District of Columbia in 1971.

A pproaches to the solutions of environmental problems must take a multi- disciplinary approach.It is difficult to specify any particular subject areas as being more important than others. An environmental educator must be well versed in the physical sciences, economics, and political science.Sociology, psychology, the humanities, and other social sciences should be included in a well-rounded curriculum. Teaching at the secondary level requires at least a bachelor's degree. Jobs in the institutions of higher education require a master's degree or a Ph. D. 2-54

Environmental problems are virtually certain to become worsebefore they become better. The role of the environmentaleducator with his background in

many fields is likely to expandwell beyond the classroom. He is certain tobecome a center of communityattention in all discussions on this topic.If he responds to the challenge with reasoned expertise, movementinto school administration positions or positions in related publicagencies is highly likely. Some of the occupations identified in the area of environmental education arediscussed below.

Camp Counselor or Recreation Manager A camp counselor largely directs the recreationaland vocational activities of children or adults at vacation camps or at various typesof work camps. He

organizes and leads groups on sports, naturelore, and similar outdoor recreational activities. The counselor instructs campersand other group members to improve

their proficiencies in many sports and othercamping acitivities. He is concerned

with safeguarding the health of campers.It may at times be necessary for the counselor

to maintain discipline and otherwiseguide the conduct of the juvenile campers. The camp counselor can be instrumental indeveloping human awareness to

environmental problems and environmental activities.It is at the parks and in the

natural areas of our nation where people can learnabout and develop an appreci-

ation for conservation and pollution control. Thecounselor can guide the learning

into productive channels of activity. The camp counselor works primarily outdoors. Thework is sometimes of

a strenuous nature.Therefore, students anticipating this occupation should have and maintain excellent physical condition. The work at times maybe hazardous;

but with adequate training and with reasonable preparation andcaution, this need not be

a significant factor. 2-55

Humanities Teacher

A teacher whose classes are concerned with branches of learning having primarily cultural characteristics (such as English, composition, literature, drama,art, and music) can be helpful in directing students' attention to environmental problems.

By directing the students' studies to visual or written material which is environmentally focused, he is able to educate and direct their attention to the promotion ofhuman welfare through clutural reform in all areas. There is a host of material available and currently being used by humanities teachers in such formsas essays, fiction, poems, articles, paintings, sculpture, and architecture.

Life Sciences Teacher

The life sciences teacher instructs students in the characteristics of living orgaMsms and the relationships between them and their surrounding environment.

This knowledge is at the heart of any understanding of environmental education. Of particular importance is the technical and general understanding of what kind of changes in a given part of an ecosystem has an impact on the other parts of the system. This knowledge is important both to enable the general public to put into perspective and to comprehend the implications of environmental problems andto provide a solid educational foundation for the high percentage of students whose later occupations will have either direct or indirect impact upon the environment. The work is primarily accomplished indoors with an occasional field trip to sites of interest. The amount of activity is dependent upon each individual teacher's particular teaching style.

The average salary received by a teacher in public secondary schools in 1968 was from $8, 160 to $9,500.Vocational education,physical education, and other 2-56 specialty subject teachers occasionally earn morethan regular teachers. The average salary in 1968 for ateacher in a college or a university was$8,934.

The following briefly describes twoof the major branches of the lifesciences division of environmental education.

Biology Teacher

The biology teacher focuses on animaland plant life. He instructs students in the development, heredity,physiology and environmental distributionof living organisms. He teaches the effects ofenvironmental factors such as rain, temperature, and climate uponanimals and plants. The teacher prepareshis students to recognize specificenvironmental problems and possiblesolutions to those problems. He can frequentlybe instrumental in encouraging students to go on to specialized careersrelating to environmental problemssuch as horticulture, plant ecology, animal husbandry, orwildlife management.

Physiology Teacher

The physiology teacher instructs abranch of the biological sciences whichempha-

sizes the processes, activities, andother phenomena that are characteristicof life and living matter. He orients hisstudents to cell structure and the organ-

system functions of plants andanimals. He is primarily concerned withteaching the

effects, both internal and external, ofenvironmental conditions and problems. By focusing on these aspects, he is able to provide morespecialized knowledge which

will help the students prepare forenvironmentally related careers

Physical Sciences Teacher The physical sciences teacher educateshis students about the nonliving aspects

of our environment. In this capacity,he inculcates into students anunderstanding of 2-57 the interrelationships which all segments have with each other. He may also provide examples of current environmental problems that involve the specific branch of physical sciences which he is teaching.This educational area is basic to the knowledge required for eventual careers in environmentally related occupations.

In addition, it can help provide a citizenry that is cognizant of environmental concerns and capable of comprehending technical environmental problems. Each branch of the physical sciences has a particular scope of and therefore provides its own approach to environmental concerns. The following briefly describes some of the major branches of physical sciences teaching:

Chemistry Teacher

The chemistry teacher discusses the properties, composition,and internal relationships of matter. He teaches about the various aspects of atoms and molecules, and the peculiar characteristics of specific substances, and demonstrates how different substances react with each other. The chemistry teacher helps students to learn chemical principles, techniques, and methods. The students learn laboratory procedures by actually conducting experiements and tests under the direction of the chemistry teacher. A basic understanding of chemistry is fundamental to other branches of physical sciences.

Geography Teacher

Geography is useful to give students an overview of the entire environmental picture. A geography teacher demonstrates the total distribution patterns of plant and animal lifeincluding manwhich includes the comprehension of the intricate interrelationships of the ecosystem on a large scale.In addition, he gives a more detailed understanding of the characteristics and actions of the land, sea, and air, which are also essential to a basic understanding of the environment. 2-58

Geology Teacher

A geology teacher discusses thestructure, composition, and history of the earth's crust. This generally involvesstudying rocks, minerals, fossils, and

geological formations. He teachesstudents how to identify and to determincthe

many sequences and processes that were causative inaffecting the development of the earth. As a major element ofour environment, this field is pivotal to the

basic understanding of either the generalor technical aspects of environmental education.

Physics Teacher

The study of physics is concerned with therelationships between energy and matter in the fields of mechanics, acoustics,optics, heat, electricity, magnetism, radiation, atomic structure, and nuclearphenomena. The physics teachercan challenge students to experiment andto devise methods in the application of physical laws and theories to the problemsof the environment. A basic understanding of physics is fundamental to thescience of engineering as well asmany other technical fields.

Public Health Educator

The public health instructor isconcerned with educational methodsthat provide learning opportunities and experiencesfor individuals and groups in thecommunity who are concerned with healthprograms. He is primarily interested in getting health facts accepted and used,stimulating the public to be interestedin public health programs. He also aidsindividuals and groups in settingup effective procedures that use public health knowledge,reduce hazardous conditions,or actively improve existing programs. The public healthteacher works to coordinate activitiesbetween the public, voluntary, civic, and professionalagencies.

87 2-59

The major environmental conttibution of the public health teacher is in alleviat- ing some of the problems associated with the impact which the environment hason each individaal's health. He can provide valuable discussions concerning sanitation, air, water, and noise pollution impacts.

Social Sciences Teacher

The social sciences teacher is concerned with education related to the origin and development of groups of human beings. He instructs students about the patterns of human culture and the social organizations that invariably result. He is particularly interested in human patterns as they relate to environmental problems. Such knowledge and understanding can be of particular concern in the attempt to reducemany sources of pollution. The spatial distribution of people and their activities have an effect on the physical environment, and the comprehension of these phenomena by students is critical to the development of possible environmental solutions.

Vocational Teacher

The vocational teacher provides basic theory to students and assists in their development of manipulative skills in industrial arts. He uses lectures, illustrations, or demonstrations to teach the proper use of shop tools and machines. The vocational teacher is particularly concerned with safety practices and theory as applied to industrial arts. A teacher usually specializes in one or more areas, suchas woodworking or metalworking, electricity, graphic arts, automobile mechanics, or mechanical drawing. He prepares students for technical or vocational careers which havean impact directly or indirectly on the environment.

The work is primarily accomplished indoors with only an occasional fieldtrip

88 2-60 to sites of interest. The work can at times be hazardous whenworking with some tools and machines; however, with careful and adequatepreparation and training, this need not be a sipificant factor.

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERS

Engineers are concerned with the application of scientific principlesto a wide range of problems, including those of the environment. Theyengage ir research, development, design, and production of equipment, techniques, buildings,and other types of goods and services that require the application of engineering principles and methods. Some engineers are concerned with such factorsas the production of useful products at the most reasonable costs in terms of time andmoney. Other engineers are engaged in inspection for quality and control. Someare active in the planning and supervision of constructionprojects suchas buildings or highways. Stillothers function as salesmen in highly technical fields.

Because engineers are concerned with converting the earth'sraw materials and energy resources into useful, economically feasible products,they are intimately involved with the environment. Generally speaking, this involvementis critical at several points in the process, namely in the extraction, conversion,disposal, or elimination of wastes and in the functional and aesthetic design of the finalproduct.

As will be seen in the more detailed descriptions under each ofthe specific engineering categories, the skills and attitudes of the engineers at these and otherpoints along the production line are major determinants of the shape andnature of our total environment.

More than 75 percent of all engineers are employed by privateindustry; the remainder, by federal, state, and local governments and by nonprofitinstitutions 2-61

such as universities, colleges, and research organizations. More than half of the

engineers employed by the federal government work in the Department of Defense. . Most engineers in state or local government agencies are hired by highway and public works departments.

The generally accepted standard of background training to enter the engineering profession is the completion of requirements for a bachelor's degree in engineering.

Advanced training, is needed for many positions, present and future. Some specialty fields, such as nuclear engineering, are taught only at a few schools and some only at the graduate level. Entrance requirements for undergraduate work necessitate a high quality of work in high school, with courses in mathematics and physical sciences.

Some institutions require more than four years in an undergraduate program.

Usually such programs have a work-study component so that the student spends more time in actual employment while obtaining a degree. Most graduates begin work as trainees or as assistants to experienced engineers.

Government expenditures for defense is a significant determinant in the demand for engineers (approximately 30 percent).

Therefore, those engineers who do not have diversifLd backgrounds in engineering principles or thom whose specializations are very narrow could be adversely affected by defense spending shifts.This could also apply if there were a rapid change in technology.

Employment opportunities for englneers are expected to be moderate for the next decade, based on the assumption that defense spending will be somewhat higher than it was prior to the Vietnam buildup in the early 1960s. There will probably

giatri iek zytyz-:!3. 2-62

be an especially strong demand for engineers schooled hi the newest techniques

and procedures as well as those who can apply these principles to the medical,

biological, and other related environmental sciences. The average salaries for

beginning engineers in 1968 were $9, 200 for those with bachelor's degrees,

$11,000 for those with master's degrees, and $15, 000 for Ph.D. s.

Aeronautical Engineer

An aeronautical engineer engaged in a career relating to environmental

problems is involved in the design and development of aircraft which decrease the

amount of air and noise pollution. He usually specializes in one or several phases of work such as testing, propulsion, structural design, materials analysis, or similar activities. He is concerned with all aspects of the development of aircraft and related aerospace devices and may specialize in certaintypes of air craft - jet, conventional propeller driven, military, or commercial,. However, there is considerable flexiblity among these specialties thatcan allow for internal mobility.

An aeronautical engineer works primarily indoors withsome study and observation occuring in and around aircraft and their components. Thistype of engineering is not considered physically demanding. Where theenvironment is concerned, aeronautical engineers can most effectivelyuse their skills in the prevention or reduction of air and noise pollution.

Agricultural Engineer

An agricultural engineer's work can apply in both theareas of pollution control and resource conservation. He is interested in applyingengineering principles to obtain more efficient design and use of agricultural equipment, farmingtechniques, the use of electrical and mechanical devices to farming methods,and the efficient 2-63

use of soil and water resources. An agricultural engineer usually specializes in

one or more aspects of resource conservation and pollution control suchas testing, application, research and development production, or management. Depending

upon the particular specialty, his work can be either indoors or out and can be

highly physically demanding. The development of efficient agriculturaltechniques can result in reduced visual, air, and pesticide pollution and an increase in production output. Conservation of soil and water resources through well-planned

irrigation systems, efficient plant cover, and crop rotationare all within the domain of agricultural engineering.

Expanding population and increased emphasison resource conservation and pollution control are likely to stimulate the demand for agricultural engineers.The increased use of solid wastes as agricultural resources and the rapid expansionof power and energy requirements on modern farms will also add to the overall demand.

Therefore, a modest upward growth in employment of agricultural engineersis anticipated.

Chemical Engineer

A chemical enginee applies the principles of chemistry and engineering in the design of plants and machinery that are required to transform,measure, or manufacture chemical products.In this type of activity, he often uses pilot plants to facilitate the design, development, and testing of a particularprocess. The diversity of this branch of engineering requires specialization. Some ofthe most frequently entered instruction in chemical operationsare hydrogenation, oxidation, and polymerization. A chemical engineer may specialize according to industryor product as well. The paint, drug, rubbe4 and petroleum (and their by products) industries 2-64 are examples. A chemical engineer works primarily indoors, but occasional projects require outdoor activities with possible hazardous industrial confrontations.

The rising need for water and air purity, chemical treatement of solid waste products, and improved production techniques to conserve natural resources provides a major challenge to a chemical engineer. There is ample room for specializing in one or more of the above categories, and there will be continual demand for those entering these areas. There is also a vast untapped area of research and development associated with the environmental problems in which a chemical engineer plays a vital role.

Civil Engineer

The civil engineer primarily engages in the plannhig, designing, and overseeing of major construction projects such as roads, dams, airports, bridges, water and sewage systems, waste disposal units, irrigation projects, etc. He must act in the capacity of coordinator and inspector as well as perform the primary responsibilities of physical construction, sometimes inside and sometimes outside, but a large portion of his work is outdoors. There can be, but usually is not, heavy manual labor involved. There may be occupational hazards in some types of construction projects under the civil engineer's direction. Due to his wide applicability, he is found in all geographical areas, has opportunities to travel widely to both internal and foreign projects, and can expect to be engaged in a variety of different projects simultaneously or in succession.

In many respects, a civil engineer may be viewed as a "general" engineer because he is capable of understanding and seeing to completion many types of projects.In the environmental area, construction of water facilities, sewage treatment 2-65 plants, waste disposal units, etc., areof foremost importance. There is apparently little demand for specializing in this aspect of civil engineering because other specialized engineers- -such as sewage treatment engineers, water supply engineers, sanitary engineers, etc. --can provide the technical inputs to the construction effort.Rather, the civil engineer must be equipped to plan, organize, coordinate, and inspect construction projects of this type with their unique problems.

Combustion Engineer

The combustion engineer designs heating equipment that will efficiently burn fuel, then test it in the burning process. He attempts to determine which fuels are best suited for a specific process that will provide optimum resource and minimum fuel consumption. The combustion engineer works primarily indoors, but can encounter hazal Is in the course of his activities. The work is not generally physically demanding. Minimizing resource usage by efficient burning and energy conversionprocesses and maintaining a minimum level of air pollution pose a major challenge to the combustion engineer. ConsequentlYv he must perform his functions while being cognizant of pollution and resource conservation.

Electrical or Power-Plant Engineer

The engineer who works with electricity and power has many varied and interesting opportunities available to him. He is responsible not only for the generating plant facilities but also for interconnections of power systems, installation ofnew systems, and expansion of existing plant facilities. He may supervise new construction as well as develop and improve plant methods. Engineers are responsible for the selection of appropriate types of fuel, design of plants, and the location of plants.

He is interested in and concerned about the efficientuse of power and the maximization of energery generated at the plant. 84 2-66

The majority of engineers in this specialtyfield are employed by public

utilities firms.In this role, they play an importantpart in reconciling the eve r-

increasing demands for electricalpower with the increasingly stringent demands for

aesthetically pleasing construction of such facilitiesand concern for the maintenance

of the natural environment. The federalgovernment and private industry are employers of other engineers in thisarea.

Environmental Engineer

The environmental engineer specializes in applyingengineering principles

methods, and practices to environmentalproblems for the purpose of protecting

and improving man's living conditions. Thisengineering specialty includes the control of natural resources (suchas air and water) and the control or manipulation

of man's environment in relationto his health and social and economic well-being.

Some environmental engineers specialize inapplying engineering principles to the

maintenance of systems that support life in alienor hostile environments which

occur in space or in subterranean areas of theocean. With the increased emphasis

on environmental concerns, it is anticipated that jobs forthese engineers will grow

in fairly substantial numbers during thenext decade.

Geological Engineer

The geological engineer applies his knowledgeto engineering problems in the construction of roads, airfields, tunnels,dams, harbors, and other large

structures.In that capacity he is responsiblefor maintaining the best balance between preservation of the geologicalenvironment and for identifying thenature and extent of any damage that may occur. Much ofhis work is done outdoors at the job site, but frequently he must supply detailedreports and supportive data for recommendations.

945 2-67

Hydraulic Engineer

The designing and construction of large power, irrigation, and navigationprojects that control as well as use water is the special interest of the hydraulicengineer. He must compute and estimate the flow rate of water and specify the correct type and size of needed equipment. Some hydraulic engineersare particularly interested in the evolution of streams, rivers, or open waters by such methodsas dredging or digging. They frequently design and build new or artificial channels forwater distribution such as reservoirs, canals, dams, etc. Much of their workis done in offices or laboratories but also can involve fieldwork.

Industrial Engineer

All three aspects of the productive process (manpower, machines, and material) are in the domain of the industrial engineer. He plans, organizes, and designs systems or techniques relating to complex production and organizational problems.

In this capacity he uses data processing techniques and operations researchmethods to adequately perform the job. He has a variety of supplementary activities involving design of quality control methods, safety systems, and time and motionstudies. Most of his work is done indoors and hecan be exposed to hazards typical to the particular production process with which he works.

At the present time the industrial engineer is not likely touse his skills in the solution of environmental problems. Hecan however apply his knowledge to developing more efficient productive methods that will conserve resources, andcan design and develop productive processes that do not polluteon an objectionable scale.

Industrial Health Engineer(safety and sanitary)

The industrial health engineer is engaged in planning, analyzing, coordinating,

w.96 2-68 and reporting on health conditions in aplant or industry. He applies the relevant principles of engineering tu analyze andcontrol conditions influencing occupational hazards and disease. He must analyze al1 conditions involving radiation, dust, fumes, noise, vapors, solvents, gases, etc. , that are known or suspected of being deterimental to health. He must suggest or recommend methods of remedial or preventive action.

Part of his responsiblities include the supervision of workers engaged in development and maintenance of conditions in compliance with health standards. Occasionally, the industrial health engineer acts as a consultant toa management or governmental body. He works primarily indoors and can encounter hazards associated with processes producing the above types of conditions.

The industrial health..engineer can appiy his expertiseto development and maintenance of a healthy and external work environment. His activities can serve as an example of what and how a project can be done. He is prmarily responsible for using his knowledge to identify conditions that are or can be detrimental to all living organisms, internal and external, in the industrial plant, theagricultural industry or the educational institution.

Mechanical Engineer

The mechanical engineer performs varied functions which generally inelude the production, transmission,' and use of powel. He is concerned with all aspects of power utilization and the instruments that use power. Jet engines, rockets, internal combustion engines, and nuclear reactors are included in the production process; transmission lines, transformers, and various mechanical devices in the transmission segment; and elevators, refrigerators, air conditioners, and a wide variety of power equipment in the power use category. Some mechanical engineers specialize in one or several of these processes and work mainly in offices and laboratories.

: 97 Development, use, and conservation of energy through mechanical means with the minimum amount of waste or pollution basically summarizes what mechanical engineers attempt to do. Application of engineering principles and mathematical tools to the solution of environmental problems is their primary function.Their knowledge spans the entire spectrum of pollution problems, and they can apply their eypertise to the solution of water, noise, and radiation pollution.

Mining Engineer

The mining engineer is involved with the location and extraction of minerals from the earth. He designs the specifications and supervises the construction of mines. He is responsible for all aspects of the mining operation: safety, power, water, communications, and equipment maintenance. Some mining engineers specialize in a particular phase of the mining operation such as the extraction of specific ores or other products (coal, oil, etc.). Others engage th research activities or teach at colleges or universities. Much of their work is done outdoors where they are occasionally exposed to hazardous situations.

The mining engineer can contribute to the efficient use of the Earth's mineral supplies by developing machinery capable of properly extracting minerals on extensive and intensive bases. He is also concerned with resource conservation of air, water, and land, with particular emphasis on restoration of areas scarred by strip mining.

Nuclear Engineer

The nuclear engineer is involved with scientific research and its application to problems in the use and controlled production of nuclear energy, and is particularly concerned with the hazards of using radioactive materials in nuclear reactors. He is

98 , 2-70 involved in the design, function, and operation of nuclear reactors, but may also work with jet, steam-turbine, and internal-combustion engines. Some specialize in the processing, disposal, and safety control aspects of radioactive materials.

Nuclear engineers are often thund insupervisory positions.

The nuclear engineer's major challenge is the reduction of thermal pollution in water and the control of radioactive emissions into the atmosphere. He can therefore play a major role in the research and analysis of water and air content.

To a lesser degree, some of these engineers are involved in the research and analysis of the effect of some aspects of water and air pollution as it relates to the health of animal and plant life. As a result of such research, some nuclear engineers are actively working to use this knowledge in the desiping of safer nuclear equipment and facilities.

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH

People involved in the environmental health category may work directly with persons who are ill, with organizations which want to protect their employees, with companies that are creating health hazards, or with groups which are attempting to resolve industrial -environmental conflicts.The exact nature of the work varies considerably, depending upon the specialty of the individual.Those involved in this field may be located in an office, hospital, laboratory or plant.

One of the major concerns of those working in this area is the impact that environmental pollution may have on people's health. There are a number of different occupations concerned with the linkages between health and the environment.

Such work may involve determination of how. to change harmful environmental conditions t,. or to mitigate the adverse effects caused by them. 99 2-71

Most people involved in environmental health are employed by various governmental agencies or by private companies. The major exception is doctors, who are generally in private practice. There are, however, an increasing number of physicians who specialize in environmental health and are employed by private and governmental hospitals, state and local health departments, medical schools, research foundations, and professional organizations.

The education levels required of those involved in this field vary, but are generally quite advanced. A bachelor's degree may be adequate for entry into some positions, but graduate work in some specialized fieldis helpful and frequently required. For example, the education and training required for a physician is graduation from an accredited school plus a license to practice medicine, the minimal requirement in all states and the District of Columbia. The large majority of states also require a one-year internship with an accredited hospital.In addition, many states require candidates to pass an examination in the basic sciences to qualify for the medical licensing examination. Most medical schools require three years of college education for admission to their regular four-year programs, and some require four years. A few schools allow exceptional students to enter medical school after two years of college.

Trends point to an ever-increasing demand for specialists engaged in environmental health-related occupations. The present relative growth of the service sector of our economy, coupled with the increasing demands for all environmentally related occupations, projects significant opportunities for those who are able to meet the educational requirements.. 100 2-72

Dietician and Nutritionist

The dietician specializes in determining well-balanced and nutritious foods required for the health and proper functioning of the human body. Nutritionists specialize in educating people concerning nutrition and related food habits. Although the dietician and nutritionist work in different settings, they are both concerned with similar basic knowledge and are attempting to accomplish the same goals. Often they are involved in the special nutritional needs of persons who are recovering from surgery or disease or who are chronically ill.Dieticians are frequently involved in the supervision of food purchasing, handling, and cooking. Some dieticians and nutritionists are involved in basic research.

Graduate dieticians with internships had beginning salaries of $7,500 in 1968.

Nutritionists in 1964 began at $5,500. With experience, a nutritionist in 1964 made upward of $10,000 per year.

Field Health Officer

The field health officer concentrates his efforts on identifying, tracing, and reporting cases of communicable diseases. He advises affected individuals whereon(' how to obtain medical assistance. Part of his work is to interview and report on the incidence of communicable diseases, where the disease was contracted, how fast it spread, etc. The field health officer works both indoors and out and is often requested to do extensive travel within a particular area. He contacts individuals of all types and must be capable of communicating effectively with them. There is a significant possibility that he may be exposed to diseases, and this constitutes a serious occupational hazard. He primarily works for various types of public health agencies, with significant opportunities for work in foreign countries, particularly in underdeveloped areas. 2-73

Industrial Hygienist

The industrial hygienist works closely with industrial health engineers and

occupational physicians to ensure a healthy work environment in plants or industry.

He conducts health programs to eliminate health hazards or control diseases.

Part ot his responsibilky is to collect and analyze various toxic elements such as vapors, gases and fumes that are dangerous or potentially dangerous to health.

The entire work environment, including noise, radiations, disease prevention, and pollutants, are of concern to him. Based on his studies and findings, the industrial hygienist must prepare reports, instigate educational programs, and submit recommendations for prevention of industrial hazards. The primary work environment is the plant where he is employed and its associated laboratory facilities.

The industrial hygienist is exposed to potentially hazardous conditions throughout the investigation and analysis of health hazards.

While the plant working environment is the area of primary importance to the industrial hygienist, he must also be cognizant of and react to changing conditions external to the plant. Similarily, he must consider the impact of internal waste disposal procedures on the external environment.In pollution abatement procedures, he must be well informed about the internal generation of pollutants and how uisposal can properly be accomplished with a minimum amount of deterioration to the surrounding environment.

The hygienist with a bachelor's degree earned $6,000 in 1968. With more training and experience, salaries range upward to as much as $20,000 or more.

Physician

The physician diagnoses and treats individuals who are ill or injured and is 2-74 concerned with the rehabilitation of his patients. He generally examines and treats the patient in an office, the hospital, or on occasion, in the patient's home.

A growing number of medical doctors are becoming concerned with environmental medicine and occupational health. Other physiciansare engaged in research, teaching, and the administration of hospitals and professional organizations. Most of the environmental specialists work fewer hours than the physician whoenters private practice.

Where health and safety are concerned all aspects of the ecosystemcome into consideration and the role of the medical doctor is varied. He is concerned with communicable diseases, safety, and the effect of environmental pollutants such as radiation and its effect upon the health and safety of all living organisms. This involves not only the management of pollutants but critical research concerningprevention. Graduates of medical schools working as interns earned $4,893 to $5,030per year in 1968. With internship completed, the federal government paid $13,300 and $15,800 upon completion of one year of resident training. Private practice earningsare similar.

Sanitarian

The sanitarian is concerned with planning for the cleanliness, safety,and enforcement of laws concerning handling, dispensing, and consumingfood. He plans and conducts programs related to sanitation andencourages the enactment of regulations and laws that promote positive health standards. Heworks closely with other health specialists (such as public healthnurses, engineers, food and drug inspectors) to prevent outbreaks of disease or to plan foremergency situations if such outbreaks or a disaster occur. Some sanitarians in largeand heavily

1.01. I.? i 2-75

populated areas may specialize ina particular area of work, i.e., food, waste

disposal, air pollution.In rural areas, they are responsible fora wide range of environmental health activities.

Sanitarians usually spend a good portion of their time "in the field. "Sometimes they come into contact with unpleasant surroundings, suchas sewage disposal plants, refuse dumps, etc.

Sanitarians with a bachelor's degree earned about $7,000per year as a starting

salary in 1968. With experience, they earned upward of $10,000.Sanitary aides earned from $6,000 to $8,000 per year. The federalgovernment beginning salaries for sanitary aides was $5, 732 to $6,321.

Toxicologist

The toxicologist is primarily concerned with the detectionand analysis of toxic substances that are present in environmentalareas. He must be capable of performing chemical analysis of blood, body tissue, and othersubstances to ascertain the presence and amount of toxic agents. Basedon his findings, he prepares reports and recemmends methods of reducingor eliminating the toxic substance from the affected organism. He works predominantly indoors and is exposedon occasion to potentially harmful agents.His reports must be sufficiently &tailed and complete as to be acceptable in criminal investigations.

The toxicologist conducts research in all pollutionareas but is most effective in air and water pollution. He identifies the effects of air-andwater-borne agents on the health of workers and residents in a particular location.In this capacity, he must determine the toxic content of fumes, dust, mists, and water by performing qualitative and quantitative analyses on these substances. 2-76

ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNERS

Americans are becoming increasingly conscious of the importance and need

for well planned facilities and surroundings, particularly with regard to expansion of metropolitan areas, increased use of parks and other recreational areas, and

urban planning and renewal. As man continues to build and encroach upon natural areas, there will be an ever-increasing demand for people to determine how best

to integrate that expansion with the existing er.vironment. There is also a need to

improve our relationship with the environment where urbanization already exists.

Specialists in this field plan and direct the construction of individual buildings, developments, or whole areas in such a way as to mitigate the adverse effects of construction and natural environment upon each other, thus providing an aesthetically pleasing and functional relationship between the two. Their work is primarily in planning and designing a functional facility or area of use to man while attempting to minimize the adverse effects of such investments on the environment.

Specialists in this area are usually self-employed professionals such as the architect and landscape architect. The urban planner is usually employed by local, state, or federal government agencies. Large land developers are beginning to avail themselves of the environmental planner's services.

The general educational requirement for those interested in this field is a formal baccalaureate program of four to six years' duration. The usual program progresses from a general liberal arts course to a heavier emphasis on courses such as art, mathematics, social studies, science, etc.Graduate training leading to a master's degree is becoming increasingly important.

Beginners in the field usually start with routine jobs, working up to jobs that

r 105 2-77

are of gradually increasing complexity and responsibility. The prospects for rapid advancement in this field are very good. Expanding residential construction, city

planning, and urban development will provide career stimulus for planners of all

types, many of which will require specialized training. The salary structure for environmental planners is varied. An architect,

beginning as a draftsman for a senior architect, earned from $100 to $150 per week in 1968. Other architects with many years of successful practice, good reputations, and in high demand earned as much as $25,000 or more per year. Landscape architects with a bachelor's degreestarted at between $7,000 and $9,000 per year; a master's degree or a Ph.D. brought correspondingly higher salaries. The urban planner started a little lower at between $6,800 to $7,800; beginning with a master's degree planners would receive about $7,100 per year in 1968.In cities of more than 500,000 people, the average annual salary of planning directors was $19,000 and ranged to $30,000.

Ar chitect The architect plans and designs structures of all types in accordance with the requirements and tastes of a particular client or group. He must plan the building so that it will be functional and structurally sound, will fit into the surrounding environment, and will be efficient in use and pleasant to observe. The architect prepares blueprints in conjunction with consulting engineers and landscape architects and in accordance with prevailing building regulations. He works primarily indoors, but may frequently be requested to make on-site examinations of the proposed structure. Architects may work alone or in small groups, but there is a growing tendency toward the development of large architectural firmsI06 that, can handle very large projects.

V. r 2-78

Architects can play a crucial rolein intelligently using and developingthe man- made physical aspects ofour environment. Designing buildingsmay require a con-

sideration of noise pollution.Planning facilities to manufacture industrialgoods

demands specific considerations of theimpact that such facilities is likelyto have on surrounding areas. Architects design and inmany cases supervise the construc-

tion of waste treatment facilities.In virtually every instance, the architectlays the

groundwork for further development.In this capacity, he must be cognizantof the

environment and what he can doto improve the physical relationships withinit.All 50 states require a licenseto practice architecture, and the licensingrequirements differ from state to state.

Landscape Architect

The landscape architect plans, designs,and in many cases supervises thetrans- formation of land areas into useful and attractivesites. He designs the appropriate

combination of water, trees, land, andstructures to facilitate the intendeduse of the environment. Efficientuse as well as aesthetically pleasing designare his primary goals. Parks, playgrounds,shopping centers, resorts, campgrounds,

and the like are all within the domainof his profession.In conjunction with the

overall design, he provides workingdrawings, cost estimates, andnecessary materials. He works primarily indoors except forthe necessary supervisory activity,usually in the later stages of a project's development.

The landscape architect providesat least two important contributionsto the solution of environmental problems: Heprovidesaesthetically attractive areas that reduce visual pollution, and he attempts touse available land in the most efficient and functional manner. 107 2-79

Urban Planner The urban planner is concerned with the density, usage, congestion, access, deterioration, development, decline, or growth of urban areas. The professional urban planner tries to remedy these problems to more effectively use existing space

and to provide for a more functional and appealing appearance of an urban area. He also attempts to estimate a city's long-range needs to ascertain the problems of the

city in the future. He is active in guiding and controlling community development as well as remedying current problems and conserving existing areas of historical value.

The majority of urban planners are employed by local units of government such

as city, county, and metropolitan. An increasing number are being employed by state

and federal governments. A few are also doing private consultation work, which occupies at least a portion of their time.

NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGERS

Those who are involved as managers of the country's natural resources are in direct contact with the natural elements of our environment. They are vitally concerned with preservation and conservation principles, techniques, and methods. Therefore, analyzing existing and potential problems of resource deterioration and devising remedial programs occupy much of the natural resource manager's efforts. To aid the process of problem identification and analysis, they maintain a constant inventory of the quantity and variety of resources under their jurisdiction.Often it is necessary for other governmental or private groups to tap their conservation expertise when these groups are involved in other types of environmental problems.

The natural resource group of occupations have direct control and management responsibility for a major portion of our environment. Besides serving as technical

108 2-80

advisors, natural resource managers must be able to determine what types of action or effects are required to modify, protect, conserve, or improve our country's land, water, vegetation, and wildlife resources.

The work of natural resource managers is usually accomplished out-of-doors

and requires physical aptitude and abilities.They sometimes face hazardous condi-

tions and must be able to respond to emergency situations. Natural resourcemanagers are exposed to all types of climatic conditions; therefore, excellent health and a love of outdoor life is a necessity for any of these occupations.

Natural resource managers are primarily employed by both federal and state governments to manage our nation's public lands. A much smaller percentage work

for private industry engaged in the development of natural resources, teachor do research in colleges and universities.

Educational requirements vary from some post-high school education ina specialized field to advanced degrees. For other positions, the desired trainingcan best be acquired on the job or by employment in related occupations. Generally,however, a bachelor's degree is adequate for entry into these professionalcareers. Curricula generally include a basic foundation in the physical and life sciences, courses in various aspects of management, and more technical courses in areas of specialization.

The burgeoning increase in the population and the consequent encroachment of urbanization, coupled with the increased awareness of the public to the importance of environment, bode well for the occupational area and may portend a drastic increase in the demand for people who couple this academic background with managerial skills in the natural resources area.

Wage information, as of 1968, indicates that foresters have a salary scale that ranged from $4,700 to $6,000 per year for those with a bachelor's degree to maximum

109 2-81

salaries that may exceed $10,000 for supervisory positions. The parkranger or naturalist has a beginning salary somewhat higher at $5,000 per year. The begin-

ning top salary for the park ranger stabilizes at approximately $6, 000; however,some rangers earn up to $10, 000 per year. The soil conservationist starts at approximately

$5,500; however, some conservationists started at $7,000 per year in 1968. Wildlife managers had starting salaries somewhat higher than soil conservationists, ranging

from $5,500 to $7,200 annually.

Fish and Game Warden

The fish and game warden is primarily involved with maintaining and protecting

the laws that govern use of natural resource areas. Enforcing game law, apprehending

violators, and investigating reported incidentsof damage to crops, property, and wild-

life occupy much of his time. The warden may travel by car, boat, airplane, horse,07: on foot to observe and monitor hunters and fishermen. He actively works to ensure that

methods used by sportsmen are lawful and the equipment is safely operated. When violations occur, he may serve warrants, make arrests, and often must prepare and present evidence in subsequent court actions. Sometimes it is necessary for him to seize illegal or improperly used equipment.

The warden is also engaged in collecting information and reporting on the condi-

tion, habitat, availability, or absence of the wildlife populations under his jurisdiction. He sometimes addresses or speaks to students and other interested groups to assist

in the education and general improvement of public relations for the U.S. Forest

Service. He is vitally concerned with promoting safety, and often provides training and materials describing safety rules, proper hunting and fishing methods, and information regarding the protection and harvesting of various forms of wildlife.

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Forester The varied activities of a forester are centered around the creation, preservation, and management of the nation's forests for recreation and economic purposes as well as the enjoyment of scenic grandeur. He plans reforestation projects; maps and surveys

forest areas (making projections of anticipated future growth and future needs); plans

timber-cutting programs to ensure efficient methods; inspects timber cutting processes

to ensure compliance with planning schedule; often directs fire fighting activities and subsequent restoration projects; plans and directs the development of parks, campsites, picnic areas, etc. ; and undertakes active measures to prevent soil erosion, floods, tree diseases, and pests. His work is often highly physical, requires constant exposure to all climatic conditions, and can be hazardous.

The forester is intimately concerned with the total environmental preservation field.He is directly involved in the prevention of water and air pollution and is primarily responsible for the conservation of forests, efficient use of land and mineral deposits, and the development and preservation of natural attractions. Of the many careers in the environmental area, the forester and forestry technicians are in a group that must approach a total involvement with the environmental problem.

Oceanographer

The study of the ocean and its characteristics, movements, and properties are the interest of people who engage in this occupation. They observe and study the ocean's animal and plant life, conditions and physical properties of the water, and the total effect of related environmental influences such as weather, pollutants dumped into the ocean, and overharvesting of fish, etc. They actively attempt to gain and extend basic scientific knowledge about the oceans' uses and resources. They can provide information and 2-83

knowledge that can improve the intelligent use of the oceans' resources. They test, observe, and collect data, then analyze and report their findings to interested groups

and agencies.

Most oceanographers specialize in one of the many areas in this field, such as biological, physical, or geological oceanography. They are involved in two areas of environmental concerns: conservation and pollution control. They use highly technical

and complex instruments in accomplishing their work.

Oceanographers may work in an office part of the time or aboard a ship where they may use diving equipment, aqualungs, etc., to conduct their research work. Most oceanographers spend part of their time aboard research ships and sometimes on voyages that can last three months or more. This specialized field is expected to

grow rapidly in the 1970s.

Park RangerNaturalist

The park naturalist is mainly concerned with coordinating the various activities, exhibits, and displays in public parks. He is also involved in providing information about the historic, scientific, and natural aspects of the park through lectures, tours, and visual aids. Often he is responsible for the permanent or seasonal park staff and directs their activities. The park naturalist works both indoors and out, and, as a result, is exposed to all kinds of climatic conditions. He is responsible for emergency situations and the protection of human and animal life, government property, and the natural features of the park, which can on occasion expose him to hazardous conditions.

The park naturalist is actively involved in all phases of the environmental preservation field. He is vitally concerned with the proper use and preparation of the natural resources of the park and is constantly striving to reach a balance between use and preservation. He is concerned about safety procedures and may conduct

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educational programs to educate the park users in proper safety principles and

methods.

Range Manager The range manager is responsible for the utilization, husbandry, and improve-

ment of the nation's rangelands, which cover nearly one billion acres in the United States and represent a substantial national resource. Therefore, one of the range

manager's responsibilities is to continually research and study maintenance procedures,

searching for improvement in the current methods of range development, utilization, and preservation. He writes reports and provides other forms of technical assistance

to the owners of privately held grazing lands. Other management duties include such activities as determining livestock grazing patterns, seeding and planting methods, restoring or developing methods, fire protection, and pest control procedures. Some-

times he will plan or direct range improvements with new or maintenance type construction.In some multiple-use areas, it may be necessary for the range manager to perform

some functions of monitoring and inspecting for misuse or trespassing of the public rangelands. Sometimes his work overlaps into other allied professions such as recreation, watershed management, or forest management.

Soil Conservationist

The soil conservationist is interested in and concerned with the productivity, general management, and alternative practices of soil use and conservation. He studies and classifies various types of soil and determines the soil's capabilities for growing different products and crops. Many soil conservationists identify and analyze problems related to such things as land drainage and use of soils in foundations, roads, and other types of construction and structures. He is frequently requested to supply

113 2-85

technical assistance to private property owners such as farmers or ranchers not only

in the United States but also in foreign countries. He inspects watershed lands inan attempt to pinpoint possible trouble spots where flooding or other problems are likely

to occur. He is responsible for preparing reports with suggestions for preventiveor corrective action.

The soil conservationist, as his title implies, makes a direct contribution to all aspects et environmental protection and improvement that are related to soils.

His work is particularly important in preventing soil deterioration and in maintaining

both functional and aesthetically pleasing ground cover.

Watershed Manager

The watershed manager is responsible for the management and maintenance of the country's large water storage facilities such as reservoirs and aqueducts. One of his prime responsibilities is to monitor and control the water level in the storage facility and to regulate flow rate. He also regulates water flow for flood control and irrigation purposes and determines the degree of release required to maintain flow, pressure, and elevation at specified levels. He regulates machinery and turbine

engines in hydroelectric plants, frequently monitoring the meters andgauges and performing minor maintenance and repair work as it is needed.

Another major concern of the watershed manager is the territory from which the water flows. He is equally responsible for the care and maintenance of this area, and sometimes it is necessary for him to patrol it. He not only inspects the equipment located there, but watches for trespassing or illegal use of the area and checks for damage from burrowing animals, rodents, pests, or other wildlife.

The watershed manager controls the chemical content of the water purification- maintaining processes, usually on a day-to-day basis, thus making one of his greatest 2-86

contributions to water conservation. He often supplies data to supervisory personnel for any problem identification and corrective action.

Wildlife Manager As state, local, and federal governments establish and develop more areas for wildlife refuges, parks, forests, and game lands, the role of managing and caring for such areas becomes increasingly important. Professional wildlife managers are employed by the owners of private game preserves. Such positions will likely be more plentiful as more private clubs and areas for sportsmen are established. The wildlife manager plans for the planting of vegetation, not only for animal feed but also for protection of the wildlife area. He plans and supervises the construction of water sources for animals, and sometimes is involved in determining the number of animals that may be seasonally killed without damaging the propagating power of the species.

In this role, he frequently must take count (or census) of game within the reserve, projecting future shortages or surpluses.In this line, he serves the conservation aspect of environmental conditions in maintaining the balance of nature and attempts to ensure thatall species are maintained in existence.

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IV.CAREERS IN ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY AND IMPLEMENTATION

Some environmental occupations rely heavily on people trained as technicians,

implementers, testers, inspectors, and analysts. These are the doers, theones who test theories and actually implement environmental ideas into programs and projects. They also monitor, inspect, and analyze various programs and projects,

continually giving the planners or researchers data from whichnecessary adjustments can be ascertained. Technicians, testers, inspectors, and analysts are the skilled artisans of knowledge, the helpers of research, and the technical appliers of scientific

findings, and little could be accomplished if it were not for the implementers of technology. The three general categories in this section are: the aspectors and monitors, the technicians, and the testers and analysts. The required education, experience, places of employment, and salaries varies; consequently, for the purposes of this

handbook, we have chosen to discuss these subjects under each of the three categories.

Adequate and current salary information on many of the occupations is unobtainable; therefore, in severs: occupational descriptions, this information isnot given.

INSPECTORS OR MOMTORS

The importance of the role of an inspector or monitor in the environmental field cannot be overemphasized. These people serve a critical area in the improvement of the environment and the conditions in which we live.Inspectors provide the necessary link between the theory and the application of techniques.It is through their continual monitoring and inspecting that we are provided with informatinr, on the effectiveness, safety, accuracy and efficiency of our machines, equipment, and systems. Positions in this field generally require some academie training and on-the-job experience. 2-88

The inspector or monitor frequently must perform detailed and repetitivetasks to complete his responsibilities.Inspectors are more concerned with the detailed

and specific application of scientific knowledge and theories andmust analyze data and conditions to evaluate systems and make recommendations foralterations or changes. The monitor or inspector must be continuallyaware of current methods

and new adaptations for the specialized systems in which heworks.In addition, he uses equipment or procedures involved in public health and safety.Inspectors use a wide variety of instruments, many of whichare complex.

The formal training and education required for theseoccupations varies according to the particular product or system that is being inspectedor monitored. Some jobs

require highly skilled people with extensive collegeor graduate backgrounds.Others, especially those that use automatic testing equipment,can be accomplished by relatively

unskilled persons. A few jobs can be learned only through on-the-jobexperience and the development of a solid background in practical "know-how"in the problems that are unique to that specialty area.

The greatest majority of inspectorsare employed by local, state, and federal agencies, such as legal enforcement agencies and the Food and DrugAdministration; however, private business employs a significant number of inspectorsto assist in keeping industrial practices current and valid (especially in thefood and drug industries).

The advancement potential for ii-spectors, especiallyin the areas of environmental health, is favorable for the next decade. Indications show thatthere is a growing need for standards of control, and the necessity for enforcement ofthese standards will produce a demand for trained personnel in protective serviceoccupations. As the complexity of these occupations enlarge, the necessity formore academic knowledge will correspondingly grow; therefore, it is wise for studentsinterested in this type of

117 2-89 work to obtain a solid background of scientific studies during high school.It would also seem probable that more and more specific types of short-time training may be required, depending upon the particular specialty. This on-going training could be a prerequisite to qualification for advancement. The rate of earnings for inspectors and monitors in 1968 was very close. Most workers received from $6, 000 to $7,000 a year, depending upon such variables as experience, educational background, geographice 1 yzatiori of the job, P nd particular specialty area. For example, after six years of experience, a water inspector earned between $7, 500 and $10, 200 annually.

Environmental Inspector (air, water, land, solid waste, industrial, noise, pesticide) The inspector dealing with various aspects of our environment, such as air, smoke, water, and waste, is primarily concerned with determining environmental purity by using a variety of mechanical and chemical tests. He is guided by regulations and statutes that establisl, standards for environmental contamination.He analyzes and reports on the samples and data that are collected. Frequently he makes recommendations for corrective action or reports his findings to appropriate enforcement agencies to instigate legal action (where conditions warrant). He frequently must act in an advisory capacity to an establishment that may be bordering on a violation of standards.

Although most specialize in one area, such as noise or solid waste, the environmental inspector is also concerned with the entire environment as it relates to his specialized area. He must be cognizant of and react to changing conditions external to his field of interest.For example, a solid waste inspector must be well informed on the generation of pollutants and their proper disposal with a minimum amount of deterioration of the surrounding environment. And the pesticide inspector has to be

118 2-90

aware of the varying demands placed on the need to control pests yet the equal needto maintain standards of ecological balance and high qualityat all levels.

Food and Drug Inspector

The food and drug inspector inspects establishments that sell,process, handle, or store products destined for consumer use to ensure quality, purity, and sanitary conditions. He may inspect the physical facilities, the cleanliness of the personnel, and the products to ascertain if compliance with federal, state, and localstatutes is being maintained. Reports are typically prepared on the findings, andrecommendations for legal action can be instigated if conditions warrant. Hecan act in an advisory capacity to any establishment that may be facinga violation of standards. Several specialized pieces of equipment are used by the food and druginspector such as special filtering devices, ultraviolet lights, and microscopes. The conditionsof work are generally indoors, though considerable travel is usually required.Occupa- tional hazards are minimal even though the inspectormay be exposed occasionally to contaminated products.

Careful inspection of commodities destined for human consumptioncan reveal the existence of toxic chemicals such as pesticides, radiation, andother impurities.

The food and drug inspector must be cognizant of all regulationspertaining to the safe levels of toxic agents in food and how theycan safely be disposed of.His activities primarily relate to inspection of food butzan extend into areas of water quality standards, waste disposal methods, etc.

Health Inspector or Monitor (sanitation, disease, safety, food and drug)

Inspectors who are involved in the area of protective healthservices are concerned with planning for the cleanliness, safety, and enforcement of lawsconcerning 119 2-91

the handling, dispensing, and consuming of food. Some inspect establishments that

sell, process, handle, or store products that are destined for consumeruse. They are concerned with ensuring the quality of food as well as making certain that sanitary conditions meet health standards.

Inspectors plan and conduct programs related to the identification, analysis, and

correction of sanitation problems. They can be helpful in providing information leading to the laws and regulations designated to promote adequate health standards. Reports

are typically prepared on their findings, and recommendations are made for legal

action if conditions warrant. Inspectors may also act in an advisory role to establish-

ments that may be violating food or health standards. They must work closely with

other health specialists (public health nurses and engineers) to help prevent outbreaks of disease or implement plans for such emergency situations.

Their work is generally done indoors, although considerable travel is usually required. Sanitarians usually spend a good portion of their time in the field andmay specialize in a particular field such as food waste disposal and air pollution. Occupa- tional hazards are minimal, even though the inspector may be exposed occasionally to contaminated products.

Nuclear Inspector (nuclear waste, radiation level, nuclear safety)

The radiation monitor inspects and monitors the plant facilities, environment, and personnel to detect the degree of radiation exposure and contamination. Some are primarily concerned with nuclear waste products and the contamination levels in the surrounding environment. Inspectors use radiation detectors suchas the beta-gamma survey meter, gamma-background monitor, and alpha-beta-gamma counter. They are particularly concerned with the control and prevention of excessive levels of radiation. Inspectors plan and conduct programs that aredesigned to instruct plant employees and the general public on safetyvrocedures and may demonstrate the use of protective equipment,devices, and clothing. Reports are prepared on the findings of inspections and the results of educational programs.Inspectors may make recommendations for work stoppage in unsafe areas or suggestthe alterations in procedures if conditions should warrant a change.They may collect data, such as on areas being decontaminated,and make comparisons of intensities of contamination with comparable locations. They are alsoresponsible for testing detection instruments against standards to ensure their accuracy.

TECHNICIANS

Because of the growing complexity of nearly every profession,the vital role of the technician has correspondinglyexpanded and increased in complexity. There is no generally accepted definition forthe occupation of "technician." The definition is applied to both fairly simple and routine work as well as tothose jobs that demand extensive scientific training and technical skills.The term as used in this handbook refers to those people whose occupations demand boththe knowledge and the use of mathematical and scientific theory, positions thatprobably require some specialized training, and those who work directly with or as anadjunct to a professional person, such as an engineer or scientist. Technician jobs are only slightly more limited than thoseof related professional jobs. Technicians are involved in the application ofknowledge and theories and frequently must analyze or solve problems using a varietyof methods and equipment.

Some must have skills or training in the preparationof drawings or sketches .But in general, they apply procedures or testsdesigned by others. Most (seven out of 2-93

ten) are employed by private industry.In 1968 the federal government employed over

80, 000 engineering and science technicians.State and local governments are the next largest employers, with universities employing the remainder.

In general, one to three years of post-secondary schooling is needed to qualify

for entry-level positions in this field. The length of time and sophistication of training

is dependent upon the requirements and complexity of a specific occupation. Candidates

for technical occupations can find courses through technical colleges, vocational schools, military service training, or junior or community colleges. Many engineering, mathe-

matics, and science students, who have not completed college degree requirements,

can qualify for entry-level positions.

In recent years technician occupations have been one of the fastest growing in the

United States, and it is estimated the need will continue. The demand will be strongest for those with post-secondary school training in life science, engineering, draftsman, and physical science fields.

There are many variables which apply to the salaries paid to technicians: technical specialty, amount of education and experience, type of firm for which the technician works, and the geographic lncation of the job. According to the BLS survey of 1968, beginning science and engineering technicians received $4, 600, $5,145, or

$5, 732, dependent upon the above variables.In private industry the annual average se lary was $9,800, and nearly one-quarter of the workers had salaries of more than

$10, 500.

Biological Technician (biochemical, marine life, botanical, pathological, ornithological)

The biological technician assists the biologist in analyzing and studying plants, animal and human tissues, microorganisms, and water-borne organisms. He may 2-94

use chemical and microbiological equipment and techniques to study lifecycles or

may breed organisms for study. He is concerned with the origins, behavior,and diseases of parasites, viruses, molds, fungi, bacteria, and otherorganisms. He also studies the organism's natural environment andits resulting relationships to changes or effects.

The biological technician may specialize in the studyof environmental pollutants on living organisms. The chemical pollutants found in the air andwater, as well as

noise pollution, affects the functioning of most organisms.The population explosion

and the resultant impact on development of adequate andclean food and water sources add increased urgency to this kind of research and study.

The biological technician must be interestedin the unexplored frontiers and untapped resources of our world. He needs superior eyesightand must possess an insatiable curiosity and a keen interest in science.

Environmental Technician (air or water pollution,sanitation, solid waste, population management)

The environmental technician utilizes varioustechniques, methods, and equipment to preserve and increase the purity of our environment. Heis responsible for the technical work in the laboratory and field concerned withthe enforcement and the monitoring of pollution standards. He IS also responsiblefor the installation, operation, and maintenance of the equipment that isused to monitor systems and to collect samples. Environmental technicians are often responsible forcollecting data and making reports, and frequently identify and recommendoperational procedures or methods in developing solutions for environmental problems.

One of the most controversial, yet critical,areas in environmental careers lies in the field of population management. Techniciansare needed not only !n basic 2-95

population research but also in the development and application of methods that aid

in the management and control of the world's population growth. Work in the applied field is vitally concerned with behavior, health, and attitudes of people and the

dissemination of birth control techniques and knowledge. A background in social and behavioral sciences and an aptitude for working with peopleare necessary criteria for selection of this occupational area.

Food Technician (food-research aid, agricultural, animal, wildlife, game, fish culture, dairy production)

There are a variety of fields and activities involved in the growing, processing,

and marketing of foods for more than 205 million people in the United States today.

Technicians are needed in all aspects of these activities from production to inspection

to preserving and packaging. There is also a need for technicians to conduct research

in finding new sources of food, better production methods, more efficientuse of available food resources, and the development of adequate packaging and deliveryprocesses. Some food technicians are involved in the collection and analysis of food samples for

inspection purposes. They are also concerned with flavor, nutritional content, and the visual appearance of food products. The field is so large and varied that there are positions available for all types of people.

Health Technician (industrial hygienist, health research and laboratory, X-ray)

The environmental health technician works closely with the life scientist in solving the problems of contamination and pollution in our land, water, and air. He is actively engaged in developing new ideas to solve problems in water treatment, sanitation, and industrial pollution and is particularly concerned with these problems as they pertain to the maintenance of a healthy environment. The contamination of air, water, and land is a serious source of health problems, particularly in the area

124 2-96

of communicaMe diseases.Health technicians are concerned with remedial efforts to correct or eliminate environmental irritants.

The industrial hygienist technician is concerned with employee safety factors related to large industrial complexes. This can include the testing and analysis of air for toxic fumes as well as the safety conditions of industrial settings.

Laboratory and x-ray technicians are involved in research, curative diagnostic work, and the analysis of existing health conditions. People interested in these fields

should like detailed work and be curious about life processes. They need to have skills in analysis and interpretation of data. The x-ray radiological technician earned

salaries of between $105 to $130 per week in 1968.

Horticultural Technician (horicultural, arboricultural, landscape, nursery, pest control) The horticultural technician works with horticulturists in seeding, growing, ar- ranging, and selling nursery products such as plants, trees, shrubs, and turf. People

living in urban areas have become increasingly aware of the need for more vegetated areas and less concrete. Trees and planted areas may assist in the reduction of noise, shield against the sun's heat, and help to maintain an environmental balance.

The horticultural technician is directly concerned with raising and caring for flowers, shrubs, and trees. He must know the growing conditions most favorable for

maximum plant growth and how to maintain healthy plants. He is actively involved in physically planting, trimming, and maintaining areas such as municipal parks and ornamental gardens. Some technicians design planted areas and floral arrangements and therefore need to understand how to display products advantageously.

People interested in this field should have analytical abilities and a love for plants and flowers. Technicians primarily work indoors in nurseries, but because 2-97

the work requires physical effort, it is necessary that they have goodhealth. A background in the basic sciences with some experience in gardeningor nursery work is essential to entering this type of occupation.

Land-Use Technician (surveyor; urban-, city-, land-, town-planning)

This kind of technician investigates alleged violations of landuse and zoning

regulations, reviews building and land-use applications toensure conformity with applicable regulations, and sometimes reviews applications for and complaints about adherence to local or regional land-use plans. He must be able to analyze applicable statutes related to zoning and use and concisely and clearly show his findings in written form. Most of his work is light and usually involves traveling to make inspections.

The technician who specializes in urban or rural planning assists the professionals in solving problems such as street networks, industrial locations, and theproper place- ment of water and sewer lines in housing developments, etc. He must also be concerned with the problem of ;rowing slum areas or urban blight. He playsa significant role in regulating land use. The efficient use of existing landas well as the provision for adequate protection for existing landowners require the determination and enforcement of zoning ordinances.

Nuclear Technician (waste, radiation, health, engineering aide)

The nuclear technician usually works as an assistant to a nuclear engineer. He may conduct tests on nuclear waste disposal methods, writereports and assist in the development of machines and equipment, or monitor the plant facilities and working environment to detect any radiation contamination. He frequently uses complex laboratory equipment in conducting experiments. Some are involved in making drawings and models of equipment under the nuclear engineer's direction.

F 126 2-98

The nuclear technician is interested in the controlled release of nuclear materials

into our environment and particularly in devising and improving measurement tests.

Because the development of efficient and effective methods of disposal of nuclear

waste materials is vital to the environment, water pollution and atmospheric pollution are the most immediate concerns for the nuclear technician. Generally, such technicians perform their work inside a laboratory and its related nuclear plant facility.

Physical Science Technician (electronic, mathematical, astronomical, geological, geophysical, meterological, engineering, mineralogical, noise)

Physical scientists and engineers are dependent upon their technicians to help

them with the application of scientific theories. They work to solve practical problems in either basic or applied research. The physical science technician is interested in

the use of knowledge and theories to reduce or prevent pollution and in the conservation

of natural resources; for example, the growing magnitude of environmental noise and

the resultant effect upon the behavior and general health of all living organisms. The chall3nge to a physical science technician in this area is to devise methods that can reduce, divert, or change noise pollution.

Information on the salary levels for technicians in the physical science areas is extremely limited. A meterological technician in 1968 could expect to begin at an annual salary of $5,000 to $7,000. A mineralogical technician in that same year started at appromdmately $138 per week. Some conditions that caused this wide varianre were the geographical location of the job, the employing firm or agency, or the particular job specialty.In general the higher salaries were for technicians working with advance research on problems of space exploration.

127. 2-99

Resource Conservation Technician (forest, pPrk,recreation, wildlife, soils, etc.)

The resource conservation technician assists theland management official in the

performance of his overall duties. The techniciangenerally engages in work suchas collf".cting meterological data, workingon the surveying crews, measuring trees, test-

ing soils, monitoring and caring for wildlife.He can also be actively involved in building access roads, supervising constructionsites, and maintaining recreational areas.

The primary concern of the resource conservationtechnician is the overall

conservation of natural resources and the reductionor prevention of pollution and

destructive conditions, which constitutea major part of his duties.His activities, principally outdoors, are frequently ofa strenuous, manual nature; therefore, an

excellent physical condition is a requirement for allpersons entering these occupations.

TESTERS OR ANALYSTS

Testing and analysis is a continualprocess that is vital to everyone in the

related environmental occupations. Sometesting jobs require technically trained workers who have had several years ofexperience in environmental fieldsor allied fields. These jobs are commonly foundin research and development butcan also be found in the field. Some testing Jobsare done by automatic equipment. Workers who feed or check the automatic test equipmentoften are called "test-set" or "testing- maching" operators. They frequentlyuse complex instruments and testing devices and must compile data and keep records ofthe tests and analyses they perform. A tester or analyst needs good vision, perceptive skills,manual dexterity, and patience. Educational requirements in this occupation,as in most environmental occupations, have become more demanding. This trendis expected to continue. Frequently,

. 2-100 testers and analyzers have had one year or more of college in a scientific or engineering field, but usually have not completed course requirements for a degree.In some instances, they have been upgraded from other positions. A basic requirement of most employers is the completion of high school courses in mathematics, physics, and chemistry.It is anticipated that the growing demand for people in this field will cause vocational ,.:chools and other higher education institutions to broaden and enlarge the courses available. The tester and analyst is found in every phase of industry and government; however, at the present time the major portion of environmental control and monitoring is done by government agencies. The majority of environmental tester and analyst positions are currently found within local, state, and federal agencies.It is also anticipated that as more environmental standards are set and enforcement of those standards ere initiated, there will be an increasing demand for testers and analysts in private industry.

Pollution is but one of the environmental hazards that is expected to increase the demand for all kinds of testers and analysts. As the environmental problem continues to attract attention, the need for specialists will rise correspondingly. Ad those currently in this field move to higher levels of responsibility, potential channels for advancement will open up and broaden in scope.Salary ranges for testers and analysts are comparable to similar positions as inspectors and monitors.

Environment Tester or Analyst (air, water, soil) The environmental tester or analyst is primarily concerned with the determination of air, water, or soil purity.He uses a variety of mechanical and chemical tests as well as a range of methods and procedures in the determination of the level of contamination.He is particularly concerned with the control devices used by

129 2-101

industry and the effectiveness of these devices. The tester or analyst is generally responsible to the supervisory branch of the industry or agency.In his capacity as a tester, he prepares reports and often suggests methods to improve and maintain air, water, and soil standards.

Most of the testing and analyzing work is done inside a laboratory. The gathering of test data is performed outside. The tester or analyzermay be occasionally subjected to hazardous conditions, but in general, this is not a significant problem. He often has an opportunity to travel, and insome positions ith federal agencies, he may be away from home frequently.

Mechanical Tester (test-engine evaluator, sound devices, electric motor, etc.) The role of the test-engine evaluator overlaps that of the environmental tester in that it is concerned with the pollution of the air through the sound and emissions from engines. The test-engine evaluator assembles data collected from testing fuels and lubricants in engines. He is concerned with the analysis of engine exhaust and the resultant amount of air pollution. He uses microscopes and precision weighing and measuring devices to obtain correct and accurate information.

The automobile mechanic is probably in one of the most crucial areas of air and noise pollution control. He analyzes, tests, and repairs automobile engines in an effort to keep the mechanism safe and trouble-free. The mechanic must remain alert to the fact that a properly operating engine uses fewerresources and emics fewer pollutants.

Other test-engine evaluators are primarily concerned with the noiseor sound aspect of engines. The sound tester's work is primarily performed indoors where he operates sound-detection equipment to check for defects in the engines. He looks 2-102 for problems that could potentially cause defective and noisy engines. He is also concerned with the accumulative noise probabilities inherent in vehicles such as motorcycles, airplanes, and trucks.Contemporary legislation requires increased use of pollution control devices, all of which require close attention by the tester to ensure prope': compliance with these laws. 2-103

V.CAREERS IN ENVIRONMENTAL APPLICATION AND OPERATION The greatest number of employed people are presently working incareers such as those represented in this occupational category. These are semiskilled workers in the labor force who operate, maintain, and sometimes assemble machinery and equipment.Included in this category are operators, laborers, and attendants. These people hold jobs that represent a vital component in environmental occupations. They are the doers--the movers, the drivers, the builders.In general, they represent the "muscle" behind the plans for environmental improvement and conservation. There are two general job categories in this section: operator and laborer- attendant.Because there are differences in training requirements, salary levele, places of employment, and potential advancement possibilities, these subjectsare discussed in each of the general category sections.

LABORERS --ATTENDANTS

The "blue-collar" worker performs a very vital function inour economy. He is the person who transforms the ideas of scientists and the plans of theengineer into the actual production of products or services. He works inmany diverse jobs in the environmental occupational field from refuse collection to fish hatchery assistant.

Students who have mechanical aptitudes or those who eujoy working with their hands will most likely be interested in occupations listed in this section.

The semiskilled worker performs his duties under the supervision ofan operator or supervisor.He works the mills, builds the plants, tends the wildlife, orgrows the small plants in nurseries. He repairs, installs, maintains, and controls the complex machinery of such facilities as a waste disposal plant. He is theperson

132 2-104 who supports and keeps running all of the necessary equipment and services in our economy. A worker in this category ordinarily receives on-the-job training. He is usually told specifically what to do and how to do it.He often repeats the same motions or the same functions throughout the working day. A worker can learn his responsibiLlties in a few days and can usually become proficient at his work in a few weeks. He must be adaptable and have the ability to learn new jobs, such as the operation of new or different machines. A worker is expected to be able to read basic instructions, safety rules, and posted signs. He usually is in a position that requires strength and good physical condition.Many positions require good eyesight and coordination.

The places of employment are varied.Both the private sector and public agencies depend upon these workers to keep the wheels of productivity moving.Close to one- third of all employed workers are in occupations related to this category. Although technological progress should cause a need for increased numbers of workers in all sectors, the occupations in this category are often entry-level positions and serve as training grounds for operators and supervisory positions. The anticipated employment growth will make a large number of job opportunities available to manual workers.

In addition, an even larger number of opportunities will result from the replacement of experienced workers who die or retire. As replacements are needed and as workers move into jobs of increasing responsibilities, the opportunities for advancement will increase and broaden in scope. Greater substitution of automatic power equipment for unskilled manual labor in digging, hauling, moving, lifting, and other heavy work will create other employment openings in the operation and management of this equipment. Since technological displacement of such workers is anticipated, persons in

133 2-105

such jobs will have brighter opportunities by taking training courses and gaining experience that can be transferrable to other types of work.

Gardener (nurseryman, forestry assistant, conservation aide, park maintenance attendant, pest controller, groundskeeper)

A worker in this field primarily engages in manual activities related to the

growth of plants, park maintenance (natural and man-made), conservation work, and pest control. He maintains grounds, performing a combination of activities--cutting lawns, pruning or shaping trees and shrubs, cleaning drainage ditches, spreading fertilizer, raking and burning refuse. He may be primarily responsible for the education and control of pests and fungi and other plant diseases; or he may be primarily responsible for such maintenance work as the cleaning of paths, walkways, and roads or repairing fences, walls, and other structures. He also will be planting, thinning, and weeding nursery stock; and he may be involved in tying, wrapping, or packing plants for shipment or relocation. The work is generally accomplished outdoors and can be physically demanding.

Incinerator Plant Attendant

The incinerator plant attendant is the functional member of the incineration team. He operates the incinerator under the supervision of the foreman; provides direction and assistance for the weighing and unloading of rubbish trucks; repairs, lubricates, dismantles, and replaces inoperable machinery; and handles recording and collecting fees for incineration activities: He works both inside and out and is exposed to all climatic conditions. His work is typically strenuous and may expose him to a variety of occupational hazards.

134 . 2-106

The incinerator plant attendant is immediately responsiblefor the incineration

process.In this capacity, he controls the actual burning withits resulting emission

of pollutants. He must be aware of different incinerationmethods and the air pollution

implications of these methods. The incineration plant attendantworks in close contact with the other members of the incineration team suchas sugervisors, delivery men, clerical staff, etc.

Janitor (waste collector, utility man, building superintendent)

The janitor regulates, manages, and coordinates themaintenance functions of

buildings and industrial complexes.His responsibilities include keeping the premises

in a clean and orderly condition by emptying trash,sweeping floors, regulating heat

and air-conditioning equipment, making minor repairs, andnotifying the management

of the need for large repairs or replacements. A janitormay be involved in routine painting, plumbing, or electrical wiring and needsto know the basic skills necessary for such functions. The work is strenuous at times; therefore,the maintenance of a good physical condition is advisable.

A janitor is in a position to controlone fundamental source of solid waste pollution. He can effectively sort out those materialsthat can be recycled from the refuse that is not salvageable. He is also responsiblefor the appearance of the premises and thus can have a pronounced effecton the maintenance of an aesthetically appealing community.

Refuse Collector (garbage, trash, general refusecollection and disposal, reclamation man)

A refuse collector is active in collecting refuseusually along a designated route in urban and suburban areas. Although this isnot a particularly pleasant job, it is

135 27107 a major one in terms of present methods used to handle solid waste material produced by our society. He collects ashes, garbage, and trash from homes, businesses, and other public and private buildings and areas. He must lift and dump heavycontainers and objects into refuse collection vehicles. He must do much walking in additionto the lifting. The refuse collector is often exposed to lifting, strains,cuts, and occasionally to disease.

Collection in rural areas in somewhat the same as in urbanareas, with the exception that the designated route usually is much larger, with the result thateach specific area is visited less frequently. Also the collector will probablyhave to lift and dispose of trees, limbs, brush, and other large cumbersome objects.

Resource Developer (construction miner, quarrying personnel, timberman,logger, oil field worker)

The miner and timberman are involved in theuse or development of our natural resources. They are therefore concerned with conservation and harvesting of those resources. Some miners and dmbermen use explosives toremove rocks, earth, and trees for mining and milling purposes. Each must beaware of economic and natural factors in his activities and also of environmental factors inthe choices of what and where to mine or to cut timber. Theyare involved with the hauling and storing of materials mined and the refuse and nonusable materials. Therefore, theyare frequently in a position to assist conservationas well as antipollution efforts.

The work of the resource developer is mostly outdoors and iS physically strenuous. Students anticipating this type ofcareer should maintain good physical condition and enjoy working out-of-doors. Considerable walking andlifting are involved, and the resource developercan be exposed to hazardous conditions.

laG 2-108

Wildlife Attendant (fisheryman, fish hatcheryassistant, animal aide, wildlife and conservation research aide)

Under supervision, the wildlife attendant performswork in major phases of the operation of fish hatcheries, refuge parks, andanimal conservation areas. He performs such activities as installing and maintainingracks and traps. He may choose, care for, transfer, and inctbate theeggs of fish and birds. He also keeps

records pertaining to genealogy, weight, diet, andother data for breeding purposes of wildlife. An attendant maintains and cleans theponds, cages, and other buildings used in the care and breeding of wildlife. Hemay operate automobiles, trucks,

tractors, pumps, loaders, and other necessary equipment.He may be active in

inspecting fish, birds, or animals for generalappearance as well as counting them

for census and supplying the general collection data involvedwith habitats of living wildlife.

OPERATORS AND FOREMEN

There are a variety of occupations that deal with theapplication and actual

operation of processes, equipment, and devices aimedat protecting or cleaning up

the environment. The people who hold these occupationsare usually known as

operators, foremen, or controllers. They are primarily engagedin setting up, starting, adjusting, watching, and stopping machinesor other equipment. Usually, they work with one kind of deviceor system. They need to observe any changes

or variances that occur In the systems and make any requiredadjustments. Some- times it is necessary to make repairsor to assist in the installation of new equipment.

Operators frequently need to work with written workorders, blueprints, or instructions. An operator of these devicesor systems needs to be able to conceptualize the relationship of parts to the whole system andto understand the functioning of machines 137 2-109

and their component parts. He may frequently supervise or direct other employees.

He is involved in assigning, directing, and checking the work of his subordinates to

maintain the quality of work and the plant standards of his operation.

In some specific operations,certification may be required of an operator.

Usually this can be obtained from apprenticeship programs.Experience as an appren- tice is frequently the entry level; and as the worker demonstrates increasing skill

and a willingness to accept responsibility, he will be admitted to a journeyman

position. This type of on-the-job training is excellent for operator positions.Post- secondary, vocational, or technical training is usually helpful in obtaining a job in

this area. Some additional training may be required even at a journeyman level.

Such training may serve as a substitute of up to two years of experience in some jobs. Local, state, and federal agencies employ a substantial number of operators in this classification of environmental occupations. However, as contemporary legisla-

tion requires increased pollution control devices, all of which require close attention by operators to ensure proper operation, private industry will need their services at

a growing rate.Also, there will be some new industries develop through the need for

recycling operations. Public utility companies also hire a substantial number of

employees in this field and cannot be overlooked as vital employment sources. As with the majority of careers in the environmental field, the potential for

advancement in the next decade is favorable. Numerous promotional opportunities

are available to skilled workers. Many advance to foremen or to other types of supervisory positions. As private and public industries continue to use more com-

plex machinery and equipment, opportunities for entry into these jobs and opportunities

for advancement are expected to expand.

13S 2-110

Dumps and Solid Waste Disposal Operator

The disposal of solid waste materials usuallyis accomplished by incineration,

composting, or sanitary landfill. The peoplewho make a profession of the disposal

of solid waste materials must becognizant of the new and more efficient methods

that are now being developed. Historically,the operator of disposal materials has

had to be able to operate mechanical andelectrical equipment to maintain the orderly collection and processing of solidwaste, and to supervise the workers who assist

him. He assigned and directed theoperation of trucks and organized the collection

routes. An operator at these locations at thepresent time and in the near future will

have to "sort" or redistribute wasteprodutIs to various types of disposn1operations.

Some products may be recycledor salvaged. He also must continually be alertto the control of rodents and other peststo maintain the highest standards of sanitation possible.

Incinerator Foreman

The incinerator foreman is primarily concernedwith the proper use of equipment to "burn" refuse or dry sludge accumulations.The effective handling and proper disposal of combustible rubbishare important in reducing air pollution. The foreman acts in a supervisory and advisoryposition in relation to incineratoroperators and, in some cases, to clericalpersonnel. Other activities include trainingprograms for new employees and development ofadvanced techniques, inspection and adjustment of machinery, and the provision ofwritten reports on the facility's operation. The work is both indoor and out andcan be physically demanding.

The incinerator foreman, who isin a position to conscientiously provide guidance that will lead to more efficient disposalof combustible rubbish with the least air,water, and land pollution, can provide leadershipin the development of new techniques of

139 incineration.He must be dedicated to the proposition that efficient burning processes must occur if air pollution is to be reduced.

Incinerator Operator (dumps, solid waste)

The incinerator operator controls the equipment that burns garbage and other refuse (such as sludge) in public or industrial incinerator plants. He directs the employees in their work of feeding the materials into the furnaces and other burning devices. He is responsible for the maintenance and correct adjustment of control devices such as meters, pyrometers, and burners to keep the temperatures constant and to obtain the most efficient combustion. Frequently, he is responsible for repairing and replacing equipment. He also regulates disposal of ashes and dumping.He sometimes is responsible for the power plant that provides energy for these operations.

Power Plant Operator (hydroelectric, fossil fuel, nuclear, stationary)

The power plant operator's role is vital in several areas of environmental control. He operates the boilers, turbines, generators, and other auxiliary equipment.

He is usually responsible for supervising the equipment control device and regulates those that feed the subsystems of the power plant, including the adjustments which regulate speed, voltage, and incoming turbines to coincide with the voltage and power being generated. The power plant operator is also responsible for reporting and recording any malfunctions of the equipment, may recommend replacement of the equipment or installation of updated systems, and can be influential in instigating the use of devices to reduce atmospheric pollution. The nuclear power plant operator will be especially concerned in this area of pollution control.

PIO 2-112

Recycling Operator (salvage laborer,waste disposal worker, reclamationforeman)

Salvaging has been an activepart of our economy formany years; but with the

increasing emphasisupon refuse and pollution, a concertedeffort has recently developed

to find uses fo:. waste and refuseproducts.It is anticipated that thistrend will accelerate

and dramatically grow in thenext decade. Persons involved insalvaging and recycling

efforts now will be part of thedevelopment of new and broadermethods in the future. The operator will determinethe types of materialsto be salvaged and direct laborers in sorting, storing, and redistributing materialsto be recycled.He will inspect materials to determineexact methods of redistributionand designate,according to kind and type, thesalvageable material. Theoperator or foreman will direct the dismantling of largeobjects (such as airplanes) andwill inspect parts, routing

reparable objects to repair shopsand nonreparable objectsto salvage.

Water or Sewer Systems Foreman (pure water works,purification, waste water,, sewage, etc. )

The plant operator workingin the water orsewer systems component of environmental careers is engagedin supervising thecrew of employees that install,

maintain, repair, and servicethe water distribution andsewage facilities.He is primarily concerned withmaintaining efficient serviceto citizens but can also be vitally concerned withdetermining conformanceto environmental standards and specifications. Somemay be responsible for writingreports from the data they collect on work progressionand disposition of materials.He may also need to evaluate systems a0 to determine the best methodsof excavation and repairsusing land plats, maps, and otherdir.grams. 2413

Waste Water Treatment Plant Operator

The semiskilled area of work requires the operation and maintenance ofwaste water treatment plant equipment under the supervision of higher level personnel. The worker must be able to monitor system operations, read and record meters, sample the input or output materials for laboratory analysis, maintain accurate records, and in general operate various types of valves, pumps, fans, heaters, boilers, and other specialized equipment. The duties of a waste water treatment plant operatorare primarily conducted indoors, and the physical demands are minimal.

This operator performs functions concerning the effective recycling ofwater and the removal and disposition of solid wastes.His duties are directly applicable to two of the environmental problems: water pollution and resource conservation. His activities are higNy routine and closely supervised but nonetheless reitiire considerable attention to detail if an effective process is to result.

Water Treatment Plant Operator

An operator of a water treatment plant is responsible for seeing that all assigned plant equipment is operating properly. He works closely with and under the direction of the water treatment plant supervisor. He is responsible for reading, recording, and maintaining the correct chemical balance in the wateras it is processed through the plant facility.Operators must be skilled in the practice and techniques of water purification.

The water treatment plant operator performs the vital function of providing the citizenry with pure water. He also could be responsible for maintaining sufficient quantities in reserve or storage areas such as reservoirs.His activities are usually routine and closely supervised but nonetheless are vital components ofour ecological system related to water.

Lt..IL 111Z APPENDICES

143 APPENDIX 2-1

ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON ENVIRONMENTAL CAREERS

Aeronautics

American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronauts, Inc. 1290 Avenue of the Americas New York, New York10019

Agriculture

American Society of Agricultural Engineers P. 0. Box 229 Joseph, Michigan 40985

Air Pollution

National Air Pollution Control Administration Box 12055 Research Triangle Park,North Carolina27709

Anthropology

American Anthropological Association 1703 New Hampshire Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C.20009

Architects

American Insticute of Architects 1735 New York Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C.20006

American Society of Landscape Architects, Inc. 2013 I Street, N.W. Washington, D.C.20006

Association of College Schools of Architecture 521 18th Street, N.W. Washington, D.C.20006

144 2-118

Biology,

American Institute of Biological Sciences 200 P Street, N.W. Washington, D.C.20036

Federation of American Societies for Expellmental Biology 9650 Wisconsin Avenue Bethesda, Maryland 20014

Chemistry

American Chemical Society 1155 16th Street, N.W. Washington, D.C.20036

Manufacturing Chemist's Association, Inc. 1825 Connecticut Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C.20009

Conservation Education

Conservation Education Association c/o Secretary 1144 East 3rd Street Salt Lake City, Utah 84102

Dietetics

American Dietetic Association 620 North Michigan Avenue Chicago, Illinois 60611

Ecology

Ecological Society of America c/o Secretary Radiation Ecology Section Oak Ridge National Laboratory Oak Ridge, Tennessee37831

145 2-119

Economics

American Economic Association Northwestern University 629 Noyes Street Evanston, Illinois60201

Engineers

American Institute of Chemical Engineers 345 East 47th Street New York, New York10017

American Institute of Industrial Engineers 345 East 47th Street New York, New York10017

American Society of Civil Engineers 345 East 47th Street New York, New York 10017

American Society for Engineering Education 200 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C.20037

American Society for Mechanical Engineers 345 East 47th Street New York, New York10017

National Society of Professional Engineers 2029 K Street, N.W. Washington, D.C.20006

Society of Mining Engineers of the American Institute of Mining Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers 345 East 47th Street New York, New York10017

Fisheries Management

American Fisheries Society 1404 New York Avenue, N. W. Washington, D.C.20005 2-120

Forestry U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service Washington, D.C.20250 American Forest Institute 1835 K Street, N.W. Washington, D.C.20006

Society of American Forester s 1010 16th Street, N.W. Washington, D.C.20036

Geography

Association of American Geographers 1146 16th Street, N.W. Washington, D.C.20036

Geology

American Geological Institute 2201 M Street, N.W. Washington, D.C.20037

Geophysics

American Geophysical Union 2100 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C.20037

Society of Exploration Geophysicists P.O. Box 3098 Tulsa, Oklahoma 74101

Health

American Public Health Association, Inc. 1740 Broadway New York, New York10019

Institute for the Study of Health and Society 2199 North Decatur Road Decatur, Georgia30033

1 .1 2-121

National Environmental Health Association 1600 Pennsylvania Street Denver, Colorado80203

National Sanitation Foundation P.O. Box 1468 Ann Arbor, Michigan48106

Medicine

Association of American Medical Colleges 2530 Ridge Avenue Evanston, Illinois60201

American Medical Association 535 North Dearborn Street Chicago, Ellinois60610

Meteorolm

American Meteorological Association Second and B Streets, S .E. Washington, D.C.20032

Oceanography

American Society for Oceanography 854 Main Building Houston, Texas77002

American Society for Limnology and Oceanography W.K. Kellog Biological Station Michigan State University Hickory Corners, Michigan 49060

International Oceanographic Foundation 1 Rickenbacker Causeway Virginia Key Miami, Florida33149

Office of Environmental Sciences Smithsonian Institution Washington, D.C.20560

148 2-122

National Oceanography Association 1900 L Street, N. W. Washington, D.C.20036

Outdoor Recreation and Parks

American Recreation Society Room 622, Bond Building 1404 New York Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C.20005

National Recreation Association 8 West Eighth Street New York, New York10011

Political Science

American Political Science Association 1527 New Hampshire Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C.20036

Resource Economics

Resources of the Future, Inc. 1755 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C.20036

Resource Management

The Conservation Foundation 1250 Connecticut Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C.20036

Sociology

American Sociological Association 1001 Connecticut Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C.20036 2-123

Soil Conservation

Soil Conservation Society of America 7515 N.E.Ankeny Road Ankeny, Iowa50021

Statistics - Mathematics

American Statistical Association 806 15th Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C.20005

Technicians

National Council of Technical Schools 1835 K Street, N.W. Room 907 Washington, D.0 C.20006

U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Office of 7,'I21cation Division of Highar Education and/or Division of Vocatioml and Technical Education Washing0n, D. C. 20202

Urban Planning

American Institute of Planners 917 15th Street, N .W. Washington, D.C. 20005

American Society of Planning Officials 1313 East 60th Street Chicago, Illinois 60637

Water Pollution 1/' Water Pollution Control Federation 3900 Wisconsin Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C.20016 Wildlife Conservation and Management

The Wildlife Society Suite S-176 3900 Wisconsin Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C.20016

National Wildlife Federation 1412 16th Street, N.W. Washington, D.C.20036 APPENDIX 2-2

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

The majority of career occupations that have been identified in this handbook require post-secondary education or training. These requirements vary from relatively short-term technical training leading to requisite certification, to

extended professional education, and to receipt of academic degrees. For the

student who is interested in furthering his career training and needs information

pertaining to selection of an appropriate post-secondary school or institution, it

is necessary that he obtain the most accurate data that can be made available to

him.Interest in environmental problems is just beginning to coalesce, and as a result, institutional curricula programs are in a state of flux. To state that one

institution provides certain types of environmental career programs and not others would probably turn out to be inaccurate information. Therefore to facilitate the

student's acquisition of current and valid information, this appendix provides under four general institutional classifications resources where accurate information can be found that will guide the student to the annual catalogues published by most educational institutions.

Colleges and Universities

These schools offer academic courses and programs in subject fields on undergraduate and graduate level, for potential managers and researchers.

1. Environmental Protection Agency, Working Toward a Better Environment--

Some Career Choices, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.

2. Environmental Science and Technology "Manpower for Environmental Protection, "

Vol. 5, No. 4, April 1971, Environmental Scien'ce and Technology, P.O. Box 8639,

Philadelphia, Pa.19101.

152 A:z. 2-126

3. Engineers' Council for Professional Development, Information on Careers

in Engineering and Technology, 345 East 47th Street, New York.

4. National Recreation and Park Association, Directory of Professional Pre-

paration Programs in Recreation, Parks, and Related Areas, 1969, National

Recreation and Park Association, 1700 Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, D. C. Free

5. National Wildlife Federation, Conservation Directory, 1971, National Wild-

life Federation, 16th Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. $1.50 6. Randall, Charles Edgar, So You Want To Be a Forester? American Forestry Association, 1319 18th Street N.W., Washington, D.C., 20036

7. United States Department of Labor, Health Careers Guidebook, Superintendent

of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.20402.

Community Colleges (two-year or junior college)

These institutions offer on an undergraduate level both academic and technical courses (applied) for technicians and operators.

1. American Association of Junior Colleges. Membership Directory 1971-72,

American Association of Junior Colleges, 1 Dupont Circle, Washington, D.C.

20036.

2. Environmental Protection Agency, Working Towarda Better Environment--

Some Career Choices, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.

3. Ferguson Publications in the Fields of Counseling, Guidance, and Personnel

Services, Career Opportunities for Technicians and Specialists, Walter J.

Brooking, Assistant Editor-in-Chief, J.G. Ferguson Publishing Company, Chicago, Ill, five volume reference series:

k "1. 153 2-127

Engineering Technicians, Walter J. Brooldng, editor.

Agricultural, Forestry, and Oceanographic technicians,Howard Sidney, editor.

Health Technicians, Robert E. Kessinger, editor.

Community Service and Related Specialists, editorialconsultants: Sylvia J. Bayliss, Eli Cohen et. al.

Ecology, Conservation and Environment, Fergusoneditorial staff.

4. Pratt, Arden L., Environmental Education in the CommunityCollege, 1971,

American Association of Junior Colleges, 1 Dupont Circle,N. W., Washington, D. C. 20036.

5. United States Department of Labor, Health Careers Guidebook, Superintendent

of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington,D.C. 20402

Technical Schools

They offer technical courses designed to specifically train techniciansand operators.

1. National Association of Trade and Technical Schools. Directory ofAccredited Private Trade and Technical Schools, 1971-72, W.A. Goddard, Ex.Director,

National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, 2021L Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. 20036.

2. United States Department of Labor, Health Careers Guidebook,Superhitendent

of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington,D. C. 20402

Outdoor Educational Centers

This includes offerings by a variety ofmuseums, parks, centers, etc., designed to promote education and training in conservation and naturalresource development 154 2-128

These are basically nondegree programs; some, however, award certificates of graduation. The programs are highy job oriented.

1. National Audubon Society, Directory of Environmental Education Facilities,

Nature Center Planning Division; 1130 Fifth Avenue, New York, N. Y.10028. APPENDIX 2-3

ESTIMATING METHODOLOGY CONCERNING JOB REQUIREMENTS FOR OCCUPATIONS RELATED TO ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION CONTROL PROBLEMS

This appendix is provided for those whoare interested in the methodology used to arrive at the estimated expenditures for the six pollution controlcategories of air, water, solid waste, noise, radiation and pesticides, and the matrixdeterminants for translating expenditures into environmentalmanpower requirements.

In developing the estimates, therewere the unavoidable problems of determining appropriate criteria, obtaining data, and defining matrixrelationships.In particular it was recognized that defining what is and whatis not an environmental problem is currently receiving a great deal of attention.However, efforts to identify with any degree of confidence or accuracy occupations that couldbe defined as being environmentally related lacks precision. For example,arguments can be made that can fairly closely identify a statistician who isspecializing in biostatistics as havinga high degree of concern for environmental problemsinvolving biological factors.

However, a statistician dealing with analysis of populationcharacteristics can only indirectly be linked in dealing with environmentalproblems. The lack of precise criteria by which occupations are definedas being an environmental occupation is only part of the problem. The other isa lack of data and information on those jobs which have existed or have recently been createdthat are not sufficiently significant to receive classification, specification,measurement, or statistical treatment. Or, if they have been identified, little ifany data are available on them.

Another problem is that of naming occupations. Severaltitles or occupational names exist for basically the same type of job.Hence, if one were to think thatan 2-130

acoustical engineer might be a job concerned with the nature of sound andnoise and devising ways to control it, such a title is cross-referenced in the dictionary of

occupational titles to a specialty in electronics engineering thatconcerns itself with the design of sound or broadcast equipment, recording equipment, andso forth. As a result of such difficulties, estimating job opportunities by attempting to project for

each environmentally related occupation as listed in this handbook was not done.

Consequently, it was necessary to limit the estimated "environmental"occupa-

tions to four general categories for the aforementioned six pollution controlareas. This limitation on environmental coverage is based on the availability of estimated expenditures expected to occur in those six areas. The matrix developedto allocate those expenditures is, of course, not perfect by any means. But, it has beencon- structed in such a way that if a given level of money were to be channeled into those six areas, one might reasonably expect certain kinds of expenditures to be made for capital acquisition, administration, and support services as wellas manpower required for direct Work on environmental problems. The matrix approach used doesnot allow the specification of single occupations. However, given thetypes of occupations clustered, for example, in the environmental science and research category,a general statement can be made in terms of manpower requirements for a given level of expenditures. Sincesome fairly good data are available on specific occupations, these have been included in Chapter 2 as Table 2-1. Not all the occupations listed in Chapter 2 appear in that table, particularly in the operator, monitor,or analyst jobs.Similarly, the occupations listed in Chapter 2, suchas educators, sociologists, etc. , are not reflected in the matrix by which the manpower estimateswere developed for environmental occupations in six pollution controlareas. As pointed out earlier, occupations that are generally in a supporting role, suchas typists, janitors, data processing, etc., are not included.

V. 7.! 15'7. 2-131

All of the preceding statements point out tile difficultyand complexity of

obtaining useful and reliable information concerninga relatively recent development of thinking about jobs as being environmentally related. The usefulness of such information in the form of projections dependsnot only on some criteria for being environmentally classified, but alsoon the stability of occupational trends being examined. For example, about ten yearsago a critical need for engineers, scientists, etc., was identified for the aerospace and missile industries.

A great deal of effort was put into developing projectedneeds for all types of occupations related to those industries.But now those persons basing their choice of careers on such information find themselves with, say, Ph.D.s in physics andvery few opportunities available in such industries. Ofcourse, no one could foresee the course of events ten years into the future, but this pointsout the difficulty of using uncritical projection methods that blindly attempt to forecast the future.

However, for some occupations, such as secretaries, clerks, salesmen,etc. , projections of future levels of employment needs can be made witha great deal of confidence if the economic assumptionon which they are based actually occurs.

Given the extremely complex and uncertain nature of the projectionsgame, making estimates can be useful.Intelligent planning and decision making can only be done by trying to speculate about what the future will be. Sometypes of planning require speculation 50 years ahead, while onlya year or two, sometimes a month, may be satisfactory for other types. The time horizon of 1970 to 1975 was chosen for developing estimates of environmental occupational jobs ,for the primaryreason that most of the data required has been prepared for that time period. Another reason was that it represents a fairly short period of time, which is not too far 2-132

into the future (1975) and for which current eventscan be relatively easily assessed in terms of data availability (1970).

In defining the problem, it was recognized that environmental occupations lack

the framework of being defined by an industry, suchas mining, construction, or

manufacturing. Thus, many of the parts of what could be thought ofas the "ecology"

industry are actually extensions of other industries. Consequently, themore traditional methods of estimating occupational requirements and growthwere not adaptable to projecting the occupational needs of the ecology industry. Ho,ever, given the availability of expenditure data classified by pollution controlprograms based upon meeting environmental standards by 1975, itwas considered possible to build a model by which dollar expenditures could be converted intomanpower requirements.

The estimating methodology is primarily based upon knowledge and information of other industry characteristics and structure and translating them into what might be required by "ecology" operations, such as plant and equipment, operatingcosts, wages and salaries, capital-labor ratios, etc. The following discussion presents how the data were developed and used in the estimating methodology:

1. The expenditure of funds necessary between 1970 and 1975 to meet environ-

mental standards on schedule, as estimated by the Councilon Environmental Quality for Air, Water, and Solid Waste has been used asa base.1 An adjustment was necessary to estimate expenditures that mayoccur regarding noise, radiation, and pesticide pollution control. Expenditure data

1 Second Annual Report, CEQ, 1971, p. 117. The expenditure estimates developed by CEQ have their own assumptions and qualifications whichare recognized in using such estimates for the purposes of the allocation matrix.

eq:.!) 159 1-'4 2-133 used to develop Manpower requirements by thearea of environmental pollution control is shown in the following table.

Estimated Pollution Control Expenditures (Data in Millions of Dollars)

Pollution 1970 1975 Cum. 1970-1975 Control Total Estimated Total Estimated Total Estimated Category Expend. Wages Expend. Wages Expend. Wages

Air $ 500.0a $285.0 $ 4,7000a $ 2,707.5$ 23,7000a $ 7,481.2 Water 3,1000a 1, 651.2 5,800.0a 3,093.7 38,0000a 11,862.2 Solid waste 9,300.0a 3,864.0 7,800.0a 5,313.3 43,500.0a 22,943.2 Noise" 400. 0 278.2 960.0 685.7 3,400.0 2,409.8 Radiation" 1,300.0 764.4 1,430.0 840.8 6,800.0 4,013.0 Pesticides" 300. 0 174.4 1,050.0 610.5 3,400.0 1,962.2

Total $14,900.0 $6,917.2 $21,740.0 $13,251.5 $118,800.0 $50,671.6

aSecond Annual Report, CEQ, 1971, Table2, p. 111.

bTotalexpenditure estimates based on adjustment of governmental bulgetdata for noise, radiation, and pesticides contained in Appendix K, Second AnnualReport, CEQ, Table 0-3, p. 341.

2. Three general functional areas were defined as: research and development, (R & D), operations and processing, and enforcement. These general

functions were distributed against each of the six pollution controlareas as to their percentage of expenditure importance. These are shown in the

following table: 2-134

Estimated Percentage Distribution of Expenditures by Pollution Category and Function

Solid Air Water Waste Noise RadiationPesticide

R & D 50 20 40 80 75 40

Processing 25 45 60 0 15 40 and operation

Enforcement 25 35 0 20 10 20

Total 100 100 100 100 100 ,100

3. The next step was to remove associated plant and equipment costs and operat-

ing costs from allocations for each pollutant for each activity.For air, water, and solid pollutants, this was essentially done in the CEQ study. For noise, radiation, and pesticides, the following distribution was used:

Estimated Percentage Reduction for Capital and Nonwage Costs

Solid Air Water Waste Noise RadiationPesticide

R & D 05 05 05 05 05 05

Processing 82 36 17 NA 128 40 and operation

Enforcement 12 12 NA 12 12 12

NA=not applicable.

161 2-135

In the preceding table, the R & D and the enforcement categories were held essentially the same in terms of plant and equipment costs between pollutant catepries. This was necessary primarily because of time constraints and a lack of information as to the relative importance of experimental equipment between pollutant categories, or operational problems for R & 1) and enforcement. For processing, the pollution categories except noise were compared against a series of equipment costs to operations believed similar; for example, air was ranked with petroleum in technology, automation, and labor requirements.Radiation was considered to have equipment costs far beyond any available industry data. No information was available that could be comparable to noise pollution problems.

The following table shows the relationships of manufacturing industries between labor costs and equipment costs.

Capital-Labor Ratios for Selected Industries and Estimated C/L Ratios for Pollution Categories

Manufacturing Industries Labor & Equipment Costs

Apparel and related products .0380 Leathergoods .0411 Miscellaneous manufacturing .0704 Furniture and fixtures .0890 Printing and publishing .1101 Electrical equipment and supplies .1190 Fabricated metal .1193 Transportation equipment and supplies .1204 Machinery, except electrical .1328 Instruments and related .1395 Tobacco products .1410 Lumber and Wood products .1532 Textile mill products .1677 Food and kindred .1714 So lid waste .1700

Operating Manufacturing Establishments .1734 Rubber and plastics production .2062 Stone, clay, and glass products .2269

162 2-136

Manufacturing Industries Labor & Equipment Costs

Primary metal .3082 Paper and allied products .3586 Water .3600 Pesticides .4000 Chemicals .4425

Petroleum Products .8232 Air .8200 Men's and women's outerwear .0246 Footwear .0270 Radiation 1.2800 Industrial chemicals .6498 Petroleum refining .9907

4. Operational costs other than directwages were also deducted from the

estimated total expenditures. Thededuction rates were set at 25 percent

for R & D functions, 35 percent for processing,and 30 percent for enforcement.

5. Occupational distributions for each of thethree functional areas of R & D,

operations, and processing and enforcementwere developed from data

available from Industry, Bureau of LaborStatistics, U.S.Census of Population, and from Employment Security.The distribution of resulting occupations were then regrouped intothe four general environmental

occupational categories, makinga reduction for support personnelcommon to most industries (such as secretaries,clerks, etc.)

The results of this distributionare shown in the following table:

Percentage Distribution of Environmental OccupationalCategories and Support Personnel by Selected Areas of Pollution Controla

Environmental Occupational Solid Category Air Water Waste Noise Radiation Pesticides

I.Science and 13.50 9.30 10.40 18.00 16.60 11.60 Research 2-137

Table cont.

Environmental Occupational Solid Category Air Water Waste Noise Radiation Pesticides

II. Technology 29.75 20.05 23.40 40. 00 37.10 25.60 and Education III. Technology 28.25 34,45 27.20 22. 60 22.35 29.40 Implementation IV. Equipment 17.00 26.30 28.60 6. 20 11.25 22.60 Operation V. Support 11.50 9.90 10.40 13. 20 12.70 10.80 Personnel Occupations

Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

aThe table presents the percentage dist ribution for five occupationalareas. Category V was excluded in the final computations and the remaining distributions forced to 100 percent.

Of these five occupational categories, the fifth was excluded from the environment i occupational requirements since it contained occupations that were not directly associated but represented a general need of all industries (such as secretaries, clerks, etc.).

Because the major environmental occupational categories are not defirdtionally the same as standard occupational classification systems currently in use, a matrix system shown below was used to convert them from the DOT.

R & D DOT Codes

Total Professional Clerical Service Operational

Total 100 72 27 1 I 20 20 II 45 45 III 17 7 10 v. 4 V 14 13 1

161 2-138

Operation and Processing DOT Codes

Total Professional Clerical Service Operational

Total 100 14 11 2 73 I 4 4 II 9 9 III 34 1 4 29 IV 45 7 43 V 8 5 2 1

Enforcement Dar Codes

Total Professional Clerical Service Operational

Total 100 32 20 33 15 I 10 10 II 20 20 III 45 2 10 33 iv 15 5 10 V 10 5 5

Through this conversion, it was possible to use occupational distributions data on establishments and industries on a DOT classification basis. This conversion was necessary to obtain some idea of the classes or types of skills or occupatioas required by the various kinds of activities, such as enforcement, R & D, or processing and operations. This is because enforcement activities have a different set of skill requirements than does a. Research and Development operation or the processing of solid waste.

Since there are many occupational distributions available for selected kinds of processes, there was some concern as to what distribution would be most appropriate.

However, the relative broadness of the five occupational categories required considerably less specificity than if 10 or more categories had been used.

165 2-139

5. Average wage level assumptions were based on BLS area wage surveys, hours

and earnings series, survey of scientists and professionals, census data, and

others. This was necessary to arrive at an average annual wage figure for

each of the four occupational categories in order to translate expenditure data

into jobs. The wage levels developed for the four categories are as follows:

Category Average Annual Wage2

Science and research $15,000 Technology and education 10,000 Technology implementation 7,000 Equipment operation 5,000

The wage data was adjusted from the 1961 BLS survey of 1968 to reflect

1970 levels. The remaining computations concerning wage estimates were

adjusted out in terms of the 1970 current dollar figures.

6. It was assumed that time staging problems involving R & D facility investment,

hiring, training and operation levels would occur on a uniform basis throughout

the period from 1970 to 1975. Although this assumption is not the way in which

projects occur, it was necessary in view of the limited data available. More

precisely, the estimated environmental job requirements were determirtcd

for 1970 to 1975, given the estimates of funds. The interpolation between

those two points is on an average annual basis. No attempt was made to allow

for varying growth rates by the occupational cells between 1970 and 1975.

2Annual wage level for support personnel was estimated at $14,000, and the amount of funds required for such personnel were deducted from the total for wages to arrive at the remainder to be distributed across the four major categories. Chapter 3

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION CURRICULUM Two Secondary School Courses

167 3-iii

Table of Contents

Introduction 3 -v

Environmental Studies: A 15 Day Unit 3-1

Unit Outline 3-5

Teacher's Manuals 3-9

Student Readings 3-64

Unit Examination 3-120

Environmental Studies, A Semester Course 3-12 6

Course Outline 3-131

Daily Subject Suggestions 3-134

Appendices 3-153

3-1: An Environmental Ethic 3-155

3-2: The Biosphere 3-158

169 3-v

INTRODUCTION

This chapter contains two courses designed in the unifyingconcept of

environmental education. One isa three-week, self-contained unit focusing on

environmental awareness and pollution. Complete lessonguides, a teacher's manual,

and student readings are provided. The other isa semester-length course which provides breadth and depth to the study of thenatural physical world, natural

resources, and contemporary social problems having environmentalovertones, particularly those which cause environmentaldeterioration. Concept formation and problem-solving leading to solutions involvingindividual and community action and the possiblity of vocational involvementare the underlying features of both the three-week unit and the semestercourse.

163 I. ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES:A 15-DAY UNIT

This three-week unit is a self-containedprogram in environmental education designed to be inserted into existing social science or life sciencecourses. Teachers can directly implement this unit into theirexisting course curricula

as a ready-made plan, it can be used as a source guide, or it can be used as a model for creating similar units.

The primary focus of this unit concerns man's pollutionof the natural

environment, with stress also given to general environmentalawareness, proper

natural resource management, and individual andcommunity involvement. Objectives of this unit include student understanding of man'sunique place in nature; an understanding of the combined forces which have ledto our present environmental crisis, highlighted by wanton destruction and depletionof resources, excessive

pollution and poor urban planning;a quest for student participation in our national

search for a healthy, safe, and balanced environment;and finally, an introduction to occupations in environmental careers.

The methods which can be employed to reach theseobjectives include scholastic

reading (each day's subject has readings which shouldbe duplicated and handed out to the students), classroom discussion of these reading'swith supplementary

lectures given by the instructor, slide-tapeprogram viewing, outdoor activities, and student participation in assigned or chosen projects.

Each day's lesson plan focuseson one particular problem relating to the overall subject. The material given will usually besufficient to sustain the class; however, depending upon the level of student participationand the manner in which it is presented by the instructor, individual daily subjectsmay prove either too

170 3-2

broad to cover in one day or too narrow. This unit is flexible, and teacherscan add or delete assignments or suggestions to coincide with their individual preferences.

Teachers are reminded to carry each topic and the discussion relating to it toa profitable conclusion before embarking on another topic. This unitwas designed with the "average" high school student in mind and thus may not include enough material to sustain an accelerated class a full three weeks; and it most likely contains too much material to cover in that time span for a slower class. Individual teachers will have to make adjustments themselves in this unit tocover problems of this nature.

This entire unit has been favorably tested in the Salt Lake School District,

Salt Lake City, Utah. This final unit reflects and incorporates modifications (both major and minor) which are designed to eliminate all problems in the original unit discovered during the extensive test and evaluation period. Some specificsuggestions not detailed in the daily lesson plans include allowing in-class time for students to work on developing methods, conducting research, or performing tasks relatingto their special unit assignments or projects; in-class time devotedto reading the topic essays, inviting special guest lecturersto lend expertise on particular subjects; and the need to relate the general concepts covered on the national levelto specific ones in the community in which this unit is to be taught.

Distributing the assigned readings to the students may bea problem.It is recommended that the articles be mimeographed and either bound togetherwith a durable cover (using a three-hole punch and allowing the studentsto put the readings inside their notebooks will accomplish this) and distributedat the start of the unit, or given out separately on a day-to-day basis to eliminate their loss. 3-3

On days when the primary lesson calls for eithera presentation of a slide-

tape show or an outdoor activity, alternative plans havebeen included to eliminate

any problems relating to school finance, delays, inclement weather,or teacher preference.

The topic for the second day of this unit, "Manand the Environment, " may

or may not sustain the class for the entire class period. Nomatter how profitable

the in-class discussion may be, teachers ofthis unit must allow time to make

assignments or allow for student choice of projects duelater on in the unit.

Many of these assignments and reports requireconsiderable time to complete; and if the teacher desires their completion bya specific day to cover a particular

subject, it is imperative that these assignmentsbe given at the start of the unit.

A final examination for this unit has beendesigned and included herein. It is believed, however, by thecreators of this unit that this sample test should not be actually used to examine student knowledge,awareness, or problem-solving techniques. Each teacher can use thisexamination as a model but must design his own test which incorporates facts and problems from hisown community and which examines the concepts and information actuallydiscussed in the classroom, not just those drawn from the student readingsor proposed discussion topics.

Teachers using this unit are reminded that theymay need to use additional sources of information to supplement that gleaned from thestudent readings. For a complete listing of available environmental source material, consultthe bibliography in chapter 4 of this handbook. Additionalcharts, graphs, pictures, and cartoons, as well as textbooks,can and should be collected and used when needed during the presentation of this unit. 3-4

Teachers are reminded that they may need to receive specialpermission from their administration to conduct the proposed outdoor activitiesand some of the classroom ones (particularly on Days 7 through 9).Early in this unit arrangements must be made with the school's vocational counselor to givea speech on environmental careers.

Finally, teachers using this unit are reminded thatto be effective, each major discussion topic (population, air pollution, solidwaste management, etc.) must be related to conditions which presently exist in their localcommunities. Most of the ideas and concepts detailed in the teacher's manualsare merely suggestions on how a topic might be discussed. Each teacher should onlyuse these topics, and in particular the phraseology, as it applies to his iocalsituation and classroom.It is recommended that before this or any other similar unit isactually introduced into the classroom, the teacher must thoroughly review theentire package of material and adapt the unit to meet the teacher's, the students,and the community's wants and interests in this field.

Two readings follow in the appendices (designed specificallyfor the teacher) that give extra insight into environmental education, environmentalethics, and the need for ecological understanding. Theycan be used as student readings if the teacher bo desires.

173 3-5

Environmental Studies: Unit Outline

By Day

1. The State of Our Environment

2. Man and the Environment

3. Water: The Environmental Challenge

4. Water: The Dirty Life-giving Resource

5. Air Pollution: The Problem and Risks

6. Air Pollution: Can It be Controlled

7. The Environmental Effects of Solid Wastes

8. A Field Trip to Clean up the Environment (alternative) The Use of Land

9. Depletion of Natural Resources

10. Contamirants and Wildlife

11.A Nature Wall; (alternative) Population Problems

12. Urban Environmental Problems

13. Man--An Endangered Species

14. What Is Being Done

15. Manpower Solutions to Environmental Problems.

By Subject

Environmental Systems

A. Present conditions

B. Natural systems and forces

C. Pollution problems

D. Resource management

r. 3-6

II Natural Resources

A. Water- -cycles, use, and pollution

B. Air--cycle, composition, and pollution

C. Landdistribution, consumption, and depletion of minerals, fuels, and forest products

III Modern Environmental Problems

A. Population

B. Contaminantspesticides and dangerous minerals

C. Noise pollution

D. Crowding problems

E. Technological problems

F. Solid waste disposal

IV Environmental Solutions

A. Pollution abatement and control

B. Individual and community involvement

C. Manpower requirements.

1"f 3-7

TEACHER'S MANUAL

Day 1: "The State of the Environment" (Slide-Tape Show)

Knowledge Objectives:

To know that man is wantonly destroying Earth's naturalresources To know that our natural resources, including air,water, land, minerals, and metals, are limited To know that man is part of the ecosystem andcan work with the environment as well as destroy it

Skill and Attitude Objectives:

To be able to identify at least five major environmental problemsshown in the filmstrip (water pollution, air pollution, solid waste,resource depletion, and noise pollution) To become aware of the seriousness of the environmentalthreats to our lives, as well as the existence of mankind, by asking whatcan be done about these problems Materials: Filmstrip, "The State of the Environment"; script booklet;chapter 1 text from this handbook, "Environmental Awareness" Equipment: Slide projector; tape recorder

Method:

Begin the class by showing the filmstrip withoutany introduction, except requesting the students to identify and write down at least fiveserious problems shown in the filmstrip which affect them. After completingthe filmstrip, have a student write the problems identified by therest of the class on the blackboard.

Then have the students rate the problems listed in the slide-tapeshow from the most serious problem to the least serious. A teacher couldalso have a student rate what our major environmental problemsare. Have the students give reasons for their decisions.

A teacher might ask the class questions similarto the fullowing: 3-8

(1) Why is Earth's supply of fresh water limited? (2) What could happen if the pollutants in the air poison the present atmospheric state and seriously affect plant or animal life, reflect heat (the albedo effect or trap heat (the greenhouse effect), or in any way change the climate? (3) Can our mineral resources last forever? What are the levels of consumption? To what use do we put minerals and fuels? (4) How does our consumer society add to the pollution problem? (5) List the amount of waste produced in one year in the United States and discuss the problem posed by the statistics. (The nationalaverage of solid waste in the United States is 3-1/2 pounds per capita per day.) (a) 360 million tons of garbage (b) 48 billion cans (c) 26 billion bottles and jars (d) 1,500 million tons of solid waste (e) 143 million tons of air pollutants (f) 50 billion gallons of liquid sewage. (6) List the ways man affects nature. (7) What is man's relationship to the environment? (8) How can man help the environment?

Additional or Alternative Method

For the school which does not purchase the slide-tape shows, chapter 1 of this handbook, "The State of our Environment, " could be incorporated into the first day's lesson. The teacher could either hand this out the previous week and discuss the major points covered in class, or could hand it out the first day and allowin- class reading.If he should use the three slide-tape shows in this plan, chapter 1 could still be used as a warm-up reading to give the studentssome background on the overall subject. The same objectives and methods would apply eitherway. A teacher may also want to allow the students to read and then discuss the ideas which appear in the readings inserted specifically for the instructor, Rene Dubos' "The

Biosphere, " and Ron Eber's "An Environmental Ethic." These articlesappear in the appendix to this chapter. 3-9

TEACHER'S MANUAL

Day 2: Man and the Environment (Discussion of Reading) Objectives:

To know that the bioshpere (that area on Earth which supports life) is continually evolving To know that all earthly resources used by man are in short supply, and many are nonrenewable To assign individuals and groups special projects relating to this unit Materials: Reading

Method:

Begin by continuing yesterday's discussion on the state of the environment.

Relate the ideas discussed involving environmental deterioration to the prime cause for that deterioration--man. Discuss the major geological features of Earth (the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere) and the evolution of those features. Have the students catalog the various elements and forces which Earth and its systems provide which are necessary to sustain life.List man's ections which destroy or diminish the quality of those elements and forces.

Discuss with the students the possibility of a future life with some of the major natural resources missing. Discuss the necessity of maintaining a rich and complex

natural environment due to ecological stability, as opposed to man's recent idea

of a simple environment best exemplified by the elimination of pests and growing only one crop in certain areas. Examine the possibility of our present life style continuing with our present values intact, or with them considerably altered.

Discuss the evolution of land in your local community. Have the students identify the major environmental problems in your geographical area. Include pollution in

178 3-10

all its states (solid, liquid, and gaseous) and forms (chemical, biological, thermal,

visual, noise, radiation, etc. ); control and elimination of wildlife; development,

use, and depletion of all natural resources; population growth; and social problems.

Save at least 15 to 20 minutes to make assignments or to permit student choice

of unit topics which will be due throughout the three weeks on particular days.

Make sure each student in the group is fully aware of the scope and nature of his

assignment as well as the day it is due.It is imperative that this be understood by the students, particularly the due date, as many of the following lesson plans are built around the student reports. Although by no means comprehensive, the following is a list of possible topics:

(1) Types of dangerous and long-lived pesticides (2) Use of pesticides in our community (3) The dangers of radiation (4) The use of additives and preservatives in our food (5) The use of forest products in our home, community, and nation (6) The causes of extinction or near-extinction of selected fish, birds, and animals (7) The transportation system in our community (8) The prevalence of noise in our community (9) Visual pollution in our community (10) Social conflicts in our community (11) Urban renewal or city planning in our community (12) Various reports dealing with the extraction and use of minerals and fuels (13) Evalutition studies on land development in our area (14) Major agricultural crops in our area (15) A study of a small, somewhat self-contained biotic community or ecosystem (16) Grow a garden organically (this will take longer than three weeks). (17) Plant various shrubs, trees, or such on the school's campus or on state or municipal property. (18) Evaluation studies on the local community, state, or federal government effort to abate air, water, solid waste, pesticide, thermal, radiation, and visual or noise pollution. (19) Identify the major air, water, or land polluters in your community and analyze the types and harm of the pollution. (20) Analyze our community's solid waste management system as to cost; effects on health; contribution to air, water, and land pollution; handling methods, etc.

179 3-11

(21) Conduct local population distribution studies (22) Show samples and pictures of pollution invarious forms and collected from various sources. (23) Analyze our community's fresh andwaste water systems. (24) Investigate the local production and developmentof electrical power. (25) Identify the major technological changes whichprofoundly affect our lives.

Th.e above topics may each contain subjectssufficient for several individualreports. 3-12

TEACHER'S MANUAL

Day 3: Water--The Environmental Challenge (Discussion of Reading)

Knowledge Objectives:

To know that the Earth's water supply has remained relatively constant for millions of years To know that the water on the Earth is constantly and continuously being recycled To know that less than 0.60 percent of the Earth's water is usable to man.

Skill Objectives:

To list the effects of man's mismanagement of water, including streams, rivers, lakes, estuaries, oceans, and underground water resources To speculate what the future will be like if man continues to mismanage Earth's water supply

Materials: Reading; ditto handout of graphs

Method:

Begin by having the students explain all the ways they use water during the day.

List their answers on the blackboard. Find out what the students would do if the city water supply were disrupted for a week. Inquireas to our dependence upon water. How well do we manage this important natural resource?

Give the students the handout showing the amount of water used in daily activities, the amount of water in men, and the growing demand forwater as population increases.Point out that Earth's supply of water is limited.Inquire as to what effect the growing population will have upon the Earth's water supply? How does nature use this limited vital life-giving resource? (By recycling it.Make sure the students understand the recycling procedure.)

Analyze the remainder of the reading by discussing the following quotes in the reading. Have the students explain:the 'Significance of each of the following: 3-13

(1) "Of all our resources, we have mismanagedwater the most. " (2) "We change rivers into sewers, lagoons and lakesinto cesspools. And we shudder at the tens of billions of dollars thatnow are necessary to correct our derelictions." (3) "We seem more likely to poison ourselvesto death than die of starvation.'" (4) "There could come a time when greatareas of the seas are transformed into deserts 'Silent Springs' in the underwater world."

Ask what major effects pollution, particularlysewage, has on Earth's oceans.

What is happening to Lake Erie and why? Discuss theconcept of eutrophication. How much in the future can we relyupon the seas if we continue as we have in the past? Why are estuaries so important? (Besure the students realize what an estuary is.)

What are the effects of man's actions? Makea hypothesis about the future of man if he does not change his present mismanagementof water. What can you do to help preserve our water supply? 3-14

A."Water Use in Your Home"

WATER USE IN YOUR HOME

Washing dishes 10 Gallons Flushing a toilet 3 Gallons A shower bath 20 to 30 Gallons A tub bath 30 to 40 Gallons A washing machine load 20 to 30 Gallons

The average person uses 20 to 80 gallons of water each day in his home. Here is a list of some normal household uses of water and the amount of water required for each.

B. "The Water in Man"

THE WATER IN MAN The water in the average man makesup 65 percent of his body. This water isin constant motion, moving through membranes from one part of the bodyto another. Water in the cells accounts for 41 percent of thebody's weight. The body of the averageman has about 100 pounds of water (about 50 quarts). Man replacesabout two-and-a-half quarts of water a day to keep hisbody fluid level even. In his lifetime, a man living to theaverage age of 70 will require a minimum of one-and-a-halfmillion gallons of water.

183 r 3-15

C."The Orowing U.S. Water Demand"

THE GROWING U.S. WATER DEMAND Available Water Runoff MOO Billion Gallons Per Day 1000

865

750 ft a 593 ti; a. 0 ga 500 7i 383 (.1

. oc_

.°3 250 248

0 "11 1965 1980 2000 2020 3-16

D. Water Cycle

I. ".. 40.1, Precipitation ciz-a- . . Condensation and precipitation Evanration rtEgaiR. thraudh wini H:Prim 14 100 410. 775

Evaporation

Sea

from Population Resources Environment, Ehrlich and Ehrlich, W.H. Freeman & Co. 1970. Used by permission

E. Water Supply

WATER VAPOR

FRESH WATER

OCEANS ICE

World water supply consists mainly of the salt water contained in theoceans. The world's fresh water comprises only about 3 percent of the total supply;three- quarters of it is locked up in the world's polar ice caps and glaciers and most of the remainder is found as ground water or in lakes. Thevery small amount of water in the atmosphere at any one time (top right) is nonetheless of vital importance as a major energizer of weather systems. FromThe Biosphere, Scientific American. 1970. Used by permission.

. . , -3. 185 3-17

TEACHER'S MANUAL

Day 4: Water--The Dirty Life-Giving Resource (Classroom Project)

Knowledge Objectives:

To know ways that can help reckice water pollution To know about some occupations and professions involved in controllingwater pollution

Skill Objectives:

To speculate about the future if nothing is done to reduce and stopwater pollution To speculate about the future if something is done, andto know how to more profitably use and manage our water resources To list different ways that each student can help reduce water pollution To be willing to apply some of these ways to their daily lives

Materials: Job description handouts; microscope; collected samples of polluted water

Method:

Have the students report on the assignments relating to water pollution given

on Day 2.Allow each student to pet -easily view the different specimens of polluted

water that was collected wider a microscope. With help from a 1M-science teacher,

analyze each specimen for its polluticcontents. (Polluted water is water which shows no normal stream or pond life in it, is generally poisonous, and lacks

sufficient oxygen. ) Keep samples of polluted water collected by students for display during this entire unit. Inquire about the seriousness of the water pollution problem. Examine what can happen if nothing is done about the problem. These activities will help review the materials covered in the last class period and will also allow the students to speculate about the consequences of doing nothing. Write their !deas on the blackboard and discuss them briefly. 3-18

Examine what an individualcan personally do to help reduce water pollution.

Divide the class intogroups of five to eight students, have eachgroup appoint a secretary to record their ideas, and havea 10 to 15 minute brainstorming sesslon. Encourage the students to think ofas many ideas as they can. Then have the

secretary of eadi group list their ideason the board and compile a list of activities

students can do to reduce pollution. (Youcould have the list typedon a ditto and hand it out to the students for reviewpurposes when you get to Day 14.)

Sample List,

(1) Fix lealcy faucets and toiletsto conserve water. (2) Do not run water unnecessarily,particularly when shaving, washing dishes, and car, or watering lawn. (3) Place a brick or two in the toilet tankto reduce the amount of water used; do not flush after each use. (4) Do not use the sinkas a dump for washing down garbage, detergents, and chemicals (i.e., commercial lye products) into the sewers. (5) Never use pesticides thatcan contaminate either the groundor surface water. (6) Do not WM salt in the witaerto free walks of ice. (7) Write letters to local pellutorsrequesting that they clean thewater they use befor2 discharging it into the localrivers, asking about their plans to reduce pollution, and expressing tie students'concern about the problem. (8) Write letters to localgovernment officials encouraging themto enforce and strengthen water pollution laws. (9) Do ax use adored disposablepaper products (i.e.,toilet paper) because the dyes pollute. (10) Do not use a dishwasher--washthe dishes yourself. (11) Use a minimal amount of detergent. (12) Do not constantly useyour garbage dhposal unit, use it sparingly. (13) Take fewer showers and baths,and use less water when taking them.

After discussing what studentscan do, urge each student to pick at least five items and apply it for the duration of thecourse at the minimum, hopefully for life.

From the best and most practicableideas on the list, drawup a water "Bill of Rights," outlining the properuse and maintenance of vm.

187 3-19

Lead the discussion of eliminating water pollution to the specific subject of occupations related to water pollution.Either read or give to students the job description handouts. Ask what they: suggest can be done to help reduce and stop water pollution.

Aquatic biologist Industrial waste inspector Power plant engineer Sanitarian Water purification chemist Water treatment plant operator. After discussing these occupations the teccher could menvou urr.tr job possibilities.

If time pennits, allow time for the students to write lettexo ta government officials insisting on tighter and more far-reaching legig!ation, or to industrial officials who may be responsible for water pollution. Students may also wish to write to their friends, neighbors, or teachers to complain about an environmental practice relating to water polludon. 3-20

Aquatic Biologist

The aquatic biologist studies the interaction of plants and animals living in water with their environment. All conditions of this environment, i.e., water temperature, oxygen content, light, food availability, etc., arehis concern. Because the delicate ecological balance can be easily upset, the aquatic biologist studies methods of achieving or maintaining the system's balance. He works both indoors and out and often spends considerable time in and around water. The physical demands of thie occupation are generally light.

Environmental force^ can upset the ecological balance of aquatic areas; therefore, the aquatic biologist is primarily concerned with those forms of pollution that affect this ecosystem most directly. Water and thermal pollutions are the most immediate concerns because they directly change the existing balance between and within organisms and their environments. The aquatic biologist must be aware of several other pollution forms, such as radiation and pesticides, because of their affect on food availability, water pollution, etc.

Industrial Waste Inspector

The industrial waste inspector examines waste disposal facilities in industrial and commercial facilities to determine the source of pollutants in drainsewers and municipal sewage. He must ensure that industrial and commercial facilitiesare licensed and that their disposal procedures are in compliance with the applicable ordinances or statutes.Based on his findings, he can issue citations to violators or recommend methods uf improving the disposal procednres. Most tests of industrial wastes are conducted in a laboratory, but the industrialwaste inspector can conduct field tests for acidity, alkalinity, cholorine, etc. He also uses gas- detection equipment to test for gas accumulations. The results of his investigations must be formalized in written reports. He is required to travel extensively and much of his work is done outdoors.

Adequate control a wasle disposal to ensure that air a xi water are not polluted is of primary interest to the industrial wr:ste inspector. He must work closely with plant managers and engineers, public officials, and law enforcement personnelto provide technical assistance and recommendations that result inmore efficient waste disposal techrniques.

Power Plant Engineer

The engineer who works with electricity and power has many v.iried and interesting opportunities available to him. He is responsible not cmly for the generating plant facilities, but interconnections of power systems, installation ofnew systems, and expansion of existing plant facilities. He supervisesnew construction and develops

189 3-21

and improves plant methods. Engineersare responsible for the selection of types of fuel, design of plants, and the location of plants. Theyare interested and concerned about the efficient use of power aixi the maximization ofenergy generated at the power plant.

Sanitarian

The sanitarian is concerned with planningfor the cleanliness and safety and the enforcement of laws concerning the handling, dispensing, andconsumption of food. He plans and conducts programs relatedto sanitation and encouraged the enactment of regulations and laws that promote positive health standards.He works closely with other health specialists (suchas public health nurses, engineers, food and drug inspectors) to prevent outbreaks of disease, and heplans for emergency situations should outbreaks of disease or natural disastersoccur. Some sanitarians in large and heavily populated areas may specializein a particular area of work, i.e. , food, waste disposal, air pollution.In rural areas, they are responsible for a wide range of environmental health activities.

The sanitarian usually spends much of his time in thefield.Sometimes he comes into contact with such stwroundings as sewage disposal plants, refuse dumps, etc.

Water Purification Chemist

There are five branches of chemistry: inorganic,organic, analytical, physical, and biochemical. Most chemists specialize in onlyone branch, though the interrelationship between branches allows fora more general application. The diversity of the chemist's work defies precise description. Heis concerned with the properties of matter, its composition, and its relationship whentaken internally. This encompasses virtually every aspect of the universe andman. In a more pragmatic sense, he searches for knowledge about substances, and basedon this and on his knowledge of transformation, he devises some practicable applicationsthat contribute to improving our living standards. He studies, plans, organizes, writes,and discusses his research activities and results.

Most chemists work in laboratories of varioustypes, but occasional projects require working out-of-doors. Thereare constant work hazards involved, but the dangers are minimized by professional competence and safetyprocedures.

The primary concern of the water purification chemistis the chemical composition of -inter, the maintenance of a high level of purity, and therecycling of waste water into usable water. The application of chemistry to environmentalproblems is readily apparent and well known. Specialists develop undertitles such as water chemist, sewage and sanitation chemist, soil chemist, and thelike; however, a 3-22 more general application of chemistry to environmental problems is through research on pollution devices in industry, new and better uses for resources, etc. As industry attempts to conserve resources and in recent years reduce pollution emissions, chemists have a key role to play in both am Ades.

Water Treatment Plant Operator

An operator of a water treatment plant is responsible for seeing that all assigned plant equipment is operadng properly. He works closely with and under the direction of the water treatment plant supervisor. He is responsible for reading, recording, and maintaining the correct chemical balance in the wateras it is processed through the plant facility.Operators must be skilled in the practice and techniques of water purification. 3-23

TEACHER'S MANUAL

Day 5: Air Pollution--The Problem and the Risks (Discussion of Reading)

Knowledge Objectives : To know the major sources of air pollution (automobiles,industry, power plants, space heating, and refuse burning) To know the effect of air pollution on human health, vegetation, property, and the weather

Skill Objectives: To be able to draw a picture or poster depicting a problemrelating to air pollution or water pollution To interpret a chart which shows the relationship of increasingpopulation and air pollution with rising death rate and lung diseases

Materials:

Reading graphs to hand out Equipment: Two open glass jars or beakers

Method: At the beginning of class, have the students explain what they did during the past

24 hours to help reduce water pollution. Discuss the article on airpollution. The teacher may find it necessary to consult with a chemistry teacherfor definitions to certain terms in this reading. Find out what contrfbutes to airpollution. How does the automobile contribute to air pollution? What gases are the worst contaminants?

Analyze the chemical composition of those gases.

At this 1 lint, give the students the two graphs on air pollution anddiscuss them.

Discuss the sources of air pollution, and the major contaminantsof the air (i.e. , carbon dioxide and monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxide,lead, rubber and asbestos particles, etc. ).Ask what the relationship between bigger cities, more airpollution, and the increase In deaths is. What are the effects of airpollution on human health? 3-24

Vegetation? Animals? Property? Weather? How seriousis air pollution in your city? How dirty is the air you breath? Whatare the major sources of air pollution

in your community? To answer these questions,get two open jars of water from the

drinking fountain. Put one somewhere in the classroom (e.g., windowsill .4 the

classroom) and one outdoors. Let them remain exposedfor a couple of days to serve as an air pollution index.Later, view the polluted water undera microscope to indicate how suspended air particles pollute the air.

For the remainder of the class period, have the studentsdraw posters or pictures depicting different problems relatingto water or air pollution (obtain supplies from an art teacher). Discuss the students' workand put the posters on display. ON I

S. II O

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Health Hazards of Air Pollution

Bigger Cities -01. More Air Pollution More Deaths

30 30 5

20 22 15 18 10

10 5

0 0 1950 1955 1960 1965 LUNG CANCER DEATI-LS EMPHYSEMA DEATHS (per 100,000 population) (male-per 100,000 population)

Weather Occasionally Causes Air Pollutionto Intensify

NO INVERSION

Temperature

from Population Resources Environment, Ehrlich and Ehrlich,W. H. Freeman & Co. 1970. Used by permission.. 1P 5 3-27

TEACHER'S MANUAL

Day 6: Air Pollution--Can It Be Controlled? (Classroom Reading)

Knowledge Objectives:

To know what is being done to control and reduce air pollution in the community To know different ways that students can help reduce and control air pollution To know the different occupations and professions involved in reducing and controlling air pollution

Skill Ob ectives:

To suggest ways to help reduce and control air pollution To be willing to immediately apply at least three activities to help reduce air pollution

Materials: One glass jar or beaker; job description handouts; microscope

Method:

Have the students report on the assignments relating to air given on Day 2. Answer any questions that are raised and discuss the reports. (Be sure to check on your school as a local source of air pollution.)

Check the air pollution index experiment jars for contaminants by comparing them with a fresh, clean jar of water.ff it is difficult to see evidence of air pollution with an unaided eye, use a microscope. (Continue the experiment if you choose.) Does it show evidence of pollutants in the air? What does the evidence tell us about the air we breath? Refer to the third graph handed out yesterday. How does the experiment relate to the graph? (Students should see the relationship between air pollution and respiratory diseases.)

Divide the class into groups of five to eight students.Have each group appoint a secretary to record their ideas, and have a buzz session where the students suggest ways that they can help control and reduce air pollution. After 10 to 15 minutes, have

196 : 3-28 the secretaries write the lists on the blackboard and summarize theirideas.(Ditto this list to hand out on Day 14.)

The following list contains some suggestions:

(1) Walk or ride bicycles more, rather than using the automobile. (2) Write letters to government officials insisting on more stringent laws and law enforcement of air pollution ordinances.If there is time at the end of the class, have the students actually write the letters to government officials, local industries, automobile manufacturers, etc. (3) Send a "Polluter of the Week" award to local industries that pollute the air. (4) Keep your automobile properly tuned. (5) Quit smoking. (6) Use lead-free gasoline. (7) Support mass transit systems by using them personally. (8) Join a car pool for work and school. After discussing what each student can do to reduce air pollution, itrm each student to apply at least three of the ideas to their lives for the duration of the course and, hopefully, for life.Have the class design (and hopefully implement) an air

"Bill of Rights." Discuss the occupational need for air pollution control specialists.Either read or give to the students the job descriptions of:automobile mechanic, combustion engineer, and air analyst. Have one student interested in cars explain the operation and function of an automobile's pollution control valve and muffler in controlling pollutants.

Discuss how each of these occupations and devices can help reduce air pollution.

Find out if any students are interested in pursuing a career involved in eliminating air pollution. If time remains in the class period, conduct an impromtu panel discussion on air pollution by debating the principal causes. Choose seven students to sit on the panel, and assign them to assume one of the following roles: moderator, industry 197 3-29

official, educator, student, public citizen, automobile manufacturer,government leader. Have each debate what their group wants done and what it is doing. At the end of the class, instruct the students to bring 3-1/2 pounds of clean, dry trash (cans and bottles that have been rinsed out,newspapers, etc.) to class for the next three days. (You may need special permission from the school principal or Janitorial staff to do this.) Rem!nd the students that the 3-1/2 pounds of trash constitute each one's share of the national per capita per day litter.

138 3-30

Air Analyst

Air analysts are primarily concerned with the determination of airpurity, using a variety of mechanical and chemical tests, and with the control devices used by industry and the effectiveness of these devices. Air analystsare generally responsible to the supervisory branch of the industry or agency and in their capacityprepare reports and suggest methods to improve and maintain the air standards. Most of the work of the air analyst is done inside. He may be occasionally subjected to hazardousenviron- ments, but in ',c1neral this is not a significant problem.

The air analyst is almost exclusively concerned with air purity and the methods of achieving or maintaining this condition.Generally, he performs Us duties within a confined space such as a plant or factory, but he may in some cases analyze air samples as well.

Automobile Mechanic

Automobile mechanics analyze, test, and repair automobiles inan effort to maintain them in good general condition.In a systematic manner, he inspects, ad- justs, and repairs or replaces automotive parts and thereby keeps the mechanism safe and trouble-free. The work usually requires considerable stamina and physical exertion and is generRlly technical in nature and often requires considerable imagina- tion if it is performed well. Working conditions are mostly indoors with occasional outdoor applications.

Automobile mechanics must remain alert to the fact thata properly operating automobile uses fewer resources an: emits fewer pollutants. Contemporary legislation requires increased use of pollution control devices, all of which require close attention by the mechanic to ensure proper operation. Noise and air pollutionsare, in this context, the most important areas of concern.

Conthustion Engineer

The combusion engineer tests fuels, designs heating equipment that will efficiently use fuel, and tests for the result of the burning process. He attempts to determine which fuels are best suited for a specific pi ocess, hence providing optimumresource use and minimum fuel consumption. The combustion engineer works primarily indoors and obviously encounters hazards in the course of his activity. The work isnot generally physically taxing.

Minimizing resource usage by an efficient burning process anda minimum level of air pollution poses a major challenge to the combustion engineer.This already specialized area of the engineering profession is unlikely to becomemore specialized. However, the combustion engineer must perform his basic functions cognizant of the pollution and resource conservation considerations. 3-31

TEACHER'S MANUAL

Day 7: Environmental Effects of Solid Wastes (Discussion of Reading) Knowledge Objectives:

To knew that the accumulation of solid waste is aesthetically unpleasantand physically disturbing To know that solid waste affects human health by providing refugesfor rodents and breeding places for flies, and by polluting the air,, water, and land To know that excessive accumulations of solid wasteare an indication of a wasteful society To know that the cost of cleaning up after Americans in New York Cityalone runs into millions of dollars, and into the hundreds of millions for tht.. ^ntire United States

Skill Ob'ective:

To suggest ways that individuals can help solve this problem Materials: Reading

Method:

Have the students explain what they did in the past 24 hoursto help reduce air pollution.Put the trash the students brought somewhere in theroom, preferably in a place where it gets in everyone's way. Discuss the reading by asking what general effects solid wastes have on the environment. Specifically, how doesit effect the air? Water? Land? Human health? Discuss the student's feelings and emotions based upon the reading. How does the trash in the room make them feel? Discuss the creation of this trash and other in the United States.Read the testimony of John

DeLury to the students and discuss the implications of hisstatements.

Inquire about what your community does concerning solidwaste. Have the students give their reports on solid waste. Generally discuss whatcan be done to solve the solid waste problem. What can individuals do? If time permits, have 3-32

the students suggest activities that they could doto help reduce the solidwaste problem in their community. Specifically,get the students interested inconsuming less and in discarding less. Discuss the concepts ofrecycling, disposablepackaging, planned obsolescence, etc. Have the studentsdiscuss these ideas withtheir parents and get their reactions.

If time allows, have the students developa "Consumers and DisposersCode" for solid products and eventual wastes (see Day14 for suggestions).Remind the students to bring 3-1/2 poundsof clean, dry rubbishagain tomorrow. 3-33

Testimony of John DeLury, President of the Uniformed Sanitationmen'sAssociation of New York City, before a Subcommitteeon Education, U.S. House of Representatives.

The faddists can always find another fad, butwe sanitation men, the practical ecologists of the city streets, must stay with the almostimpossible job of striving to keep the capital city of the world clean...

The cities are where the people are....The cities are where the air pollution is.... The cities are where the congestion, slums,rats, vermin, dirt, and decay are.

New York, the city I know best, cannot nowcope with the pollution of its streets and its garbage problem, in spite of its budgetary allocation.

Yes, additional funds for additional manpower and equipmentare clearly necessary. And yet without an educated citizenrymore money won't buy the needed results. Our city is a polluted city. The pollution ofour streets is a lasting impression with which visitors leave.Is this inevitable? Is it a necessary byproduct ofour size, density and congestion? Almost eight million human beings livehere. They occupy 742,582 residential dwellings.Daily they are joined by another two million people coming from the suburban bedrooms around the cityto make their living here.

Two million automobiles find their way into Manhattan eachday.

This population, living, working, and consuming here,generates more than 10,000 tons of garbage a day. They abandon 60,000cars on our streets which they no longer want. Our 6,000 miles of streets are, for many, their litter baskets and garbage cans.

How does the city cope? What does the administration doto prevent the people from choking on their own swill and being asphyxiated by thegas fumes of their own cars?

Three hundred fifty-three million dollars is the cost.That's the current annual budget for the Environmental Protection Administration.More than half that amount goes for sanitation serviices. That makes possible the daily employment of 14,000 people, of whom 10,500 are sanitationmen. They are the men who go into the 6,000 miles of streets. They are the men whogo into the doors of each of the 742,582 dwellings. They are the ones who collect the 10000tons of garbage a day, and they clean the 12,000 curb-miles in the city.

They use 3,047 trucks of all types. Thecost of this equipment is $60 million.

They dispose of this waste in eight huge incinerators, fourlandfills, and eight marine stations, using cranes, bulldozers, 40-yard trucks,conveyors, barges, and tugs whose costs exceed $30 million. 202

, - tr)' 3-34

That's the city's effort.In addition, another 2, 500 tons of garbage,waste, and construction debris collected privatelyare disposed of by the city.

The end is not in sight.Each year sees an escalation in wastegeneration of 9 percent. And this is the situation throughout thecountry. A leading business magazine recently estimated the cost of waste removalto be $5 billion a year nationally, with a cost increase of 20 percent a year. (Forbes magazine,January 15, 1970, p. 18.) Yes more money is needed from all sourceslocal,state, and federal. More capital equipment is required.But in addition, the people havea role: they can and have to help.

People, not some impersonal corporation,are the street litterers.People abandon their cars and scatter garbageon the city streets.If this pollution can be curbed at the source, thenour city will be cleaner and the nation's cities will be cleaner.

20 I-q3 3-35

TEACHER'S MANUAL

Day 8: A Field Trip to Clean up the Environment (Outdoor Activity) Ob ective: To clean up the litter around the school

Materials: Brown paper bags for every student

Method:

Have the students deposit their trash in the location designated for itin the classroom.

Ask the students if they noticedany litter and trash in their neighborhood and around the school. Find out if any was deposited by themor if they had the desire to clean it up.Tell them that today the class is going on a field trip--to cleanup the litter around the school.Either go as an entire class or divide them intogroups with assigned aret.o to clean.Have them report back to class 5 to 10 minutes before the bell rings and to bring the litter they pickedup to help build up the pile of trash in the classroom. When they return, let them discuss their experiences.

Remind students to bring 3-1/2 pounds of clean, dry rubbish from homeagain tomorrow. Because of inclement weather or personal teacher preference, be prepared to employ the alternative plan on "Land Use" for today. 3-36

TEACHER'S MANUAL

Day 8: Land Use (alternative subject) (Classroom Project) Ob ectives:

To understand the broad use of land in theUnited States To knew the different ways in which landis used in and around your community To speculate on the differentways in which land in your community can beput to use To plan for urban and rural improvementby developing a model for improved land use

Materials: A map or maps showinghow land is used in the United States (i.e., forests, urban areas, transportation, agriculture,grazing, etc.); a map of yourcom- munity giving street plans, building locations, parksites, etc.,obtained from the chamber of commerce or taxassessor

Method:

Discuss the use of land in the United Statesas outlined on the attached chart.

Use the classroom maps to pointout land use, total areas of land in the world,and

land classification. Compare theUnited States (which has a largepercentage of land

capable of productive use) with othercountries which only use smallpercentages of their land (those with large jungles, deserts,tundra, etc.) and those which have totally developed the land; i.e. ( Luxembourg,Holland, etc.).

With the maps of your local community,classify all the land within certain areas (assign different ones to different students) withregard to streets, houses, gardens, parks, industry, service,commerce, waterways, undeveloped and wilderness areas, etc. Find out bothacreage and percentages involved. This assignment could be completed either withmaps or through a student-conducted survey during or after school hours.

Discuss the problems of solid waste pickupand disposal in view of the multiple areas of collection.Examine each type of land use interms of functional characteristics,

205 3-37 aesthetic contributions, potentialsfor solid waste (maybe theentire structure), and needed improvements which wouldmake the local environmentprettier, healthier, or more functional.

If time allows, develop planswhich an urban planner mightuse to redevelop your community. Attempt to providefor more open space in theform of malls, trails, recreationareas and parks, better transportationmethods and systems, well distributed social institutions(schools, hospitals, churches,libraries, fire stations, shopping areas,etc. ), localized industry, anda better balance between natural growth and artificialconstruction.

206 3-38

Land Use in the United States (excluding Alaska and Hawaii)

Acres Type of Land Use (in millions) (millions) Perce nt

Fortsts (public, 168; private, 245;corporate, 76) 489 25.5

Grazing (public, 177; private, 223) 400 21.0 Wastelands (not in human use) 45 2.3

Farmlands (actually producing crops) 781 41.5

Military 25 1.2

National parks and recreationalareas 24 1.2

Flooded (rivers, lakes, etc., excludingGreat Lakes) 16 0.8

Human Use (homes, 33; roads, 53; parks,12; 124 6.5 industry, 26)

Tota Is 1,904 100.0 3-39

TEACHER'S MANUAL

Day 9: Depletion of Natural Resources (Discussion of Reading) Knowledge Objectives:

To know that man is using Earth's naturalresources much faster than they can be replenished To know that the present commonway of treating solid waste adds to the depletion of our natural resources To know how recycling metals, glass,paper, etc. , can help preserve Earth's natural resources

Skill Objectives:

To list the different items that contain naturalresources and are found in the classroom To devise a way toremove the trash students brought to the classroom Materials: Trash in classroom; reading

Method:

Focus attention on the pile of trash in the classroom.How much has been

collected in just three days with students bringingin 3-1/2 pounds per day (which

represents the national per capita average)? How much solidwaste does your classroom throw away in a week, basedon the national average? A month? A year? How much waste would your school studentbody throw away in a year? Does this give you an idea of the problem of solidwaste disposal? Have students report on local attempts to dispose of solid waste.

Repeat briefly the questioning beganon Day 7 by asking the students if disposing of rubbish is the only problem caused by thewaste in the classroom? What problems does disposal create with the air, water, and land?What natural resources and minerals are being thrown away? Analyzethe trash in the classroom for natural resources (i.e. , tin, glass, paper, wood to make thepaper, trees for wood, etc.).

208 3-40

Discuss the reading. What is happeningto the natural resources in the United

States? Are Earth's naturalresources limited? Why does the author callman an

"ecological freak"? What is the "double dilemma"of the nation in regardto our natural resources? Howcan proper solid waste management help solve this dilemma?

Why does the author refer toman as an endangered species? (Endangered becausewe

are using our natural resources without much thought for the future.)

Discuss other forms of naturalresources, including timber products, wildlife,

land, etc. Find out what naturalresources were needed to build and create themany

different articles in the classroom.Have the students survey the classroomand write

their answers on the blackboard (includebrick walls, wood floors, metals,papers, clothes, water to make brick, etc.). Howmany natural resources were needed just

to make the classroom? Now think of all thoseneeded to build the schoolor other buildings.

Finally, pose the problem to the studentsof how the class is going to get rid

of the trash in the classroom.(Use one of their suggestions.)Examine what recycling is and what materialscan be recycled.Is there a recycling plantor

organization in your community? Ifnot, start one.(Reynolds Aluminum recycles its cans, the Coors Company recycles beercans, glass is recycled, newspapers are recycled. ) Ask how the studentscan help in the recycling process. Assignsomeone to find out about the recycling programs inyour community. Pick whatever method the students choose, and dispose of theaccumulated trash. Discuss how the accumulation of solid wastes is closely tied to theconsumption of products. Have the students examine the products theyconsume and compare according to the amount ofwaste produced. 3-41

TEACHER'S MANUAL

Day 10: Contaminants and Wildlife (Discussion of Readings)

Knowledge Objectives:

To know that mercury pollution, pesticides, and trace metal pollution is another threat to man's health and environment. To know that man is replacing nature with an ugly and limiting environment Skill Objectives:

To speculate about the problems man would encounter without various forms of wildlife To list different birds and animals whose existence is threatened by man's destruction of nature Materials: readings

Methods:

Discuss the readings on mercury and pesticide pollution. Why are they

(mercury and DDT) considered pollution problems? Howcan too high a concentra-

tion of them affect man? Discuss the food-chain concept.Is mercury a forewarning that other trace elements dangerous to man may be polluting our food and water

supply? Is there any relationship between the life of wastemercury and pesticides like DDT? (Yes; both continue to exist, accumulate, and pollute the environment for a long time after their original uses. )

Ask the students to report on other environmental problems that they found showing how man Is destroying or changing the environment. The reports could include pesticides, food additives, destruction of forests, animals and birds, destruction of cities due to overcrowding, poor planning, slicing the land with highways, traffic jams, destroying beauty with advertising means suchas billboards and neon signs, etc. Ask what endangered birds and animals have incommon. What 3-42

are the major causes of extinction? (Dircct assault, changes in environment, inatility

to adapt, etc.) Why are present species dying out? (Because of man's destruction of the natural habitat and man's killing them with poisons for sport and as predators. )

What can be done to save them? Identify endangered species (from the master list) which inhabit your general geographical area, and examine the causes of their near extinction.

Discuss the varieties of hunting which take place in your area, listing all species hunted. Analyze the economic, ecological, and psychological reasons given by various groups to justify hunting in our industrialized society.Examine in parti-

, cular the term "sportsman" when used as a synonym for hunter. The teacher might also discuss the ecological necessity for predators.

Reports on other topics could include: Should lumbering companies be allowed to cut down the timeless giant Redwood trees for profit? Should advertising companies be allowed to clutter and destroy the landscape with their signs and billboards? (For some excellent pictures showing this problem see Peter Blake, God's Own Junkyard.)

Should highway builders be allowed to destroy parks and recreation areas, to divide neighborhoods and cut communities in half to build more superhighways? What is man creating to replace the solitude, the peace, and beauty of nature? What can be done about all these problems? 3-43

ENDANGERED SPECIES OF THE UNITED STATES

A species is considered endangered when it isso reduced in number or so threatened by loss of change in its habitat that it is in danger ofextinction in the wild.

MAMMALS Eskimo curlew Hawaiian stilt Hawaiian hoary bat Puerto Rican plain pigeon Indiana bat Puerto Rican parrot Delmarva Peninsula fox squirrel Ivory-billed woodpecker Morro Bay kangaroo rat Red-coakaded woodpecker Salt marsh harvest mouse Hawaiian crow (alala) Eastern timber wolf Small Kauai thrush (puaiohi) Red wolf Large Kauai thrush San Joaquin kit fox Molokai thrush (Olomau) Black-footed ferret Nilhoa millerbird Florida panther Kauai oo (oo aa) Florida manatee (sea cow) Crested honeycreeper (akohekohe) Key deer Hawaii akepa (alrepa) Columbian white-tailed deer Maui akepa (akepuie) Sonoran pronghorn Oahu creeper (alauwahio) Molokai creeper (kakawahie) Akiapolaau BIRDS Kauai akialoa Kauai and Maui nukupuus Hawaiian dark-rumped petrel Laysan and Nihoa finches California least tern Ou Hawaiian goose (nene) Palila Aleutian Canada goose Maui parrotbill Laysan duck Bachman's warbler Hawaiian duck (koloa) Kirtland's warbler Mexican duck Dusky seaside sparrow Brown pelican Cape Sable sparrow California condor Florida Everglade kite (snail kite) Hawaiian hawk (io) REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS Southern bald eagle American peregrine falcon American alligator Arctic peregrine falcon Blunt-nosed leopard lizard Attwater's greater prairie chicken San Francisco garcer snake Masked bobwhite Puerto Rican boa Whooping cr ane Santa Crtm long-toed salamander Yuma clapper rail Texas blind salamander California clapper rail Houston toad Light-footed clapper rail Hawaiian gallinule Hawaiian coot 3 .44

FISHES

Shortnose sturgeon Devil's Hole punfish Longjaw cisco Commanche Springs pupfish Lahontan cutthroat trout Tecopa pitpfish Piute cutthroat trout Warm Springs pupfish Greenback cutthroat trout Owens River pupfish Gila trout Pahrump killfish Arizona (Apache) trout Big Bend gambusia Humpback chub Clear Creek gambusia Mohave chub Pecos gambusia Pahranagat bonytail Unarmored threespine stickleback Moapa dace Gila topminnow Woundfind Fountain darter Co lora& River squawfish Watercress darter Kendall. Warm Springs dace Maryland darter Cui-ui Blue pike 3-45

TEACHER'S MANUAL

Day 11: A Nature Walk (Outdoor Activity) Ob ectives:

To enjoy being close to nature To observe the different forms of plantand animal life around the school To observe and list theways man has destroyed or hurt the naturalenvironment To realize that man isas much a part of the natural environmentas the plants and animals

Method:

Continue the student reports begun the lasttwo days which were not finished during those class periods. Divide thestudents into the following threegroups to make some outdoor surveys:

Group 1 should list all the birds, animals,insects, worms, spiders, etc., that they can locate near the school.They should observe the animals' relationship tonature. Group 2 should list all the plants (andmay bring carefully picked specimens) around the school. They should observethe plants' relationship to nature. Grovp 3 should list the changes aroundthe school that show howman has destroyed the natural environmentor detracted from it.

Let the groups spend 30 minutes makingtheir survey and then meet at the football field (or similar area) ratherthan the classroom. Have the studentsreport the findings of their surveys.

Discuss again how man fits into the naturalenvironment.Is he a part of nature or separate from it? Examine how dependentman is upon nature. For the remainder of the period, let the students sitor lie on the grass and enjoy a few minutes of silence in a natural atmosphere.

Because of incumbent weatheror teacher preference, be prepared to employ the alternative plan, "Population Problems,"for this day.

"214 3-46

TEACHER'S MANUAL

Day 11: Population Problems (alternative subject) (Discussion of Reading)

Ob' ectives:

To know that uncontrolled population growth is a severe problem in the United States and throughout the world To know that porilation pressures seriously affect natural resource depletion, cause stresses on world food production, and contribute to pollution To speculate on the "quality of life" in the United States and throughout the world if population continues to grow at its present rates To know various means used to control population growth

Materials: Reading; population graphs

Methods:

Discuss the reading and charts, making sure the students understand birth rates (number of live births per 1,000), death rates (number of deaths per 1,000), growth rates (birth rate minus death rate), and fertility rates (number of births per

1,000 women, ages 16 through 44).

Ask the students what the major problems associated with large populations are, considering sheer numbers and overconcentration. What national, religious, and ethnic groups support or oppose population management? What are the main methods used to control births? Discuss the world's future, considering a population about as it is now (with

3.5 billion people), if the population should grow drastically (7 to 10 billion), or if the population should shrink (1 to 2 billion or less).

Discuss the Malthusian theory of population and food growth (population increases geometrically [1, 2, 4, 8, 16], food supplies increase arithmetically [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]).

Use some handy device (matches, toothpicks, etc.) to show these progressions.

This theory was originally proposed early in the 18th century and was widely criticized. Does it have any truth in it according to modern predictions and growth?

215 3-47

Discuss the various methods used to judge the life quality of the people(the GNP, the NNA, etc.).

If time allows, conduct an in-class surveyon the size of the students' existing families, the proposed sizes of their future families, and theenvironmental cost of each added birth to their communities. In the Year 2000: THE POPULATION BOMB Growth By Geographical Area Where the People Will Be Millions YEAR 2000 og°G sc.* ..°041.%*** 0 BILLIONS' 1.5 Northern America 1969* 226 2000 388 13801990 40.."* to* 4.55.8 OceaniaEuropeLatin Americo (United States) (204) 456275 18 (350) 571756 32 19601970 3.03.6 CommunistIndiaU.S.S.R.Africa China 755542248338 1,5001,259 402860 1930 2.0 Other Asian countries 3,572 714 7,5221,754 1900 1.6 Population in Millions*Preliminary Based on assumption of constant fertility levels basedSource: on Agency United forNations International data. Development, 450550500 350400 Projections of the Population of the U.S., 1900 to 2015 thethan end doubled of the andcentury. is expected U.S. population, to double a againlittle overWithin by 70 years world population has more 300250 280200 million andin 1970, 370 millionis expected by the to year reach 2000. between 100150200 Projection at Approximately 50 I I I Sower Department of Health. Education and Welfare I Current Levels of Fertilityi I 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 COPYRIGHT 1970 CONGRESSIONAL QUARTERLY INC. 3-49

Population EstimatesAccording to U.N. "Constant Fertility, NoMigration, " 1960-2000, in Major Areas and Regionsof the World (Population in thousands)

Major areas and regions 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 WORLD TOTAL 2,998,1803,297,482 3,640,9704,042,7614,519,1465,088,1125,763,5776,564,5847,522,218 More developed regions° 976,414 1,037,2091,100,3401,168,2021,241,6601,319,8571,401,9801,488,187 1,580,049 Less developed regions° 2,021,7662,260,273 2,540,6302,874,5593,277,4863,768,2554,361,5975,076,3975,942,169 A. East ,4sia 794,144 863,258 942,2561,034,3641,142,6091,272,2361,424,5271,601,0161,810,678 1. Mainland region 654,181 711,000 776,000 852,000 942,0001,051,0001,180,0001,330,0001,509,000 2. Japan 93,210 98,011 103,341 108,861 114,055 118,457 121,948 124,809 127,160 3. Other East Asia 46,753 54,247 62,915 73,503 86,554 102,779 122,579 146,207 174,518 B. South Asia 865,247 975,9401,105,5631,259,4561,446,1531,674,2351,952,0502,290,2462,701,865 4. Middle South Asia 587,277 660,148 746,062 848,430 972,5061,123,8801,308,5341,534,394 1,811,220 S. South-East Asia 218,866 248,641 282,523 322,149 370,409 430,006 502,966 590,983 6. South-West Asia 696,620 59,104 67,151 76,978 88,877 103,238 120,349 140,550 164,869 194,025 C. Europe 424,657 442,416 460,136 478,209 496,448 514,820 533,108 551,655 570,785 7. Western Europe 134,536 139,157 143,583 148,036 152,284 156,621 161,183 8. Southern Europe 166,123 171,520 117,488 123,273 129,224 135,221 141,304 147,498 153,492 159,291 164,962 9. Eastern Europe 96,852 101,654 106,234 111,105 116,313 121,475 126,498 10. Northern Europe 131,411 136,213 75,781 78,332 81,095 83,847 86,547 89,226 91,935 94,830 98,090 D. 11. USSR 214,400 233,411 232,498 272,415 294,594 318,896 345,084 372,800 402,077 E. Africa 272,924 306,563 347,791 397,830 458,251 531,213 619,748 728,013 860,462 12. Western Africa 85,973 98,535 114,007 132,973 156,165 184,631 219,799 263,572 317,915 13. Eastern Africa 75,032 82,120 90,910 101,579 114,355 129,384 146,976 167,803 14. Middle Africa 192,725 28,345 30,559 33,303 36,578 40,444 45,001 50,389 56,832 64,427 15. Northern Africa 65,955 75,351 86,712 100,408 116,884 136,843 161,215 191,104 227,748 16. Southern Africa 17,619 19,998 22,859 26,292 30,403 35,354 41,369 48,702 57,647 F. 17. Northern America 198,664 213,840 130,409 249,840 272,238 297,348 324,955 354,914 388,264 G. Latin America 212,431 245,080 283,899 330,488 386,856 455,131 537,450 636,447 755,579 18. Tropical South America 112,479 131,334 153,838 180,933 213,792 253,728 302,118 360,626 431,302 19. Middle America (mainland) 46,811 54,926 64,775 76,878 91,921 110,535 133,312 161,037 194,816 20. Temperate South America. 32,796 35,896 39,287 43,018 47,123 51,347 56,587 61,966 67,786 21. Caribbean 20,345 22,924 25,999 29,659 34,020 39,221 45,433 52,818 61,675 H. Oceania 15,713 16,974 18,418 20,159 21,997 24,233 26,655 29,493 32,508 22. Australia and New Zealand 12,687 13,635 14,669 15,859 17,202 18,689 20,298 22,043 23,977 23. Melanesia 2,166 2,339 2,549 2,800 3,095 3,444 3,857 4,350 4,931 24. Polynesia and Micronesia 860 1,000 1,200 1,500 1,700 2,100 2,500 3,100 3,600

Including Europe, the USSR, Northern America, Japan, Temperate SouthAmerica, Australia and New Zealand. P. Including East Asia less Japan. SouthAsia. Africa. Latin America less Temperate South America and Oceania less Australia and New Zealand. 3-50 Population Growth

2,000

Population (Millions)1,000

10,000 8,000 6,000 4,000 2,000 Present Years Ago

Arithmetic population curve plots the growth of human populationfrom 10,000 years ago to the present. Such a curve suggests that the population figureremained close to the base line for an indefinite period from theremote past to about 500 years ago, and that it has surged abruptly during the last 500years as a result of the scientific-industrial revolution.

10" ......

Population10'

10' 1,000,000 100,000 10,000 1,000 100 10 Years Ago

Logarithmic population curve makes it possibleto plot, in a small space, the growth of population over a longer period oftime and over a wider range.Curve, based on assumptions concerning relationship oftechnology and population as shown in chart, reveals three populationsurges reflecting toolmaking or cultural revolution, agricultural revolution, and scientific-industrialrevolution.

The abrive graphs from Scientific American, September 1960. "TheHuman Population, " by E. S. Deevey, Jr. Used by permission.

21 9 3-51

Population Growth Total Assumed Density Population Area Populated Years Ago Cultural Stage per Square Kilometer (Millions)

Lower .00425 .125 1,000,000 Paleolithic

Middle .012 1 300,000 Paleolithic

11111111 Upper MEM NM .04 3.34 25,000 Paleolithic 411111111011111

mr. 10,000 Mesolithic VIE 5.32

Village Farming -Ipi:: 1.0 6,000 1111 86.5 and Early Urban 1111111N .04 N 011111111.111

Village Farming 2,000 1.0 133 and Urban nomon

Farming 310 3.7 545 and Industrial

;timing 210 4.9 728 and Industrial

Farming MO 160 FNENM 6.2 906 and Industrial Wain

Farming 60 11.0 1,610 and Induitrial *331$4* ZI?s,SS*

Farming 10 and Industrial 16.4 2,400

:.,WStgago3C; Farming M.M3 A.D. 2000 and Industrial :gtEE4.:3:3:H033M 46.0 6,270 Population growth, from inception of the hominid line one million years ago through the different stages of cultural evolution to A.D. 2000 is shown in the chart above. In lower Paleolithic stage, population was restricted to Africa, witha density of only .00425 person per square kilometer and a total population of only 125, 000. By the Mesolithic stage, 10, 000 years ago, hunting and food gathering techniques had spread the population over most of the earth and bropght the total to 5, 320,000.In the village farming and early urban stage, population increased to a total of 86,500, 000 and a density of one person per square kilometer in the Old World and .04 per square kilometer in the New World. Today the population density exceeds 16 persons per square kilometer, and pioneering of the antarctic continent has begun. From Scientific American, September 1960. "The Human Population, " by E. S. Deevey, Jr. Used by permission.

220 3-52

TEACHER'S MANUAL

Day 12: Urban Environmental Problems--Noise (Discussion of Reading) PollutionEffects of Crowding

Knowledge Objectives:

To know that intense noise can cause both permanent and temporary loss of hearing To know that intense noise can impair both your physical and mental health To know that high concentrations of people crowded in small areas cause severe social problems

Skill Objectives:

To experience the effects of severe crowding The students should be able to identify four effects that noise has upon man-- hearing loss, speech disruption, loss in performance capacity, and annoyance Materials: Tape on noise; reading Equipment: Tape recorder

Method:

When the students enter the classroom, have them either stand or sit (on floor or at desks) very close together. Then start by playing the tape. Have the students classify the tape by that which is noise and that which is sound. (The tape begins with a quiet interlude, with increasing amounts of noise being added until it reaches a high intensity of noise. To personalize the activity, create your own tape of loud student activities in your classroom and school and play today.)

When it finishes, the teacher should remain silent until the students voluntarily react to the tape or until a couple of minutes pass. Ask the students what the message of the tape is. Which portions were sound or noise? To dramatize this, a teacher would have a student stand in front of the class and try to summarize the students' reactions, while at the same time playing the loud part of the tape. Analyze the 3-53 problem immediately created by noise pollution. In what ways does excessive noise affect the health or performance of man? Why are some noises tolerated and others not? List those items that create noise pollution: motorcycles, jack- hammers, etc. Discuss the types of noise pollution which existin your community.

Examine what is being done to eliminate these problems. List the major contributors to noise pollution in your community. Assign students to watch for examples of noise pollution to report to the class tomorrow. Discuss the reading, paying particular attention to the health effects of excessive noise. Discuss the concept and range of "decibels."

When discussion on the effects of noise is over, begin to analyze the class's particular conduct today which the crowded situation created.Examine any conflicts created by this crowding and relate them to similar situations of life (for example, ball games, buses or subways, airplanes, reception rooms, bathrooms, gymnasiums, etc.). Examine the effect severe crowding has on mental concentration, physical health, and human spirit and the concepts of freedom (to move, to speak, etc.).

List on the blackboard any and all disturbing situations relating to crowding and waiting, particularly any conflicts which develop due to them.Relate to the need in urban centers for parks, bicycle and pedestrian paths, open space, etc. Discuss examples in your community of both poor and good planning relative to crowding.

tiurr, ,..11;,iit ore 3-54

TEACHER'S MANUAL

Day 13: Man--An Endangered Species? (Discussion of Reading)

Knowledge Objectives:

To know that municipal, state, and federal governments are considering and passing legislation to pr otect our environment To know that overpopulation and unbridled technology are two of the general reasons for the destruction of the environment To know that overpopulation and unbridled technology not only destroy the environment but threaten the continued existence of man

Skill Ob ectives:

To summarize the problems studied that relate to the environment To reach a generalization about the causes of the environmental crisis Materials: Reading

Method:

Begin by summarizing all the problems of the environment studied thus far in the unit. Examine in detail the problem areas and the problem causes. Look for general causes underlying all the problems summarized on the blackboard. Include such things as overpopulation, technology abuses, lack of economic incentives or penalities, man's view of nature, social and cultural change, man's desire for material wealth, and man's wasteful attitude (frontier psychology).Discuss the article. How does overpopulation threaten mankind? How does unbridled technology threaten mankind? Summarize the seriousness of all these problems. Examine the level of awareness of most people. Determine if man is an endangered species.

Have the students Support their answers. Determine how man can solve these problems.

Have the class write a paragraph explaining what each thinks are the main causes of the present environmental crisis.x. Javie the class use data from the 3-55

materials studied in this unit to support their answers.(If time permits, divide the class into groups and have them write a series of questions for a questionnaire they would administer to see how aware parents, friends, and other students are of the problems of the environment.)

224 3-56

TEACHER'S MANUAL

Day 14: What Is Being Done (Slide-Tape Show) Knowledge Objectives:

To know ways that individualshave helped conserve their localenvironment To know seven major problemareas of the environmental crisis To know that thereare solutions to the pollution problems,some simple, others complex and expensive

Skill Objectives:

To establish goals forconserving the environment To identify at least ten solutionsto the pollution problems

Materials: Reading; slide-tape show,"Solutions to Environmental Problems" Equipment: Slide projector,tape recorder

Method:

In Day 13 the class determinedsome causes of the environmental problems. Today the class will look at some solutions.Inquire as to how an individualcan help

solve the problems of theenvironment. Review the students'suggestions developed on previous days. (A dittoed handout summarizing the students' suggestionscould be given to the students for review paposes and to see if they are still followingtheir own recommendations.) Determine whatgroups of citizens can do to help protectthe environment. A discussion of thereading will help answer thequestion. Show the slide-tape show. Have the studentsidentify the seven problemareas described in the filmstrip and list at leastten solutions (the filmstrip givesmany more) to the problems of the environment. Atthe conclusion of the filmstrip,discuss the solutions listed by the students. Near theend of the period, handout the combined U.S. Depart- ment of Interior-General Services Administration"Environmental Action Guide" and discuss it with the students. Compareit with the students' ideas.

225 3-57

Try to stimulate interest in having the studentsimplement their ideas and the ideas from the reading and the "EnvironmentalAction Guide." Start committees, centers, and groups whose aim it is to work for environmentalimprovement.

If the filmstrip is not purchased byyour school or district, hand out the Action

Guide at the start of the class and beginyour discussions with it.Spend more time organizing action groups for both school and community. 3-58

ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION GUIDE Goals:

(1) Good, balanced, community-wide planning (2) Good zoning ordinances, strongly enforced (3) Effective conservation agencies (4) Effective pollution control measures for air andwater (5) Modern methods of solid waste disposal; endto open burning (6) Effective sign and billboard control (7) Junkyard screening and control (8) Adequate open space (9) Playgrounds, parks, and other recreation areas (10) Attractive, convenient, downtown malls (11) Protection of watercourses, naturalareas, especially in or near cities (12) Protection of wildlife (13) Trail systems for walking, bicycling, andjogging (14) Conservation education in schools (15) Underground utility lines (16) Proper maintenance for public places: parks, citystreets, etc. (17) Personal code of conservation ethics foreveryone Steps to avoid waste:

(1) Use disposable paper and plastic goods onlyas necessary. (2) Buy products in returnable bottles. (3) Wash and reuse plastic bags and glass and plasticcontainers rather than throw them away. (4) Try to buy items thatare not excessively packaged. (5) Buying one large-size product rather than severalsmaller sizes or individual servings is less expensive and less wasteful. (6) When you shop, take a reusable mesh shoppingtote with you as the Europeans do, instead of using paper bags from thestore. (7) Pack children's lunches in lunch boxes. (8) Try to buy good-quality, long-lastingtoys. Broken toys add to the disposal problem. (9) At the gas station, do not let the attendant "topoff" your gas tank; this means waste and polluting spillage. Alleviate disposal problems:

(1) Do not litter.This is the easiest pollution to stop. (2) Make garbage compact. Flattencans, boxes, and cartons or stack them inside one another toconserve space. (3) Do not use colored tissues,paper towels, or toilet paper. The paper dissolves properly in water, but the dye lingerson.' 3-59

(4) Use decomposable (biodegradable)containers--pasteboard, cardboard, or paper.Soft plastic bottles made of polyvinyl (PVC)give off lethal hydrocloric acid when incinerated. (5) Never flush away what you can put in thegarbage. Especially unsuspected organic cloggers like cooking fat (give itto the birds) or coffee grounds and tea leaves (great for gardens). (6) Filter tips on cigarettes are practicallyindestructible. Do not flush them down the toilet because they willruin your plumbing and clogup pumps at the sewage treatment plant. (7) Disposable diapers could clogup plumbing and septic tanks. (8) Drain oil from power lawnmowers or snowplows into a container and dispose of it; do not hose it into thesewer system. (9) Observe parking regulationsso that sanitation men can clean the streets. Recycle:

(1) Save newspapers, magazines,cans and glass containers and take them to the nearest recycling location. Contacta local environmental group for specific information. (2) Encourage manufacturers to establishrecycling centers. (3) Encourage money-raisingprograms for young persons or organizations through collecting papers,cans, and glass for recycling. (4) Reuse your scrap paper. (5) Return wire hangers to the cleaners. (6) Use live Christmas trees and replantthem. (7) Donate magazines and paperbacksto hospitals or similar organizations. (8) Bring old usable clothing to thrift shopsfor resale, or donate it to charitable organizations. (9) Be willing to purchase andreuse recycled products. Use household products carefully:

(1) Use detergents with care.Phosphate detergentscan upset the ecological balance of aquatic life.Substitutes are being developed, but havenot yet been perfected. (2) Use soap for washing all but heavilysoiled items if you live in a soft- water area. (3) Measure detergents carefully.If you follow manufacturers' instructions, you will help cut a third of all water pollution. (4) Do not use products that containsolvents (petroleum distillates) if alternates are available, suchas water-based paint. Garden "naturally":

(1) Use organic fertilizers. (2) Build a compost heap. Includevegetation such as hedge and lawn clippings and leaves. Eventuallyyou can spread it as fertilizernature's way of recycling garbage.

228 3-60

(3) Make certain fertilizer isworked deep into the soil,do not hose it off into the water system. (4) Avoid the use of persistentpesticides. These include thechlorinated hydrocarbons (aldrin, dieldrin,endrin, heptachlor, chlordane,and lindane) plus compoundscontaining arsenic, lead,or mercury. (5) Buy helpful insects (ladybugs,praying mantises, aphis lions,and parasitic wasps) to controldestructive garden pests. (6) Strong-smelling herbs, suchas mint, sage, and basil, repel insects and help keep downyour use of pesticides. (7) If you must spray,use the right insecticide.If at all possible,use botanicals (natural poisons extractedfrom plants) like nicotine sulfate, rotenone, and pyrethrum. Reduce air pollution:

(1) Motor vehicles contributea good half of this country's air pollution. When possible, walk, ridea bicycle, use mass transitsystems, or form car pools to help reduce thenumber of cars on the road. (2) Keep your car in good operatingcondition. (3) Do not idle the car unnecessarily. (4) Check that the car is equippedwith one or more emission-controlunits and that they operate properly. (5) Consider buying a low-horsepowercare (6) Buy lead-free gasoline andencourage all gasoline manufacturersto "get the lead out." (Lead, bythe way, chews up metal--including antipollution catalytic mufflers.) (7) Do not burn leaves or garbage. (8) If you must useyour fireplace, burn wood not murky cannelcoal, leaves, or garbage. Charcoal shouldnever be used indoors because it releases poisonousgases. (9) Kick the cigarette habit and we'llall breathe a lot easier. Conserve water:

(1) Do not leave water running.If it has to recycletoo fast, treatment plants cannot purify it properly. (2) Keep a jar of water in the refrigeratorto avoid the need of running water from the tap to cool it. (3) Repair leaking faucets immediately. (4) Take reasonably short showersinstead of baths. Theaverage bath uses more water than a seven-minuteshower. (5) Run the dishwasher and washingmachine with one full load rather than several small ones. (6) One flush of your toilet unnecessarilyuses seven gallons of water.If they fit, put a brick or two inyour toilet tank or ask your plumber to set the toilet for the minimumamount of water. (7) Do not overwater lawns andgardens. 3-61

Conserve electricity:

(1) Production of power pollutes, either by creating smog or by dirtying the rivers, so use less power. (2) Turn off lights in rooms not in use; turn off appliances when not in use (3) Turn off air conditioners if no one will be at home. Adjust blinds and shades to keep out the sun. Air conditioners will then have less work. (4) In winter, turn house heat down at night. (5) Try to avoid using major appliances during periods of peak power demands. Save vacuum-cleaning, working with power tools, and similar chores for the weekend when power demands are generally low.

Avoid excess noise:

(1) Keep radio, TV, or phonograph tuned to a reasonable level. (2) Do not buy excessively noisy toys for children. (3) Keep household appliances in good condition. (4) Do not use your car horn unless necessary.

Get involved:

(1) Know your community's laws concerning pollution control, zoning, building regulation, and beautification standards. (2) Support improved municipal sewage treatment and solid waste disposal facilities. (3) Write to pertinent officials about your concern and ask them what they are doing about environmental problems that interest you. (4) Work with existing groups for pollution control. Help organize groups to fight problems in your neighborhood. (5) Encourage neighborhood clean-up campaigns. (6) If you work with children, alert them to the dangers of polluting. (7) Try to get an environmental shelf established in local and school libraries. (8) Patronize stores that specialize in unpesticided, organically grown food in biodegradable containers. (9) Complain about unsightly billboards and signs to advertisers and local officials. (10) Report instances of abandoned cars or offensive industrial waste to local officials, and note the time, location., and nature of the offense. (11) If you see something wrong and do not know whom to contact, bombard newspapers, TV, and radio stations with letters. Publicity hurts polluters.

230 3-62

TEACHER'S MANUAL

Day 15: Manpower Solutions to Environmental Problems

Knowledge Objectives:

To know that, if properly used and controlled, technology isone of the ways to solve the pollution problems To know that manpower needs to solve the problems of theenvironment Skill Ob'ectives:

To identify five different occupations that deal with environmental control To ask questions about the manpower needs and opportunitiesin environmental control

Materials: Reading, slide-tape show, "Environmental Occupations" Equipment: Slide projector; tape recorder

Speaker: School vocational counselor (he must be thoroughly briefedbeforehand and have in his possession Chapter 2 of this handbook)

Method:

Discuss again the creation and operation of the aforementionedaction groups (if not completed in the previous session).

Inquire as to what the manpower needs are and what the job opportunitiesare to solve the problems of the environment. Explain to the students that theslide show answers this.Have the students identify and list at least five different occupations involved in overcoming the problems of the environment from theslide-tape show.

Relate the reading on engineering to the general subject ofenvironmental careers.

When the slide show is completed, introduce the counselor andexplain that he is in class to answer the students' questions generated by the filmstripand the previous days' lessons. Then let the counseloruse the remainder of the class time.If the filmstrip is not purchased by your schoolor district, use Chapter 2 of this handbook

.231 3-63 in class with the counselor. Make sure the counselor understands he is there to promote career education, particularly environmental vocations.

The counselor should be aware that a mere recitation of specific environmentally related careers and occupations is not sufficieat. The discussion should center around career selection in general (particularly ror seniors), then move on to a discussion of the realities of the occupational marketplace, the need for various types of training, the methods of obtaining that training, and then finally to particular environmental occupations, their benefits to society and to the individual, their forecasted growth (based upon various factors stated in Chapter 2), and other pertinent information.

In lieu of today's activity, if difficulties with the filmstrip or counselor prevent this discussion, a teacher could allow for review of material and concepts covered to date or administer a unit examination. 3-64

Day 2: Reading--Man and the Environment

Adapted from U.S. Department of the Interior EnvironmentalYearbook, Our Living Land (Washington, D.C. : U. S.. Government PrintingOffice, 1971), pp. 8-13. "Man has built his civilizations ona crust of land thinner than the skin of an apple compared to the whole fruit. "

Our planet came into existence some 4-1/2 billionyears ago and through this long span of time, there graduallywas formed a thin outer crust that we call "the land." As geologic time is counted,man made his appearance only a moment ago.

Visible to man as continents and islands, thecrust covers the earth.However, most of it (nearly three-quarters) is screened by water, chieflyoceans and glaciers. The Earth's crustal surfaceman' s domain and vulnerableto a variety of natural and man-made occurrencesis tremendously versatile.It produces our food, provides our basic fuels and metals, andsupports our steel and concrete structures and our vehicles.

The thinnest part of this crust, the soil, isa fairly recent addition. The most productive, it is also the most fragile.It must sustain life, but modernman reduces its vitality and hastens erosive processes. Eachday, rain and running watersweep eight million tons of the land's substanceinto the sea. The material carried seaward contains natural nutrients.In addition, it contains natural and man-madecontaminants, many of which kill valuable ocean life.

In a sense, our land must be considereda nonrenewable resource because some areas are being depleted far faster than nature iscreating new fertile areas of productivity. The natural riches stored inthe Earth's crust are finite, yet they are being depleted atever increasing rates. Some experts say that the world is overpopulated; others contend that iteasily can support more life.Both agree, however, that better conservation practicesare absolutely necessary on a sustained global basis if environmental andresource crises are to be avoided. Man has altered numerous features of the Earth'ssurface for his own purposes. But these changes have not always beento his advantage.

Despite man's efforts to modifysome of the Earth's features, ours remains a dynamic planet. It operates within implacable frameworksof natural law and forces, and thus is hostile tomany of man's endeavors.

Some of the continuing reminders thatman is a tenant and not the "landlord" of the earth are volcanic eruptions.Such eruptions--part of the natural schemeof things since Earth first shuddered throughcreationhave time and again killed people and destroyed property.Still, man continues to populate volcano-prone areas in many parts of the world.In 1919, a mud-flow eruption from KeludVolcano in Java destroyed scores of villages and snuffedout more than 5,000 lives.

Mt. Vesuvius, in 79 A.D., buried Pompeii and all its thousands of inhabitants. An explosive eruption of Java's Krakatoain 1883 triggered a tidalwave that killed 233 3-65

35,000 persons. Mt. Pelee's warning went unheeded by30,000 people in St. Pierre, Martinique, and they died, mostly by asphyxiation frompoisonous fumes of the 1902 eruption. Recent volcanic eruptions in Central Americaare reminders that hundreds of volcanoes are merely dormant- -not extinctand,like delayed time bombs, can threaten man and his works.

Earthquakes, also natural phenomena,occur with disturbing frequency and with catastrophic results in the many parts of the worldthat, because of their geologic makeup, are prone to these releases ofenergy. The Peruvian earthquake in the summer of 1970 resulted in the deaths ofmore than 50, 000 people and untold numbers of livestock and wildlife. Nearly half thedeaths were caused by the collapse of unstable dwellings that could not withstandthe shaking earth.Other victims were smothered under vast slides of ice, rock, and mudtriggered by the shock that moved at fantastic speeds down mountainsides in populatedvalley towns.

Moving glaciers are also constant reminders of naturalforces that are not subject to man's control. Their advances andretreats often reshape regional terrains. Although they store about three-fourths ofall the fresh water in the world, man has not yet managed to utilize their full potential.

Such events as volcanoes, earthquakes, landslidesand floods continue to have far-reaching impact on the Earth's surface,as they have during the more than four billion years of the planet's existence.In themselves they are neitherangry nor benign. They are merely relentless forces, constantlypart of a grand system by which nature seeks equilibrium. Manmust reckon with these forces when he and his works move into diaster proneareas.

Man's sources of energyoil, naturalgas, coal, tar sands, oil shale, and nuclear materials--were forged in the Earth'scrust by many and varied geological processes over long periods of time. Unfortunately, theseresources have not always been developed with aconcern for their eventual exhaustion.

The mining of coal is a good example.Man has been mining this fuel for about 800 years.But one-half of all the coalever taken from the ground has been mined and burned in the past three decades.Undergumnd mining in the United States still leaves about half the coal in place.This is because it is cheaper, in the short run, to abandon it and seeknew beds to develop. Man must remember that many other passengers of the spaceship Earthare yet to be born, and must temper his destructive short-term practices forsaner long-term ones.

The petroleum industry is muchyounger than the coal-mining industry, but now meets a larger percentage of our energy needs. The firstcommercial well in the United States at Titusville, Pa.,was drilled in 1859 and struck oil at 69 1/2 feet.It produced only nine gallons of oilper day. Today the United States has more than 500, 000 wells, and the deepest producer has beendriven to 22, 790 feet. The daily output is about 40 railliontimes that of the first well at Titusville.

Consumption of most of our other nonrenewableresources continues at

R.34 3-66 exceptionally high rates. The value of domestic minerals produced ina recenc year was approximately $27 billion, an 8 percent gain in value over the previous year.

Demographers who count the pulse of populations estimate that the world has been the home of nearly 80 billion people. Today's population ofmore than 3.5 billion is the greatest to occupy this planet at any one time.If the growth pattern follows forecasts, the world's population will double shortly after theyear 2000. In this context, the supply and demand pattern affectingour natural resources becomes a matter of vital concern.

Take forests as an example. Canada estimates that if all its 600 million acres of forest land were producing young trees, they would generate enoughoxygen to meet the requirements of 12 billion people. And in arguing for sound forestry methods, Canadians also point out that if trees are permitted torot and die, they would extract as much oxygen from the air as young trees produce. The moral: Keep the young forests growing while we makeuse of the mature timber stands for our needsand, in so doing, preserve andeven enhance for man the life- sustaining features of the environment.

Perhaps this interrelationship of all living things is what John Donnesensed as he wrote that "no man is an island entire of itself, every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main."

This is the beginning of understanding the modern science of ecology.It represents that in the past only a few fleeting seconds as man's tenureon Earth is counted against a multibillion-year history, but we have entered the "Age of Ecology."

This plant, on its whirlwind travels, has journeyeda trillion miles through space since the days nearly five centuries ago that colonizers from Europe gained a first precarious foothold in North America. They came to that "good piece of geography" which Robert Frost said every nationmust have. Once forests marched down to the water's edge and extended inland farther thanany man could fee, and there seemed no limit to the woodlands, the rich plains, the sparklingwaters, the wildlife, or the land itself.But the eons of painstaking craftsmanship by naturewere not figured into the value put on the resources. Around 1700 prime land in Penn- sylvania was selling at $2.00 an acre. "Ordinary" land brought50 cents.In Virginia, at about the same time, ten of thousands ofacres were given away to promote settlement.Cutting and clearing with little thought of erosion hazards were routine operations in subjugating the land.

Even as the land and the resources later came to be recognizedas limited and often nonrenewable, the old attitudeson use still prevailed and have not vet been surmounted. Poor construction practices, random cutting offorests, indiscriminate mining methods, contamination bysewage and chemicals, and haphazard community planning all contribute to exhaustion of this land.In pleading for wise use without abuse of resources, many authorities emphasize thatwe must harvest our natural bounties judiciously because the resou-rce.sterehouseis not automatically being replenished. 235 3-67

Although some of the worst examples of soil erosion and pollution in many forms are to be found in the vicinity of the nation's capital, there are nevertheless many indications that America is reversing the trend of land and water abuse. Development is being tempered with decisions hard fought decision, some reached in the courts of law, that environmental degradation begins on the land and that here it must and will be halted.

At long last people are beginning to heed the words written 108 years ago by the great American, George Perkins Marsh, who said:

Nature has provided against the absolute destruction of any of her elementary matter the raw material of her works, the thunderbolt and the tornado, the most convulsive throws of even the volcano and the earthquakes being only phenomena of decomposition and recompo- sition.But she has left it within the power of man to derange the com- binations of inorganic matter and of organic life which through the night of aeons she had been proportioning and balancing to prepare the earth for his habitation when in the fullness of time his Creator should call him forth to enter into its possession.

4036 "Ipc k.,40,X , 3-68

Day 3: Reading, "Water: The EnvironmentalChallenge" Adapted from "The Story of Water, " River ofLifeWater: The Environmental Challenge, U.S. Department of the Interior, EnvironmentalReport (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970), pp. 6-11; idem.'Water: The Environmental Challenge," pp. 22-29

Water has three natural forms: liquid, solid,and vapor. With changes in form, it has recycled itself constantly for millionsof years. From the time, hundreds of millions of yearsago, when water vapor formed Earth's first clouds andthe first rain fell, this process of recyclinghas continued with little change in the quantity of Earth's water. In whatever formit takes, water is simply the chemical combination of atomstwo hydrogenatoms and one oxygen. Every drop of Earth's original water supply is still inuse ..in the atmosphere, andon the surface or beneath it.

Earth's total water supply is 326 millioncubic miles. A small percentage of the total supply is always in motionin the hydrologic cycle ina liquid or vapor state. Less than 0.05 percent of Earth'swater supply is moving through the cycle at any given moment. The remainderof the supply is distributed in varying amounts to every part of Earth. Over 97percent is held in the oceans, 2. 15 percent is frozen in glaciers and polarcaps. The remainder, less than 1 percent, is in the Earth's lakes, rivers,streams, and underground reservoirs.

Only about 0.06 percent of Earth'swater is available for use by man andnature as surface and ground water. Ground water is merelywater which has filtered through the surface crust of Earth andremains temporarily trapped in thesubsurface rock. As the quantity of groundwater builds up, the water table,or highest level of subsurface water, is raised. Thissupply of usable water, though smallin relation to Earth's total supply, isnow generally sufficient for the needs ofman and nature. As world population and industrial developmentgrow, however, existing supplies may no longer meet the demands.Serious shortages in distributionoccur today in more populatedareas. Water tables are lowered when thepopulation density and development ofan area consumes more water than is replenishedin the watershed. Reservoirsare built, deeper and deeper wells are drilled;however, these measures often affect the water tablein the entire watershed. The quantity of available water is further limited bypollution of our water supplies.

Over the years, in his persistent fightto master the world, man has been irre- sponsible in the treatment of the vitalsurroundings that mean survivalchoosing, using, discarding recklessly, and leavingin his wake a mountingmass of solid debris and a growing volume of contaminatedliquids to be inherited innocently by following generations.In this closing third of the 20thcentury man is playing a new game of Russian roulette: All the chambersare loaded, one of the bullets is water pollution, and throughout the worldthere is a growingawareness that we have been derelict in not pressing the panic buttonsooner. An instant replay reveals that smog alerts, bans on DDT, overworkedsewage-treatment plants, and typhoid ino- culations are after-the-factmeasures dangling at the end of the corroded chainthat carries the final label:"Polluted--Klo not drink. "

k3k..414 237 3-69

Of all our resources, we have mismanaged water the most. Our ability to heap abuse on our surroundings indicates that even though we cannot survive without water, we do not appear to care whether we share the same globe with it. We shave with it, bathe in it, make steel with it, swim in it, drink it, fish from it, load it with chemicals and human and animal wastes, distill it, store it, cool our cars and power plants with it, create attractive fountains from it, build dams and reservoirs to contain it. We change rivers into sewers, lagoons and lakes into cesspools. And we shudder at the tens of billions of dollars thatnow are necessary to correct our derelictions and restore dignity to our stream life.

New York dumps 24,000 tons of waste every day into nearby swampland which once was home for a wide range of birds and animals. Wildlife, once abundant on and around the Hudson River and Long Island, now is counted only in terms of foraging gulls and rats. The continuous dumping of sewage sludge in New York harbor has killed all marine life in a large area.In a recent four-year period, that metropolitan area expected the ocean to assimilate 10 million tons of waste solids.Over- whelmed by such affluence, part of the sea simply died.

Even the quality of water far below groundthe precious moisture thatserves so many agricultural and municipal systemsfaces a pollution peril.Untold millions of gallons of poisonous liquid, mostly from industries,are being dumped into the earth each year, hopefully to be assimilated safely. Asa consequence of such dereliction in the United States and throughout much of the world,our water resources are in deep trouble. Their deterioration, along with other basics of the environment, has caused Prof. Richard A. Falk of Princeton Universityto conclude: "At this point, we seem more likely to poison ourselves to death than die of starvation. "

The challenge facing this nation and others is awesome.It calls for a worldwide attack on man-created water problems.It suggests that future treatment of this universal resource--all 326 million cubic miles of itemphasizes pollution curbs while simultaneously taking corrective action to remedy past mistakes. In short, the theme is pollution prevention; the goal is pollution correction.

Since 97 percent of the world's water is in the ocean, the attack on pollution must be macrocosmic, or worldwide. All the nations will be turning increasingly to the sea for food, for minerals, for fossil fuels, and for recreation to maintaina precarious balanced environment on land.Scientist in federal agencies, in colleges and universities, and in foreign 'countries, agree that when six billion peopleoccupy this planet by the year 2000, the oceans will be called upon to providea larger percent - age of their protein needs. Scientists also agree that valuable minerals and other resources will be extracted increasingly from the seas. At the same time, there is growing concern about the seas' ability to provide for man's need, whileman himself seems intent on debasing the quality of these waters though indifference and neglect. There is no national or international policy covering the disposal ofwastes in the ocean. Accordingly, it has become a sort of common dumping ground.

In its report, "Marine Resources Development...A National Opportunity," the United States Interior Department Comments:

a!Igo' 3-70

Our own distressing history in mismanaging our estuaries, bays, and harbors should be warnirg enough of what could happen when resource development becomes more intense in coastal areas and what could happen eventually even on the high seas.We have become such proficient spoilers that not even the seas are too big for us to ruin

In planning to dispose of the wastes of civilization in theocean it must be remembered that the capacity of the natural environment to assimilate wastes is limited. Even the deep ocean hasa limited capacity for these purposes.

Increasingly, throughout the world, the battle lines against pollutionare being drawn tighter.However, there still are too many gaps in the ranks, particularly in the United States where there has been too little resistanceto prevailing and threatened pollution when payrolls are involved.In the United States, there is a growing awareness that there no longer are "little" mistakes.Seemingly small errors and shortcuts increasingly are burgeoning into major tragedies, suchas the Santa Barbara oil well blowout in California and the record-breakingspills from offshore wells in the Gulf of Mexico. If the United States isto continue as a world leader, it must set better examples in handling all of itsresources. The world can accept honest mistakes, but it rebels at errors based on outright neglect.

Typical of what should not have happened, but did, is thecase of Lake Erie. In 1910, speaking at Ashtabula, Ohio, former President TheodoreRoosevelt asked for the cooperation of Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New Yorkto help a campaign to get drinking water from Lake Erie. "You can't get water and putyour sewage into the lake, " said the noted statesman and conservationist."I say this on behalf of your children."

Roosevelt's plea fell on deaf ears. Those children of 1910are well past middle age now. They witnessed, in their lifetime, the deteriorationof Lake Erie. Because of the oversight of previous generations, childrentoday are denied the joy of swimtning in a clean lake.

Meanwhile, many estuaries have become the, director indirect victims of too much of the discards of nations using theirvery resources ... filth poured seaward by contaminated rivers, dumped from barges,or sent surging through pipes. The United States in 1968 dumped 48 million tons of solidwastes into the ocean. In any given year, about half the six trillion gallons ofwater used by paper mills and allied industries in the United States is returnedto our watersoften our estuaries-- without removal of their harmful chemicals. The shallow coastalareas, where much of our sea life begins, are being assaulted by thingswe do not want on land. Dr. Eugene Odum of the University of Georgiaasserts that estuaries, if not abused, are 20 times as productive as the open sea and many more times productive than any lush farmland in America.

In his thoughtful book, The Frail Ocean, Wesley Marx addsthis sad commentary: 3-71

Like the river nurseries, our estuaries are being mauled piecemeal.. The ocean may appear to end at the shore, but its vital processes extend into our bays, up our rivers, and even into our mountain streams, where not only salmon but also sandy beaches are born.

In the United States and the more than 100 other nations with coastlines, the adverse effects of man's actions are most pronounced: massive fish kills from pollution, loss of nesting and resting areas for waterfowl, burial of oyster beds with dredged material, thermal pollution (heating) from chemicals which, while not killing oysters and other shellfish, makes them highly toxic, giving rise to such mysteries as Japan's Minamata Disease, in which 17 people were killed in 1953 from eating mercury-contaminated seafood; and always, the present and increasing frequency of oil spills and seepages.

Take the Cuyahoga River in Ohio, the one that once caught fire as it carried its oily wastes to Lake Erie.It rates fourth among America's most polluted streams, being outranked only by the Ohio River, the Mahoning River, and the Houston Ship Canal. The solution for at least part of the Cuyahoga might be found in the manner Germany treated its highly polluted Emscher River. Instead of trying to restore the Emscher as a river, Germany salvaged it as a drainage stream. Its course was altered, its streambed was raised and lined with concrete, and its banks were attractively landscaped.It now is managed from beginning to end. The entire Emscher receives primary waste treatment before it empties into the Rhine. The Rhine, however, is heavily polluted in other places because it is the victim of many political jurisdictions, none of which fully cooperate to keep the river clean.In converting the Emscher, the Germans saved the nearby Ruhr River. Water is not taken directly from the Ruhr for consumption, although it is quite clean. Instead, as in many places in the United States, water is filtered, pumped underground, and withdrawn as needed. The foresight of Germany in plaiming the future of the highly industrialized Ruhr Valley, where the population density is 10 times that of the United States, dates back to 1897 with the formation of the tongue-twisting "Ruhrtalsperrenverein, The RTV or Ruhr Reservoir Association. Today the RTV is alive and well, and the Ruhr Valley flourishes. While paving our polluted streams and rivers is certainly no solution to our water problems, the concept of river management and broad waste water treatment can provide us with attractive water systems acceptable to industrial, recreational, and municipal uses.

In 1964 Germany set another example for the world when it banned the sale of "hard" detergents which cannot be broken down by accepted waste-treatment methods, and therefore considered nonbiodegradable. In 1965 American industry voluntarily followed German's lead by halting production of "hard" detergents.But a new problem then arose in our countrythe switch to high phosphate detergents which speed the growth of aquatic vegetation.This causes oxygen deficiency and accelerates the aging process of lakes.Detergent phosphates, fertilizer nitrates, and other pollutants that find their way into Lake Erie have hastened the aging of that body of water-- it has aged as much in the past 50 years as a normal lake might age in 15,000 years!

Not all the waste dumped into the ocean, however, is harmful.In fact, at times it is beneficial by encouraging growth of organisms for sustaining fish. 3-72

What is not known is how much can be dumped offshore year after year or in what way it should be distributed to avoid major ecological changes. Likewise, the long term ability of the ocean to assimilate the malevolence of radioactive wastes, chemicals, trash and other things man does not want to tolerate on land is not known today. Man must be extremely careful when allowing wastes to be dumped into theocean to ensure that only beneficial wastes find their way into the seas. There could come a time when great areas of the seas are transformed into deserts...devoid of all life "Silent Springs" in the underwater world. To prevent the catastrophe of dead seas, it is imperative that man reexamine hismany uses of water and allow in the future only those practices which are not destructive of other life forms. 3-73

Day 5: Reading--Air Pollution: The Problem and the Risks

Adapted from The Automobile and Air Pollution, Report of the panel on electrically powered vehicles, U.S. Department of Commerce (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Govern- ment Printing Office, 1967), pp. 9-16.

The air surrounding Earth is in bad condition, and unfortunately for all life on our planet, it is getting worse. The atmosphere, like all other related systems on Earth, is a continually changing thing. As a product of the activities of different organisms on the face of the planet, the air we breathe has slowly evolved for millions of years.Originally the atmosphere of a primitive earth contained water vapor, methane, ammonia, and hydrogen. While these elements still remain in part in the atmosphere, various organic cycles have produced an atmosphere which today contains approximately 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, .003 percent carbon dioxide, and the remainder a wide variety of elements. Because mankind and all life forms evolved in the type of atmosphere described above, man would find it difficult, if not impossible, to survive if the atmosphere were radically changed. Unfortunately, he is doing just that by discharging various pollutants into the air.

The atmospheric contamination which accompanies industrial society is a continuing hazard to man and his environment. This pollution shortens life, destroys vegetation, damages property, and threatens to alter brsic meteorological processes. The rapid growth in urban areas, combined with ever-expanding per capita needs for technology, energy, and transportation, is increasing the peril and is costing man dearly.

Some effects of air pollution generated by industry, power plants, domestic heating, refuse disposal and transportation, are apparent to all. The damage to buildings and other property and the dirt, odor, smog, and smoke associated with contamination of the atmosphere are obvious.In some cases the damage or discomfort can be traced to a specific pollution and particular source. To date, public action to abate pollution has relied primarily on this course.However, the more serious effects of air pollution may be less apparent. Man cannot observe the gradual and irreversible impairment of his respiratory functions as he does the accumulation of dirt on his shirt collar or the buildup of a cloak of smog over the city on a calm summer day. In addition, the complexities involved in sorting out the ill effects of individual air pollutants have generally made it difficult to attribute specific health impairment to specific pollutants. One fact is clear, however, the evidence identifying serious, and on occasion mortal, effects on man of urban living is overwhelming. Sickness and death rates from chronic respiratory disorders, especially pulmonary emphysema, bronchial asthma, and chronic bronchitis, are higher in urban than in rural environments. The individual sources of air pollution are as varied as the products of modern technology. Automotive vehicles are the source of most of the carbon monoxide emitted into the atmosphere.In addition, vehicles are largely responsible for emissions of hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen, which combine to form photochemical smog, a severe form of air pollution in Los Angeles and in other localities.

.24L2 3-74

Increasing urbanization and rising use of motor vehiclesare exposing larger populations to adverse effects from air pollution levelsnow found only in the traffic- congested central city. The pollutant levels in the central citymay also be rising, compounding the seriousness of the problem, but the evidence that significantincreases are actually occurring in the core of most American cities is not conclusiveat present.

In the past, public action in the prevention of disease has usuallyawaited the identification of a single causative agent. This pattern of thinking andresponse is inappropriate to combat the health effects associated with air pollution.The situation was described clearly by the Surgeon General of the Public Health Service in 1962:

I submit that much of the speculation and controversy about whether or not air pollution causes disease is irrelevant to the significance of air pollution as a public health hazard.... Chronic bronchitis, which in Great Britain is established as a specific disease entity, isa good example. It develops over a long period of time and can become crippling througha combination of many factors--air pollution, smoking, repeated andrecurr- ing bouts with infectious agents, occupational exposures--all affected, perhaps, by an hereditary predisposition. What then is thecause of chronic bronchitis? The answer is obvious. There is probablyno single cause, but there is sufficient evidence that air pollution can and does contributeto its development. This is what really matters, whether we chooseto consider it the cause, one of several causes, or simplya contributing factor. 1

The control of all air pollution sources, including automotive, shouldbe viewed in this context. Automotive emissions in combination with effluentsfrom other sources contribute to an unknown extent to the general problem of air pollution.A delay in action pending availability of conclusive evidence which identifies theprecise damage associated with various levels of each pollutant currently contaminatingthe air is unreasonable.In view of the accumulated evidence on the effects of air pollution in general, all sources must be checked as rapidlyas economics and advancing technology will allow.

Epidemiological research, or the study of diseases,on the effects of air pollution on human populations has been under way for the past decade. The emerging conclusions from these studies of the effects of community air pollutionon human health were described as:

The main thrust of the evidence is clear and conclusive--thetypes, and levels of air pollution which are now commonplace in Americancom- munities are an important factor in the occurrence and worsening of chronic

1 Cited by Secretary of Health, Education and Welfare John W.Gardner in "Air Pollution-1966," Hearings before the Subcommitteeon Air and Water Pollution of the Committee on Public Works, U.S. Senate (Washington,D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1966), p. 23. 243 3-7 5

respiratory diseases and may be even a factor in producing heightened human susceptibility to upper respiratory infection, including the common cold.

.. there still are deficiencies in scientific knowledge of the relationship between air pollution and respiratory disease. A need exists for more quantitative information--for more precise data concerning the pollutants which affect human health and in what amounts and under what conditions they produce their effects.But the qualitative evidence is conclusive. There is no doubt that air pollution is a factor which contributed to illness, disability, and death from chronic respiratory diseases. 2

Cigarette smokers and those with ying and heart disorders are thought to be in greatest danger from contaminated air.

The killing and disabling potential of the total community air pollution from a variety of sources has been strikingly demonstrated in repeated episodes of acute pollution which have occurred both in this country and abroad. The air pollution catastrophe in London from December 5 through 9, 1952, took an estimated 3,500 to 4,000 lives. The episodes in Donora, Pa.,in 1948, Meuse Valley, Belgium, in 1930, and New York City in 1953 and 1966 are other well-known examples of the dangers and discomforts which result from adverse meteorological conditions and high community air pollution levels.

These dramatic occurrences serve as a reminder that clean air is a precious natural resource. While man's daily consumption of food and water totals approximately 7 pounds, he lequires about 30 pounds of air each day to survive. The urbanite experiences higher levels of sickness, disability, and death from disorders related to breathing and circulation than does the rural dweller.. Direct experimenta- tion to conclusively prove that these effects area product of air pollution is imprac- tide,but the accumulating facts associating damage to public health from contaminants of the automobile are growing.

(1) Carbon monoxide. The toxic effects of carbon monoxide on humans have been known and extensively studied for some time. The primary effect is based on its strong affinity for hemoglobin, with which it combines more readily than oxygen, to form carboxyhemoglobin, reducing the capacity of the blood to transport oxygen from the lungs to the tissues of the body. Concentrations of 30 parts per million (ppm) carbon monoxide for more than four hours under controlled conditions will tie up approximately 5 percent of the body's hemoglobin, producing measurable impairment of physiologic functions, such as vision and psychomotor (muscular) performance.Concentrations higher than 30 ppm carbon monoxide are frequently

2Testimony before the Subcommittee on Air and Water Pollution, Committee on 1311:-,Lic Works, U.S. Senate, U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. 3Gardner, op. cit., pp. 22,23.

1. .244 3-7 6

observed in urban traffic. These effects would be enhanced by any additional illness or exposure which decreases oxygen uptake in the lungs, or the ability of the blood and circulatory system to carry and distribute oxygen tothe living cells of the body.Cigarette smokers, for example, may have carboxyhemoglobin levels as high as 8 percent. An added effect from atmospheric carbon monoxide levels could entail serious health risks. (2) H drocarbons. Presently no direct health hazard is attributable to hydrocarbons in atmospheric concentrations. Certain hydrocarbon derivatives emitted in automobile exhausts may have carcinogenic, or cancer producing, effects on lung tissue, but the evidence is inconclusive. The primary concern with these emissions is their indirect effect through participation in the photochemical reactions which lead to the formation of smog. Plant damage, eye and respiratory tract irritation, and reduced visibility are all associated with the formation and prevalence of photochemical smog. (3) Nitrogen oxides. Oxides of nitrogen are major participants in photochemical smog reation. The most significant of these pollutantsis nitrogen oxide, a yellow- brown gas which significantly reduces atmospheric visibility at low concentrations. It is known to be toxic to man, and deaths and chronic respiratory diseasehave resulted from exposure to this gas in mines and in farm silos where it isformed in the decomposition of silage. The low concentrations which occur inthe community atmosphere have not been identified as damaging to health, but investigations have not been adequate to determine the significance of this pollutant as kg public health problem. (4) Oxidants. Ozone and the peroxyacyl nitrates (PAN), in addition to nitrogen dioxide, are oxidizing agents resulting from automotive exhausts which are found in the atmosphere. These substances are associated with the eyeirrita- tion, odor, and respiratory effects of photochemical smog. (5) Lead compounds. Lead is known to be toxic to humans, but the concentrations required for this effect, either in the body or in the environment, have occurred only in isolated cases, usually as a result of occupational hazards. Lead also has some effects which produce no overt symptoms.It interferes with the maturation and development of red blood cells, allegedly affects liver and kidney functions, and disturbs enzyme activity, but neither these nor other bodily disturbances caused by lead have been detected in the general population to date. Epidemiological studies adequate to detect these effects,should they exist, have not been carried out.In addition to the effect air pollution has on man, it also affects vegetation. Ozone, the peroxyacyl nitrates,and a number of organic oxidants associated with automotive emissions have been identified as the responsible agents for damage to food, forage, andornamental crops in most of the major metropolitan areas of the United States. Cash croplosses related to air pollution are estimated to be between $6 million to $10million annually in California alone. Most of the forests around the Los Angeles Basin

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have been destroyed by the smog produced in thearea. The Oquirrh Mountains of western Utah are nearly defoliated by noxious fumes emittedby various industr ial pollutors.

A number of specifically damaging effectson man-made materials have been identified from air pollution, particularly automotive emissions.Ozone and other oxidants in photochemical smog attack many materials, includingrubber, textiles, and dyes. No firm estimates on the total costs to the nation fromthis damage are available.

Many experts contend that air pollution is actually causing significantmodifica- tions in the world's weather. Attention has been focused forsome time on the effects of rising levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere dueto increasing rates of combustion of fossil fuels. The infrared absorption properties of CO2cause outgoing radiant heat from the earth to be captured near the surface, resultingin ati increase in the temperature of the atmosphere. This phenomenon is popularlyknown as the "greenhouse effect." Should carbon dioxide levels be allowedto rise continually at current rates, the resulting temperature rise might have dire meteorologicaleffects, resulting in the melting of polar ice caps and the raising ofocean levels. This theory has been opposed recently by scientists who allege that worldtemperatures are actually declining as a result of air. pollution due to the increase in planetaryalbedo, or reflection, from the greater atmospheric turbidity. Other studiessuggest the selective formation of raindrops and ice crystals which are nucleated presumablyby air pollutants at the inversion layer over urban areas.

The entire area of meteorological effects of air pollutants isspeculative at present, and only a beginning has been made in the design of meaningful research programs.It should be remembered, however, that air pollutions affectus all, whether urbanites or rural dwellers. The dust,smog, and grime discharged into the air over Los Angeles or St. Louis eventuallyare carried away to settle to Earth elsewhere.Except during periods of thermal inversions, the atmosphere usually allows individual masses of air to be pushed around the globeapproximately once a month by large storm tracts.

While the past decade has seen a sharp rise in the level ofsupport and scope of research on the effect of air pollutionon health and welfare, it is clear that far more must be done. Many problems will require long and intensive study before definitive findings can be reached. The pursuit of knowledge in thisarea should be given the highest possible national priority.

iffi)046- 3-78

Day 7: Reading--Solid Waste Problems, "Environmental Effects of Solid Wastes:

Adapted from California Solid Waste Management Study (1968) and Plan (1970), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1971), pp. VII-1, VII-31.

A fundamental reason for concern about solid wastes is the threat that they impose on the health and well-being of the public and the role that they may play in the spread of communicable diseases. The most prominent health factor associated with solid wastes is domestic flies. Flies are carriers of many disease agents. The demonstrated ability of flies to propagate in enormous numbers in organic wastes, to contaminate themselves in fecal material, and ultimately to contaminate man or his environment, clearly incriminates the fly as a health hazard. Thus, the wastes in which flies develop or in which they become contaminated constitute the primary hazard. The fly is an indicator of a breakdown in basic sanitation when present in a community.

Other disease carriers whose populations are enhanced by the presence of solid wastes include rats, cockroaches, and mosquitoes. Their numbers may become excessive and spill over into suburban and urban areas in situations where inadequate solid waste storage and disposal methods are employed. The threat of plague is increased by poor solid waste management.

While control of communicable disease is of paramount importance, it is more meaningful in discussing the problem of solid wastes to take a broad view of the term "public health." No longer can we restrict attention only to the factors involved in the spread of communicable diseases. Of equal importance is the broad and pressing public interest in all factors of environmental health, including the aspects of comfort, enjoyment of life, and the general physical and mental well-being of the public. On the basis of this broader outlook, there are many points of public health concern which relate to the manner by which solid wastes adversely affect our land, air, and water. In addition to the direct effect of solid wastes on the quality of these three elements are the accompanying physiological or psychological effects on man. These may range from immediate danger, such as physical harm, to merely a less pleasant or comfortable environment, such as that which offends the five senses. It is recognized that there are three forms of wastes: liquid, solid, and gaseous. There are also three possible receptacles for these wastes: the air, the water, and the land. Solid waste is perhaps unique in that it is the one waste which can directly affect all three elements.

Solid waste disposal as now practiced is a significant contributor to air pollution. Although burning of solid wastes is a traditional means of disposing of this material, this process merely transforms the nature of the material from solid to gaseous wastes. Burning is frequently carried out in open dumps, fields, or by other inadequate methods which produce smoke, odors, unsightliness, and contribute to overall air pollution. 247 ; 3-79

Another familiar practice in most states is disposal of solid wastes into the ocean, bays, streams, and ground waters. The leachate, gasses, and floating debris thus produced contribute to the degradation of ground and surface water quality.The grinding and discharge of solid wastes into sewers are adding to an already overbur- dened liquid waste conveyance and treatment system and to the loading on receiving waters.

The third element of our environment, the land resource, is suffering severely from "land pollution." The prevalence of open dumps, illegal littering, and indiscriminate disposition of solid wastes constitutes aesthetic eyesores while degrading adjacent property values.

When considering the effects of solid wastes on air, water, and land and the relationships to disease transmission, bear in mind that we are dealing with a highly complex ecosystem. The environment must, therefore, be considered asa whole in any meaningful evaluation of our ultimate responsibilities in the management of solid wastes.

A. Effects on Health

1.Flies As stated earlier, domestic flies are the most prominent factor associated with organic solid wastes. Flies pose a multiple threat to a community: (1) theyare vectors of disease, (2) they threaten the cleanliness and wholesomeness of processed foods, and (3) they become intensely annoying pests. Any warm, moist, and organic material is a potential source of fly breeding.

The ability of flies to quickly find suitable material on which to deposit their eggs is well known. The "garbage can" and storage area often play an important role in this phase of the fly's activity. The life cycle of these flies is well adapted to the garbage can environment. The adult female enters the can and lays 50 to 200eggs that hatch in about eight hours. The larvae (maggots) feed in the garbage for about five days, and then they crawl out of the garbage can and pupate in the ground. With once-a-week garbage collection, many larvae crawl out of the can before the garbage is removed.

Even with adequate storage and collection, flies can still be produced if the final disposal of the refuse is not adequate. Most refuse, upon delivery toa disposal site, already contains many fly larvae which are ready to emerge as adult flies.Unless immediate measures are taken to prevent emergence, large numbers of adult flies will result. The only effective preventive measure now in use by communities in California, for example, is the disposal of solid wastes in a sanitary landfill. Emerg- ing adult flies can crawl up through more than five feet of loose soil, but they cannot penetrate through six inches of compacted soil.Unfortunately the refuse from many communities is taken to a dump rather than to a sanitary landfill.Even if the wastes in the dump are burned every day, most of the fly larvae will not be killed because the wet garbage containing the larvae is not burned. The fire burns only the paper and

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garbage on the surface; therefore, when the ashes are removed from the surface, the larvae are exposed in the garbage. The presence of large numbers of adult flies at a refuse disposal operation always indicates a sanitary deficiency.This problem becomes serious when the fly population pressure becomes so high that spillover to the surrounding area occurs. When this happens, flies leave their "source point" and go to an "attractant point" such as a residence, restaurant, or business.Flies have been reported to migrate as far as twenty miles from a source of production.

Several other sources of flies often exist in or near communities. Some of these are: (1) Grass clippings which are placed in piles or containers for several weeks. (2) Animal manure from stables, poultry ranches; feedlots, and dairies where the manure is not managed properly. (3) Cull fruits and vegetables which are dumped in piles or improperly fed to livestock.

In order to obtain effective fly control, adequate management of solid wastes at their source is essential to prevent fly breeding. Consequently, fly control requires area-wide solid waste management from the standpoint of geography as well as types of wastes. Waste management systems that do not include all types of wastes that are capable of producing flies are not adequate.

2.Rodents

Solid wastes are one of the primary sources of support of domestic rodents in communities as well as in rural areas.In addition to rats and mice, several other species of small wild mammals are attracted to man's wastes. These include oppos- sums, skunks, ground squirrels, and cats. Rodents have certain basic environmental needs which are not usually as exacting as those of flies. Stated simply, the two requirements are ;ood and shelter. Exposed refuse furnishes both on a lavish scale. Improperly stored solid wastes provide an ideal food supply for domestic rodents and other small mammals. Improper storage of household garbage goes hand in hand with the presence of Norway rats in densely settled urban neighborhoods. The use of sturdy containers with tightly fitting lids goes far in reducing the availability of garbage to rats and mice.

Open disposal sites (those in which the wastes are not covered daily with compacted soil) can provide food and harborage for large numbers of rats and mice. The population of rats on a disposal site sometimes runs into the thousands. These rodents are difficult to destroy with poison baits because of the abundant and varied food supply. Burning, even daily, does not eliminate animals.frorn a disposal site.Daily covering with compacted soil does.Industrial and agricultural wastes attract and sustain rodent populations, too.

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A disposal site may contain enough food andshelter to support a given ratpop- ulation level. At certain times of theyear, however, an excess of young animals is produced, and in order to survive,some animals may move from the disposal site into adjacent areas. An example of thisoccurrence was found in one northern California city where the city dump was located aboutone-quarter mile from a nearby residential area.Residents had for several years been periodicallybothered by invading rats until the dump was closed and moved. Withthe site gone, so were the rats. A properly operated sanitary landfill would have preventedthis situation.

A factor of major public healthconcern arises from the fact that a refuse dump affords a meeting place for field and domesticrodents.Field rodents, such as ground squirrels and chipmunks, are the primaryreservoirs of bubonic plague infection in refuse dumps. The refuse dump becomes importantif it provides a point of transfer of infected fleas from wild to domestic rodents,thereby increasing the potential for human exposure within the urban population.

In addition to the hazard of infectious diseasetransmission, Norway rats attracted or sustained by solid wastes may attack infantsor small children. Rat-bite statistics, gathered from throughout the United States,indicate that as many as 14,000persons are bitten annually.

Proper storage, collection and disposal of solidwastes can be a significant deterrent to the rodent population. Theopen, unmanaged dump often supports many rats, whereas the properly managed sanitary landfill willbe free from rodents. For that matter, none of the accepted procedures forprocessing wastes, if properly designed and managed, should supportor attract rats.

3.Occupational Health and Safety Hazards

Occupational health and safety hazards of refuse workersand the general public from solid waste management practicesare not often thought to be of any serious nature. However, studies have revealed that refuse workers 1 have an extremely high injury rate. These studies show that the refuse collector hasan injury rate twice as high as that for firemen and policemen. These occupational hazardsinclude skin diseases, back ailments, hernia, muscle and tendoninjuries, and cardiovascular diseases. Of the many kinds of wastes that are depositedat disposal sites, some, such as insecticides and other poisons, sewage sludges,and hospital wastes, are particularly hazardous. Hazardous pills, insecticidecontainers, infectious bandages, etc.,can be found lying with such exposure thata person unaware of the hazards could easily pick the item up and remove it from thesite. For example, there have been reports of children playing with syringes and needles retrievedfrom disposal sites. Allowing

1 D.P. E. Sliepcevich, The Effect of Work ConditionsUpon the Health of Uniform- ed Sanitation Men of New York City, Doctural DissertationSeries, Publication No. 20,008, University of Michigan, (Ann Arbor:University Microfilms, Inc.,1955) 3-82

children access to a site at any time is extremely dangerous and should be prohibited. The exposure of refuse collectors to these hazardous wastes is a constant problem. In many cases these wastes are stored inadequately in open containers and in places where dogs, cats, and children could easily come in contact with them.

4.Public Nuisances

Collection and disposal of solid wastes present other features which aresome- times objectionable to the general public. Examples of these are early morning noise from collection operations; dust, dirt, and paper blown from the collection vehicle or the disposal site; odors; unsightliness of vehicles or sites; spillage of liquids or solids onto the street; and the convergence of large numbers of heavy vehiclesto the disposal facility.All of these are offensive to the public and can be eliminatedor minimized through good management practices.

B.Effects on Water

When solid waste residues of any type are ultimately disposed of to the soil, a potential for water quality impairment exists.Even if waste materials are burned, the ash will contain soluble substances which may dissolve in runoff and percolating water and, thereby, affect the quality of the adjacent surface water or underlying water.

Refuse dumped into streams and other surface waters results in conditions of poor aesthetic appearance and creates nuisances. Dumping over riverbanks and on floodplains is also an undesirable procedure since these materials may be washed into the river during periods of high water.In addition to creating unsightly conditions, these materials may litter the streambed and beaches; create hazards to swimmers, boaters and fishermen; and jam wires on water diversions.

Ground water in the immediate vicinity of the disposal site may become grossly polluted and unsuitable for domestic or irrigation use if the solid wastes intercept the zone of saturation (i.e., below the level of the water table) or if the leachate reaches the ground water.Concentration of common mineral constituents such as hardness, chloride, and total dissolved solids can increase many timesover those found in unpolluted ground water.

The contact of decomposable solid wastes with surface watermay also result in increasing the organic and mineral content of the adjacent surface water.In ponded water, the decomposing organic material will cause the water to become depleted of dissolved oxygen, resulting in production of odors and discoloration of the water. It appears, however, that the disposal sites may be sources of bacterial organisms affecting the sanitary quality of adjacent surface waters. One serious problem notedat 3-83

many of the disposal sites was water-caused nuisance conditions, particularly odors and appearance, resulting from improper solid waste disposal.

The disposal of chemical waste sludges also presents potential water pollution hazards.

C. Effects on Air There are two classifications of air pollution problems related to solid waste disposal. The first type results from the discharge of smoke, particulate matter, dust, and odorous and possible toxic vapors into the atmosphere. These conditions are objectionable in themselves in that they create hazards and annoyance to people and tend to decrease surrounding property values.

A subtle but immensely important part which refuse disposal can play in the field of air pollution involves the occurrence of urban-type smog. Smog in California may best be visualized as the end result of slow combustion in the atmosphere of gaseous hydrocarbon material to end products of aldehydes, organic acids, and other irritants. The resulting aerosols may obstruct visibility, destroy and stunt the growth of sensitive plants, severely irritate the eyes and other mucous membranes of humans, and perhaps increase morbidity and shorten life.Refuse disposal contributes to this situation principally through the inefficient combustion of solid wastes in dumps, backyard burning, and incinerators.

The pall of smoke rising from the open burning of refuse not only has unpleasant odors, but carries particulate matter into the air.Downwind areas are showered with the particulate matter as the gases cool.

Current disposal practices of agricultural solid wastes are also sources of air pollution. Dust and obnoxious odors from accumulations of manure are common in the vicinity of many cattle feedlots and dairies. Smoke from agricultural and lumbering waste-burning operations also adversely affects the air quality of many portions of the state.

D. Effects on Land

Degradation of the value, usefulness, desirability, and beauty of land can result from inadequate, indiscriminate, or improper disposal of solid wastes.Land pollution results in a wide variety of adverse effects, some of which are obvious, others quite subtle.

One of the more insidious forms of land pollution is the destruction of aesthetic values of land areas by unsightly burning dumps, exposed piles of manure, and metal salvage operations.It is difficult to plop actual dollar losses on scenic landscapes which have been defaced by improper solid waste disposal. Those attempting to sell 3-84

land in the vicinity of a burning dump, however, are well aware of the lowered real estate values caused by the dump operation.

Prompt and adequate application of cover material does more to overcome the poor aesthetic conditions at disposal sites than any other single measure. The cover immediately removes the refuse from sight, which is extremely important. Compac- tion and prompt covering will also aid in reducing the amount of material scattered by the wind.Blowing papers not only create aesthetic problems at the disposal site but also nuisance problems when spread over adjacent property.

Covering will contain most odors or control their release into the atmosphere. This will not only make the site more pleasant to people, but also reduce its attractive- ness to insects, rodents, and other animals.In some areas, exposed refuse will attract large numbers of seagulls or ravens feeding on solid wastes.

A second form of land pollution is solid waste disposal which results in undesirable topographic changes. These topographic changes, while sometimes undesirable in themselves at the time, often result in subsequent environmental changes of much greater consequence. For example, the current popular practice of filling San Fran- cisco Bay tidelands and marshlands with solid wastes may be objectionable from an aesthetic and conservation viewpoint.Perhaps more profound, however, are the resultant adverse effects on the ecology of the marine life of the bay, water and tidal currents and flushing action, and even the climate of the area.

Landfill operations that substantially raise the ground level in areas of flat terrain may result in interference with land drainage or may create barriers which obstruct views, both of which constitute a serious detriment to the environment of nearby residents.

Any finished landfill project should blend in with the landscape and be adaptable to an acceptable use. Positive results may be obtained through landfill operations such as the filling of quarries, marshlands, and canyons, creating more usable land area. It is important to remember that the final land does not have to be flat. The planned sculpturing of finished fills for use as golf courses and parks is an example of this. By not filling the disposal site "to the brim," the site may be more compatible with future land use....Some of the positive effects that are being achieved include land improvement for ultimate use, recreational use enhancement, or the elimination of an environmental hazard such as an abandoned quarry.

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Day 9: Reading--"Depletion of Natural Resources"

Adapted from Man...An Endangered Species? U.S. Department of theInterior Conservation Yearbook no. 4; (Washington, D.C.: U.S.Government Printing Office, 1968), pp. 76-81.

Modern man's use of minerals illustrates both his inventivenessand his lack of foresight. The technology of mining, processing,and using minerals has advanced rapidly, providing energy and materials in suchabundance that, for the first time in history, a majority of the population enjoysa measure of affluence.

But while technology was giving, it also was takingaway. Methods that gave access to essential minerals and fuels also damaged man's environment. Giant machines that permit economies in surface mining alsoscar the land and leave sores of eroded soil and polluted streams. Increasingly productivemineral processing plants often yield ugly mountains of refuseas byproducts. Advancing technology has squeezed more and more energy out of coal and oilbut too seldom has that technology provided ways to reduce the air pollutants generated inburning these fuels.

If man is now an endangered species, the dangercomes mainly from man himself. Pogo, the comic strip possum, summed itup: "We have met the enemy, and they are us." Paradoxically, it is thesuccesses of technology that make its failures apparent; our material abundance has given us the leisure in which togrow dissatisfied.

More than a hundred years ago at Waldon Pond, HenryDavid Thoreau conchtded that the essentials of life could all be included inone: keeping warm. Shelter and fire keep one warm in cold weather. Clothingconserves body heat. Food is mainly fuel to stoke the body's internal furnace. Thoreaulived as independently as possible, in a cabin built of salvaged materials. Hegrew much of his own food.His mineral needs were the simplest: iron for hisaxe and other tools, glass for the cabin windows, sulfur matches, and ink made with carbon black.

Few modern men could live as simplyeven if they wanted to. Nevertheless, Thoreau's analysis holds trueeven for the man who rides to the office by subway, buys his food in a supermarket, and gets hispower, fuel, and shelter from outside sources. Modern man's warmth depends upon mineralresources. All the mineral resources thatever will exist are here today: in air, water, and the Earth itself. There is noway to add to what has been given. Man cannot create metals; he can only find them where naturalprocesses have concentrated them. Like the metallic ores that were formed by slow geologicforces, the fossil fuels, coal, oil, and gas, represent solar energy stored by plantsover eons of time.

Our resources of fuels and mineralsare being dissipated much faster than they were built up, and the rate of dissipation is accelerating.In the past 30 years we have used more coal and oil than in all previeWstory.It will take less than 20 years to do it again.

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The natural checks of ecology make most life forms use their resources con- servatively. A species will develop a balance with its food supply and maintain the balance indefinitely.The energy to support this ecological status quo comes day- by-day, from the sun. But modern man is an ecological freak; instead of living on the "interest" from his natural bank account, he has found it necessary to spend capital.

Some time in the future, science may devise ways to create new capital stores of energy and materials. But for now we must expend the resources that we have to survive.Spending this capital wisely is conservation. Today our nation faces a double dilemma. Today, when our requirements for minerals and fuels are higher than ever, we find that the easily obtained rich deposits of these essential materials have been depleted.

We must somehow extend our mineral resource base--the known and usable supplies--by developing new and markedly improved technology. We must find and develop additional sources of minerals that have thus far remained untapped. More efficient mining methods can make low-grade deposits workable.Better processing techniques can make available more of the mineral values inherent in these deposits. Improved utilization can do the same, and also make our resources serve us longer. Butand this is the challenge that muzt be met if man is to survive and advance-- these essential tasks must be accomplished economically within a context that permits no further contamination or degradation of our environment.

There are several practicable ways in which the known and available supply of minerals can be increased. Earth's crust has not been fully explored; hence, new supplies can be discovered. And resources that are marginal can become useful when the right technology is developed.

One of our most urgent needs is for methods and equipment that will enable us to push far deeper into the earth for minerals. This source is yet unevaluated because it is beyond our reach. To probe it, and to work whatever mineral deposits it holds, will require whole new mining system.

A primary need is for a means of rapid excavation...tunneling through the earth's varying strata with a safety, speed, and efficiency far beyond anything now known. New techniques for breaking rock, hauling materials, supporting tunnel roofs and walls, and controlling the total underground environment must be woven into flexible and economic excavation systems. Underground mining must, in other words, be converted from a series of separate operations into a single, continuous process. Only in this way can man hope to tap the potential sources of minerals that now elude his grasp.

Perhaps the greatest challenge of all to man's ingenuity, and a large part of the solution to his double dilemma, lies in the recovery of mineral values from waste. In a typical year, for example, the unburned iesidues from this country's municipal

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incinerators contain more than six billion pounds of iron and 400 million pounds of aluminum, copper, zinc, and other nonferrous metals.Incinerator residues, often richer than many workable ores, are plowed into the ground at dumps and landfills across the country.

Our past carelessness in disposing of solid waste from mineral operations now haunts us widely and with a vengeance.In many areas man-made mountains of debris encroach on cities and occupy land that could be put to better use for industry, housing, natural forest areas, and recreation.

The anthracite region of Pennsylvania alone contains almost a billion cubic yards ef coal mine refuse. Coal in these waste piles and also in abandoned mines can catch fire and burn for years, polluting the air for miles. There and elsewhere, the "over - bur den" of earth and rock removed to expose mineral deposits from surface mining Lind the residues from mineral processing have created problems that are literally mountainous. To get at what we need, we move mountains of earth and rock every year: three billion tons in extracting coal and more than that in mining other minerals.

In a wide-ranging study, it was found that every strte has been affected by surface mining. More than three million acres, an area as big as Connecticut, have been disturbed and though attempts at reclamation have been made, more than two million acres--equivalent to a state of Delawarestill urgently require restoration work just to preserve water quality in the streams and rivers that drai them.It was learned also that less than one-third of the land that is surface-mined each year is being properly reclaimed. At this rate, the inventory of damaged land will total five million acres, roughly the size of New jersey, by 1980.

The disposal of mine and mill refuse also is a mountain-size problem. Solid wastes from extractive and processing operations can be noxious as well as ugly. They may be rich in pyrites, as some coal mine wastes are, and form acid waters that pollute streams and rivers. Or -hey may contribute choking clouds of dust to any wind that blows.

Most coals and other fossil fuels contain sulfur which, when the fuels are burned, forms sulfur dioxide. Tilis colorless pungent gas, corrosive and toxic even in relatively low concentrations, is a major contributor to air pollution.

Also generated by industrial furnaces is "fly-ash," a gray powdery residue of unburned minerals. Most fuel-burning industries long ago installed collectors to remove this troublesome waste from their stack gases.But once it is collected-- in volumes totaling some 20 million tons annually--it then must be disposed of.Simply to do this costs industry between 50 cents and la.00 per ton.

"Keeping warm" is just as essential today as it was in Thoreau's time. We still require minerals and fuels in everincreasing amounts to fill this basic need.But clean air, pure water, and space in which to live, walk, and occasionally be solitary are just as indispensable to our physical and intellectual growth as they were to his.

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It is true, of course, that times andcircumstances have :hanged.Life today is infinitely more complex, and oftenmore confusing, than it was for one man ina cabin by a pond before the turn of thecentury. Mt fundamental truths stay withus and our belief in the value andpurpose of life persists.

Man may, at this moment in history, bean endangered species, but he remains a highly resourceful one.His faith holds, as Thoreau'sso obviously did, in the maxim: "The future is not in Fate's hands,but ours."

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Day 10: Reading--mThe Problem of Mercury"

Adapted from National Industrial Pollution Control Council, U.S. Department of Commerce, Mercury (Washington. D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970), pp. 7-12.

Mercury and mercury compounds are widely used in industry and agriculture because of their unusual properties.Because mercury is toxic to living organisms, it has long been used by the agricultural chemical industry as an effective inhibitor of the growth of fungi on agricultural seeds as well as in some pesticides. For many years mercurial compounds were used in the pulp and paper industry to prevent the growth of slime on wi.t paper pulp in process or storage. twever, as a result of a Food and Drug Administration ban on this use in connectirA v. ith paper which might come in contact with food, the use of mercury a.-; ? ia the United States had virtually ceased before 1970. Mercury in used in the paint and varnish industry to meet marine and other requirements for antifouling paints for ships and for mildew-proofing paints because of its ability to pre, eta or slow down undesirable growths.

Because mercury is a liquid at normal room temperature and is also an excellent electrical conductor, the electrical industry has used it extensively in household and other long-wearing and virtually silent electrical switches.Mercury has an unusual ability to combine with cettain othcr materials on a highly selective basis. This has led to its use by chemical api metallurgical industries in a number of processes requiring selective separation of materials. Medical and dental laboratories use mercury because of its mechanical, physical, and chemical properties. The instru- ment industry uses this liquid metal in thermometers and other temperature-recording devices because it remains a liquid over a wide range of temperatures and has a conveniently large coefficient of thermal expansion. The largest single industrial use of mercury in recent years has been in the manufacture of chlorine and caustic soda, both of which are basic matt.rials in many manufacturing processes. The consumption of mercury in each of the past five years has ranged from 69,517 flasks

(about 2,650 tons) to 79,104 flasks (about 3,000 tons). -

Contamination of the environment by mercury has recently come increasingly to public attention. The Federal Water Quality Administration established that mercury pollution across the nation had become more widespread than previously realized. Abnormal amounts of mercury have been found in some water, fish, and game birds in at least 33 of the 50 states. The toxicity problem posed by mercury waste concentrations is complit ated by the fact that it has been established that microorganisms can consume mercury, convert it into methylmercury and bring it into the food chain. (Abnormal amounts are considered to be over 0.5 parts per million (ppm) in food and 0.005 ppm in drinking water. )

Although some mercury will inevitably be present in the environment because it is a natural element, it is nevertheless important for the industrial sector to avoid

258 3-90

adding to the natural concentrations. This involves eliminatingmercury from industrial waste waters and air discharges whenever it can be detected and controlled.

Mercury has been used by man for much of his existence.Aristotle mentioned the use of mercury, and the Almaden Mine in CiudadReal Province, Spain, has been producing mercury since 400 B.C. This mine alone has producedover seven million flasks (more than one-quarter million tons). Thepast production of mercury throughout the world indicates that a great quantity has been used, and much of it has undoubtedly found its way into the environment.

Agricultural uses of mercury in the form of methylmercurydicyandiamide and other organic mercurial compounds began during World WarII in Sweden despite rising complaints from conservationists that birdswere dying from either eating treated seeds or from eating rodents which hadeaten the seeds.Complaints of mercury contamination and indications of mercury concentrations in fish ledto research on the accumulation of mercury in variousorganisms.

This research indicated that the rates of accumulation in fish variedsignificantly between different organs and under different conditions. For example,the highest accumulation rates for pike were found in the liver and kidneys.It was also learned that methylmercury is more readily accumulated by fishfrom food than methozyethel mercury and that for fresh water fish the uptake of inorganicmercury from food seems to be negligible.

Research has also indicated that fish which have accumulatedmercury may later eliminate the mercury from theirsystems. The level of mercury in fish appears to follow the level of mercury in the water in which they live.

A report on fresh water fish from Lake Erie andthe St. Clair River indicated the following levels of mercury, baseden wet weight for the edible portions:

Walleye pike 1.4 to 3.57 ppm Sucker 0 88 Northern pike 0 64 White bass 0.53 to 0.80 Channel catfish 0.32 to 1.8 Coho salmon 0.24 to 0.96 Carp 0.08 to 0.28

From such research it is apparent thatmercury is widespread throughout the environment. Mercury vapor was, of course,an original component of Earth's atmosphere. Earth itself apparently hasan average minimum backgrouhd content of mercury of about 0.04 ppm in areas whichare away from inhabited or anomalously high areas due to meral ores.

Despite the established widespreadpresence of mercury in trace quantities in the earth and in nature, and despite its various sclitntificand industrial uses, there have been few cases of record involviagovercurypoisoning of people. 259 3-91

The most extensive mercury poisoning cases seem to have occurred in Japan where fish constitutes a major element of the popular diet. One series of 110 mercury-poisoning cases attributed to mercury content of fish occurred between 1953 and 1960 in Minimata, Japan, on the island of Kyushu. The waters of Minimata Bay were found to have been contaminated by methylmercury waste water discharges from a plastics manufacturing plant. Fishing in the area was banned and waste water treatment facilities were installed at the plant. A second series of poisonings occurred in 1965 in Niigata, Japan, on the island of Honshu. One hundred twenty persons showed one or more symptoms of methylmercury poisoning, 26 were officially classified as mercury poisoning cases, and five of these resulted in death. The industrial plant to which the discharges were traced was closed.

One case involving a farming family in Alamogordo, N.M., which occurred early in 1970, has received considerable publicity,The Huckelby family ate pork which inadvertently had been fed granary sweepings which were believed to have been treated with mercury antifungal compounds.

Concern for the impact of mercury on human health and economic welfare has led to a proliferation of research effort to determine the major mercury polluting sources.Industry, of course, is the biggest user of newly mined mercury, and it immediately came under scrutiny.Agriculture also was suspected because it contributed by placing mercury compounds directly into the environment as fungicides and pesticides.

Past discharges of mercury with waste waters have accumulated mercury in river silts from which microorganisms convey it as methylmercury into the food chain. With severe restriction of waste discharges containing mercury, existing concentrations will, with the passage of time, tend to become more widely distributed and dissipated over the total environment, thus gradually reducing levels in any one area.

Bringing the mercury pollution problem into focus has brought to attention problems of other toxic materials. As industrialization continues, more and more toxic elementsboth naturally occurring and man-madewill be presented to the populace.If their dangers to man and the environment are not thoroughly understood, proper pollution abatement efforts cannot be instituted.

-0 GO 3-92

Day 10: Reading--"Chemical Pollutants"and "Persistence of Pesticides Endangers Human Life"

Adapted from Congressional Quarterly, Man'sControl of the Environment, (Wasnington, D.C. :Congressional Quarterly, Inc., 1970)pp. 45-49. $4.00 rlpyrighted. All rights reserved, used by permission;reproduction prohibited witnout permissionof the publisher.

Dozens of complicated chemical compounds,used to control harmful organisms which attack humans, animals, andcrops, have become the center of one major battle to save the environment. The best known of thesecompounds is DDT, credited with virtually eliminating malaria and typhoidamong American soldiers during World War II and with saving billions of dollars ofcrops from destruction by pests since then. Less commonly known arenumerous other pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides also in widespread use in thiscountry and throughout the world.

In a widely publicizedmove, Secretary of Agriculture Clifford M. Hardin announced on November 20, 1969, thatregistrations would be canceled for fouruses of DDT--on shade trees, tobacco plants,in or around the home (except for control of disease carriers), and in marshes (withan exception for disease control- as determined by public health officials). Othercrops would not be effected by the order.

A major lawsuit, brought bva group of environmental organizations, has challenged the use of the herbicide 2, 4,5-T, at one point widely usedas a defoliant in South Vietnam.

In June 1969, the Interior Departmentbanned 16 substances. including DDT, 2, 4, 5-T, and several otherconmoversial compounds from theuse on more than 500 million acreP of land it controls.Another group of pesticides and herbicides was classified f:s "restricted" for use when nonchemicaluses proved inadequate for small-scale apt lications.

A number of states have implementedtheir own restrictions on theuse of DDT and other pesticides. Buton the federal level, lengthy appeal procedureson proposed restrictions and in lawsuits and conflictingpositions between various departments and agencies slowed down action,yet to date DDT has not been completely banned.

Dichloro-diphenyl trichloroethane (DDT),the insecticide which revolutionized crop protection and insect control after experimentaluse during World War II, was first synthesized in 1874 by Germanchemist Othmar Zeidler.In 1939 Swiss scientist Paul Mueller determined that DDTwas an effective insect killer.In 1948 he received a Nobel Prize for the discovery. Since 1945, whenDDT was first marketedcommer- cially in the United States,more than 900 different chemical pesticides havebeen developed.

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Most of the chemicals fall into one of three classes--thechlorinated hydrocarbons, including DDT; the organic phosphates;or the carbamates--all of which include insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, and plantgrowth regulators. Other chlorinated hydrocarbons were also developed in the 1940s,but the high toxicity, long period of potency (10 to 20 years) and lowcost of DDT made it the most popular insecticide through the early 1960s.

During World War II, DDT was tested and declared safefor human use. The small quantity of the insecticide availableto Allied troops was used in programs to combat lice and to cntrol typhoid and malaria in the SouthPacific. After the war, DDT rapidly gaineda reputation as a panacea for insect problems. Production in the United Statesgrew from 20 million pounds in 1948 to 145 million pounds in 1958. The price of the chemicaldropped from $1.19 a pound shortly after its discovery to 17 centsa pound by 1968.

But reports of insect resistance, the availability of otherpesticides, and uncertainty over the effects of a steady buildup of DDTon the environment contributed to a decline in the use of the chemical after 1963.Economic Research Service surveys indicate that U.S. output of DDT in 1969 was approximately 40percent less than the peaks reached in 1960 to 1963.

As DDT production dropped, theuse of other chlorinated hydrocarbons, including dieldrin, aldrin, and endrin, and of organic phospateand carbamate pesticides increased rapidly.

The organic phosphates, developed in the 1930s afterGerman chemist Gerhard Schrader discovered their potential as insect killers,were not widely used until the 1950s. Among the highly poisonous organic phosphatepesticides, some of which are deadly to man, are parathion and malathion. Theirperiods of potency and those of carbamate pesticides, measured in weeks or months,are much briefer than those of DDT-related chemicals, lessening the danger oflong-term environmental contamination.

As the new synthetic insecticides becamemore popular, pesticide sales in the United States soared from $40 million in 1939to $300 million in 1959.By 1968, annual sales had approached $1.7 billion, andprojections in a 1969 Chemical Week magazine report indicated that by 1975, $3 billion worth of pesticidesare expected to be produced and sold annually by Americancompanies.

Lar e amounts of DDT have been used in the UnitedStates to protect food, cotton, and tobacco from pests, to control mosquitoes and bats, andto eradicate house and garden insects.

R. G. Van Buskirk estimated in Farm Chemicalsin July 1969 that DDT had prevented 500 million illnesses and saved 25 millionlives during almost 25 years' use in disease prevention.

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Cases of malaria in the United States dropped from a reported 60,000 in 1942 to fewer than 2,000 a year by 1950, largely as a result of DDT insect carrier eradication programs.

In the 1950s, the federal government launched large-scale insect control programs, utilizing DDT to destroy pests threatening farm products, shade trees, and human beings.Major programs attempted included campaigns against the gypsy moth, the Japanese beetle, Dutch elm disease, and the fire ant.The campaigus met with mixed success. They drew loud complaints from conservationists that application of the pesticide was frequently careless and ill-timed, and that DDTwas destroying as many birds and animals as it was insect pests.

DDT's effects on crop production, however, rated a muchmore positive response: the yield per acre of corn and of rice almost doubled between 1947 and 1966. Cotton production during the same period increased from 279.6 to 499.8 pounds per acre, largely as a result of the DDT boll weevil eradicationprogram, according to agricultural chemist G. K. Kohn.

An increasing quantity of the DDT produced in the United States, about 70 percent, is being purchased by AID and UNICEF for foreign malaria programs, and for disease eradication programs under the auspices of the World Health Organization. More than 90 million of the 125 million pounds of DDT produced in the United States in 1968 were sold abroad.

Environmental scientists evinced concern about dangerous side effects of pesticides soon after DDT was marketed, but early government studies revealed no human health threat.

Other chlorinated hydrocarbons, which attack the nervous system via a mechanism not entirely understood, have been fatal to men when absorbed through the skin or swallowed. DDT, least potent of the group, is not.But aldrin, for instance, is so deadly that an aspirin-sized pellet can kill 400 quail, biologist Rachel Carson reported in Silent Spring, published in 1962.

The organic phosphates and carbamates, most of which are highly poisonous to man, cause nerve impulses to flash in increasing intensity until tremors, convulsions, and death result. They may also enter synergistic reactions in which residues oftwo relatively harmless pesticides combine to form a third deadly compound.

Between 1964 and 1968, more than 1.9 million fish were killed by pesticide pollution in U.S. waters, according to the U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife.

DDT defenders claimed its association with fish and bird killswas purely circumstantial.But scientists have demonstrated that by a process called biological magnification, minute quantities of t pesticide absorbed by plankton or tiny insects .23 3-95

could be transferred via the food chain in constantly increasing quantitiesto larger birds and animals feeding on the tiny carriers.

Reproductive failures and near extinction resulted in some bird species, including bald eagles, peregrine falcons, brown pelicans and Bermuda petrels,in which DDT apparently interferes with the egg-laying mechanism,creating thin- shelled eggs.Fish whose larvae are killed by DDT stored in the yolks of their eggs have also suffered reproductive failures.

In man, clinical studies have demonstrated correlations between high DDT levels and cerebral hemorrhages,liver diseases, and stomach disorders, according to California scientists. DDT has also been linked to tumor growth in n.ice. A University of Miami medical school study revealed that human victims ofcancer contained more than twice as much DDT in their fat as did victims ofa ccidental death.

Stanford University biologist Paul R. Ehrlich wrote in 1969 that DDT absorption by oceanic plankton, which produce much of the oxygen in the atmosphere, could cause an even more serious problem; death of the plankton dueto pesticides could result in the end of ocean life and a shortage ofoxygen to breathe.

Despite the benefit of using powerful pesticides suchas DDT to control diseases, there is no doubt of their serious interference in numerous food chains andecosystems, causing death and deformities among various wild animal species.It is imperativt: that our governments order an orderly reduction in the production and firm restrictions on the use of any dangerous and persistent pesticide. 3-96

Day 11: (alternative reading)--'"fhe Population Explosion" and "SpacecraftEarth May Be Crowded Beyond Capacity"

Adapted from Congressional Quarterly, Man's Control of the Environment, (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly, Inc. 1970)pp. 9-12.$4.00 Copy- righted.All rights reserved, used by permission; reproduction prohibitedwithout permission of the publisher.

Too many cars, too many factories, too much detergent,too much pesticide, multiplying contrails, inadequate sewagetreatment plants, too little water, too much carbon dioxide--all can be traced easilyto too many people. - -Dr. Paul R. Ehrlich, The Population Bomb

Our spacecraft called the Earth is reaching its capacity. Canwe not invent a way to reduce our population growth to zero?...Every human institution...should set this as its prime task. - -Dr. Lee A. Du Bridge, science advisor to the President, November 23, 1969

World population is increasing at a geometric rate.In 1970, there were 3.5 billion persons.It took until 1830 for world population to reach 1 billion,but only another 100 years to double to 2 billion.At the current rate of population growth of 2 percent a year, there will be almost 7 billionpersons alive at the turn of the century, doubling to 14 billion by the year 2035.

The concern of the government over population isincreasing gradually as population growth remains unchecked.In 1959, President Eisenhower said he "could not imagine anything more emphatically a subject that isnot a proper political or governmental activity or function or responsibility" thanfamily planning.

In 1969, President Nixon urged asa national goal "the provision of adequate family planning services within the next fiveyears to all those who want them but cannot afford them." In his first presidential message devoted entirelyto the population question, he said population growth was "one of themost serious challenges to human destiny in the last third of this century."

U.S. population policy at first focusedon population growth as a hindrance to economic growth for developing countries or upward mobility forthe poor.Increas- ingly, zoncern has broadened to include fears that theindustrialized nations, while not facing immediate disaster, will not be able to support their projectedpopulations at the accustomed standards of living.

The Committee of the National Academy of Sciences--NationalResearch Council (NAS-NRC) warned in 1969 that in its judgment, "a humanpopulation less than the present one would offer the best hope for comfortable living forour descendants, long duration for the species and the preservation of environmentalquality." .265 3-97

The NAS-NRC Committee on Resources andMan found that foreseeable increases in food supplies limited Earth's ultimate carryingcapacity td about 30 billion persons, maintained for the most part at a level of chronicnear starvation. Predictions that increases in production of food from thesea would solve the population problems were ill-founded, said the committee, estimating thatmaximum yield from the sea would be about 2-1/2 times the current annual productionof 60 million metric tons of fish. The committee warned that food supplieswere only part of the problem. Known and prospective reserves of many substances consideredessential for industrial society would be nearly exhausted and by the end ofthe century, the committee pre- dicted, among them mercury, tin,tungsten, and helium. The committee said it was not certain when other metals, mineral fuels, chemicals, andconstruction materials would run out, but that increases in demand forthese nonrenewable resources could not be satisfied indefinitely. Technology cannotcreate raw materials although it could postpone their exhaustion.

The NAS-NRC committee's predictionsare temperate in comparison with those of gloomier prophets. Dr. Paul R. Ehrlich,professor of biological sciences at Stanford University, for example,says that widespread famine between 1970 and 1985 already is inevitable. "Hundreds of millionsof people are going to starve to death unless plague, thermonuclear war,or some other agent kills them first," he said. "Many will starve to death in spite ofany crash programs we might embark upon now. And we are not embarking upon any crash programs."

For the United States, which is expectedto have a population of 300 million by the century's end, the primeconcern is not imminent famine. Many scientists do, however, foresee a steady degradation in thequality of land, air, and water as well as the overburdening of social institutions. Theyargue that population growth in the United States is in fact a more serious problemthan for poorer countries which do not use so many resources.

Conservationists such as former Secretary of the InteriorStewart L. Udall note that the United States, with only 6 percent of the world'spopulation, uses between 35 and 50 percent of the world's annualconsumption of nonrenewable resources. Many experts believe about half the current U.S. population of 200million would be the optimum level for this country in relationto resources.

Dr. Jean Mayer, Presidential advisoron nutrition, wrote in the summer 1969 issue of the Columbia Forum that the major Americannutrition problem is overweight, and the major agricultural problem mountingproduction.But he asked, "Does anyone seriously believe this means thatwe have no serious population problem?"

Mayer said excellent human beings wouldnot be produced without an abundance of cultural as well as materllresources, or without sufficient space.He said a rational policy might ent 5'.decrease of the population as the disposable incomerises. As evidence of the demand placedon the environment by a rich and increasing population Mayer cited: 266 3-98

(1) An increase of 120 percent in visitor-days to state parks while population was increasing only 20 percent between 1950 and 1960

(2) Annual production of 48 billion rust-proof cans, 26 billion nondegradable bottles, 9 million cars, trucks, and buses, 8 billion pounds of nondegradable plastics and a billion pounds of paper (3) Shortages of drinkable water, not because of increased fluid consumption, but because people are using more water for air-conditioning, swimming pools and expanded metal and chemical industries. Believers in the population crisis call for a change in the American attitude toward growth, saying the "frontier psychology" which calls for more people and more goods must be replaced with a recognition of the limits of expansion. Garrett Hardin, professor of biology at the University of California (Santa Barbara), told the House Government Operations Subcommittee on Conservation and Natural Resources in 1969 that the gross national product, perhaps the most popular economic measure, is "dangerously misleading." He criticized the GNP for including needless luxuries such as gambling and tobacco and the costs of cleaning up pollution that should not have occurred in the first place.

Hardin proposed creation of a new economic measure to be called "net national amenities," which would take into account only the things that "contribute positively to human well-being." He included food, shelter, entertainment, access to quiet places, and uncluttered surroundings among the amenities. Open space may be a psychological necessity for human beings. Studies of animals have found that lack of space can lead to serious behavioral aberrations. Mice crowded together in the laboratory have become nervous and aggressive. Their actions include murder, sexual deviations, and inability to care for their young. Drawing parallels with the lower animals, some demographers and urbanologists cite increasing urban crime, homosexuality, and child abuse as evidence of the effects of overcrowding on humans.

Some experts do not believe there is a population crisis in the United States. Ben J. Wattenbert, a demographer, challenged the assumptions of pessimistic predictions about the population growth in an April article in The New Republic. He said that America was not by any new standard a crowded country, that population growth will not necessarily be harmful, and that the publicity given to a nonexistent population crises diverts vtention from the vital issues of the war and the cities.

Wattenberg noted that in terms of relative density the United States is a sparsely populated nation. The United States has a density of 55 persons per square mile, 18 times less dense than Holland and 10 times less dense than England. He said the United States had been experiencing a population redistribution, rather than a population explosion, in recent years, with movement to the suburbs the dominant feature of the change. 867 3-99

Wattenberg noted that the American birth rate is declining.Since 1957, the end of the post-war baby boom, the fertility rate has gone steadily down, froma high of 123 babies born per thousand women aged 15 to 44, to 85.7 in 1968. Hesuggested the birth rate could fall more if there were a business recession, recalling that during the depression, fertility rates fell to 76.

Wattenbert claimed that population growth, by increasing taxrevenues, could increase the available government funds for pollution control.Defense spending would remain constant with a higher population, according to his analysis,as would the costs of cleaning up the environmeht.

As for nonrenewable resources, he said these willrun out some time by definition and a substitute will have to be found.Rich persons do not present more of a threat to resources, he said, because they have fewer children than thepoor. Watten- berg cited a 1964 census survey that found thatamong women who had completed their childbearing years, families with incomes of $10,000 andover had 2.21 children, or only slightly more than the 2.13 currently needed to replace the population. He said it was possible that affluent persons who have notyet completed their families might even have fewer children and barely replace themselves. -- Other population experts say a population problem exists in the United States but has been oversold.Dr. Philip M. Hauser of the University of Chicago toldan American Medical Association congresson environmental health in May that by bombarding people with predictions of impending doom, environmentalistswere breeding complacency. When the predictions proved false, he said, people would be less apt to believe sober forecasts of the real problems which still lay ahead. Elimination of unwanted births would alleviate problems for all economic classes, but especially for the poor.

A study by Charles F. Westoff, professor of population researchat Princeton University, found that from 1960 through 1968, between 35 and 40percent of the natural increase in U.S. population could be attributedto unwanted fertility. Thus, prevention of unwanted births might be expected to contribute considerablyto a lessening of population growth.

But the poor, who want about the same number of childrenas the nonpoor, are less able to support an extra child and have lessaccess to family planning services. HEW statistics show the average number of children wanted bya wife is between 3.2 and 3.4, from the five million poor women who need family planning aidand are receiving help in preventing births to the richest women.

Birth control has been called an attempton the part of rich whites to control the number of the poor and blacks. But family planning servicesare nonetheless eagerly received where they are available.

Mrs. Bobby McMahan, representing the National Welfare Rights Organization, told the Senate Health Subcommittee in 1969 that "many black people feel thatgovern- ment officials who support family planning services are doing it in hopes of reducing 268 3-100

the number of poor ...particularly the black poor .... On the other hand, the poor are not going to cut off a nose to spite a face, whatever the ieal motives of you legislators may be." Publicity given to the possible bad effects of the most popular existing contraceptive has intensified efforts to find a safe and effective alternative. The most effective means of birth control yet devised is the oral contraceptive--"the Pill." But the Pill's popularity was dealt a major blow by hearings by the Senate Monopoly Subcommittee on Small Business early in 1970. A Gallup poll completed during the hearings, chaired by Senator Gaylord Nelson (D-Wisconsin), found that 46 percent of women surveyed considered the Pill unsafe, compared to 22 percent in 1967. One witness estimated there would be as many as 100,000 "Nelson babies" born in 1970 as a result of the hearings. Witnesses testified that Pill users risked health impairments ranging in severity from mild headaches to fatal blood clots. The risk of death from blood-clotting disorders, first reported in British medical literature in 1962 and now considered well documented, is three per hundred thousand Pill users. This is approximately 10 times the rate of death from the same cause for nonusers.

Dr. Alan F. Guttmacher, , president of Planned Parenthood/World Population, told the Monopoly Subcommittee that pregnancy carried greater risks than the Pill. Nor, he said, was there an acceptable substitute for oral contraceptives.Intrauterine devices (IUDs) have a failure rate of five pregnancies per hundred users. Other methods have an even higher failure rate.

In the absence of an adequate replacement for the Pill, the FDA advised physicians to prescribe, whenever possible, oral contraceptives containing the lowest amounts of estrogen, the ingredient blamed for blood problems.In line with this recommendation, the FDA is expediting applications for marketing low-estrogen pills. Modifications in IUD design may make them less risky. IUDs of traditional shape have tended to wander, particularly in women who have never had a child, sometimes perforating the uterus, thus causing bleeding, peritonitis, and even death. New designs, named for their shapes, are intended to stay put. Among these are the "LM," shaped like a lunar module, and the "crab." The addition of copper, zinc, or a hormone to an IUD might increase efficacy and reduce side effects.

More radical birth control innovations already are being tested clinically. Dr. Sheldon J. Segal, director of the biomedical division of the Population Council, told an American Medical Association meeting in May that there were nine new approaches to contraceptive action, including some to be used on the man, being tested on patients.

269 3-101

Government research in contraception is focusing on basic proces-ses of the reproductive cycle. The National Institutes of Health signed contracts in 1969 totaling about $3 million for research in contraceptive development.NH-I hopes to find ways of altering the reproductive cycle enough to prevent pregnancy without stopping ovulation altogether or interfering with other body functions.Possibilities offering more convenience will be explored, including a morning-after and once-a- month pill.

270 v. 3-102

Day 12: Reading--"Physiological and Psychological Effects of Noise on Man"

Adapted from Alexander Cohen, "Physiological and Psychological Effects of Noise on Man," Industrial Noise: A Guide to Its Evaluation and Control, A. D. Hosey and C. H. Powell (eds. ), U.S. Health, Education and Welfare (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1967).

By definition, noise is unwanted sound. Excessive noise can cause hearing loss and other undesired physiological changes, interference in speech communication, some loss in work efficiency, and annoyance. Although noise appears capable of producing such adverse effects, clarification is needed as to the health significance of these various alterations, the levels and types of noise conditions required to produce them, and the mechanisms underlying the specific noise-induced effect noted.

Exposing the ear to an intense noise will most probably cause hearing loss which may be temporary, permanent, or a combination of the two. Temporary hearing loss represents loss in hearing that can occur after a few minutes' exposure to an intense noise and is recoverable following a period of time away from the noise.With daily continuous exposures for months or years to intense noise, there may be only partial recovery of the observed loss, the nonrecoverable loss being indicative of a permanent noise-induced hearing impairment.

Aside from damage to the hearing mechanism, noise conditions found in industry are not considered to produce any other physiological impairments.Recent reports however suggest an association between noise, hearing loss, and cardiovascular disorders, although the relationship is still unclear. Even moderate levels of noise appear to cause constriction in blood circulation.Individuals working under intense noise conditions (e.g. , ball-bearing manufacturing plants) showed some functional disturbances of the cardiovascular system, including a slowed heart beat.

Sudden intense noise can cause marked physiological changes, including a rise in blood pressure, increase in sweating, changes in breathing, and sharp contractions of muscles in the body. These changes are generally regarded as an emergency reaction of the body, increasing the effectiveness of any muscular exertion which may be required. Although perhaps useful in emergencies, these changes may be harmful for long periods since they interfere with other necessary activities or produce undue amounts of fatigue. Fortunately, these physiological reactions subside with repeated presentations of the noise.

Intense (or extremely high) levels of sound are capable of causing dizziness or loss of equilibrium since the balancing organs are stimulated. Such high intensity exposures may also cause alterations with other types of sensory behavior and will definitely cause pain, perhaps even traumatic damage in unprotected ears. Examples of such extreme noise conditions are few; possiblyjet engine test cells these high levels would be reached.

.271. 3-103

The most demonstrable effect of noise on man is that it interferes with hisability to use voice communication. A noise which is not intense enough tocause hearing damage may still disrupt speech communication as wellas the hearing of other desired sounds. Obviously, such disruptions will affect performanceon those jobs which depend upon reliable voice communication. The inability to hear commands or danger signals due to excessive noise may also increase the probability of accidents.

Contrary to popular thinking, there is little evidence to support the notion that noise degrades performance. Laboratory studies of this problem have shownthat tasks involving simple, repetitive operationsare not affected by noise. Although efficiency in more complex tasks may be initially decreased by noise, such effects tend to vanish as time and practice on the task increases. There have beenreports however which show noise to cause significant losseson vigilance-type tasks.Such tasks require the subject to keep a constant watchover a number of dials or indicators to report changes that may occur on any dial at any time. Noise-related losses in vigilance performance are significant because of their implications forautomated jobs which involve the monitoring of control panels withmany indicators displaying information about an ongoing machine process. This finding also has practicalimportance for jobs requiring the inspection of items passing on aconveyor belt.

Perhaps the most widespread reaction to noise is that it is annoying.Whether annoyance types of noise conditions constitute a hazard to health is not known.It has been claimed that residents of communities surroundingairports develop hyper- tensions, ulcers, undue anxiety, and nervous disordersas a result of the aircraft fly-over noise exposure. These effects however havenever been verified.In fact, studies of communities' impact by aircraft noise show complaintsto be motivated by factors that do not bear directly on the health of the exposed populations;e.g. ,inter- ruption in voice conversation (telephone use) and TV reception, and personalgriev- ances against the airport management. Such studies have not included asurvey of the health of the residents in the impactedarea and thus do not rule out the possibility that physiological or mettal-type disorders maystem from such noise conditions. Noise is annoying to many people for differentreasons. The annoyance caused by the intrusion of aircraft noise into communities aroundairports is based, in part, upon the residents' being fearful that the planes might crash into their homes.Music tolerated during waking hours may be annoying during the hours of sleep. Peoplemay complain of the noise made by the neighborhood. The comforts derivedfrom air conditioning outweighs the noise of such units.Similarly, the economic value of nearby plants to a community may offset the noise produced bythe plants; annoyance due to military aircraft noise may be offset by the assurance against surprise attack by an enemy. Some individuals complain about all kinds of noiseas well as other types of nuisances. As for the stimulus itself, there appear to besome basic characteristics of sound which can be considered as more annoying than others. These characteristics are as follows:

(1) Loudness--The more intense and consequently louder soundsare more annoying.

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(2) Pitch--A high-pitch sound, i.e., one containing high frequencies, is more annoying than a low-pitch sound of equalloudness. (3) Intermittency and irregularity--A sound thatoccurs randomly in time and varying in intensityor frequency is judged more annoying thanone which is continuous and unchanging. (4) Localization--A sound which originatesfrom several sources or locations is less preferred thanone which originates from a singlesource.

To summarize, adverse effects ofnoise on man include temporary andpermanent hearing loss, speech disruption, lossin performance capacity, andannoyance. Factors believed critical in evaluatinga potential noise hazard to hearingare the overall level of the noise, total exposure, duration,time and frequency distribution ofshort-term exposure period, and susceptibility ofan individual's ears to noise--including hearing loss. 3-105

Day 13: Reading

Adapted from U.S. Department of the Interior, Man: An EndangeredSpecies? Conservation Yearbook no. 4 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968), pp. 7-16.

Man is a threatened species. The twin spectors facing himare overpopulation and unbridled technology, both self-induced. The double threat is aimedmost directly at man's environment. As the United States strives to accommodatemore human beings than ever before, increased demands are placed on our naturalresource bank. Our surroundings become increasingly crowded, noisy, and soiled.

The environmental squeeze from technology and populationpressures is more than the mere loss of mineral reserves, air and water quality, and forestresources. These are losses that can be measured--in used tons ofore, in coliform bacteria count, in felled board feet--and these measurements suffice to describe what is happening to the parts of our world we must breathe and drink and feedon.

But we have yet to devise a satisfactory index tomeasure the diminishing quality, the creeping vulgarity and ugliness, of those environmentalcomponents which man must look at, listen to, work with, and play in.

Searching back into prehistory, we find that almostevery loss of a life form or species has been caused by one or a combination of three things:intensive specialization leading to an evolutionary deadend, geological or climatic forces which proved catastrophic, or some other form of fatally inimical life.

It is remarkable that throughout millions of years of evolutionary struggle toward humanity, the life form which was to becomeman escaped the trap of specialization. This changing, adapting species with its human destiny managedto maintain its options. Man also survived the environmental elements.

The third threat--from a strain of hostile liferemainsa force to be reckoned with. That threat is man himself.Having avoided the fatal turn of the evolutionary road which led other life forms to an overdeveloped hide,a wing, or a fin, man has used his grasping hand and his creative brainto build himself another kind of trap-- a technological trap--and he is crowding it with ever-increasing numbers of hisown kind.

The question becomes, most urgently: Isman still exercising free choice-- that one absolute necessityif he is to avoid the fate of the dinosaurs and thedodos? Buffeted by the elements and beset by other life forms, man has always stubbornly insisted on exercising every option open to him. Does he stillrun his own show today? Or has he finally stumbled upon two forces--population and technology--that hecon- siders too sacred to tamper with? Is he still convinced that the roaring crescendo from babies and bulldozers is the sweet music of progress?

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Does he confuse technology with science? Will he continue to accordto the jackhammer the same revered status as the test tube? Or will he recognizein time that the tools he uses to rip up mountains and destroy estuaries must be extensions of his mind as well as his muscle? Will he see that science must remain free, since it is the search for truth, but that technology is only a means of applying truth--and that these applications need the control and balance of wisdom anda concern for posterity?

Man stands at a fork in his environmental road to the future. The twoarms of the signpost do not state categorically, "Man--Master of Himself" and "Man--An Extinct Species," but it is increasingly apparent that the direction he takesnow will move him rapidly along the path toward one or the other destination. Let us look closely for a moment at this creature who pauses at the crossroads and clamors for attention with his own voice. Who is he? Where has hecome from and how has he made the journey this far? Anthropologists tellus he is the product of millions of years of evolution--his being literally shaped by the environment without and the life force within. During all these eons he foughta pitched battle for survival.His attitude toward nature was understandably ambivalent, for nature was his best friend and his worst enemy.

In the beginning, his progress was agonizingly slow, his survival often in doubt. But with the passage of the ages and with a cunning constantly sharpened by the struggle for survival, man established himself at the top of the totem pole of life.He went from flint and fiame to rocket-powered flight, with ever-increasing speed, until he had created a veritable juggernaut against nature and, inso doing, against himself. Now that he has forced the lock on Pandora's nuclear toolbox, his capacityto tamper with his environment and his destiny is virtually limitless.

Today, the most significant thing about change is the speed at which it isoccur- ring. The acceleration rate of tooled tampering with our environment is in thenature of a nearly vertical line on the chart of time.Its path is almost straight up--its destination out of sight.

We are in desperate need of guidelines, but too often our steering apparatus is geared to a tomorrow projected off on a horizontal time-line from today.In reality, when tomorrow becomes today, it will probably be breaking somewhere farover our heads instead of off to one side. We cannot alter the past. At current speeds, the present becomes the past even as we set hand to it. At such speeds, our options for today are drastically narrowed. Only tomorrow can be dealt with. The technologyto shape tomorrow is in our hands. What is still needed, and urgently,are the social and political means of giving intelligent direction to the awesome tools we have fashioned.

The speed of change has introduced a new danger7the increasing role that chance plays in our human society and its interactions with the natural environment. Man's

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adaptability, which allowed hid to make the dangerous passage from the world of the merely organic into the world of thought, "shorn of fangs and fur and claws" as the poetic anthropoligist Loren Eiseley puts it, is today being sorely taxed as it tries to cover the expanding range of choice.

Says Professor Eiseley: "Choice, even intelligent choice, becomes increasingly hard to make among an infinite number of diverging pathways, some of which show signs of leading into new and dangerous corners."

The late Robert Oppenheimer, a physicist, wrote: "One thing that is new is the prevalence of newness, the changing scale and scope of change itself, so that the world alters as we walk in it, so that the years of a man's life measure notsome small growth or rearrangement or moderation of what he learned in childhood, but a great upheaval."

Professor Eiseley put the same idea this way: "I myself, like many of you, have been born in an age which has already perished....I will not be merely old; I will be a genuine fossil embedded in onrushing man-made time before my actual death."

The warning is clear.While we indulge in worthy, earnest, but nevertheless limited enterprises such as saving the whooping cranes,we fail to notice our own growing eligibility for the title "endangered species." The terrible urgency of accelerated change as a focus for intensive application of human brains is summed up in the phrase "technological momentum."

Admiral Hyman Rickover told a 1966 meeting of the Royal National Foundation in Athens, Greece:

If people understood that technology is the creation of man, therefore subject to human control, they would demand that it be used to produce maximum benefit and do minimum harm to individuals and to the values that make for civilized living.... Unfortunately there is a tendency in contemporary thinking to ascribe to technology a momentum of its own, placing it beyond human direction or restraint... atendency more pronounced in some countries but observable wherever there is rapid technological progress.

We have, no matter how dimly we perceive it, a moral obligation to the future. Kenneth Boulding, the economist, has observed that it is always hard to find a convinc- ing answer to the man who asks, "What has posterity ever done for me?"

"The whole problem," Boulding maintains, "is linked up with the much larger one of the determinants ci the morals, legitimacy, and 'nerve' of a society, and there is much historical evidence to suggest that a society which loses its identity with posterity and which loses its positive image of the future loses also its capacity to deal with present problems, and soon falls apart."

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In a world which is essentially (with the important exception of solarenergy) a "closed system," our primary considerations are those of extraction and waste disposal. As we extract our natural resources,we diminish them. As we dispose of waste products, we contribute to pollution.Ironically, it is the waste rather than the supply problem that demands our prior attention. With air andwater in many places exhibiting signs of intolerable overload, this question of waste disposal has become one of the prime threats to human survival. Theattempts being made today to remove man from the endangered list are aimed in largemeasure at this threat.

Economist Boulding is hopeful that "as a succession of mounting crises, especially in pollution, arouse public opinion and mobilize support for thesolution of the immediate problems, a learning process will be set in motion whichwill eventually lead to an appreciation of and perhaps solutions for the larger ones."

Earth has been likened to a spaceship on whichman must carry all his needs and live with all his waste products.It is within this closed-system context of our predicament that we must consider our pollution problems. Again,we find science a mixed blessing, for while we can be fairlysure of discoveries that will lead to new ways of supplying needed materials andenergy, these new supplies lead to new waste problems, such as the insidious and inadequately chartedcontamination from man-released radioactive materials.

As we crowd more and more people into the spacecraft (andpopulation growth becomes "exponential" when it is significantly freed from such checksas disease), we face an eventually impossible situation but one that carriessome tragic possibilities on the way to the ultimate impossibility.

Rene Debos, in an essay on "Environmental Quality ina Growing Economy," says that "the problems posed by adaptation to crowding bid fairto change in character and to become of increasing importance in thenear future .... Furthermore, experimental studies with various animal species have revealedthat excessive crowding results in many forms of behavioral disturbances,ranging from sexual abberrations to cannibalism or.... more interestingly to complete social unresponsiveness."

Thus the question of whether we are to surviveon this planet at all becomes not just one of controlling the birthrate but of whether,along the way to the critical mass of humanity, we create conditions that will makeexistence nearly intolerable.It has been noted that the only question with relationto the future of world population is whether the inevitable decline in rate of growth willcome about through a tremendous upsurge in the death rate or through a drastic fall in the birthrate. Over the long haul, these two solutions representour only choice. The latter, a fall in the birth rate, will represent unprecedented human wisdom.

The problems created by thoughtless growth insome areas of technology are sometimes compounded by lags in otherareas. There has been, for instance, a regretable lack of technological activity in solving air pollutionwhere our problems .277 3-109

are chronically aggravated by an automobile whose internal combustion system has hardly progressed since it was adopted. A true pursuit of technological improvement might well have solved the exhaust pollution problem long before it became thenear tragedy it is today.

It is generally conceded that we have now, or know how to acquire, the technical capability to do nearly anything we want to do. Possessing such capability (and here it is well to draw a parallel distinction to that between science and technology, the distinction between capability and wisdom), we have a duty to shift the emphasis far more heavily from how it can be done to whether it should be done.This is the central question facing modern conservation. With so many humans inhabiting the environs, and with such powerful tools for shaping the environment, where shouldwe move ahead, where should we hold back, and what directions shouldwe take? We must start by rejecting what we cannot do. Walter Sullivan, science columnist for the New York Times, wrote on March 25, 1967: "In a world of proliferation-- proliferation of human beings, of nuclear weapons, of food additivesunplanned, uncontrolled technological growth can no longer be tolerated....The world has become too dangerous for anything less than utopias."

We are not likely to find many utopias lying around tied up in neat packages of total solutions. Our main hope is that we are beginning to understand the totality of the problem of survival. The threats to this survival arewoven in a skull and crossbones pattern into the fabric of our entire world; it crisscrosses the boundaries between the social and the natural. We cannot continue to exist if we do not take care of our natural world, and we cannot exercise the life-or-death brand of steward- ship required without massive exercise of wisdom at the social level.

The time span remaining for constructive action is short. The future slips into the past at a blurred clip and our hope lies with those whose vision isas wide as the problem and whose courage is a match for the corrective measures so urgently needed.

What is called for is some sort of concerted effort in every segment of our society. Whether those involved are sociologists, economists, forester, agronomists, biologists, public office holders, or private corporate decision makers, their minimum mutual goal is the meaningful survival of man and his planet. Amore ambitious objective would be to fashion for tomorrow a world we think we ourselves might be happy to inhabit. There are hopeful signs that we may not just survive, but that we might even enjoy it.

In the past, as the idea of conservation grew, we intended to separate our environment into its components--forests, wildlife, minerals, soil, waterand to deal with each separately. This piecemeal approach has proved inadequate. As we dealt with the various parts of the periphera, the core of the problemwhich is mindless tampering with the environment--was creating new problems all over the surface.So profound and all-pervasive are the effects of exploding population and

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expanding technology thatefforts to deal with environmentalproblems are unlikely attention to these two root to be effective in along-term sense unless we turn our factors. Conceivably, this could be thePlanet of Eden without man. Naturecould go back to keeping her own tempo.Lakes would appear and die,their aging processes keeping time to the leisurelybeat of the life symphony unhurried by human wastes, Mountains would wear down as it was before menand machines changed the score. gradually from wind and water,without the swarming actionof the bulldozer, power shovel, and the blast ofexplosives. The air would revert tothe tenancy of birds, world shorn of such whose population balanceswould shift into harmony with a civilized graces as pesticides andpavement.

Our remaining minerals andfossil fuels would lie untouchedin their cradles underground fires in abandonedcoal mines would wink out, in Earth's crust. The of brush one by one, andthe scabrous mountainsideswould pull a healing bandage and trees over their strip-mine scarsand settle down to the gentlertouch of the ages.But this kind of ending toenvironmental mayhem would bemeaningless--to us at leastif man weredealt out of the picture. There are other ways to sanity inthe natural world. Conservationrequires man to have meaning;it does not require an end tothe teehnology which serves man--in many cases extremelywell. What it does mean isthat man must exercise control--over himself first, andthen over his tools. Man requires wood, but he haslearned that he can take the treesand spare the forest. He must extendthis insight to include considerationfor recreation and scenic and historic values ashe supplies his need for woodfiber. Man requires fresh water. He has learnedthat he can treat his wastesbefore returning them to the waterways and thus extendthe usable life expectancy ofhis stream system. He has still to learn how thermalpollution affects the plant and animallife of his waters, how to protect his vital estuaries sothat he does not break the chainof marine life in favor of ill-consideredhuman developments, how todraw water from the clouds that now react only to the whimsof weather. grazing, swimming, boating,housing, manufactur- Logging, fishing, farming, As ing--all these activities directlyinvolve our natural resourcesand our lives . they find these necessaryhuman activities coming moreand more men proliferate, each into competition with oneanother. The logger andthe nature lovers rub against other's grain. The estuarinedeveloper serves the homeownerbut destroys the fisherman's living. The manufacturer mayraise our indoor livingstandard while he kills an entire river withhis deadly chemical wastes. As man and his machines come togrips, the environment is caughtin the squeeze. The resultingdistress signals have not goneunheeded. The unmatched conservation record written by recentCongresses is an apology to the pastand a and pledge to the future.It faces up to our vanishing open spaces,our murky air

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dying waters, our shrinking resources and endangered wildlife.It is a bread and butter letter to our environment. And it demonstrates that a nonpartisan conservation conscience is part of the body politicshared by men and women of every political coloration.

The conservation task, with all its contradictions and urgency, demands a world view and the highest wisdom, courage, and energy we can accord it. More and more of our mosit highly educated, deeply motivated men and women are electing to spend their talents in building a better environment. Their work seldom makes headlines; it is content to make a world.

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Day 14: Reading--What You Can Do

Adapted from U.S. Department of theInterior, "Conservation in Action,"It's Your Wqrld: The Grassroots ConservationStory (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969), pp. 91-95.

Burrow awhile and build; board onthe roots of things. --Robert Browning

While blight and pollution and resource-strippingcontinue to pile environmental insult upon injury, the ccmservation movement"burrowed awhile" and developed a broad root system. All over America,people who never considered themselves environmentalists or ecologists, or evenconservationists, began to wrinkle their noses, rub their eyes, holdtheir ears, and wonder what was happening totheir land. Their wonder grew, and turned to alarm.They sensed through every warning system an increasingly sleazyworld. And then, first by ones and twos, andthen by hundreds and thousands, they rebelled againstthe cheapening process. On thic grassroots foundation of awareness, rebellion, and yearning,conservation is astir and moving. The burrowing time is past; the building timeis here. Former Secretary of the Interior Stewart J.Udall on May 7, 1968, in an address before the White House Conference of theAdvertising Council, suggested that the meek may not care to inherit the earth"if the pace of our pillage continues togrow." Even the meekest, however, were alreadytaking up the challenge. Everywhere they were bent to the task ofimproving their inheritance. Thefollowing is a necessarily sketchy, but representative litany of theirworks.

An energetic citizen of Illinois, RalphFrese, helped organize a massive canoe trip down the lower Fox River for the attorneygeneral of that state and 60 persons in an effort to enlist aid in protectingthe few free-flowing scenic rivers left innorthern Illinois.Frese brought the decision makers to the siteand put them afloat."After that," says Frese, "I let the river tell mystory."

The Maple Creek ImprovementAssociation of Seattle got together in 1963 to battle for preservation of their tranquil,wooded enclave, wedged between two traffic-clogged main streets. They won thefight to keep the city from straighten- ing and widening the road through their serenesection, and have since stayed organized to fight off intermittent threats--such asthe dumping of garbage and dirt into the wild ravine that backs most cftheir homes. The gainers? Seventeen families, assorted raccoons, squirrels,pheasants, ducks, at least one owl, and the city of Seattle.

The Boy Scouts of America in 1968 updatedthe requirements for their Con- servation of Natural Resources MeritBadge to meet the changing ecological nature of the new conservation. The merit badgerevisions recognize the need to end the patchwork approach to our environment and toconsider Earth as an interlocking whole. .261.

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In July 1968, nearly 300 Camp Fire Girls of high school age converged at Estes Park, Colo., for a four-day focus on natural resources caught in the crosscurrents generated by concerned industry, government, and private and civic groups.In groups of 30, the girls then dispersed to various target areas for 12 days of on-the-spot discovery. They returned to Estes Park to examine their findingsto achieve a responsible, balanced approach to conservation, use, and preservation of natiwal resources.

Youngsters in Park Ridge, N.J., make off-seasori use of a Pocono Mountains summer camp as an outdoor classroom where they meet nature at the grassroots level. The natural wonderland experience is a week-long event, fall and spring, for Park Ridge sixth-graders. Andrew L. Sim, assistant to the superintendent of schools, says they learn about beavers, how to change the flow of water, the ways of birds. They absorb conservation."But the key thing is the social value," says Sims. 'they learn respect for their world and the other creatures and plants that inhabit it."

In order to dramatize what must be done to save our environment and how technology can be the hero instead of the villain, students of the Institutes of Technology at California (Cal Tech) and Massachusetts (MIT) engaged in an electric car duel in the summer of 1968. Each campus built a fumeless buggy and raced its products to the other's campus.

National conservation groups furnish excellent information on both general and specific areas of conservation concern, to help individual citizens understand all sides of an issue that affects the environment. The Wilderness Society, for example, has about 1,300 "leaders" in communities all over the nation...direct, live plugs into the grassroots. When a controversial issue is coming up in Congress, these leaders are provided with information pro and con. The leaders then try, at the community level, to interest other citizens in letting their own views on the issue be known to members of Congress or public officials.

In Jonesboro, Ga.,the Women's Club members mounted ladthrs and painted store fronts for the town's merchants as part of their general beautification plan.

Bonds for urgently needed new sewer and water systems were voted in Basin, Wyo., as a result of a house-to-house educational campaign conducted by the town's clubwomen.

The Community Club of Hockessin, Del.,faced outright antagonism along with apathy when it organized the Hockessin Area Development Association, sparking community cooperation in solving problems of blighted areas, sewage and water, zoning and recreation, and other needs. The club won the $2,000 fourth prize in the 1968 Community Improvement Program competition sponsored by the General Federation of Women's Clubs.

Some people's "individual grassroots action" consists in speaking out on prOblems where they have special professional competence. Dr. Garrett Hardin

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of the University of California, who possesses such competence in the area of "supersonic boom, " was quoted on the national press service wires in the spring of 1968 as saying:"Experiencing it is like living inside a drum beaten by an idiot at insane intervals." Apparently some determined citizens share Dr. Hardin's view of this kind of "progress." A Citizens League against the Sonic Boom, headquartered at 19 Appleton Street in Cambridge, Mas3. , is c mcerned with the physiological and psychological effects of the boom on humans and wildlife.

In Californi 1, a single nonprofit organization called the Planning and Conserva- tion League was formed in 1964. Two dozen persons, representing many of the most powerful conservation and planning organizations in the state,joined forces for a single, full-time, sophisticated lobbying effort to achieve state legislation in the planning and conservation field. Their story was told in the New York Times on March 17, 1968, by William D. Evers, vho noted that"certain important maxims can be derived from the successful experienceof the PCL." They n-e:

(1) Organize statewide. (2) Have an executive committee consisting of architects, planners, lawyers, businessmen and conservationists who are not idealistic "dogooders," but a coalition of professional people who know what is happening in the business and political world. (3) Involve the experts and anyone with the will to work in the process of forming a legislative program. (4) Have a good lobbyist. (5) Concentrate solely on state legislative issues. Hundreds of requests to get involved in local or national issues are received. Torespond to them only weakens the state effort and offends other groups. (6) Follow through from beginning to end on a piece of legislationthis increases the legislators' respect. (7) Do not introduce wild, far-out schemesthis decreases the legislator's respect. (8) Raise lots of money. (9)Go after organizations as members but seek individual memberships as the prime source of financial support. (10) Find good men who are willing to devote a great deal of time to the cause without compensation. (11) Keep all members informed. (12) Let all the members af the legislature know about your program and presence. Advertisements of large business and industry, which represent a kind of grassroots action at the corporate level, invite and instruct individual citizens to act on their own. "A little town put up a big fight, and now this natural beauty is yours to enjoy" was the theme of a recent "conservation series" advertisement sponsoren by a large industry.It tells how "outsiders" tried to drain Georgia's Okefenokee swamp, unaware that the waters were really sweet and pure;how they slaughtered 3-115

game, hauled out giant cypresses, and generally made the folks in nearby Waycross good and mad.

The townsfolk organized and enlisted the help of Cornell University,the National Audubon Society, the American Museum of Natural History, and othersto beleaguer state and federal officials to finally succeed in "getting Uncle Sam toprotect Okefenokee" by making much of it a national wildlife refuge. This refuge isnow a key part of the system administered by the Department of the Interior. But it representsa giant cooperative effort that started with a small town, its localnewspaper editor, Liston Elkins, the Waycross Chamber of Commerce, and the aroused townsfolk whoraised $100,000 and got the state to lease back additional land anticreate a magnificent park.

This and other ads in the industry conservation seriesare designed to encourage more citizens to help preserve our national heritage. The Institute of Life Insurance is running a similar series which spells out in dramatic detail what has happenedto our environment and what some people are doing to help. One advertisementsays: "As a start, thousands of suburbanites havegene to East Harlem, and together with local residents, embarked on a face-lifting projectto clean, repair and repaint along neighborhood streets...." After listing several rrore projects, it concludes: "It's up to all of us."

In a very real way, that is what grassroots power amounts to--"all of us."The grassroots represents a vast well of potential good; it awaits only the informationto spark intelligent decisions and the discipline to take thoughtfulaction.

Let no citizen feel he is impotent to effect change in today's crowdedworld. Everyone is concerned about his own backyard. If all the "backyardconservationists" were to stretch their vision just a little beyond their own boundary fences, America would have a natural conservation task force standing literallyat the root of every environmental problem that besets us.

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Day 15: Reading, "Technology and the Environment"

Adapted from National Pollution Control Council, U.S.Department of Commerce, The Engineer's Responsibility in Environmental Pollution Control (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1971), pp. 8-17.

We are now at the threshold of an enormous opportunity--to makeour country not only stronger and more prosperous but, through the control of pollution and other adverse effects upon the environment, to render it more spiritually satisfying as well.

While concern with environmental problems should be regardedas a healthy manifestation of those deeper human and sp'itual values which have guided this nation since its founding, it nevertheless would be an error to blame such problems on technology alone, without taking into account certain of our more "human" failings reflecting attitudes of neglect, want of concern, or simple expediency. More accurately it is the misuse of technology which is at fault rather than technology itself. Any argument to the contrary would be to overlook the myriad of blessings which technology has brouglt about in the fields of medicine, science, industry, transportation, communications, and countless other areas. Furthermore, itmay well be technology itself supported by public and national resolve, which will provide us with our most effective weapon in the solution of environmental problems.

Significant steps already are under way in developing technical mechanisms and processes which will purify our air and waterways, reduce the noise andwaste of our cities, restore the beauty of our countryside, andremove the many frustrations that plague the motorist or imperil the pedestrianon our freeways and city streets. Much remains to be done, however. We have penetrated the surface ofour problems, and developed the groundwork for future solutions. Whatnow is required is the furtherance and deepening of these efforts, conducted in an atmosphere of genuine cooperation and renewed resolve.

Technological change is occurring at a faster rate than atany time in our history. Demographically, we continue to flock from rural to rapidly expanding urban centers with their enormous social, psychological, and physical challenges. To satisfy the demand of an increasing andmore concentrated population, the Pngineer is called upon to build larger and more numerouspower plants, to expand existing oil refineries, to carve out new freeways, to mine additional metals,to build miles of new pipelines, and to help plan entirely new communities, free from the congestion (and pollution) of the old.

Obviously, we cannot halt all such projects in midstream, without callinga halt to man's wants and needs (which would be tantamountto calling a hak to man himself).What is needed, is control. As Glenn Seaborg hasput it, "not less technology, but better technology." 3-117

An interdisciplinary approach is required, bringing the engineer, planner, architect, social scientist, and legislator together to plan and effect long-range solutions to conunon problems.In such a way, we may broaden the base from which answers are sought and expand the scope of an undertaking from a single purpose to a multidimensional concept.

In today's context, when we speak of the "standard of living," we are no longer thinking in terms of mere numbers--additional kilowatts, extra miles of freeway, thousands of more automobiles. We now ask ourselves what kind of power plant, refinery, automobiles do we wish to build? What effect will these things have on the environment bcyond their proposed function?

Quahtity? Yes. But the environmental perspective commands us to look with equal concern on the quality and effect of these undertakings. How do we build without polluting or dislocating the environment? How do we meet man's material needs with a masterful and self-controlled technology? Can we satisfy power requirements and still meet the demands of the conservationist, the nature lover, the canoeist, or the fisherman?

By the year 2000, for example, we may consume as much power in one year as mankind has used since the beginning of the world.In the next 30 years, we will probably build enough homes, offices, parks, and factories to equal the entire inve dory accumulated to date on this continent since the arrival of the Pilgrims. Each year two or three million people are being added to the U.S. population alone, while 500,000 acres of countryside are being converted to urban concentrations.

Environmental engineering, because it reaches acrossmany fields, provides the kind of resources, equipment, and organization needed tocope with the complexities reflected in the demands of our public and private institutions and citizenry. Relating this approach to day-by-day professional responsibilities means that the design and construction of a power plant, refinery, papermill, or communications system must no longer be regarded the sole concern of the technical specialist. Nor should the creation of residential or industrial communities be thought ofas the exclusive domain of the designer or Inikler. A new and broader dimension is needed if we are to provide for the effective husbandry of our environmental resources.

Rapid transit systems, the design and const:ruction of nuclear power plants, the distribution of recycling of water supplies, the clisposal of waste products through irradiation or their use in the reclamation of substandard agricultural lands, the desalination of sea-water for human consmnption--all such midertakings, while basically engineering concepts, nevertheless involve a broad range of related disciplines.

The engineer's experience in using a systems approach to the solution ofcom- plex problems and his demonstrated ability to manage machines, men, and enterprises further qualify him far a significant role in meeting environmental objectives by interdisciplinary means.

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To effect such coordination will require improvedlines of communication, understanding, knowledge, and empathy between the engineeringand social sciences in working toward common objectives.In this regard, the engineering society, our universities and colleges, and industrial and governmentaltraining programs will each have an important role to play.

Since a great many of our pollution problems mayrequire regional handling, the environmental engineer and ids fella', professionals can provehelpful to govern- ing bodies in establishing the need for new andbroader types of political and jurisdic- tional machinery to deal with their solution.In these and in other ways, environmental engineering may combine the skills and trainingof the engineer with those of the sociologist, economist, and others in anintraprofessional manner yielding long-range social benefits. The complexity of environmental problems requires moreextensive training for the young engineer along with the reeducation of those nowin practice. While the role of the engineering education institution is itselfcomplex, a broadening of traditional curricula to include courses in the social andbehavioral sciences would seem highly desirable. Engineering schoolsshould be encouraged to design their programs to permit maximum opportunityfor the student to interact with other professional disciplines. Corporate and governmental on-the-job training programs,meanwhile, should actively stress the development of an environmental controlphilosophy, backed by the managerial commitment necessary to its implementation.As newly oriented engineers develop greater expertise in environmental pollution control,they will become the nucleus for a constant regeneration of these important principles.The enriching infusion of young engineers into the profession is of prime importance notonly for the new techniques and viewpoints which they bring to bear onexisting problems, but because they represent the feelings, ideas, and senseof values of the younger generation. Every effort must be made, therefore, to continue to encourageand cultivate young engineers and provide them with the opportunity tobroaden their training, particularly in environmental and interclisciplinary areas. Currently, however, we are faced with a shortage ofadequately trained environmental engineers. Engineering is but one of many professionswhich bear a responsibility toward environmental betterment and thefulfillment of society's most cherished goals. The physicist, chemist, architect, sociologist(to mention but a few) have an equally important role to play.Realistically speaking, however, even the combined skins and knowledge of these dedicated workers require the supportand involvement of the people as a whole if we are to attain ourgoals on anything resembling a meaningful or lasting scale.

What is required, therefore, is no ordinary uncw.iataking.Rather, there must develop the pursuit of excellence in every endeavor in which weengage--both as a nation and as individuals. Technology is capableof solving only certain of our problems- It can helP to decongest urban areas,reconstruct deteriorating neighborhoods,

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provide for improved communications and transportation systems, and so on.But it cannot provide the will to bring such changes into being nor the determination to pay the costs required. This will and this determination must come from society as a whole. And in this context, tlx engineer, for his partfortified by the conscience of his profession and by the skills and training requisite to an improved technology and to its "better use"--will contribute much of value and benefit to his fellowman. 3-120

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES UNIT EXAMINATION

I. Essay Questions. (Answer two of the following essay questions assigned by your teacher--20 points each.)

1. "The major reasons for the problems of pollution todayare unbridled technology and overpopulation." Defend, attack, or modify this hypothesis. Be sure to support your answer with facts and data.

2. "The pollution problems in the United States are so large and complicated that the average individual cannot do anything by himself tostop or prevent them." Defend, attack, or modify this hypothesis, using facts to support your answer. Be sure to reach a clear conclusion in your answer.

3. List seven major pollution problems in the United States and explain: (1) why they are problems; (2) why theyoccur; and (3) what needs to be done to correct and prevent them. (Explain means that the reader knows nothing about the subject and you are telling him all about it.)

4. What is man's relation to the environment? Supportyour answer with facts and data.

II. Define five of the following terms (2 points each).

(a) ecology (f) recycle (b) e^osystem (g) natural resources (c) ecotactics (h) conservation (d) environment (i) environmental manpower needs (e) pollution (j) environmental-ecological education

III. Multiple-Choice Questions. Circle the letter before the bestanswer. Some questions have two correct answers (1 point each).

1. The major contributor to the pollution of the air is: (a) industrial plants (b) garbage dumps (c)motor vehicles (d) power plants (e) all of the above.

2. Which of the following statements most accurately describe the Earth'swater? (a) There is plenty of usable water forman in the lakes, streams, rivers, and oceans. (b) The Earth's supply of water is decreasing.(c) The Earth's supply of water is increasing. (d) The Earth's supply ofwater has remained relatively constant for millions ofyears. (e) None of the above.

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3. Which of the following illustrations is a correct sample ofa temperature inversion?

(a) (b) 50 50 60 80 70 70 Ground level Ground level (c) (d) 10 90 40 80 -70 70 Growsl level Ground level (e) a and d above.

4. The water in, ?verage man (a) makes ovOlieeZ, of his body. (b) is less than 50% of his body. (c) remains, co;z1(.. r_AZ filroughout his life.(d) is not as important as food and only.,le) b and c above.

5. Water pollution is a problem (a) only in the United States. (b) only in the Western world. (c)in all inland lakes, streams, and rivers of the world. (d) spreading throughout the entire world. (e) none of the above.

6. Which of the following is the best description of the Earth's water cycle? (a) The majority of the Earth's water is trapped in underground tables. (b) Over 80% of all water evaporation occurs over theoceans.(c) Rain- water is becoming increasingly polluted. (d) Over 1% of the total supply of water is always in the water cycle.(e) b and d above.

7. Which of the following occupations does NOT deal directly with reducing and stopping water pollution? (a) Power plant engineer (b) Automobile mechanic (c) Industrialwaste inspector (d) Aquatic biologist.

8. The best way to reduce air pollution in the cities would be to (a) replace the internal combustion engine with some other type of power. (b) eliminate all leaded gasolines. (c) pass stricter laws that regulate power plants. (d) prohibit citizens to have open fires in their yards. (e) all of the above.

9. Air pollution resulting from colorless and poisonous gases in the air not only threatens the health of human beings who inhale it but also does all of the following EXCEPT (a) kills and damages vegetation. (b) causes tomperature inversions that produce dense smog. (c) destroys and defaces Piiblic and private 3 -122

buildings. (d) may cause significant modifications in the world's weather.

10. The occupation concerned most with air pollution would be the (a) sanitation men. (b) aquatic biologist.(c) combustion engineer. (d) civil engineer.

11. The average citizen throws away approximately (a) less than a pound of waste per day. (b) three-and-a-half pounds of waste per week. (c) over five pounds of waste per day.(d) three- and-a-half pounds of waste per day.

12. "A fundamental reason for concern about this problem is the threat that it imposes on the health and well-being of the public and the role it may play in the spread of communicable diseases. The most prominent health factor associated with this problem is domestic flies which are carriers of many disease agents. While control of communicable disease is of paramount importance, it is more meaningful in discussing this problem to take a broad view of the term 'public health. 'No longer can we restrict attention only to the factors involved in the spread of communicable diseases. Of equal importance is the broad and pressing public interest in all factors of environmental health including the aspects of comfort, enjoyment of life, and the general physical and mental well-being of the public. On the basis of this broader outlook, there are many points of public health concern which relate to the manner by which this problem adversely affects our land, air, and water. In addition to the direct effect of this problem on the quality of these three elements, are the accompanying physiological or psychological effects on man. These may range from immediate danger, such as physical harm, to merely a less pleasant or less comfortable environment, such as that which offends the five senses."

The aforementioned quotation describes the problems closely associated with (a) air pollution. (b) water pollution.(c) solid wastes. (d) depletion of natural resources. (e) a, b, and c above.

13. Which of the following is a step in the recycling process? (a) Buying milk in cardboard cartons. (b) Buying soft drinks in nonreturnable bottles. (c) Buying milk in glass bottles.(d) Buying soft drinks in plastic containers.

14. Modern man's attitude toward nature differs from the other animals in nature in what way? (a) He has developed a balance with his food supply and can maintain that balance indefinitely.(b) He uses up the resources necessary for survival rather than working to preserve them. (c) The essentials of life consist 3-123

of keeping warm.(d) He lives and works in nature as part of the ecosystem rather than an entity separate from nature.

15.An endangered species is one (a) whose existence is threatened by man's destruction of nature. (b) whose existence depends upon man's providing for it.(c) that has become extinct. (d) all the above.

16.Sanitary engineers are concerned with (a) the water we drink and use and the air we breathe. (b) the foodwe eat, the homes we live in, and the buildings we work and learn in. (c) the vehicles we travel in and the places we visit for recreation. (d) all the above.

17.The best definition of noise is (a) loud sounds(b) unwanted sounds(c) too many sounds (d) excessive sounds.

18.While we indulge in worthy, earnest, but nevertheless limited enterprises, such as saving whooping cranes, we fail to notice our own growing eligibility for the title "endangered species. " What is directly endangering man's existence as a species in the future? (a) Unbridled technology(b) Race(c) Overpopulation(d) Economic inequities.

19.Which of the following can you start doing immediately that will have a direct effect upon the environment? (a) Write a letter to your Senator protesting the lack of legislation to protect the environment. (b) Refuse to throw papers, cans,cigarette butts, etc., anywherebut in properly designated receptacles.(c) Walk, ride a bicycle, use mass transit systems or form car pools to help reduce the number of cars on the road.(d) Request that your school provide ecologicaltrAvironmental education for all interested students.

20.What occupatipas arid professions are concerned with problems of the environment? (a) Engineers.(b) Educators. (c) Students. (d) All of above.

N. Environmental Awareness. (Answer all five questions--30 to 80 points.)

1.Rank the problems listed below according to what you consider to be the most serious short-range and long-range threats to mankind. Short-range Long-range (1) Communism (2) Crime (3) Drugs

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Short-range Long-range

(4) Economic inequities (5) Overpopulation (6) Pollution (7) Racism (8) Uncontrolled technology (9) War (Explain the reasons for your ranking. )

2. Below are ten problems of the environment listed in alphabetical order. Rank each one from the most serious (represented by 1) to the least serious (represented by 10). Then state the reasons for the way you ranked the problems. You will be graded on the following criteria: (a) accuracy of factual information to support your choices; (b) clarity of expression in explaining your choices; (c) relevance; (d) ability to think critically; (e) originality. Most serious Air pollution 1. Depletion of metals, minerals, 2. and fuels 3. Endangered species 4. Man's altering and changing 5. the landscape 6. Mercury and other metal pollutants 7. Noise pollution 8. Overpopulation 9. Pesticides 10. Solid wastes Least serious

3. Rank the groups below in the order of those that are most responsible for stopping, controlling, and preventing pollution and destruction of the environment. State reasons for your choice. Most important Educational institutions 1. Federal government 2. Individual citizen actions 3. Local county, city, and metropolitan 4. gover nments 5. Private citizen groups and 6. organizations 7. Private industry and business 8. Regional governmental institutions 9. State governments 10. United Nations Least important Others (write in your own group) .. -1, 293 3-125

4. Which of the following statements expresses your attitude toward the problems of pollution? Explain the reasons for your answer. (a) Pollution of the air and water by industries and cities must be stopped, even at the expense of a loss of Jobs and an increase in prices and taxes.(b) Pollution of air and water must be controlled, and industry is the major contributor to these problems.(c) Pollution of air and water must be prevented by the government passing and enforcing tougher pollution laws and appropriating taxes to pay the costs. (d) Pollution of air and water can best be controlled by government and industry working together on a voluntary and noncoersive basis. (e) Pollution of air and water needs to be stopped, but not if it means a loss of Jobs and increased taxes.

5. What type of a program do you think is needed in the schools to better educate the students to better understand and care for the environment that surrounds us? (Be specific and precise in your answer. )

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II.ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES; A SEMESTER COURSE

This course was designed to be inserted into high school curricula bothas a complementary course in life and social sciences and as an additionalcourse covering the special interdisciplinary nature of ecology. The outline and daily

subject guide were designed so that they can be used witha variety of materials, not just the ones designated herein.

The objective of this course will be to comprehensively examinethe major processes of life that, considered together, form the natural environment of planet Earth, and the major human endeavors which have profoundly affectedthe natural systems. Methods involved include reading, classroom discussion, outdoor

activities, film viewing, and special projects. The course provides studentswith an understanding of the major physical forces and natural resources of the Earth, an understanding of the interrelationships of all life, an understanding of the major causes of environmental deterioration, and a consideration of solutions to environmental problems, with special emphasis uponcareer opportunities in the environmental area. The goal is a realization of the unity ofman and nature, and a consciousness of the necessity for an ecologically responsiblemanner of living. This course can be taught in a variety ofways. A single instructor with a background in natural sciences, or social sciences,or literature (preferably with at least an interest in all three areas) could teach thecourse. Career information material should be developed in consultation witha vocational counselor. None of the material to be covered, the concepts involved,or the problems to be solved is difficult to understand or teach; each secondary school should haveon its faculty an instructor capable of teaching the class. Another method is the team-teaching 3-127

technique, with a specialist from each area responsible for thepresentation of the material to be covered in his particular specialty.If this technique is employed, the instructors could be used solely when their specialty isneeded and then turn the teaching over to another team member ; or bothor all three of the specialists could be present for all the classroom sessions. This approach wouldallow for helpful and healthy interchanges and debates over theories andconcepts and would allow the students greater voice and stimulation rather than just absorbingunchallenged evertise.

On the daily schedule, suggestions are given for discussion subjectsonly for the major points of any one topic. Each instructor adoptingthis outline or adapting another from it is reminded that this outline and the dailypides are merely that.

Individual lesson plans must be developed by theinstructor teaching the course.It may be helpful in some cases to invite guest speakers to lend specialized knowledge in particular subject areas (i.e., naturalresource managers, public health officials, demographers, etc.).

The schedule is flexible and can be arranged differently:In many cases, the material suggested for one day is sufficient for several days'discussion. The instructors are reminded to carry these discussions to profitableconclusions before proceeding to another topic. Alterations, additions, anddeletions are possible to whatever extent desirable by the instructor. By spendingmore time on each subject, this outline could easily be adapted to covera full year's course. To handle anticipated delays, scheduling problems, or financial, andtransportation difficulties, alternative daily topics can be given whenevera field trip or film is planned. Each time a film is scheduled to be shown, the teacher should firstpreview its contents, then briefly

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before and after the showing, discuss the film with the class and explain how this particular film related to the particular subject and the overall content of the course. When a film is unavailable, the instructors should either use the alternative plans or continue the discussions of material not previously covered. The films selected for this course represent those which generally cover a particular subject, and

substitutions can be made.

The textbooks chosen for this course vary considerably, as do the anthologies and literary works. Only one selection from each should be given to or purchased by each student to be his source material. For each day's subject guide, the page numbers of the sources cited are listed as assignments for the students.In some cases, none of these sources fully covers the material from a teaching viewpoint, and some additional references may be needed by the teacher or teaching team. Other texts not selected should be purchased and used as supplementary material by the teacher and students. For a complete listing of environmental source material, consult the bibliography in chapter 4. Each school planning to adopt this or any other environmental education program into its curriculum is reminded to purchase several additional pieces of information for faculty and student use in the classroom and in the library.

Recommended Texts for Environmental Studies:

(Choose one text from each of the following categories.)

A. Textbooks

Dasmann, Raymond.1968. Environmental Conservation, 2d ed. New York: John Wiley. $4.95*.

*Retail prices. 297

bel% 3-129

Ehrlich, Paul R., and Anne H. Ehrlich. 1970. Population Resources Environ- ment. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman. $8.95. Wagner, Richard H. 1971. Environment and Man. New York: W. W. Norton. $7.50.

B. Anthologies

De Bell, Garrett (ed.). 1970. The Environmental Handbook. New York: Ballantine.$0.95.

Shepard, Paul, and Daniel McKinley (eds.). 1969. The Subversive Science: Essays Toward an Ecology of Man. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin. $5.95.

C. Literary views

Commoner, Barry. 1971. The Closing Circle. New York: Knopf. $6.95 Leopold, Aldo. 1966. A Sand County Almanac. New York: Oxford. $0.95.

Muir, John.1961. The Mountains of California. New York: Natural History Library. $1.45. Thoreau, Henry D. 1960. Walden. New York: Signet. $0.95.

Examples of Term Projects for Environmental Studies

One topic should be chosen by the entire class and must be completed by the class acting jointly. One topic should be assigned to an indivickialor a team acting independently. Assign the term projects by the second or third week of thecourse.

1. Conduct after-school of weekend litter pick-up campaigns.

2. Conduct a program to plant needed shrubs, lawns, or trees on the school's campus or on state or municipal property.

3. Establish a recycling center.

4. Conduct evaluation studies on local pollution control systems, i.e., waste water treatment plants, dumps or sanitary land filLs, air purification and filtration systems for industry, etc.

5. Organize and conduct a series of environmental education programs for younger students in elementary schools, with the students being the teachers.

." . t roe 298 3-130

6. Grow a garden organically. 7. Conduct a small, manageable study of a local, somewhat self-contained, biotic community or ecosystem. 8. Conduct evaluation studies of local or regional natural resource distribution, development, and use; i.e., fresh water systems,land development, agriculture, electrical production and deployment, mineral andfuel extraction and use, etc. 9. Make an academic research paper study of any of the topics orsubtopics listed in the curriculum outline.

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Environmental Studies: Course Outline

I. Environmental Systems

A. Ecology

1. Biotic communities and ecosystems 2. Food chains 3. Natural cyclesnitrogen, carbon, phosphorus, oxygen, etc.

B. Evolution

1. Animal behavior, territoriality, etc. 2. Natural selection 3. Human revolution

II. Natural Resources

A. Water

1. Hydrological cycle (rainfall patterns) 2. Worldwide distribution of water 3. Plant, animal, and human use 4. Storage, transportation, recycling, converting 5. Pollution a . Types- -sewage , industrial, agricultural b. Forms--biotic, chemical, mineral, thermal, pesticides, others c. Health hazards 6. Eutrophication 7. Solutions to abuse and overconsumption

B. Land

1. Soils--formadon, type, structure 2. Types, by growth and climate a. Forests--boreal, temperate, tropical b. Grasslands c. Deserts d. Arctic 3. Useagiculture, forests, social, wilderness 4. Abusesolid wastes (surface mining, etc. ), social mismanagement 5. Preservationland ethics, wilderness and national parks, zoning and restrictions on Wm:.

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C. Wild species

1. Population and niches 2. Distribution and types 3. Useexploitation, management, husbandry 4. Abuse--extinction 5. Preservation

D. Fuels, minerals, and energy

1. Types and distribution 2. Production and use of metals and fuels 3. Depletion and pollutionradiation, spills, slag, overproduction, and overconsumption 4. Electrical power a. Consumption b. Hydrological and steam-generating c. Atomic and fossil fuels

E. Air

1. Composition and cycle of atmosphere 2. Weather 3. Pollution a. Typeschemical, biological, etc. b. Causesindustry, automobiles, power production, etc. c. Hazards to health 4. Solutions to abuse

People and Society

A. Population

1. Reproduction 2. Distribution and structure 3. Growth and projections 4. Management methods

B. Food resources I. Agriculture--crops, animal husbandry, etc. 2. Production methodsirrigation, machinery, fertilizer, chemical pesticides, hybrids, improved seeds, etc. 3. Future outlook

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C. Shelter

1. Architectural styles 2. Urbanization

D. Modern social problems

1. Transportation 2. Crowding and noise 3. Aesthetics 4. Health

N.Cultural Perspectives

A. Literary

1. Personal 2. Ethical 3. Philosophical

B. Historical

1. Frontier development 2. Industrialization 3. Modern society

C. Future

1. Predictions 2. Courses of action

D. Laws

1. Regulations, statutes, codes, etc. 2. Enforcement

V. Natural Area Study

A. Field trips

B. Special projects

C. Wilderness and survival training

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ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES Daily subject gvide, withpresentation suggestions and sources

Week #1 ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS

1. Class Introduction Distribute textbooks, materials,syllabus, and check registration, etc. Preview class content, methods,assignments, and objectives-- particularly the term project.

2. Concept of Ecology Discuss with the class themeaning of "ecology" asderived from assigned readings and past experiences.Find out the levels of acceptanceof the idea, the need for "ecologicalawareness," etc.It may be helpful to give determine depth and breadth ofthe an "environmentalawareness quiz" to students' knowledge. SOURCES: Dasmann, 1-6; DeBell, 1-11; Shepard, 1-10;appendix 3-2 from this handbook.

3. Biotic Communities andFood Chains Discuss with the class theinterrelationships of the subjects(it may be "natural" communities andchains with "social" helpful to compare the local ones which exist inthe students'neighborhoods). Give examples of food chains and bioticcommunities. Include adiscussion on the biological need for all life formswithin a system.

SOURCES: Dasmann, 9-12;Ehrlich, 157-59; Wagner,230-36.

4. Basic Life Cycles Discuss with the class thecycles of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen,phosphorus, and the concepts of birth,growth, maturity, decline,and death. Cover also succession, erosion, andthe fundamental ideathat we are living on a spaceship with a"closed system" (except forsolar energy transfer). Compare natural cycles tothe life cycle of man.

SOURCES: Dasmann, 13-24;Ehrlich, 161-67; Wagner,50-59.

5. Film "Basic Ecology" or "EcologyCommunities." (As an alternative,lead a roundtable discussion comparingdifferent students' views ofnature, society, and ecology.)

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Week #2 ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS

1. Outdoor Activity

Divide the class into manageable groups and have them conductan environmental study of the school campus, with particular regard given to the separate biotic communities and food chains evident in the local plants and animals. Have the class report their findings at the end of the hour. (As an alternative, catalog the school's library holdings of nature-related books and put them on reserve--then take the class to the library and let them browse around and select textbooks for written reports to be made at a later date.)

2. EvolutionNatural Selection

Discuss with the class the physiology of animals and plants. Point out the various functions of the component parts, particularly those relating to survival. Discuss the time span nect.ssary for geologic and biological changes (evolutionary or devolutionary) and the causes of these changes. Discuss animal behavior, territoriality, and natural selection as they pertain to food gathering, mobility, camouflage, reproduction, etc. Compare the natural concept of evolution with the evolution of the school, neighborhood, or city.

SOURCES: Ehrlich, 11; Wagner, 5-11; any biology or geology textbook; Dasmann, 55-61. 3. Human Revolution

Point out how man's particular evolution led to his dominance. Detail man's physical development (opposable thumb, bipedal locomotion, stereoscopic vision, large cranial capacity), the development of culture, the development of agriculture and cities, and the development of industry as the most significant developmental steps. Trace his prehistoric ancestors and compare their physical and environmental similarities and differences.

SOURCES: Ehrlich, 202-04; Shepard, 13-41; Wagner, 11-20; any biology or anthropology textbook; Dasmann, 55-84.

4. Film

"House of Man--Our Changing Environment." (As an alternative, participate in a review session with the students, outlining major concepts covered and the problems solved.)

5. Examination

This should cover the material discussed under ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS above. 304 3-136

Week #3 NATURAL RESOURCES

1. Water, the Hydrological Cycle Discuss the assigned reading in class, pointing out chemical differences between fresh and salt water and the patterns of rainfall of the world. Discuss the necessity of all living things for water. Point out its renew- ability, different forms ,condensation, evaporation, etc.

SOURCES: Dasmann, 141-48 ; Ehrlich, 63-65; Wagner, 93-98.

2. Water, Distribution and Use Lecture on the multiple-storage facilities (oceans, lakes, rivers, estuaries, groundwater, clouds, etc.) and multiple use (agriculture, industry, animal and plant consumption, etc.). Discuss the storage, transportation, recycling, and converting powers of man. Have the students explain all their uses of water.

SOURCES: Handout (Day 3) from the 15-day unit; Dasmann, 148-170; Wagner, 98-105.

3. Water, Pollution

Ask the students to identify the major types of water pollution (biotic, chemical, mineral, thermal, etc.) and the major causes of pollution (sewage, agriculture, industry, etc.). Develop plans to individually reduce water pollution.Analyze samples of polluted water under a microscope. Discuss present waste-water treatment plant types (primary, secondary, and tertiary) and the use of desalination operations.

SOURCES: Dasmann, 152-55 ; DeBell, 51-65; Ehrlich, 126-28, 185-89; Wagner, 107-26, 137-42.

4. Eutrophication

Discuss the concept of living and dying bodies of water (oligotrophic and eutrophic); relate it particularly to the food chain concept. Catalog water supplies and storage facilities in your city or state and classify according to amount of "life." Analyze the local and worldwide use of lakes, rivers, estuaries, and oceans as dumping grounds for unwanted waste materials.

SOURCES: Ehrlich, 185-89; Wagner, 127-31, 150-61.

5. Film "The Living Sea." (As an alternative, microscopically analyze more samples of water collected at various points in your area.)

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Week #4 NATURAL RESOURCES

1. Land, Geology and Soils

Discuss the major rock types, formation, stratification, land classification (mountains, valleys, plains, etc.), volcanization, glaciation, continental uplift, drift, and weathering, faults, etc. Discuss also soil formation, aeration, fertility, classification. Analyze soil. types (humus base, clay base, sand base) under a microscope.

SOURCES: Dasmann, 99-119; Wagner, 38-54; any geology textbook.

2. Land, Typ_

Discuss the major land/climate types (arctic, temperate, tropical) and the major land cover (tundra, forest--coniferous, deciduous, alpine, tropical--grassland, and desert). Compare the types and distributions with weather, soil, and population.

Many films are available on this subject, including shortones (15 to 20 minutes) on "The High Arctic Biome, " "The Temperate Deciduous Forest, " "The Grasslands, " "The Desert, " and "The Tropical Rain Forest."

SOURCE: Dasmann, 27-53.

3. Land, Human Use

Compare natural land cover with human use, with respect to agricullore, mining, cities, transportation, parks, etc. Use classroommaps to point lout the worldwide development and use of land. Get a map of your own local area and classify it according to the use of land (in terms of both area and percent) with regard to streets, housing, commerce, industry, gardens and parks, waterways, undeveloped and wilderness areas, etc. (Use translucent paper to outline land use and indicate environmental problems.)

SOURCES: Ehrlich, 91-92; Wagner, 25-29; local city or county map-- land use information can be obtained from your tax assessor; Dasmann, 119-131, 289-94. 4. Land Human Use

Discuss mants use of his forest reserves, particularly with regard to his modifying the natural ecosystems and cycles. Survey the class to identify the belief/nonbelief in the "Smokey-the-bear philosophy" of fire management. Discuss the ecological differences between forest and rangelands. Discuss the multiple historical and contemporary uses of timber and wood products.

SOURCES: Dasmann, 173-228; Wagner, 79-92. 306 3-138

5. Land, Abuse and Preservation Discuss man's abuse of the land through resource depletion and solid waste disposal. Classify the kinds of solid waste (metals, glass, paper, sewage, etc.), noting biodegradability of different types. Discuss methods to eliminate waste (land fills, recycling, reduction of consumption, discretionary purchasing, etc.). Find out how your community disposes of its wastes.

SOURCES: De Bell, 214-18; Ehrlich, 128-29; Wagner, 409-24; readings from 15-day unit (Days 2 and 7); Dasmann, 305-06.

Week #5 NATURAL RESOURCES

1. Land Ethics Discuss the philosophical concepts apparent in the readings, particularly those relating to the nonhuman use of land in wilderness areas and the human use in park areas. Locate the national parks on a map and compare in size to the other land areas of the United States. Make a list of all the parks and natural areas in your community and immediate environs. Compare the concept of land ownership (legal and private property and public trusteeship) with animal territoriality. Discuss the idea of "marrying the Earth."

SOURCES: De Bell, 147-52; Shepard, 402-15; Wagner, 60-75; Appendix 3-1 from this handbook ; Dasmann, 87-97, 273-87.

2. Film "America's Wonderland, the National Parks." (As an alternative, have the students work on their term projects, which should have been assigned or chosen by the second or third week.)

3. Wildlife, Species and Habitat Have the clasa list all major wildlife species in North America (fish, fowl, animal). Find out where selected types live, in what biotic community, and in what food chain. Catalog all major wildlife living in your immediate geographical area. Analyze the life styles of some of the major types (i.e., deer, trout, duck, beaver, etc.). Discuss the ecological necessity of herbivores, omnivores, and carnivores; in particular, man's view of predators. Compare the life styles of man and beavers as species which radically change and improve their environments.

SOURCES: Dasmann, 231-53 ; Shepard, 179-90. 307 3-139

4. Film

"Problems of Conservation:Wildlife" or "Man, Beast, andthe Land." 5. Wildlife, Use

Discuss the exploitation,management, and husbandry of wildlifeforms, including sport hunting and fishing.Compare wildlife (including herbivores and carnivores) with domesticatedanimals. Examine the worldwide use of wildlife assources of food. Analyze the phenomenaof hunting and fishing in industrialsocieties, particularly theterm .

SOURCES: Dasmann, 253-71; De Bell, 92-95; Ehrlich, 101-09.

Week #6 NATURAL RESOURCES

1. Wildlife, Extinction

Discuss the methods andcauses of extinction throughout world history (assault, inability to adapt,habitat destruction, etc.).Discuss the biological need for variation inlife forms. Examine the environmental threats to mankind whichmay lead to his extinction. Compare theextinc- tion pattern of two different species(dinosaurs, passenger pigeons, original North American horse,sea mammals, etc.).

SOURCES: Ehrlich, 165-80;Wagner, 225-42, 300-23;readings (Days 10 and 13) from the 15-day unit;Dasmann,236-48. 2. Field Trip

Visit a local zoo,sea aquarium, domestic or game animalranch, or natural history museum. (Asan alternative, develop case studieson selected extinct or near-extinctspecies [i.e., whales, bison, eagles, pigeons], and list themeans of preservation for endangered wildlife.) 3. Film

"Our Endangered Wildlife."(As an alternative, have thestudents complete the reading assignmentsor work on their term projects.) 4. Fuels and Minerals

Discuss the types and distributionof metals (precious, ferrous,nonferrous) and fuels (fossil, atomic,forest, peat). Calculate the knownreserves for the United States and theworld.

SOURCES: De Bell, 66-75; Ehrlich,51-63. 308 3-140

5. Production and Use --Fuels, Minerals, and Energy

Discuss the principal uses of metals (production of goods), fuels (supplying heat, providing lubrication, supplying power for transportation), and energy (i.e., hydroelectric power for electricity), and the corresponding methods of production (drilling, mining, damming, etc.). Analyze the world's dependency on metals and fuels, noting in particular use in the U.S.and industrialized countries. Consider the use of alternative fuels or sources. SOURCES: Dasmann, 309-13; Ehrlich, 51-63; Shepard, 312-15; Wagner, 133-37, 148-48.

Week #7 NATURAL RESOURCES

1. Depletion of Resources and Pollution

Discuss the use and the supply rates and relate both to economic concepts of principle and interest. Discuss human life styles as indicative of resource depletion. Discuss major pollution forms and their causes (oil spills, abandoned mines and quarries, strip mines, slag heaps, radiation, toxic minerals, silting of reservoirs). Develop plans to slow resource depletion and pollution.

SOURCES: Wagner, 162-69, 196-219, 246-59; reading (Day 9) of 15-day unit.

2. Classroom Investigation Identify, chart to the original source, and study all sources of heat, electricity, gas, and water which enter the classroom, including conservation steps. Discuss with the students the possibility that sources of power, fuels, minerals, etc. might someday be interrupted on a temporary or permanent basis. Analyze the alternatives suggested.

3. Classroom Investigation Identify, classify, and trace back to the raw material all construction components of the classroom (desks, walls, blackboards, windows, fixtures, etc.). Group according to natural (born) and artificial (made) materials; discuss differences.

4. Air, Atmosphere

Discuss the composition, formation, and cycle of the atmosphere, relating them to the life cycles discussed in Week 4 of this course. Discuss the interdependence of all life forms with the atmosphere. Discuss the concept

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of photosynthesis. Find the majorsources of the main atmospheric elementsnitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide.

SOURCES: Ehrlich, 165; Wagner, 54-55;any biology text. 5. Air, Weather

Discuss the weather and weather patterns and theireffects on soils, agriculture, population, etc. Compare the "albedo"and "greenhouse" effects. Examine in detail the annual weatherpatterns in your community. SOURCES: Ehrlich, 145-48; Wagner, 104-05.

Week #8 NATURAL RESOURCES

1. Air, Pollution

Discuss the various types of air pollution (photochemicalsmog, fog, pollen, etc. ), the varioussources (automobiles, power generation, industry, heating, refuse), and the effectson human health, plant life, and man-made materials. Chart theappearance of the various contaminants in the air. Develop plans to reduce air pollutionin your community.

SOURCES: De Bell, 113-26; Ehrlich,118-26; Wagner,, 171-92; adapted text from Day 5 of the 15-day unit; Dasmann,305-09. 2. Film

"The Poisoned Air." (Asan alternative, conduct experiments and tests of the air with kits detailed in the bibliography.)

3. Field Trip

Visit a local pollution control facility (i.e.,water treatment plant, sanitary land fill, electric generating plant) andobserve its facility and method in abating pollution. (Asan alternative, allow the students extra reading and review time.)

4. Film

"Pollution Is a Matter of Choice." (Asan alternative, allow time to work on term projects.)

5. Classroom Project

Divide the class into groups and developan "Environmental Bill of Rights" for personal and communityuse concerning our waters, lands, wild 310 3-142

animals, air, minerals, fuels, etc. Consult the list developed on Day 14 of the 15-day unit and the plans developed on Days 13, 18, 20, 26, 31, and 36 of this course. Start action groups among the students to press for better municipal controls, tighter state laws, and better personal and industrial cooperation in pollution control.

Week #9 NATURAL RESOURCES

1. Review Session Review and answer questions relating to factual information and problem- solving techniques for the material just completed.

2. Examination

This should cover the material discussed under NATURAL RESOURCES.

3. Assigned Project Work Day* Give the students time to develop methods, conduct research, or perform any tasks relating to their special term projects.

4. Assigned Project Work Day

5. Assigned Project Work Day

Week #10PEOPLE AND SOCIETY

1. Population, Reproduction

Discuss with the students the mechanisms involved with human reproduction, with emphasis given to the reproductiye process as a means to continue the species. (As an alternative to this topic, discuss the concept of reproduction considering all life forms, animal and plant.)

SOURCES: Ehrlich, 356-59; any physiology or biology textbook.

2. Population, Structure Discuss the distribution, density, age, sex, education, and wealth of the world's population. Compare data on developed countries (mostly industrial) and undeveloped countries (mostly subsistence agriculture).

SOURCES: Dasmann, 31548 ; Ehrlich, 25-50, 329-40; Shepard, 42-54.

*In lieu of the assigned project work days, this time could be spent discussing any material heretofore not covered. 3-143

3. Population, Growth

Discuss the increases of the world's human population with regard to birth and death rates, fertility rates, etc., and cultural phenomena (rise of agriculture, wars,. plagues, economics, etc.). Use some handy device (i.e., matches, toothpicks, marbles) to demonstrate the growth-rate concept. Compare the rate differences between selected industrial and agricultural countries, Make predictions on the future size of the world's population based upon different rates. Compare population size and growth with environmental deterioration.

SOURCES: Dasmann, 318-25; DeBell, 219-32; Ehrlich, 5-24, 199-210; Wagner, 429-33.

4. Population, Management

Discuss the various methods and procedures now in use or planned to manage the growth of the world's population, including population redistribution, methods used to prevent birth and increased production of foodstuffs and resources.

SOURCES: Dasmann, 325-29 ; Ehrlich, 211-32; Wagner, 451-61; alternative reading (Day 11) from the 15-day unit.

5. Population, Planning

Discuss the economic, religious, racial, and national differences regarding planned human birth. Compare human population grawth (and the corresponding consumption of food and natural resources) with animal population balance, particularly with regard to living in a harmonized ecosystem.

SOURCES: Dasmann, 236-48; Ehrlich, 233-58; Shepard, 99-111.

Week #11 PEOPLE AND SOCIETY

1. Film

"The Population Explosion." (As an alternative, have the students conduct an In-class survey of the sizes of their existing families, the sizes of their future families, and the environmental cost of each added birth to their community.)

2. Food Production

Discuss the varieties of agriculture, fish and game harvesting, and animal husbandry in the world. Discuss the difference between "natural"

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and "prepared" foods, perhaps by analyzing the class's diet and cataloging what they eat. Discuss concepts of protein, calories, etc.

SOURCES: Dasmann, 130-35; Ehrlich, 81-88; Shepard, 55-75.

3. Food, Resources Discuss the dietetic possibilities available to the world, considering crops consumed, animals eaten, acres underdevelopment, cost of production, soil preparation, etc.

SOURCES: Wagner, 433-40 ; Ehrlich, 88-109; Shepard, 190-209; Dasmann, 109-19, 131-35,320.

4. Future Food Sources Discuss the development of novel sources of food, including game ranch- ing, sea harvesting (for products other than fish), crop substitution, increased land cultivation, conversion of existing products, and direct synthesis.

SOURCES: De Bell, 29-95; Ehrlich, 109-13; Wagner, 440-49.

5. Food, Biocides and Additives

Discuss the use of pesticides, fungicides, and herbicides to improve crop yield (relateto their other environmental implications) and the use of additives and contaminants to processed food to improve color, taste, preservation, etc.

SOURCES: De Bell, 76-91; Ehrlich, 165-85; Shepard, 245-65; Wagner, 225-45, 261-74; Dasmann, 135-38.

Week #12PEOPLE AND SOCIETY*

1. Film

"The Food Revolution." (As an alternative, allow the class additional reading time.)

2. Classroom Project

Have the students prepare (either at home or at school) and consume (at school) a "natural meal." Make sure everyone knows the ingredients

*See Week #15 for book to be assigned.

313 S. 3 -145

and the recipes, not allowing any prepared products suchas pizza pie, jello, frozen waffles, etc.If possible, consume whatever food isgrown by students for their term projects. 3. Shelter--House Forms

Discuss variations in worldwide living accommodationsdue to external environments and internal desires. Compare the worldwide structural similarities, building materials, settings,etc.

SOURCES: Shepard, 158-68, 168-76, 328-32; Wagner,343-59; any architecture textbook.

4. Urbanization

Discuss the ideas relating to the location and formation ofcities, their relationship (economic and cultural) with the surrounding ruralareas, the growth of industrialization andcommerce, and the influx of people into cities or their suburbs. Compare city development in North America, Europe, and Asia.

SOURCES: Ehrlich, 37-41; Shepard, 369-83; Wagner, 360-82;any U.S. history textbook.

5. Urban Problems

Discuss the conditions which lead to urban decay, slums, increasesin crime, mental and physical illness, overloaded waste disposalsystems, human hostility, etc.

SOURCES: De Bell, 234-52; Ehrlich, 141-43;any sociology or U.S. history textbook; Dasmann, 299-305.

Week #13 PEOPLE AND SOCIETY

1. Film

"Challenge for Urban Renewal." (As an alternative, have thestudents investigate the ways in which their community is attempting to solve its related social and environmental problems.)

2. Transportation

Study the methods of transportation (walking, bicycling, automobiles, trains, airplanes, ships, etc.) and the history of the development of systems designed to accommodate them (roads, canals, highways, rail- roads, etc.). Suggest methods designed tocure the transportation problems. 14 3-146

Examine your community's transportationsystems.

SOURCES: De Bell, 177-81, 182-96, 197-213;Wagner, 384-408. 3. Aesthetics

Discuss concepts of natural beauty and created (man-made)beauty. Discuss the need for beauty byman, particularly the need for natural life (flowers, plants, etc.) in artificialenvironments (living rooms, offices, etc.).Identify objects (in and out of the classroom) thestudents believe are examples of beauty. Comparebeauty with form and function.

SOURCES: Ehrlich, 143-45; Shepard, 115-21;most art and architecture textbooks; Dasmann, 278-80. 4. CrowdingConflictsNoise

Discuss each topic as it relates to good mental andphysical health of a community's citizens. Discuss differentcrowded situations (ballgames, subways, classrooms, homes,etc. ), environmental conflicts (those in which a poor environment contributes;i.e., racial differences in slums, traffic arguments, etc.), and humantolerance of noise, relating to causes and effects.

SOURCES: Ehrlich, 139-40, 203-07; Shepard,77-92; Wagner, 192-95, 367-69; the reading (Day 12) in the15-day unit. 5. Health

Discuss broadly how a poor natural and culturalenvironment has a negative effect on individual health, particularlyrelated to crowding and pollution. Examine methods to improve individualand community health. Analyze modern medical practices (includingdrug use) and their relationship with environmental improvement,stability, or deterioration.

SOURCES: De Bell, 27-30; Ehrlich, 117-39,148-51;Shepard, 223-29; Wagner, 201-10. Week #14 PEOPLE AND CULTURALPERSPECTIVES 1. Review

Review and answer students' questionsdealing with PEOPLE AND SOCIETY. 2. Examination

This should cover the material discussedunder PEOPLE AND SOCIETY.

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3. Film

"Time of Man" or "The Sense of Wonder" and "The Edge of the Seal."

4. Environmental Encounters

Discuss the readings from the standpoint of personal enjoyment of nature, or what mental relaxation and physical gain man can derive from his experiences with the natural world. Discuss the students' personal experiences with nature (outside of urban living). SOURCE: Shepard, 122-31, 133-39, 149-58.

5, Environmental Ethics

Discuss the readings from the standpoint of misconceptions which have entered our culture and how they can be eliminated or restructured, particularly those relating to growth equals good, change equals progress.

SOURCES: Dasmann, 273-87; De Bell, 31-51; Shepard, 333-37, 351-62, 395-401.

Week #15 CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES

1-5. Choose one of the four following books: Barry Commoner, The Closing Circle; Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac; John Muir, The Mountains of California; or Henry David Thoreau, Walden. All are excellent and offer somewhat similar views of nature, man's place in it, and man's responsibility to the Earth. After assigning the book to the students three or four weeks in advance, examine and discuss it in detail during this week. Allow perhaps one or two days for in-class reading for those students who have not completed it by the start of the week.

There are several ways in which these books can be studied and taught as examples of environmental literature. One would be a fairly straight- forward examination of events which unfold in the chapter-by-chapter narrative. Another would be a study of the major thematic elements and sub-elements of the work.Still another would be a character evaluation of those who appear in the work, assuming that the land itself, its wildlife, its plantlife, and the people (both as individuals and as a social whole) who inhabit the land could be considered as characters.

Any approach a teacher might take is acceptable. The important thingis the exposure the students and the teacher receive in reading and discusshig at least one work from our environmental prophets. 3-148

Many important concepts are apparent in all four works worthy of classroom discussion. Some of them include:

1. The role of the climate in determining the flora and fauna of any area.

2.The changes in nature due to the calendrical cycle (notice also the chapter arrangements relative to this).

3.The role of the geologic past in determining the face of the earth described in each work.

4.The ecological relationships of the natural biological and botanical species in the geographical areas discussed.

5.The concepts of freedom, responsibility, balance, necessity, luxury, economy, wilderness, wildness, civilization, religion, complexity, simplicity, progress, wholeness, friendship, reality, cooperation, industry, etc.

6. The conflicts of social wants (consumption of natural resources and development of natural areas) and social needs (obtaining refresh- ment from nature and surviving).

7.The roles of industrialization, transportation, and commercialization, with regard to development and use of wild areas.

8. Man's love/hate and fear/trust ideas of nature.

9.The concept of getting a living.

10.The social structure and habits of all animals, including man.

11.The identification.and cataloging of various plant and animal species.

12. The ethical approach to living with nature. If possible, hold the class out-of-doors when1discussing parts of the selected book. One important thing to remember is to include biographical sketches of the author chosen, making particular references to the social mood of the people and the historical events unfolding at the time the work was created.Include in your discussions comparisons between the author's factual and interpretative ideas of nature and the scholastic data covered thus far in the course.If time permits, choose two of the above books, one each as representative of the 19th and 20th centuries, and compare the ideas and concerns from an historical standpoint.A teacher may also wish to assign the books not chosen for the entireclass to individual students for in-class reports.

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Week #16CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES

1. Frontier Develoment

Trace the spread of European-Americans across North America, from the 15th century to the present. Include in the discussion the economic, social, and psychological reasons for the westward migration. Note in particular the "cowboy mentality" or "frontier psychology" which accompanied the development in regard to land acquisition, natural resource use, removal and elimination of Indians, and establishment of social systems.

SOURCE: Any U.S. history textbook.

2. Industrial Development

Discuss the concurrent economic-commercial-industrial movement in the United States, taking into account the products produced and consumed, the natural resources used, the services offered, the wealth (economic, cultural, spiritual) of the people, pollution created, etc.Contrast industrialized nations with agricultural nations in terms of social development and economic development. Relate the idea of consumption of goods to the deterioration of the environment. Note the dramatic growth and continuing effect of technological and industrial development spurred by the nation's wars.

SOURCE: Any U.S. history textbook.

3. Contemporary Social Problems

Discuss America's society and its problems since World War II.Include racial, national, economic, and religious conflicts; city living, economic stability; mass education, popular styles; international involvement; mass communication; and other topics that directly or indirectly relate to environmental living.

SOURCE: Any U.S. history textbook; most current periodicals.

4. Historical Views

Discuss the White article, which traces our present ecological dilemma to our Judeo-Christian past. Have the students debate other factors which have led to our present environmental condition, particularly those discussed earlier this week or those deduced from the study of NATURAL RESOURCES or PEOPLE AND SOCIETY.

SOURCES: De Bell, 12-26; Shepard, 341-50. See also Lewis Moncrief, "The Cultural Basis for our Environmental Crisis, " Science, vol. 170, pp. 508-12. 318 3-150

5. Environment, Future

Discuss the future of the Earth's environment and the survival of man, considering the possibility that nothing will be done to to correct our multiple environmental faults and considering the possibility that many constructive steps will be taken to correct past wrongs. Consider in particular the hidividual and social changes necessary in our culture and behavior which must precede any move toward environmental improvement; include also international cooperation, commercial redirection, etc.Catalog action steps necessary and develop a plan to improve your community's environment. Discuss the relevance of environmental education as a subject permeating all levels and disciplines n schools.

SOURCES: Dasmann, 331-42; De Bell, 96-101, 134-46, 153-60, 161-76; Ehrlich, 260-323; Shepard, 416-36; Wagner, 463-66.

Week #17 CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES

1. Environment, Future

Continue the discussions started during the last class period. Emphasize personal and community action which can be constructive in preventing environmental destruction and preserving and improving our local environment. Encourage the formation of recycling centers, municipal lobbying organizations, neighborhood clean-up campaigns, use of mass transportation instead of private automobiles, sound purchasing practices, etc. If available, show the recommended slide-tape show.

SOURCES: "Environmental Action Guide"--reading (Day 14) of the 15-day unit; De Bell, 285-95, 300-11, 317-33; slide-tape show, "Environ- mental Solutions," material developed on Day 40 of this course.

2. Environment, Occupations

Allow students to read chapter 1 and portions of chapter 2 of this handbook. Encourage students, particularly seniors, to choose careers which would improve the environment for everyone. Invite the school vocational counselor to speak on the subject. Point out the wide variety of environmental occupations, in terms of the nature of work, education, and training required; salary; conditions, etc.If available, show the recommended slide-tape show.

SOURCES: Chapters 1 and 2 of this handbook; slide-tape show, "Environ- mental Occupations."

s 319 3-151

3. Environment, Present Legislation

Discuss the past and present federal laws whichprotect and preserve our environment. Categorize by the resource theymanage. Compare with your local and state laws. Discuss the past acceptance of theselaws, the application of them, and the need for future legislation.

SOURCE: Chapter 4, VII, of this handbook. 4 & 5. Project Reports

Allow two days for the individuals and teamsto give a class presentation of their particular projects, makingsure they include their scientific methods, research techniques, operational techniques,and project results.

Week #18FINAL EVALUATION AND NATURAL AREA STUDY

1. Review

Review and answer students' questions for theunit on CULTURAL PER- SPECIIVES and whatever material from otherunits to be included in the final examination.

2. Final Examination

This should cover the material in the last unitas well as the fundamental concepts covered throughout the semester. 3. Film

"Multiply and Subdue the Earth." This isa natural and ecological film about nature, society, and problems of each. (Thisfilm runs 65 minutes.) 4 & 5. Natural Area/Wilderness Study

Take a field trip(s) to areas of natural interest(schoolgrounds, city parks, seashores, farmlands, national parks, etc.).Educational stress should be given to ecology study, the distribution anduse of natural resources, pollution control, recycling, conservation,survival training, recreation and physical exercise, outdoor living, class andcommunity cooperation, individual discipline and self-reliance,and enjoyment of the outdoors. If at all possible, expand thisventure to the last entire day, overnight, or through the weekend.If the class is taught during the fall andyou live in areas of severe winter weather, dothis early in the semester. For those teachers who enjoy outdoor living,it will be a fine idea to take

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the students who have their parents' permission on several weekend camp-outs, nature hikes, or visits to urban recreational and education facilities. This may prove to improve considerably both the students' and the teachers' classroom performances and interest.

3 APPENDICES 3-155

Appendix 3-1: Reading--"An Environmental Ethic" 1

Since year after year, our ecological problemsare compounded, what Aldo Leopold states in his book, A Sand County Almanac, about thepresent state of environmental education is most relevant:

Is something lacking in the content, as well? Is it difficultto give a fair summary of its content in brief form, but,as I understand it, the content is substantially this: obey the law,vote right, join some organizations and practice what conservation is profitableon your own land. The government will do the rest.

Is not this formula too easy to accomplish anything worthwhile? It defines no right or wrong, assignsno obligation, calls for no sacrifice, implies no change in the current philosophy of values. In respect of land-use, it urges only enlightened self-interest.Just how far will such education take us?

My special concern is with Mr. Leopold's referenceto a "change in the current philosophy of values." The following aremy reasons.

Man is probably locked in a life or death struggle for survival.He is combating a monumental environmental backlash of pollution and contamination whichmay well be overwhelming. However, man's attempts at combating theseproblems based upon technological solutions and the old assumptions that caused theproblems in the first place, although necessary for immediate health and safety,can only be a temporary delaying action. To secure long-term solution,man must deal with the cause of his problems. This cause is the lack ofa broadly accepted environmental ethic dealing with how man perceives his role within the natural scheme oflife. How man perceives his role in the environment is then theroot of our problems or the cause.

As man becomes aware of a perplexing questionor problem in regards to his niche in the environment, either by revelationor education, he will seek an answer and, thus, make an evaluation.After an evaluation is reached, some course of action or response to the problem will ensue.It is these responses and actions that have caused our present environmental problems.If the revelation or education that I mentioned is changed, then man's actions also will hopefullychange.

We cannot simply deal with the problems but must stimulate anotherevaluation based on sounder facts or a new ethic, free from technological myths, fromtheological

1 From testimony of Ron Eber, Cochairman of Student's Environmental Confederation of California, before the House Select Subcommitteeon Education's hearing on environmental education, May 1, 1970.

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prejudice and anthropocentric ideals.Biologist Garret Hardin, in "The Tragedy of the Commons," states that the "problem hasno technical solution.It requires a funda- Mental extension in morality." Changes in moralityconnect the problems and causes with theology and philosophy.

Also Leopold eloquently explains ecological philosophy bybringing together ethics and ecology. "This extension of ethics,so far studied only by philosophers, is actually a process in ecological evolution.Its sequences may be described in ecological as well as in philosophical terms."

What are these ecological terms and what is ecology?Ecology as the core of environmental education, is more thana system of nature.It is also one of human relationships. The ecology movement and environmentaleducation must seek to do more than clean up rivers and the air .or stop the use of pesticides. Theymust seek to stop all practices that degrade or destroy life and environmentson the planet.

But what are the terms of ecologically relevant education?Paul Shepard, in his introduction to the book, The Subversive Science:Essays Toward the Ecology of Man, states:

Ecology deals with organisms in an environment and with the processes that link organism and place.But ecology as such cannot be studied. Only organisms, earth, air andsea can be studied.It is not a discipline. There is no body of thought andtechnique which frame an ecology of man.It must be, therefore, a scopeor a way of seeing. Such a perspective on the human situation isvery old and has been part of philosophy and art for thousands ofyears.It badly needs attention and revival.

In our colleges, we must getaway from specialized education when dealing with environmental problems. Biology showsus that all life is interdependent. Therefore, the perspective or outlook that Shepard speaksof can best be achieved by interdisciplinary studies.This would be a synthesis of the biological andenvironmental sciences with the social and cultural sciences.

So what I am advocating is an environmentaleducation that is more than solution oriented, more than an education that will solveour short-term problems, more than an education of requirements to meet professional qualifications,but rather an. education that has us ask, "So why do we do it?What good is it? Does it teach you anything, like determination, invention,or improvisation, foresight, hindsight, love, art, music, religion, strength or patience oraccuracy or quickness or tolerance or how long is a day and how far is a mile, and how to relyon yourself?" So what is the philosophy that Shepard feels needs revival? What is theperspective that environmental education must have as its goal, its purpose and as itscore concept? Stephanie Mills puts it this way:

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To aspire to survival and to aspire to humanity are the paths. They are one and the same. All the logic, precision and practicality in the world can't save us if we lose our own soul. There can be no survival without passion. Passion for humanity, love of the earth, joy of existence and hope for the future....

It is these concepts that environmental education must embrace. This kind of education will enable man, us, to perceive a sense of time and place within the context of all life.

To teach, in the classical sense of the term, this kind of education is impossible. It will take not just a qualified, degreed teacher, but a leader,one who understands the sense of the awe and wonder of life, not to teach it but to inspire, to helpus experience the joy of existence and, thus, a will to survive. 3-158

Appendix 3-2: Reading--"The Biosphere"1

Because man is endowed with such remarkable ability to tolerate conditions profoundly different from the ones under which he evolved, the myth has grown that he can endlessly and safely transform his life and his environment by technological and social innovations; but this is not the case. On the contrary, the very fact that he readily achieves biological and socio-cultural adjustments to many different forms of stress and of undesirable conditions paradoxically spells danger for his individual welfare and for the future of the human race. Man can achieve some form of tolerance to environmental pollution, excessive environmental stimuli, crowded and competitive social contacts, the estrangement of life from the natural biological cycles, and other consequences of life in the urban and technological world. This tolerance enables him to overcome effects that are unpleasant or traumatic when first experienced. But in many cases, it is achieved through organic and mental processes which may result in the chronic and degenera- tive disorders that so commonly spoil adult life and old age, even in the most prosperous countries.

Man can learn also to tolerate ugly surroundings, dirty skies, and polluted streams. He can survive even though he completely disregards the cosmic ordering of biological rhythms. He can live without the fragrance of flowers, the song of birds, the exhilaration of natural rcenery and other biological stimuli of the natural world. This loss of amenities and elimination of the stimuli under which he evolved as a biological and mental being may lave no obvious detrimental effect on his physical appearance or his ability to perform as part of the economic or technologic machine. But the ultimate result can be and often is an impoverishment of life, a progressive loss of the qualifies that we identify with humanness and a weakening of physical and mental sanity. Air, water, soil, fire, the rhythms of nature and the variety of living things are of interest not only as chemical mixtures, physical forces, or biological phenomena: they are the very influences that have shaped human life and thereby created deep human needs that will not change in the foreseeable future. The pathetic weekend exodus to the country or beaches, the fireplaces in overheated city apartments, the sentimental attachment to animal pets or even to plants testify to the persistency in man of biological and emotional hungers that developed during his evolutionary past and he cacnot outgrow.

Like Anteus of the Greek legend, man loses his strength when his feet are off the ground,...

1 Excerpt from article by Rene Dubos in Unesco Courier (January 1969).

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The environments men create through theirwants constitute to a very large extent the formula of life they transmit to succeedinggenerations. Thus, in addition to affecting present-day life, the characteristics ofthe environment conditionyoung people and thereby determine the future of society.It is unfortunate therefore that we know so little and make so little effort to learn how the totalenvironment affects the physical and mental development of children, andhow much of the influence persists in adult life.

There is no doubt that the latent potentialities ofhuman beings have a better chance of being realized when the total environmentis sufficiently diversified to provide a variety of stimulating experiences, especiallyfor the young. As more persons find the opportunity to express a larger percentage of theirbiological endowment under diversified conditions, society becomes richerand civilizations continue to unfold.

In contrast, if the surroundings andways of life are highly stereotyped, the only components of man's nature thatcan become expressed and flourish are those adapted to the narrow range of prevailing conditions.

Historically, man was very slow to expand his horizonsand develop his full genetic potential. Thus, surrounding earlyman with nature does not seem to guarantee a rich, diverse existence.Furthermore, in some present ruralareas of the developed countries, man has produced a monotony of bothcrops and culture that stifles human development.

The present trends of life inprosperous countries are usually assumed to represent what people want; but in reality the trendsare determined by what is available for choice. What peoplecome to want is largely determined by the choices readily available to them early in life. Many childrengrowing up in some of the most prosperous suburbs of industrialized countries may suffer froma critical deprivation of experiences, and this determines the trivialityof their adult lives.In contrast, some poor areas of the world provide human environments thatare so stimulating and &versified that many distinguished adultsemerge from them despite the economic poverty of their early years.

There is no doubt, in any case, concerning the sterilizingatmosphere of many modern housirkg developments whichare sanitary and efficient, but inimical to the full expression of human potentialities. Allover the world, many of these developments are planned as if their only function was to provide disposablecubicles for dispenuable people.Irrespective of their genetic constitution,most young people raised in such a featureless environment, and limitedto a narrow range of life experiences, will suffer from a kind of deprivation that willcripple them intellec- tually and mentally.

In judging the human quality of an environment, [we must]keep in mind that passive exposure to stimuli is not enough to elicit individualdevelopment. The stimulus becomes formative only if the organism isgiven a chance to respond to it actively and creatively. Amusement parks and zoologicalgardens, richly endowed as they may be, are no substitute for situations in which the developing childcan gain 3Z7 3-160

direct experience of the world through active participation. Juvenile delinquency is probably caused to a very large extent by the failure of the modernworld to provide opportunities for the creative expression of physical andmental [vigor] during a human being's most active period of development. Man has been highly successful as a biological species because he is extremely adaptable. He can hunt or farm, be a meat-eater or a vegetarian, live in the mountains or by the seashore, be a loner or a team member,function under aristocratic, democratic, or totalitarian institutions, but history shows also that societies that were once efficient became highly specialized [and] rapidly collapsed when conditionschanged. A highly specialized society, like a narrow specialist, is ramly adaptable.

.Cultural homogenization and social regimentation,zesulting from the creeping monotony of overorgaitized and overtechnicized life, standardized patternsof education, mass communication and passive entertainment, willmake it progressively more difficult to exploit fully the biological richness of the human species, and mayhandicap the further development of civilization. We must shun uniformity of surroundings as much as absolute conformityin [behavior] and tastes. We must strive instead to create as many diversified environments as possible. Richness and diversity of physical andsocial environments constitute a crucial aspectf functionalism, whether in the planning of rural and urban areas, the design of dwellings, or the management of individuallife. Diversity may result in some loss of mechanical and administrative efficiency and will certainly increase stresses, but the more important goal is to provide the many kinds of soil that will permit the germination of theseeds now dormant in man's nature.... Until now, man has behaved as if the areas available to him were unlimited, and if these were infinite reservoirs of air, soil, water, and other resources.Ile could do this with relative impunity in the past because there was always some other place where he could go, start a new life, and engage in any kind of adventure that he chose.

Since the evolutionary and historical experiences of man are woven in his mental fabric, he naturally finds it difficult not to behave as a nomad and hunter. It is not natural for him to rest quietly in a corner of the earth and husband it carefully.His thouglitlessness in provoking ecological situations that are potentially dangerous originates partly from the fact that he has not yet learned to live within the constraints of his spaceship. The ecological attitude is so unfamiliar, even to many scientists, that it is often taken to imply acceptance of a completely static system. Students of human sociology have expressed concern lest the ecologist's professional interest in the well-balanced, smoothly functioning, steady-state ecosystem of the pond be extra- polated uncritically to the whole earth and its human population. They are right in emphasizing that man's relation to his total environment cannot be regarded as a steady-state ecosystem because this would imply that the human adventure has come to an end. 328 3-161

The physical forces of the environment are forever changing,slowly but inexorably. Furthermore, all forms of life including human lifeare continuously evolving and thereby making their own contributionto environmental changes. Finally it seems to be one of man's fundamental needsto search endlessly for new environments and for new adventures. There isno possibility therefore of maintaining a status quo.

Even if we had enough learning and wisdomto achieve at any given time a harmonious state of ecological equilibrium between mankindand the other components of the spaceship Earth, it would bea dynamic equilibrium, and this would be compatible with man's continuing development.

The important question is whether the interplay betweenman and his natural and social surroundings will be controlled by blindforces as seems to be the case for most if not all animal species, or whether itcan be guided by deliberate, rational judgments.

On the one hand, the genetic endowment of Homosapiens has changed only in minor details since the Stone Age, and there isno chance that it can be significantly, usefully, or safely modified in the foreseeable future. Thisgenetic permanency defines the human race, and determines the physiologicallimits beyond which human life cannot be safely altered by social andtechnological innovations.In the final analysis, the frontiers of cultural and technologicaldevelopment are determined by man's own biological frontiers and therefore by thegenetic constitution he acquired during the evolutionary past.

On the other hand, mankind hasa large reserve of potentialities that become expressed only to the extent that circumstancesare favorable. The physical surroundings condition not only the biologicalaspects of phenotypic expressions but also their mental aspects.Environmental planning can thus playa key role in enabling human beings to realize their potentiallties.One can take it for granted that there is a better chance to convert thesepotentialities into actual realizations when the physical environment is sufficientlydiversified to provide a variety of stimulating experiences and opport-nities, especiallyfor the young.

Any change in mental attitude and inways of life becomes incorporated in the human group concerned through socio-culturalmechanisms, and from then on it conditions the future development of thegroup. Socio-cultural evolution is as much under the influence of the environmentas is biological evolution, and almost as irreversible.

Planning for the future demandsan ecological attitude based on the assumption that man will continuously bring about evolutionary changesthrough his creative potentialities. The constant interaction betweenman and environment inevitably implies continuous alterations of both--alterations thatshould always remain within the constraints imposed by the laws of Nature andby the unchangeable biological and mental characteristics of man's nature.

329 Chapter 4

A SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR ENVIRONMENTA L EDUCATION

330 4-iii

A SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

Table of Contents

Introduction 4-v

I. GENERAL -- Conservation, Ecology, Environment 4-1

A. Textbooks and Anthologies 4-1

B. Periodicals (A Listing) 4-4

C. Other Views (Cultural, Scientific, Social, Etc ) 4-6

II. POPULATION AND SOCIETY 4-16

A. Population 4-16

B. Food Production 4-18

C. Cities 4-19

D. Social Problems 4-20

E. Aesthetic Problems 4-22

III. NATURAL RESOURCES-- Conservation, Use, Pollution 4-25

A. General, Energy Use, and Pesticides 4-25

B. Land. 4-29

C. Water 4-30

D. Air and Weather 4-33

E. Wilderness and Wildlife 4-34

IV. HEALTH AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 4-37

A. Physical and Mental Health 4-37 4-iv

Table of Contents, continued.

B. Health Problems 4-38

C. Recreation and Activity 4-39

V. MULTIMEDIA MATERIAL 4-41

A. Films 4-41

B. Kits and Records 4-44

VI.ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF EDUCATIONAL.INFORMATION 4-47

VII.FEDERAL AGENCIES AND STATUTES 4-55

A. Texts 4-55

B. Federal Statutes 4-56

C. Federal Agencies 4-60

332 4-v

INTRODUCTION

This bibliography is intended foruse in secondary schools and is designed primarily for curriculum planners, librarians,life and social sciences instructors, and

individual students.Its organization and content are designedto complement the two

curriculum schedules in the preceeding chapter.It is hoped that this willserve as a selective guide for all schools wishing to startor upgrade their holdings in environmental literature.

Several criteria were used in determining the selectionsincluded. The most

significant being that the works and articles chosen bedesigned so that most students will find them interesting and comprehensible.The selections were also chosenas representative of national interest and phenomena ratherthan local ones.Finally, the selections were made to include material which broadlycovers a particular subject or field rather than a narrow specialty.

333 I. GENERAL -- Environment, Ecology, Conservation

A. Textbooks and Anthologies

Anderson, Walt.Editor.1970. POLITICS AND ENVIRONMENT:A READER IN ECOLOGICAL CRISIS.Pacific Palisades, California: GoodyearPub- lishing Company, Inc. A collection ofarticles: The Urban Environment, The Rural Environment, EnvironmentalPolicy, Nature and Human Nature, Population, Politics, and Pollution.

Benarde, Melvin A. 1970. OUR PRECARIOUSHABITAT. AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TO UNDERSTANDING MAN'S EFFECTON HIS OWN ENVIRON- MENT. New York: W. W. Norton. $2.95.

Bresler, Jack B.Editor.1969. ENVIRONMENTS OF MAN. Reading,Massa- chusetts: Addison-Wesley.$4.25. An anthology of 24 articleson a wide variety of environmental topics.

CONSERVATION IN THE UNITED STATES: ADOCUMENTARY HISTORY, 5 volumes. 1971. New York: Van Nostrand ReinholdCompany. $150. A complete reference library documenting thehistorical development of conservation policies in water, air, land, minerals,and recreation. These books present guidelines to roles of theindividual, school, and industry in conserving our naturalresources. Described by the publishers, the set is "the most comprehensive study ever compiledon the history of conservation policies in the United States."

Cox, G. Editor.1969. READINGS IN CONSERVATIONECOLOGY. New York: Appleton, Century, Crofts.

Crosson, Frederick J.Editor.1967. SCIENCE AND CONTEMPORARYSOCIETY. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame. $7.95.Ten essays on literature, philosophy, religion, international affairs,human welfare, education, man's future, and science.

Darling, F. and John P. Milton. Editors. 1966.FUTURE ENVIRONMENTS OF NORTH AMERICA. New York: Natural History. $12,50.

Dasmann, Raymond F. 1968. ENVIRONMENTALCONSERVATION. 2nd edition. New York: John Wiley.$'t 95. Excellent consideration of man'senvironment. DeBell, Garrett.Editor.1970. THE ENVIRONMENTAL HANDBOOK. New York: Ballantine Books.$0. 95. "To serve as a source of ideas andtactics for the 1970 teach-in, this handbook brings togetherstudents, scientists, writers and others to focus onsome of the major problems of our deteriorating environment, explains thenature of ecology, and, most importantly, suggests action that can be taken right now inany community by any individual."

334 4-2

Dewy ler, Thomas R. 1971. MAN'S IMPACT ON ENVIRONMENT. New York: McGraw-Hill. Disch, Robert. Editor.1970. THE ECOLOGICAL CONSCIENCE. VALUES FOR SURVIVAL. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. $5.95, $2.45. Sixteen excellent essays.

Ehrlich, Paul R. and Anne H. Ehrlich.1970. POPULATION RESOURCES ENVIRONMENT. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman. $8.95. An excellent source.

Ewald, William R., Jr.Editor.1967. ENVIRONMENT FOR MAN: THE NEXT FIFTY YEARS. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. $6.95, $2.95. Ewald, William R., Jr.Editor. 1968. ENVIRONMENT AND CHANGE: ME NEXT FIFTY YEARS, and ENVIRONMENT AND POLICY: THE NEXT FIFTY YEARS. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. $4.95 each. These two volumes and the one published in 1967 form a valuable collection of readings by outstanding authorities on environmental questions.

Gerking, Shelby D.1969. BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS. New York: Saunders. $8.50. Hardin, G. Editor.1969. SCIENCE CONFLICT AND SOCIETY: READINGS FROM SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman. $5.75.

Highsmith, Richard M., et al.1969. CONSERVATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 2nd edition. Rand McNally. $9.95. Jarrett, H. Editor.1966. ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY IN A GROWING ECONOMY. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. An 'interesting collection, particularly the article by Boulding--"The Economics of the Coming Space- ship Earth." Johnson, Cecil E. Editor.1970. ECOCRISIS. New York: John Wiley. Sixteen articles on the environment, population, pollution, war, and prospects for the future. Johnson, H. D. Editor. 1970. NO DEPOSITNO RETURN. Reading, Massa- chusetts: Addison-Wesley. An anthology of papers later presented to UNESCO.

Kormondy, E. 1969. CONCEPTS OF ECOLOGY. New York: Prentice-Hall. $2.95.

335 ' 4-3

Love, Rhoda M. and Glen A. 4ove. Editors.1970. ECOLOGICAL CRISIS. READINGS FOR SURVIVAL. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. $3.95. A useful selection of papers.

Nash, Roderick. Editor. 1968. THE AMERICAN ENVIRONMeNT: READINGS IN THE HISTORY OF CONSERVATION. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison- Wesley. This traces Nash's observations about American ideas of environment and conservation through official and unofficial writings.

National Academy of Sciences. 1969. RESOURCES AND MAN. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman. $5.95, $2.95. Presents an introduction to the problem of resource adequacy. Emphasis is placed on issues that are central to a realistic assessment of the problem rather than on detailed estimates or projections. Coverage includes the ecology and geography of resources in relation to man, demographic trends, and the adequacy of food, mineral, and energy resources to meet current and expected pressures.

National Wildlife Federation. BY WHICH WE LIVE. Washington, D.C.: Educa- tional Servicing Section. Single copy free, additional copies 250. Collection of essays and articles on the basic problems of resource conservation.

Nickelsburg, Janet. 1969. ECOLOGY: HABITATS, NICHES AND FOOD CHAINS. (Introducing Modern Science Series.) New Yorlc Lippincott. $4.50.

Odum, E. 1969 (London). 1970 (U.S.A.). NATURE'S NETWORK: THE STORY OF ECOLOGY. Nature and Science Library. $6.95. Technical and thorough. Best used as reference or selective reading. Excellent graphs.

Shepard, Paul and Daniel McKinley. Editors. 1969. THE SUBVERSIVE SCIENCE. ESSAYS TOWARD AN ECOLOGY OF MAN. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin. $8.95, $5.95. Excellent collection of readings on human ecology.

Smithsonian Institution.1967. ME FITNESS OF MAN'S ENVIRONMENT. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. $6.50. Papers by world authorities on the quality of man's environment.

Swatek, Paul. 1970. THE USER'S GUIDE TO THE PROTECTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT. New York: Ballantine. $1.25.

U.S. Council on Environmental Quality. 1970. ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY: FIRST ANNUAL REPORT. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. $1.75. Seeks to describe the conditions of our environment, and to identify major trends, problems, actions under way, and opportunities for the future. The report reviews Federal legislation and focuses on water, air, weather and climate, solid wastes, noise, pesticides and radiation, population, and land use.

336 4-4

Wagner, Richard W. 1971.ENVIRONMENT AND MAN. New York:W. W. Norton. $7.50. A fine textual source.

B. Periodicals (A Listing)

AUDUBON. 1130 Fifth Avenue, NewYork, New York 10028. $8.50 a year. Emphasis on wildlife and nature.

BIOSCIENCE. American Institute ofBiological Sciences, 3900 WisconsinAvenue, N,W.,Washington, D.C. 20016. Monthly.$12 a year. Emphasis is on application of biological sciences toman's living conditions, i.e., hunger, pollution, pesticides. Written in popular style.For senior high school to develop an awareness of the importanceof the field of biological sciences and interest in it.

DAEDALUS. American Academy ofArts and Sciences, 280 NewtonStreet, Brooklyn Station, Boston, Massachusetts02146. $7.50 a year. Four issues a year, each200-300 pages. Each issue generallyconsiders a single topic in great depth, such as"Color and Race, " "Utopia, ""Science and Culture, " "Science and Technology in ContemporarySociety, " "Population, " etc.

ECOLOGY TODAY. Box 180, WestMystic, Connecticut 06388.It will alternate with a bimonthly newsletter.Annual subscription for both is$6.00,

ENVIRONMENT. Committee forEnvironmental Information,438.North Skinner Boulevard, St. Louis, Missouri 63130.10 issues. Annual subscription is $8.50. The CEI has been outstandingin drawing attention to pollutionand the misuse of the environment.

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION. DembarEducational Research Service, Box1605, Madison, Wisconsin 53701. Quarterly.Annual subscription is $7.50 and $5.00 (student). Research and developmentin conservation communications. The magazine began in the fall of 1969.For mature students and teachers.

F.A.O. REVIEW. Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations. Bimonthly. $2.50. "A well-printed,beautifully illustrated journal, this is concerned with studies of hungerand poverty throughout the world ... Particularly useful for information in activitiesin smaller countries. Should prove popular for browsingand as a source of reliablematerial for student papers." -- Magazines for School Libraries.

NATION'S CITIES. 1612 K Street, N.W.,Washington, D.C. 20006. Monthly. $6.00 a year. Short articles on transitfacilities, urban design, area planning, water supply housing projects,slum clearance, and racial riots. Official publication of the National Leagueof Cities. For senior high.

337 4-5

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY. 17th and M Streets, N.W., Washington, D.C. $9.00 a year. Has lately changed focus from resource development to resource preservation.

NATURE STUDY. American Nature Study Society, J. A. Gustafson, R.D. 1, Homer, New York 13077. $5.00 a year. Quarterly.

OUR ENVIRONMENT. Issues for Today Series.1970. Pamphlets. Reader's Digest Services. 25¢ each. "World Population*Is the Battle Lost" by Paul R. Ehrlich. "Confessions of a Polluter" by Arthur Godfrey. "He Brought a Stream Back to Life" by Roul Tun ley."Can Our Rivers Stand the Heat?" by W. Langewiesche. Compact articles, good for study. Asks central, critical comparative questions in teacher's guides. Poses problems, not offering solutions.

SCIENCE. American Association for the Advancement of Science. 1515 Massa- chusetts Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005. Weekly. Annual subscription $16. Most useful aource o current information.

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN. 415 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10017. Monthly. Annual subscription $10. Many fine general articles and some current events, particularly useful for schools.

THE LIVING WILDERNESS. Wilderness Society, 729 15th Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005. Quarterly. Features articles evaluating special environmental problems and news.

THE SIERRA CLUB BULLETIN. Sierra Club, 1050 Mills Tower, San Francisco, California 94104. Monthly. $5.00 annually. General environmental articles, wonderful photographs, and a "Washington Report."

Other national periodicals which frequently carry environmental articles include:

(1) AMERICAN HERITAGE (2) AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES JOURNAL (3) AMERICAN SCIENTIST (4) ART EDUCATION JOURNAL (5) ATLANTIC MONTHLY (6) BEHAVIOR AND ENVIRONMENT (7) ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (8) HARPER'S (9) LIFE (10) NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BULLETIN (11) NATIONAL PARKS AND CONSERVATION MAGAZINE (12) NATURAL HISTORY (13) NEWSWEEK (14) NEW YORKER

1_, 338 4-6

(15) NEW YORK TIMES MAGAZINE (16) OUTDOOR LIFE (17) SATURDAY REVIEW (18) SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING JOURNAL (19) SOCIETY OF NATURAL RESOURCES JOURNAL (20) SPORTS AFIELD (21) SPORTS ILLUSTRATED (22) SUMMIT MAGAZINE (23) TIME

C. Other Views (Cultural, Scientific, Social, etc.)

Abbey, Edwaxd. 1968. DESERT SOLITAIRE. New York:McGraw-Hill. $5.95. The romance and ecology of a desert.

Anderson, Charles R. Editor. 1971. THOREAU'S WORLD.MINIATURES FROM HIS JOURNAL. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:Prentice-Hall. $10.

Baker, H. G.1965. PLANTS AND CIVILIZATION. New York:Wadsworth. Baker lucidly discusses the importance of plantsto man's social and economic development and the equally important considerationof man's role in the modification and distribution of plants.

Barket, Roger G. 1968. ECOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY.CONCEPTS AND METHODS FOR STUDYING THE ENVIRONMENT OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR.Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. $7.50.

Bates, Marston. 1964. MAN IN NATURE. EnglewoodCliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. $1.95.

Benjamin, H. C. 1965. SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ANDHUMAN VALUES. Columbia: University of Missouri Press.

Black, C. E. 1966. THE DYNAMICS OF MODERNMATION.New York: Harper & Row. $1.60.

Black, John. 1970. THE DOMINION OF MAN:THE SEARCH FOR ECOLOGICAL RESPONSIBILITY. Chicago: Aldine. $7.50.

Bell, Daniel. Editor.1969. TOWARD THE YEAR 2000: WORK IN PROGRESS. Boston: Beacon Press. $3.50.

Boffey, Philip M. 1970."Hiroshima/Nagasaki. Atomic Bomb Casualty Commis- sion Perseveres in Sensitive Studies." Science, 168: 679-683.

339 4-7

Briggs, A. 1963. "Technology and Economic Development." Scientific American, September: 52-61.

Bronowski, J.1956. SCIENCE AND HUMAN VALUES. New York: Harper & Row. $1.25.

Brooks, Harvey and Raymond Bowers. 1970. "The Assessment of Technology." Scientific American, February: 13-21. A summary of a National Academy of Sciences study on "Technology."

Bryerton, Gene. 1970. NUCLEAR DILEMMA. New York: Ballantine.$1.25. Butterfield, Herbert. 1960."The Scientific Revolution." Scientific American, September: 173-192.

Caldwell, Lynton Keith. 1970. ENVIRONMENT: A CHALLENGE FOR MODERN SOCIETY. Garden City, New York: The Natural History P:ess. Written for the general reader, rather than the environmental specialist, thepurpose of this book is to help the reader understand whynew patterns of individual behavior and social action in relation to the environment have become imperative to human welfare.

Citizens Advisory Committee on Environmental Quality.1970. COMMUNITY ACTION FOR ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY. Washington, D.C.: Govern- ment Printing Office. A guide for citizens who want to participate in practical action to make their communities better placesto live in. Concen- trates on the principal approaches, how each works, how they can work together, and what organizations and agenciesone can go to for further help. Citizens Advisory Committee on Recreation and Natural Beauty. 1968. CITIZEN MANUAL FOR COMMUNITY ACTION. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. Single copy free from the committee (1700 Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, D. C. 20006). 400. Covers action foropen space and recreation, landscape, cleaning the air, and procedures for action. Coale, Ansley J.1970. "Man and His Environment." Science, 170: 132-136. Economics rather than population threatens the quality of American life. An excellent rummary..

Cole, LaMont C. 1968. "Can the World Be Saved?" Bioscience, 18: 679-684.

Commoner, Barry.1966. SCIENCE AND SURVIVAL. New York: Viking Com- pass Edition,$1.35,

Commoner, Barry.1971. THE CLOSING CIRCLE. New York: Alfred Knopf. $6.95. 4-8

Congressional Quarterly.1970. CHALLENGES OF THE 1970'S. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly, Incorporated. $3.95.

Congressional Quarterly.1969. CULTURAL LIFE AND LEISURE IN AMERICA. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly, Incorporated. $3.95. Arts and activities.

Congressional Quarterly.1970. MAN'S CONTROL OF THE ENVIRONMENT. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly, Incorporated. $4.00. Politics and environmental action.

Congressional Quarterly.1971. MODERN MAN. Washington, D.C.: Congres- sional Quarterly, Incorporated. $3.95. Humanism, urbanization, revolution, psychology, etc.

Congressional Quarterly.1971. POLITICS IN AMERICA. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly, Incorporated. $4.00. The politics and issues of the post-war years.

Congressional Quarterly.1971. THE SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly, Incorporated. $3.95. Science and morals must progress together. Congrtssional Quarterly. 1968. WORLD IN FERMENT. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly, Incorporated. $3.95. Planetary political and environmental problems. Crowe, B. L. 1969. "The Tragedy of the Commons Revisited." Science, 166: 1103-1107. Depressing evaluation of the chances of dealing politically with the problems of the commons; refers to Hardin (1968).

Curtis, Richard and Elizabeth Hogan. 1969. THE PERILS OF THE PEACEFUL ATOM: THE MYTH OF SAFE NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS. New York: Doubleday. $4.59. Dales, J. H. 1968. POLLUTION, PROPERTY, AND PRICES. Toronto: Univer- sity of Toronto Press.

Darling, Lois and Louis. 1968. PLACE IN THE SUN: ECOLOGY AND THE LIVING WORLD. New York: Morrow. $3.95.

Darwin, Charles.1958. THE ORIGIN OF THE SPECIES. New York: Mentor. $1.25.

Dasmann, Raymond F. 1970. A DIFFERENT KIND OF COUNTRY. New York: Macmillan. This raises important questions about the dependence of freedom on a varied environment and the role of the citizen in asserting his rights to such environmental freedom.

,f P. I 341 4-9

Defoe, Daniel. 1964. ROBINSON CRUSOE. New York: Mentor. $0.95.

Devoto, Bernard. 1952. THE COURSE OF THE EMPIRE. Boston: Houghton- Mifflin. $21.65.

Dubos, Rene. 1909. A THEOLOGY OF THE EARTH. Washington, D.C:: Government Printing Office. $0.30. A lecture given at the Smithsonian Institute. Dubos, Rene. 1965. "Humanistic Biology." American Scientist, 53: 4-19. Lubos, Rene. 1970. "Mere Survival Is Not Enough for Man." Life, July 24.

Dubos, Rene. 1968. SO HUMAN AN ANIMAL. New York: Scribners. How man is shaped by his environment, how we can control such environmental forces as urbanization and technology, and how we need urgently to study the effects of these forces if we are to enhance our humanness. 1969 Pulitzer Prize Winner.

Eiseley, Loren. 1966. THE FIRMAMENT OF TIME. New York: Ahteneum.

Eiseley, Loren. 1970. THE INVISIBLE PYRAMID. New York: Scrthner's. Eiseley, Loren. 1964. "The Uncomplicated Man.". Harper's, March.

Eiseley, Loren. 1969. THE UNEXPECTED UNIVERSE. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World.

Eisenhower, Dwight D. 1965. WAGING PEACE 1956-1961. THE WHITE HOUSE YEARS. Garden City, New York: Doubleday. Includes the speech on the military-industrial complex, "Farewell Speech to the Nation."

Ehrensaft, Philip and Amitai Etzioni. Editors. 1969. ANATOMIES OF AMERICA. SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES. New York: Macmillan. $4.95. Articles on politics, labor, race, class, religion, educption, cities, deviance, and demography.

Ehrlich, Paul R. and Richard L. Harriman. 1971. HOW TO SURVIVE. A PLAN TO SAVE SPACESHIP EARTH. New York: Ballantine, $1.25. Elder, Frederick. 1970. CRISIS IN EDEN. Nashville: Abingdon Press. $3.95. An inquiry into the religious man's attitudes toward nature.

Environmental Action Guide.1970. EARTH DAY--THE BEGINNING. New York: Bantam. $1.25.

Faltermayer, E. 1969. REDOING AMERICA. New York: Collier. $1.95.

342 4-10

Ferkiss, Victor C.1969. TECHNOLOGICAL MAN: THE MYTH AND THE REALITY. New York: Mentor. $0.95.

Forbes, R. J.1968. THE CONQUEST OF NATURE: TECHNOLOGY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES. New York: Praeger. $1.25.

Fortune. 1970. THE ENVIRONMENT. New York: Harper & Row.

.Fromm, Erich. 1968. THE REVOLUTION OF HOPE: TOWARD A HUMANIZED TECHNOLOGY. New York: Harper & Row.

Galbraith, John Kenneth: 1964. "Economics and the Quality of Life." Science, 145: 117-123.

Galbraith, John Kenneth. 1958. THE AFFLUENT SOCIETY. New York: New . American Library. New York: Mentor. $0.95. The history of economic theory and society.

Galbraith, John Kenneth. 1967. THE NEW INDUSTRIAL STATE. New York: Signet Books. $1.25.

Gardner, John, 1964. SELF-RENEWAL: THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE INNOVA- TIVE SOCIETY. New York: Harper & Row.

Goodman, P.1966. GROWING UP ABSURD. New York: Vintage. $1.45.

Goodman, Paul. 1962. UTOPIAN ESSAYS AND PRACTICAL PROPOSALS. New York: Vintage Books. $1.45.

Gouldner, Alvin W. 1970. THE COMING CRISIS OF WESTERN SOCIOLOGY. New York: Basic Books. $12.50. Stated to be one of the most important books in sociology to appear in the past decade.

Handler, Philip. 1971. "The Federal Government and the Scientific Community." Science, 171: 144-151. By the President of the National Academy of Sciences. Hardin, Garrett. 1968. "The Tragedy of the Commons." Science, 162: 1243- 1248. See also Crowe (1969) on the necessity of giving up some individual freedoms, particularly the freedom to multiply. Haskins, Caryl P.1970. "The Humanities and the Natural Sciences." American Scientist, 58: 23-33.

Holton, Gerald. Editor. 1965. SCIENCE AND CULTURE. Boston: Houghton- Mifflin.$6.00, $2.45 (Beacon Press).

343 4-11

Hutchins, R.1953. UNWERSITY OF UTOPIA. University of Chicago Press. $1. 50.

Huxley, Aldous.1960.BRAVE NEW WORLD. New York: Harper & Row. $2.75.

Huxley, Aldous.1963.LITERATURE AND SCIENCE. New York: Harper & Row.

Jeffers, Robhison. 1965. SELECTED POEMS. New York: Vintage Books. $1.45. An excellent collection of poetry on man and the environment.

Johnson, Cecil E.Editor.1968. SOCIALAND NATURAL BIOLOGY. Princeton, New Jersey: D. Van Nostrand. Johnson's book is unexcelledas a collection of environmental interpretation. Articles by: L. S. B. Leakey, Aldous Huxley, Garrett Hardin, John Steinbeck, Rachel L. Carson, John Muir, John Burroughs, Henry David Thoreau, Lo Eiseley, and others.

Krutch, Joseph Wood. THE DESERT YEAR. New York: Viking Press.$1.65.

THE BEST NATURE WRITING OF JOSE2H WOOD KRUTCH.1970.New York: Pocket Books.

Leopold, Aldo.1966. ASAND COUNTY ALMANAC, WITH OTHER ESSAYS ON CONSERVATION FROM ROUND RIVER. Oxford.$6.50.

Libby, L. M. Editor.1970.FIFTY ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS OF TIMELY IMPORTANCE. Santa Monica, California: Rand Corporation. This surveys some of the most recognizable and pressing problems of the environment, and includes comments on them from the current literature.

Lillard, Richard G. 1966. EDEN IN JEOPARDY. MAN'S PRODIGAL MEDDLING WITH HIS ENVIRONMENT: THE SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA EXPERIENCE. New York: Knopf.$6.95.

MacLeish, Archibald.1968."The Great American Frustration. " Saturday Review, 13 July:13-16.The adverse effects of science and technology on our lives and environment.

Manier, Edward.1970. "Biology and the Individual in Society. " Bioscience,20: 104-108. Moralquestions arising from attempts to control human evolution.

Marchant, Ronald A.1968.MAN AND BEAST. New York: Macmillan. $4. 95.

Marx, Leo. 1970. "American Institutions and Ecological Ideals. " Science, 170: 945-952.Scientific and literary views of our reckless life style are merging.

344 4-12

Mathewson, J. H.1962."Science for the Citizen: An Educational Problem." Science, 138: 1375-1379.

Means, Richard L. 1969. THE ETHICAL IMPERATIVE. THE CRISIS IN AMERI- CAN VALUES. Garden City, New York: Doubleday. $6.95. A thoughtful consideration of many of man's problems of living with himself, his fellow men, and nature. Cites other works and views.

Medawar, P. B.1959. THE FUTURE OF MAN. New York: Mentor. $0.60. Speculations on genectics.

Mesthene, Emmanuel G.1970. TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE. ITS IN2ACT ON MAN AND SOCIETY. Cambridge: Harvard University Pre;-s.$4.95. Includes a fine bibliography.

Milne, Lorus J. and Margery Milne. 1967. PATTERNS OF SURVIVAL. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. $7.95.

Mitchell, John G. and Constance L. Stallings.Editors.1970. ECOTACTICS: THE SIERRA CLUB HANDBOOK FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ACTIVISTS. New York: Pocket Books. $0.95.

Moncrief, Lewis W. 1970. "The Cultural Basis for our Environmental Crisis." Science, 170: 508-512. See also Lynn White (1967).

Montagu, Ashley.1968. MAN OBSERVED. Putnam.$6.95.

Mumford, Lewis.1970. THE MYTH OF THE MACHINE. VOLUME II. THE PENTAGON OF POWER. New York: Harcourt, Brace & Javanovich. $12.95. Blame for our state of affairs is laid largely at the feet of science rather than on those who avidly seek the rewards of technology.

Muir, John.1961. THE MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA. New York: Anchor Books. $1.45. The geology and beauty of California by the premier Western conservationist.

Muir, John.1961. YOSEMITE. New York: Anchor Books. $1.45. The beauty of the area and the fight to save the valley from the same fate as Hetch- Hetchy canyon.

National Goals Research Staff, The White House.1970. TOWARD BALANCED GROWTH: QUANTITY WITH QUALITY. Washingtou, D. C.: Government Printing Office.

National Science Teachers Association.1970. SCIENCE LOOKS AT ITSELF. New York: Scribner's. $5.95. Scientists and educators discussing technology, man's outlook, environmental crisis, society, etc.

34 4-13

"Needed: Effective Management of Our Priceless Shorelin:s andEstuaries. " 1970. Conservation Letter, May: 1-12. The nation's coastlines, another dwindling natural resource: a look at some of the problems and proposalsfor effective management.

Oppenheimer, R.1963."Communication and comprehension of scientific knowledge. " Science, 142: 1143-1146.

Orwell, George. 1962.1984. New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co.

Osborn, Fairfield.1948. OUR PLUNDERED PLANET. Boston: Little & Brown. $1.95. The historical background.

Platt, John R.1966."Changing Human Nature. " Science, 152: 1573--.

Polanyi, Michael.1964. SCIENCE, FAITH AND SOCIETY. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. $1.50.

Powell, John W. THE EXPLORATION OF THE COLORADO RIVER. NewYork: Mentor. $0.95.

Price, D. K.1965. "Escape to the endless frontier." (Howcan science be realted to our political purposes and to our economic and constitutional system?) Science, 148: 743-749.

Ramparts. 1970. ECO-CATASTROPHE. New York: Harper &Row. $3.95. Reich, Charles A.1970. THE GREENING OF AMERICA. New York: Random House. $7.95.

Rienow, Robert and Leona T. Rienow. 1967. MOMENT IN THESUN. New York: Ballantine. $0.95.

Roche, M. 1963. "The humanities in the scientific curriculum." Science, 141: 1199-1203.

Roe, Anne. 1953. THE MAKING OF A SCIENTIST. New York:Dodd, Mead. $1.75.

Rosenfeld, A.1969. THE SECOND GENESIS: THE COMING CONTROL OFLIFE. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. The incrediblepossibilities inherent in current biomedical exploration and attemptsto predict the consequences. How man's new biotechnological environment will havean enormous impact on the very fundamentals of religion, philosophy,law, sex, morality, and our daily life.

Roszak, Theodore. 1969. THE MAKING OF A COUNTERCULTURE. Garden City, New York: Doubleday Anchor. $1.95.

346.7. 4-14

Santmire, H. Paul. 1970. BROTHER EARTH. Camden, New Jersey: Thomas Nelson Pu'Aishers. $4.95. A reconciliation of religious views of God, man, and nature.

Savage, Henry J.1970. LOST HERITAGE. New York: William Morrow. America through the eyes of some 18th- and 19th-cennry naturalists, and a final 20th-century essay, "Man and Nature."

Sax, Joseph L. 1971. DEFENDING THE ENVIRONMENT. A STRATEGY OF CITIZEN ACTION. New York: Alfred Knopf. $6.95. An important book by an environmental action advocate.

Scientific American. The entire September 1963 issue is devoted to "Technology."

Scientific American. The entire September 1970 issue is devoted to "Environment." Skinner, B. F. 1948. WALDEN TWO. New York: Macmillan. $6.95.

Smith, Frank E. 1966. POLITICS OF CONSERVATION. New York: Pantheon. $5.95.

Snow, C. P. 1963. THE TWO CULTURES: AND A SECOND LOOK. New York: Mentor. $0.75. Communication problems between scientists and men of arts and letters. Snyder, Gary. 1969. EARTH HOUSEHOLD. New York: New Directions. $1.45.

Snyder, Gary. 1968. THE BACK COUNTRY. New York: New Directions. $1.45.

Starr, C, 1969."Social Benefits versus Technological Risk." Science, 165: 1232-1238.

Stewart, George R. 1968. NO SO RICH AS YOU MINK. Boston: Houghton- Mifflin. $5.00.

Stone, Glenn C. 1971. A NEW ETHIC FOR A NEW EARTH. New York: Friend- ship Press. $1.95. A collection of papers on environmental ethics presented to the Faith-Man-Nature group.

Taylor, G. R. 1968. THE BIOLOGICAL TIME BOMB. New York: World Publishing Company. $5.50. Genetic engineering, sex, psychology, and death.

Taylor, G. R. 1970. THE DOOMSDAY BOOK. New York: World Publishing Company. $7.95.

Thoreau, Henry David.1961. A WEEK ON THE CONCORD AND MERRIMACK RIVERS. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin. $1.95.

347, , 4-15

Thoreau, Henry David. 1960. WALDEN. New York: Signet. $0.95.Also contains selected poems and "Civil Disobedience."

Toff ler, Alvin. 1970. FUTURE SHOCK. New York: Bantam.$1.95.

Turner, Frederick J.1963. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FRONTIER LN AMERICAN HISTORY. New York: Frederic Ungar PublishingCompany. $0.95.

Udall, Stewart L.1968. 1976 AGENDA FOR TOMORROW. New York: Harcourt. $3.75.

Udall, Stewart L.1963. THE QUIET CRISIS. New York: Avon. $0.95. Traces the historical views of the natural environment in the UnitedStates.

U.S. President. 1970. ECONOMIC REPORT TO THE PRESIDENT.Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. $1.50.

U.S. President. 1971. ECONOMIC REPORT TO THE PRESIDENT.Trans- mitted to the Congress, February 1971. Washington, D.C.: U.S.Govern- ment Printing Office.$1.50.

U.S. White House. 1970. MESSAGE ON ENVIRONMENT. 91stCongress. 2nd Session. (House Document 91-225.) Washington, D.C.: U.S.Govern- ment Printing Office.

Wagar, J. Alan. 1970. "Growth versus the Quality of Life." Science, 163: 1179-1184.

Waters, Frank. 1966. THE WOMAN AT OTTOWI CROSSING.Denver, Colorado: Alan Swallow Publisher. $4.95. A fictionalizedaccount of the development of the atomic bomb.

White, L., Jr. 1967. "The Historical Roots of Our Ecological Crisis."Science, 155: 1203-1207. Award-winning and classicpaper. He relates the roots of the crisis to our Judeo-Christian ethics.

Whitman, Walt. 1960. LEAVES OF GRASS. New York: Signet.$0.75. Some poems on the Ainerican scene and character.

WHOLE EARTH CATALOG. Menlo Park, California: Porto lo Institute.$5.00. Wiener, Anthony J. and Herman Kahn.1967. Excerpts from "The Year 2000." Natural History, November: 10-18.

Williams, Roger J.1969. "Heredity, Human Understanding, and Civilization." American Scientist, 57: 237 -243. 4-16

Wolf le, D. 1965. "The Support of Science in the U.S." Scientific American, July: 19-25.

H. POPULATION AND SOCIETY

A. Population

Applebaum, Philip.1966. THE SILENT EXPLOSION. Boston: Beacon Press. $1.95. Berri 11, N. J. et al.1968. "The Child." Saturday Review, December 7: 71-88. A series of articles on the parental right to bear children and the child's right to a normal life.

Bates, Marston. 1955. THE PREVALENCE OF PEOPLE. New York: Scribner's. On the numbers of man; human reproduction and its control; war, famine, and disease; postponement of death; eugenics, etc. Davis, Kingsley. 1963. "Population." Scientific American, September: 62-71. Deevey, Edward S., Jr. 1960. "The Human Population." Scientific American, September. An ecologist's view of the world's population problems.

Ehrlich, Paul R. 1968. THE POPULATION BOMB. New York: Ballantine. Over- population is the dominant problem in all our personal, national, and international planning. An account of the many dimensions of the crisis--air, food, water, birth control, death control, our total environment.It provides a realistic evaluation of the remaining options. $2.95.

Fabre-Luce, Alfred.1965. MEN OR INSECTS? A STUDY OF POPULATION PROBLEMS. New York: Horizon. $5.00.

Fisher, Tadd.1969. OUR OVERCROWDED WORLD. New York: Parent's Maga- zine Press. $4.50.

Ford, Thomas R. and Gordon F. deJong. Editors. 1970. SOCIAL DEMOGRAPHY. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. A valuable anthology.

Guttmacher, A. F. 1966. THE COMPLETE BOOK OF BIRTH CONTROL. New York: Ballantine. Discusses all presently used methods of birth control.

Hardin, Garrett. 1970. BIRTH CONTROL. New York: Pegasus (A Biological Sciences Curriculum Study Book).

Hardin, Garrett. 1969. POPULATION, EVOLUTION, AND BIRTH CONTROL. A COLLAGE OF CONTROVERSIAL IDEAS. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman. $6.00, $2.95. Readings from various authors, 123 essays, an excellent source. 4-17

Hauser, Philip M. 1963. THE POPULATION DILEMMA.Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

Havemann, E. 1967. BIRTH CONTROL. Chicago:Time-Life Books. This book presents in explicit detail by word and picture thebasic physiologic mechanisms involved in conception. A good discussion ofthe history and practices of conception control appearscontraception,abortion, and sterilization. Much valuable information is givenon the modern contraceptive techniques, sufficient to guide couples in therational choice of a method.

Hugh Moore Fund. FAMINE STALKS THE EARTH... THE POPULATION BOMB KEEPS TICKING. 60 East 42nd Street, New York,New York 10017. Free booklet. Compares population, birth and deathrates, the possibility of increasing food production, means of loweringthe birth rate.

Hulett, H. R. 1970. "Optimum World Population."Bioscience, 20: 160-161. About one billion human beings.

Malthus, Thomas, Julian Huxley, and FrederickOsborn. 1960. ON POPULATION: THREE ESSAYS. New York: Mentor. $0.60. Classicessays, still with contemporary importance.

POPULATION BULLETIN. Washmgton, D.C.:Population Reference Bureau, Inc. The Population Reference Bureau isa public service organization devoted to a broad program of education on population trends andproblems.The PRB does not attempt to influence legislationregarding birth control. Annually revised demographic data forthe world on one large chart.

Rock, J.1963. THE TIME HAS COME. New York:Alfred Knopf. The author is a Roman Catholic gynecologist who helped developthe first oral contraceptive pill.He presents a realistic position forany human--regardless of church affiliation--regarding birth control andthe population explosion. THE WORLD POPULATION DILEMMA.1970. Washington, D.C.: Columbia Books. Tietze, C. and S. Lewit. 1969."Abnrtion." Scientific Ainerican, January: 21-27. United Nations. STATISTICAL YEARBOOK. NewYork: United Nations. Issued every year.Includes a large section on population.

U.S. Bureau of the Census. STATISTICAL ABSTRACTOF THE UNITED STATES. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.$5.75. Issued annually. Many statistics on population. Data for earlieryears can be found in HISTORI- CAL STATISTICS OF THE UNITED STATES, COLONIALTIMES TO 1957 ($6.00) and CONTINUATION TO 1962 ANDREVISIONS ($1.50).

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B. Food Production

Bernarde, Melvin A.1968. RACE AGAINST FAMINE. New York: Macre.e. $4.75.

Boerma, Addeke H.1970. "A World Agricultural Plan." Scientific American, August: 54-69. The Food and Agriculaire Organization of the United Nations has developed a plan on food production and population growth.

Borgstrom, Georg.1967. THE HUNGRY PLANET. New York: Collier.$7.95, $2.95.

Borgstrom, Georg.1969. TOO MANY: THE BIOLOGICAL LIMITATIONS OF OUR EARTH. New York: Macmillan.$7.95.

Braidwood, R. J.1960."The agricultural revoluttm " Scientific American, September: 130-148. The domestication of animals and plants by early man.

Champagnat, A. 1965."Protein from petroleum. " Scientific American, October: 13-17.

Darlington, C. D.1970. "The Origins of Agriculture." Natural History, May: 46-57.

Dumont, Rene and Bernard Roseir.1969. THE HUNGRY FUTURE. (Translated by Rosamund :Linen and R. Sutcliffe. ) New York: Praeger.$6.95.

Heady, Earl 0.1968. A PRIMER ON FOOD, AGRICULTURE AND PUBLIC POLICY. New York: Random House. $4.95, $1.95.

Helfman, Elizabeth S.1970. MIS HUNGRY WORLD. New York: Lothrop, Lee and Shepard.$4.50. Divided worldhunger versus plenty; meaning of hunger; importance of food; population problem--food supply; new foods; hope for peace through providing for hungry, controlling population Increase.

Holt, S. J.1969."Food resources of the ocean." Scientific American, September: 178-194.

Kotz, Nick.1970. LET THEM EAT PROMISES: THE POLITICS OF HUNGER IN AMERICA. With an introduction by Senator George S. McGovern. New York: Prentice-Hall. $6.95.

Paddock, W. and P. Paddock.1967. FAMINE 19751 New York: Little, Brown and Co. An agronomist and a State Department official present a realistic role of the U. S. in times of the inevitable world famine.

Paddock, William C.1970."How Green Is the Green Revolution?" Bioscience, 20: 897-902.It's fading.

351 4-19

Pirie, N. W. 1967. "Orthodox and Unorthodox Methods of Meetbg World Food Needs." Scientific American, February: 27-35.

Wharton, C. R. 1969. "The Green Revolution: Cornucopia or Pandora's Box?" Foreign Affairs, 47: 464-476. A summary of the economic and social consequences of the Green Revolution.

C. Cities

Abrams, Charles. 1965. THE CITY IS THE FRONTIER. New York: Harper & Row. $1.95. A survey of urban problems. Adams, R. M. 1960) "The Origin of Cities." Scientific American, September: 153-168.

Arbital, Samuel L. 1967. CITIES AND METROPOLITAN AREAS. Washington, D.C.: Creative Educational Society. $5.95.

Congressional Quarterly. 1969. URBAN ENVIRONMENT. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly, Incorporated. $3.95. The promise and problems of the megalopolis.

Glaab, C. N. and A. T. Brown. 1967. A HISTORY OF URBAN AMERICA. Toronto: MacMillan.

Herber, L. 1968. CRISIS IN OUR CITIES. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Describes the negative aspects of the urban environment.

Hirsch, Carl S.1968. CITIES ARE PEOPLE. New York: Viking. $4.53. Good introduction to the complexity of the city.

Isenberg, Irwin.Editor. 1968. THE CITY IN CRISIS. New York: H. W. Wilson. $3.50. A collection of articles, particularly valuable for use in the classroom.

Liston, Robert A. 1968. DOWNTOWN: OUR CHALLENGING URBAN PROBLEMS. New York: Delacorte.$4.50.

McQuade, Walter. 1971. CITIES FIT TO LIVE IN. New York: MacNutton. $3.50. Urban problems, social and natural.

Mumford, Lewis. 1961. THE CITY IN HISTORY: ITS ORIGINS, ITS TRANSFOR- MATIONS, AND ITS PROSPECTS. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World. $4.95. A fine source book, with an extensive bbliography.

Pell, Clathorne. 1966. MEGALOPOLIS UNBOUND: THE SUPER CITY AND THE TRANSPORTATION OF TOMORROW. New York: Praeger. $6.95. 352 4-20

Scientific American. The entire September 1965 issue is devoted to "Cities."

D. Social Problems

Allport, Gordon W. 1954. THE NATURE OF PREJUDICE. Reading, Massachu- setts: Addison-Wesley.

Ardrey, Robert.1966. THE TERRITORIAL IMPERATIVE. New York: Dell. $2.45. An excellent sourcr on aninial and human behavior.

Bodmer, Walter F. and Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza. 1970. "Intelligence and Race." Sc4entific American, October: 19-29.

Bixby, William. 1968. OF ANIMALS AND MEN: A COMPARISON OF HUMAN AND ANIMAL BEHAVIOR. New York: McKay. $3.95.

Brophy, William A. and Sophie D. Aberle.1966. THE INDIAN. AMERICA'S UNFINISHED BUSINESS. (Report of the Commission on the Rights, Liberties, and Responsibilities of the American Indian.) Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.

Brown, Dee. 1970. BURY MY HEART AT WOUNDED KNEE. New York: Holt, Rinehart, Winston. $10.95. How the West was lost, or more properly, stolen. Calder, Nigel. 1968. UNLESS PEACE COMES. New York: Viking Press. $5.75.

Clarke. Robin. 1968. THE SILENT WEAPONS. New York: David McKay. $4.95. Chemical and biological warfare.

Cleaver, Eldridge.1970. SOUL ON ICE. New York: Dell.$0.95.

Commager, Henry Steele.1971. "The Roots of Lawlessness." Saturday Review, '.7ebruary 13:17-. Congressional Quarterly. 1971. CIVIL RIGHTS. Washington, D.C.: Congres- sional Quarterly, Incorporated. $4.00. A comprehensive summary of public and private actions in the field in the late Sixties.

Converse, Philip E. and Howard Schuman. 1970. "Silent Majorities' and the Vietnam War." Scientific American, June: 17-25.

Douglas, William 0. 1970. POINTS OF REBELLION. New York: Random House.

Eisenberg, Leon.1970."Student Unrest: Sources and Consequences." Science, 167: 1688-1692.

353 frtit 4-21

Fortas, Abe. 1968. CONCERNING DISSENT AND CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE. New York: Signet Books. $0.50.

Frank, Jerome D. 1967. SANITY AND SURVIVAL. New York: Vintage Books. War and peace, and the psychology of each.

Goodman, Paul.1969. "The New Reformation." New York Times Magazine, September 14. On the "Generation Gap."

Green, Robert L. Editor.1969. RACIAL CRISIS IN AMERICAN EDUCATION. Chicago: Follett Educational Corporation. The oppressed community, the urban school, the curriculum, the leadership for change, etc.

Hagen, W. T. 1961. AMERICAN INDIANS. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. $4.50. The cultural differences between Indians and Anglos.

Howe, Harold and others.1970. RACISM AND AMERICAN EDUCATION. A DIALOGUE AND AGENDA FOR ACTION. New York: Harper & Row (Urban Affairs Series). $5.95.

Ingle, Dwight J.1964. "Racial Differences and the Future." Science, 146: 375-379. Jensen, Arthur R. and others. 1969. ENVIRONMENT, HEREDITY, AND INTELLIGENCE. Cambridge: Harvard Educational Review. Reprint Series No. 2. $4.95. The article and the reactions to it.

Kahn, Herman. 1969. THINKING ABOUT THE UNTHINKABLE. New York: Avon. $1.25. The "unthinkable" being wars of massive destruction.

Levine, Seymour. 1971."Stress and Behavior." Scientific American, January: 26-31.

Malcolm X and Alex Haley. Editor. 1965. THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF MALCOLM X. New York: Grove Press. $7.50, $1.25.

McClintock, Michael and others. 1970. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF WEAPONS TECHNOLOGY. New York: Scientists' Lnstitute for Public Infor- mation. $1.00.

Mead, Margaret et al. Editors. 1968. SCIENCE AND THE CONCEPT OF RACE. New York: Columbia University Press. $2.50.

Mill, John Stuart and Harriet Taylor Mill. 1970. ESSAYS ON SEX EQUALITY. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. $8.75, $1.95. Severalessays from ON LIBERTY and other works, edited by Alice S. Rossi.

,354 4-22

Montagu, M. F. A. Editor. 1968. MAN AND AGGRESSION. New York: Oxford University Press. $1.95.

Morris, D.1968. THE NAKED APE. New York: McGraw-Hill. $5.95.

National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, 1968 REPORT. New York: Bantam Books. $1.25. Also known as "Kerner Report."

Scoville, Herbert, Jr. and Robert Osborn. 1970. MISSILE MADNESS. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin. $4.95.

Scoville, Herbert J.1971. "The Limitation of Offensive Weapons." Scientific American, January: 15-25.

Simpson, G. E. and J. M. Yinger.1965. RACIAL AND CULTURAL MINORITIES. New York: Harper & Row.

Stokes, Allen W. and Lois M. Cox. 1970. "Aggressive Man and Aggressive Beast." Bioscience, 20: 1092-1095.

Taylor, Telford.1970. NUREMBERG AND VIETNAM: AN AMERICAN TRAGEDY. New York: Quadrangle Books. $5.95, $1.95. The author was the U.S. Chief Counsel at the World War II war criminal trials in Nuremberg.

United Nations. 1970. BASIC PROBLEMS OF DISARMAMENT. New York: United Nations Publications. $5.00, $2.50.

York, Herbert F.1970. RACE TO OBLIVION. A PARTICIPANT'S VIEW OF THE ARMS RACE. New York: Simon and Schuster. $6.95. By an Involved letter.

E. Aesthetic Problems

A GUIDE TO NATURAL BEAUTY. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.$0.35. Suggestions for building and preserving natural beauty in the community and countryside.

Albess, V. M. 1970. THE WORLD OF SOUND. Cranbu7y, New Jersey: A. S. Bornes Company. $5.95. A ncntechnical guide to the science of acoustics.

Bachelard, Gaston. 1969. THE POETICS OF SPACE. Boston: Beacon Press.

Baron, Robert Alex. 1970. THE TYRANNY OF NOISE. New York: St. Martin's Press.Introduction to noise; price of noise; acoustic anarchy; design for quiet.

355 4-23

Beranek, L. L. 1966. "Noise." Scientific American, December: 66-76.

Doker, Richard P.1969. ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN. New York: Van Nostrand, Rienhold.

Gropius, Walter. 1962. SCOPE OF TOTAL ARCHITECTURE.New York: Collier.

Hohenemser, Kurt H. 1970. "Onward and Upward." Environment,May: 22-27. Deals with the SST.

Kepes, Gyorgy. Editor.1965. STRUCTURE N ART AND SCIENCE. New York: George Brazil ler. $12.50.Relates art forms and design to the natural world. Pictures and essays.

Kepes, Gyorgy. Editor.1965. THE NEW LANDSCAPE IN ART AND SCIENCE. Chicago: Paul Theobald and Company. $18.50. Photos of naturalart forms and essays.

Maytham, Thomas N. 1971. GREAT AMERICAN PAINTINGS.New York: Viking Press. $12.50.

Navarra, John Gabriel. 1969. OUR NOISY WORLD:THE PROBLEMS OF NOISE POLLUTION. New York: Doubleday.

Osborne, Harold. 1970. THE OXFORD COMPANIONTO ART. Oxford: Claren- don Press. (Edited 1970.) $25.00.

Papageorgiou, Alexander.1970. CONTINUITY AND CHANGE. New York: Praeger. $29.00. On preservation in city planning.

Perin, Constance. 1970. WITH MAN IN MIND: ANINTERDISCIPLINARY PROS- PECTUS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN. Cambridge,Massachusetts: MIT Press. $7.50.We must remember we are making products forman to use, feel, see, smell, hear, etc.

Pothorn, Herbert. 1971. ARCHITECTURAL STYLES.New York: Viking. $7.95. A history of architectural technical change.

Rudofsky, B.1969. ARCHITECTURE WITHOUT ARCHITECTS.New York: Doubleday. $3.95.

Ruskin, Ariane. 1964. THE PANTHEON STORY OF ART.New York: Pantheon. $6.95.

Safdie, Moshe. 1970. BEYOND HABITAT. Cambridge,Massachusetts: MIT Press. $10.00.Radical designs for environmental planning by theman who designed habitat at Expo '67.

336 4-24

Sandstrom, Gosta E. 1970. MAN THE BUILDER. NewYork: McGraw-Hill. $17.50. Historical study of all man's endeavors inbuilding: houses, bridges, ships, etc. Sinclair, Sam Baker and Natalie Baker. 1969.INTRODUCTION TO ART. New York: Harry N. Abrams Inc., Publishers.$15.00.

Soleri, Paolo.1971. VISIONARY CITIES. New York: Praeger.$25.00. A very contempoi-ry book on theurban environment.

Still, Henry.1970. IN QUEST OF QUIET.MEETING THE MENACE OF NOISE POLLUTION. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole. $6.95.

Williams, Henry Lionel and Ottalie K. Williams. 1970. ATREASURY OF GREAT AMERICAN HOUSES. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons.$20.00.

Wright, Frank Lloyd.1954. THE NATURAL HOUSE. New York: Horizon. 4-25

III.NATURAL RESOURCES--Conservation, Use, Pollution

A. General, Energy Use, and Pesticides

Abelson, Philip H. 1970."Pollution by Organic Chemicals." Science, 170: 495. An editorial discussing the effects of Dioxin, a contaminate of 2,4,5-T.

Abrahamson, Dean E. 1970. ENVIRONMENTAL COST OF ELECTRIC POWER. New York: Scientists' Institute for Public Information. $1.00.

Anderson, Edgar.1967. PLANTS, MAN, AND LIFE. Berkeley: University of California Press. $6.50.

Aylesworth, Thomas G. 1968. THIS VITAL AIR, THIS VITAL WATER: MAN'S ENVIRONMENTAL CRISIS. New York: Rand McNally. $4.95.

Audubon, John James. "Delineations of American Scenery and Character." New York: THE NEW YORK TIMES through Arno Press. $16.00.

Boffey, Philip M. 1961."Herbicides in Vietnam: AAAS Study Finds Widespread Devastation." Science, 171: 43-47.

Bossel, Hartmut H. 1970. SOLID WASTE: PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS. Santa Barbara: Mechanical Engineering Department, University of California. Surveys the solid waste problem in the United States and other advanced societies. Discusses present methods of solid waste disposal and the necessity of developing methods of waste reduction and conversion.

Carson, Rachel L.1962. THE SILENT SPRING. New York: Crest Fawcett World. $0.75. The danger of pesticides described in a forceful manner.

Chow, Tsaihaw J.and John L. Earl.1970. "Lead Aerosols in the Atmosphere: Increasing Concentrations." Science, 169: 577-580. Cooper, C. F. 1961. "The Ecology of Fire." Scientific American, April: 150-151.

Curtis R. and E. Hogan. 1969. PERILS OF THE PEACEFUL ATOM: THE, MYTH OF SAFE NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS. New York: Doubleday and Company. $5.95. Summary of the danger in today's headlong rush to use nuclear energy to produce electrical power and, in particular, radioactive hazards. Feiss, Julian W. 1963. "Minerals." Scientific American, 209: 128-136.

Goodwin, Richard H. 1967. "The Future Role of the Biologist in Protecting Our Natural Resources." Bioscience,17: 161-165.

358 4-26

Goldman, Marshall I.Editor.1967. CONTROLLING POLLUTION: THE ECO- NOMICS OF A CLEANER AMERICA. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. $1.95. Graham, Frank, Jr. 1970. SINCE SILENT SPRING. New York: Houghton-Mifflin. $6.95. Green, L., Jr.1967. "Energy Needs versus Environmental Pollution. A Recon- ciliation?" Science, 156: 1448-1450.

Grinstead, Robert B.1970. "The New Resource." Environment, December: 2-17. Recycling solid wastes.

Hammond, Allen L. 1971. "Mercury in the Environment: Natural and Human Factors." Science, 171: 788-789. Hibbard, W. R., Jr. 1968. "Mineral Resources: Challenge or Threat?" Science, 160: 143-149.

Holcomb, Robert W. 1970."Insect Control: Alternatives to the Use of Pesticides." Science, 168: 456-458. Hutchinson, G. Evelyn. 1970. "The Biosphere." Scientific American, September: 44-53.

Kardox, Louis T.1970."A New Prospect." Environment, March: 10-21, 27. Use of sewage for fertilizer.

Lansberg, Hans H. 1964. NATURAL RESOURCES FOR U.S. GROWTH: A LOOK AHEAD TO THE YEAR 2000. (Abridged Edition.) Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. $2.45. Laycock, George.1970. THE DILIGENT DESTROYERS. New York: Doubleday. $5.95. A critical look at the industries and agencies that are permanently defacing the American landscape.

Leinwald, Gerald.Editor. 1969. AIR AND WATER POLLUTION. New York: Washington Square Press (Problems of American Society Series). $0.75. Origins of air and water pollution and its effects on life; why there is a problem; what to do.

Perry, John.1967. OUR POLLUTED WORLD: CAN MAN SURVIVE? New York: Watts. $4.95.

President's Council on Recreation and Natural Beauty.1968. FROM SEA TO SHINING SEA: A REPORT ON THE AMERICAN ENVIRONMENTOUR NATIONAL HERITAGE. Washington; D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. $2.50. Outline of environmental improvement programs since 1965 and present proposals to stimulate action. Extensive bthliography included. 4-27

President's Science Advisory Committee, the Environmental PollutionPanel. RESTORING THE QUALITY OF OUR ENVIRONMENT. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. $1.25.

Rudd, Robert L. 1966. PESTICIDES AND THE LIVING LANDSCAPE. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. The best compilation of pesticide information to date for the nonspecialist. The categories of pesticidesare examined for their effects on particular forms of life. Well-documentedcase studies of the most troublesome pest-pesticide problemsare presented.

Sax, Joseph L.1961. DEFENDING THE ENVIRONMENT. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. $6.95. An expert on environmental law makes clear why itis necessary and possible for citizens to reassert their right to determine the fate of their own environment. He demonstrates how thiscan be done by carrying the battle into the courtrooms of the nation and restoring democracyto environmental disputes.

Scientific American. 1970. "The Biosphere." The September issue's 11articles: general, energy, water, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, mineral cycles, food,etc. Sierra Club Exhibit Format Series. San Francisco: Sierra Club. New York: baliautine. A (lams, Ansel and Nancy Newhall. THIS IS THE AMERICAN EARTH. $3.95. Caulfield, Patricia. EVERGLADES. $3.95. Hornbein, Thomas. EVEREST: THE WEST RIDGE. $3.95. Kauffman, Richard. GENTLE WILDERNESS: THE SIERRA NEVADA. $3.95. Koreber, Theodora and Robert F. Heizer. ALMOST ANCESTORS: THE FIRST CALIFORNIANS. $3.95. Leydet, Francois and James D. Rose. THE LAST REDWOODS AND THE PARKLAND OF REDWOOD CREEK. $3.95. Leydet, Francois. TIME AND THE RIVER FLOWING: GRAND CANYON. $3.95. Porter, Eliot. IN THE WILDERNESS IS THE PRESERVATION OF THE WORLD. $3.95.

Smith, Guy-Harold. Editor. 1971. CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES (4th Edition). New York: John Wiley. Articles by 22 authoritieson conservation, soil, air, water, minerals, forests, wildlife, recreation, city planning, pollution, and national planning.

U.S. Department of Agriculture. Edited by. Jack Hayes. 1967. OUTDOORSU.S.A. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.$2.75.

U.S. Department of Agriculture.1967. SOIL, WATER AND SUBURBIA. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. $1.00. Report ofa conference on suburbs sponsored by the Department of Agriculture and Department of Housing and Urban Development.

360 4-28

U.S. Department of Agriculture.1968. SCIENCE FOR BETTER LIVING. Year- book of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.$3.00.

U.S. Congress, Joint Economic Committee. 1970. THE ECONOMY, ENERGY, AND THE ENVIRONMENT. Washington, D.C.: Legislative Reference Service, Library of Congress. A background study whichsurveys the existing literature on various technical aspects of electric power production, with primary emphasis on the supply of the various fuels used in the production of electricity and on the environment consequences of energy conversion.

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY (#38). Farm animals, poultry, and dairying. FISH AND WILDLIFE (#21). FORESTRY (#43). Managing and using forest and range land, including timber and lumber, ranges and grazing, American woods. INSECTS (#41). Worms and insects harmful to man, animals, and plants. IRRIGATION, DRAINAGE, AND WATER POWER (#42). NATIONAL PARKS (#35).Historic sites, national monuments. OCCUPATIONS (#33A). Professions and job descriptions. PLANTS (#44). Culture, grading, marketing, and storage of fruits,vegetables, grass, and grain. SOILS AND FERTILIZERS (#46). Soil surveys, erosion, conservation.

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR CONSERVATION YEARBOOKS. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. No. 1. QUEST FOR QUALITY. 1965. $1.00. No. 2. THE POPULATION CHALLENGE: WHAT IT MEANS TO AMERICANS. 1966. $1.25. No. 3. THE THIRD WAVE: AMERICA'S NEW CONSERVATION. 1967. $2.00. No. 4. MAN: AN ENDANGERED SPECIES. 1968. $1.50. No. 5. IT'S YOUR WORLD: THE GRASSROOTS CONSERVATION STORY. 1969. $2.00. No. 6. RIVER OF LIFE, WATER: THE ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGE. 1970. $2.00. No. 7. OUR LIVING LAND. 1971. $2.00. All are excellent, with full-color photographs and fine accompanyingessays.

Ward, M. A. Editor. 1970. MAN AND HIS ENVIRONMENT. VOLUME I.New York: Pergamon Press. Water, air, and solid waste pollution.

White House Conference on Natural Beauty.1965. BEAUTY FOR AMERICA. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. $2.75. Topics included: parks and open spaces, water and waterfronts, suburbia,farm landscapes and highways, and related problems. 4-29

Woodwell, George M. 1970."Effects of Pollution on the Structure and Physiology of Ecosystems." Science, 168: 429-433.

Woodwell, George M. 1967."Radiation and the Patterns of Nature." Science, 156: 461-470.

Woodwell, George M. 1963. "The Ecological Effects of Radiation."Scientific American, June: 40-49.

Woodwell, George M. 1970. "The Energy Cycle of the Biosphere."Scientific American, September: 64-74.

Woodwell, George M. 1967. "Toxic Substances andEcological Cycles." Scientific American, 216:--. An excellent summary.

B. Land

Allen, Durward L. 1967. THE LIFE OF PRAIRIES AND PLAINS.New York: McGraw-Hill (Our Living World of Nature Series). $4.95.

Blake, Peter.1964. GOD'S OWN JUNKYARD: THE PLANNEDDETERIORATION OF AMERICA'S LANDSCAPE. New York: Holt. $4.50,$2.95.

Brooks, Maurice. 1967. THE LIFE OF THE MOUNTAINS.New York: McGraw- Hill (Our Living World of Nature Series). $4.95.

CAMPGROUND AND TRAILER PARK GUIDE. 1971.New York: Rand McNally. $4.95.

Cannon, Julie.1970. "Timber Supply Act. Anatomy ofa Battle." Sierra Club Bulletin, March: 8-11.

Carter, Luther J. 1970. "Timber Management:Improvement Implies New Land- Use Policies." Science, 170: 1387-1390.

Jepsen, Stanley M. 1969. TREES AND FORESTS.New York: Barnes. $6.95.

Judson, Sheldon. 1968. "Erosion of the LandOr What'sHappening to Our Continents?" American Scientist, 56: 356-374.

Leavitt, Helen. 1970. SUPERHIGHWAYSUPERHOAX.New York: Ballantine. $0.95, A critical study of what the highwaysare doing to urban and rural areas.

May, Julian.1968. THE BIG ISLAND. (Illustrated by JohnSchoenherr.) New York: Follett. $3.95.

362 4-30

McCormick, Jack. 1966. THE LIFE OF THE FOREST. New York: McGraw- Hill (Our Living World of Nature Series). $4.95.

Momaday, N. Scott. 1970. "An American Land Ethic." Sierra Club Bulletin, February: 8-11.

Rodale, Robert.Editor. 1970. THE BASIC BOOK OF ORGANIC GARDENING. New York: Ballantine. $1.25.

Sears, Paul B. 1966. THE LIVING LANDSCAPE. New York: Basic. $4.95.

THE PUBLIC'S LAND--OUR HERITAGE AND OPPORTUNITY. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. Summary of public land management.

Watkins, T. H. 1969. THE GRAND CANYON. American West Publishing Company. $15.00.

C. Water

A PRIMER ON WASTE WATER TREATMENT. 1969. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. $0.55. Basic techniques of converting waste water to usable water for drinking and industrial problems.

Amos, William H. 1967. THE LIFE OF THE POND. New York: McGraw-Hill (Our Living World of Nature Series). $4.95.

Bardach, John. 1964. DOWNSTREAM: THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE RIVER FROM ITS SOURCE TO THE SEA. New York: Grosset & Dunlop. $2.95.

Berg, George C.1970. WATER POLLUTION. New York: Scientists' Institute for Public Information. $1.00.

Berri 11, Norman J.1966. LIFE OF THE OCEAN. New York: McGraw-Hill (Our Living World of Nature Series). $4.95.

Bradley, C. C. 1962. "Human Water Needs and Water Use in America." Science, 138: 489-491. Briggs, Peter. 1957 WATER: THE VITAL ESSENCE. New York: Harper & Row. $5.95.

Carr, Donald. 1966. DEATH OF SWEET WATERS. New York: Norton. $5.95. (See also "The Death of Sweet Waters. The Politics of Pollution." Atlantic, May 1966: 93-106.)

Carson, Rachel.1961. THE SEA AROUND US. New York: Signet. $0.95.

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Clark, John R. 1969. "Thermal Pollution and Aquatic Life." Scientific American, March: 18-27.

Cornwell, John. 1971."Is the Mediterranean Dying?" New York Times Magazine, February 21.

FRESH WATER--THE PRECIOUS RESOURCE. 1969. New 'York: Natural History Press (Nature and Science Library). $5.95. Properties, uses, and distribution of water. Informative, instructional.

Fonselius, Stig H. 1970. "Stagnant Sea." Environment, July-August: 2-11, 40- 48. Pollution on the Baltic Sea.

Graham, Frank J.1966. DISASTER BY DEFAULT: POLITICS AND WATER POLLUTION. New York: Evans. $5.95.

Grava, Sigurd. 1969. URBAN PLANNING ASPECTS OF WATER POLLUTION CONTROL. New York: Columbia University Press. Analyzes water pollution control measures and the "problem of waste disposal as it imposes a constraint on the policy choices available to the urban planner. "

Gruchow, Nancy. 1970. "Detergents: Side Effects of the Washday Miracles." Science, 167: 151-. The use of bacterial enzymes in detergents.

Helfman, Elizabeth. 1965. RIVERS AND WATER SHEDS IN AMERICA'S FUTURE. New York: McKay. $4.95.

Hennigan, Robert D. 1969. "Water Pollution." Bioscience, 19: 976-978.

Izaak Walton League of America. CLEAN WATER: IT'S UP TO YOU. Glenview, Illinois: Izaak Walton League of America. Background on pollution laws, water quality standards, enforcement of the standards, action to be taken by individual citizens. Checklists of agencies and organizations concerned with pollution.

Idyll, C. P.Editor. 1969. EXPLORING THE OCEAN WORLD. New York: T. Y. Crowell Company. $14.95. Thorough view of oceanography.

Leopold, Luna B. and K. S. Davis. 1966. WATER. New York: Time-Life Publications. $4.95. Outstanding pictorial coverage.

Marx, Wesley. 1967. THE FRAIL OCEAN. New York: Ballantine. $5.95, $0.95.

Maxwell, John C. 1965. "Will There Be Enough Water?" American Scientist, 53: 97-103.

McCaull, Julian. 1970. "Who Owns the Water?" Environment, October: 30-39. Legal problems of water management.

364. 4-32

McKee, Alexander. 1969. FARMING THE SEA. New York: Crowell. $6.95.

Nace, Raymond L. 1964. "Water of the World." Natural History, January: 10-19.

Penman, H. L. 1970. "The Water Cycle." Scientific American, September: 99-108.

Platt, Rutherford. 1971. WATER--THE WONDER OF LIFE. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. $8.95.

Robinson, Carmelita K. and others.1967. LIFE IN A POND. Illustrated by Marjorie Hartwell. New York: Golden Press. $3.95.

Scientific American. 1969. The September issue is devoted to "Oceans."

Smith, Frances, C. 1969. THE FIRST BOOK OF SWAMPS AND MARSHES.New York: Watts. $2.95, $1.98.

U.S. GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS:

AMERICA'S SHAME--WATER POLLUTION. Washington, D.C.: U.S.Govern- ment Printing Office. Problems, progress, and what the individual can do to help.

ESTUARIESAMERICA'S MOST VULNERABLE FRONTIERS. 1970. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Gffice. Traces the historical background of wetlands draining in the United States and emphasizes theimportance of preserving remaining estuarine areas along the coastline.

Federal Water Quality Administration, U.S. Department of Interior. 1970. CLEAN WATER FOR THE 1970'S: A STATUS REPORT. Washington,D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. $1.70.

HEAT CAN HURT: BETTER WATER FOR AMERICA. 1969.Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. ESTUARIES.. CRADLES OR GRAVES? Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.1969. WATER QUALITY STANDARDS: BETTER WATER FOR AMERICA. 1969.Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. Briefstatements of the problem and the choices available.

President's Panel on Oil Spills. 1969. FIRST REPORT, THEOIL SPILL PROBLEM. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. $0.35. Discusses the oil spill problem, gives recommendations for combatingand avoiding large oil spills.

365 ;7.1 4-33

U.S. Water Resources Council. 1968. NATION'S WATER RESOURCES. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. $4.25.

WHAT YOU CAN DO ABOUT WATER POLLUTION. 1957. Washington,D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. $0.15. Steps for the individualcitizen. Wurster, G. F., Jr. 1968. "DDT Reduces Photosynthesis by Marine Photo- plankton. Science, 158: 1474-1475. Paul Ehrlich feels thismay turn out to be one of the most important scientific papers of all time. Young, Gale. 1970. "Dry Lands and Desalted Waters." Science, 167: 339-343.

D. Air and Weather

Carr, Donald E. 1965. THE BREATH OF LIFE. New York: Norton.$4.95, $0.75.

Cloud, Preston and Abraham Gibor. 1970. "The Oxygen Cycle." Scientific American, Sep4p.mber: 110-123.

Craig, W. S. 1970. "Not a Question of Size." Environment, June: 2-5.On automobile exhaust.

Haagen-Smit, A. J. 1964. "The Control of Air Pollution." Scientific American, January: 24-31.

Maunder, W. J.1970. THE VALUE OF THE WEATHER. London: Methuen. New York: Barnes and Noble. $12.00, $6.50. The effects of weatheron our lives.

National Tuberculosis and Respiratory Disease Association. 1969. AIR POLLU TION PRIMER. New York: National Thberculosis and Respiratory Disease Association. $1.25.

Navarra, John G. and others.1968. WIDE WORLD WEATHER. New York: Doubleday. $3.95.

Newell, Reginald E. 1971. "The Global Circulation of Atmospheric Pollutants." Scientific American, January: 32-42.

U.S. Department of Commerce. 1967. THE AUTOMOBILE ANDAIR POLLUTION: A PROGRAM FOR PROGRESS. PART I. Reporton Panel on Electrically Powered Vehicles. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. $0.60.

U.S. Public Health Service.1968. HANDBOOK OF AIR POLLUTION. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. $2.25.

366 4-34

U.S. Public Health Service. 1966. NO LAUGHINGMATTER: THE CARTOONIST FOCUSES ON AIR POLLUTION. Washington, D.C.: U.S.Government Printing Office. $0.70. Sixty cartoons which haveappeared in the leading newspapers of the country.

Van Valen, L. 1971. "The History and Stability of AtmosphericOxygen." Science, 171: 439-443.

E. Wilderness and Wildlife

Adamson, Jon.1960. BORN FREE. New York: Bantam Books. $0.75.

AMERICAN ALPINE JOURNAL. New York: AmericanAlpine Club.$5.00. Separate books published annually.

Brower, David. 1961. WILDERNESS, AMERICA'S LIVINGHERITAGE. San Fran- cisco: Sierra Club.$5.75. 23 essays.

Butcher, Devereux.1969. EXPLORING OUR NATIONAL PARKS ANDMONUMENTS (6th Edition). Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.$8.95.

Carrington, Richard. GREAT NATIONAL PARKS OFTHE WORLD. New York: Random House. $20.00.

Crutchfield, James A. and Builio Pontecorvo. 1964.THE PACIFIC SALMON FISHERIES, A STUDY OF IRRATIONAL CONSERVATION.Baltimore: John Hopkins Press for Resources for the Future, Inc.$6.00. The Tragedy of the Commons at sea.

Ditmars, Raymond L. 1907-1936. THE REPTILES OFNORTH AMERICA. Garden City, New York: Doubleday and Company. $12.95.

Douglas, W. 0. 1965. A WILDERNESS BILL OF RIGHTS.Boston: Little, Brown. $1.95.

Farb, Peter.1964-1968. THE LAND AND WILDLIFE OF NORTHAMERICA (Life Nature Series). New York: Time-LifeBooks.$4.95. Land before settlers; build-up of coast; western deserts; mountainranges--foothills; eastern forests; grasslands; mountains; vanishing wilderness.Best as a reference, great deal of information.Excellent.

Fisher, James and others.1969. WILDLIFE IN DANGER. New York: Viking. $12.95.

Grinstead, Robert B.1969. "No Deposit--No Return." Environment,November: 17-23.Litter in nature. 4-35

Grossman, Mary Louise, S. Grossman, and J. H. Hamlet.1969. OUR VANISHING WILDERNESS. New York: Grosset and Dunlap. $14.95.Excellent illustrations.

Laycock, George. 1969. AMERICA'S ENDANGEREDWILDLIFE. New York: Norton. $4.95.

Laycock, George. 1969. WILD REFUGE. New York:Natural History Press. $3.50.

Leigh-Pemberton, John.1968. VANISHING WILD ANIMALS OF THEWORLD. New York: Franklin Watts. $7.95.

Martin, Paul S.1967."Pleistocene Overkill." Natural History,December: 32-38. A suggestion that man, not nature,was responsible for the extinction of many mammals in the Stone Age.

Matthiessen, Peter. 1959. WILDLIFE IN AMERICA.New York: Viking. $1.95.

McMillan, Ian.1968. MAN AND THE CALIFORNIA CONDOR.New York: Dutton. $5.95. The embattled history and uncertainfuture of North America's largest free-living bird.

Murphy, Robert.1968. WILD SANCTUARIES: OUR NATIONALWILDLIFE REFUGESA HERITAGE RESTORED. New York:Dutton. $22.50.

Nash, Roderick.1967. WILDERNESS AND THE AMERICANMIND. New Haven: Yale University Press. $6.50, $1.95. Thistraces the American ideas of environment and conservation through official and unofficialwritings.

National Geographic Society. 1966. AMERICA'SWONDERLANDS: THE SCENIC NATIONAL PARKS AND MONUMENTS OF THE UNITEDSTATES. Wash- ington, D.C.: National Geographic Society. $9.95.

Reader's Digest.1964. MARVELS AND MYSTERIES OFOUR ANIMAL WORLD. Pleasantville, New York. $12.95.

Sears, Paul B. 1968. LANDS BEYOND THE FOREST.Englewood Cliffs, 'New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.$7.95.

Schwartz, William. Editor. 1969. VOICES FORTHE WILDERNESS. New York: Ballantine.$1.25. Key papers from the Sierra Club WildernessConferences.

Simon, Noel M. and Paul Girondet. 1970. LASTSURVIVORS. New York: The World Publishing Company. $19.95. Natural historyof 48 animals in danger of extinction.

368 4-36

Taylor, Ron. 1971. SUBDIVIDING THE WILDERNESS. Sierra Club Bulletin, January: 4-9. Land developers and their operations.

Walcott, Francis et al.1970. REPORT OF THE WILDERNESS CLASSIFICATION STUDY COMMITTEE. Sierra Club Bulletin, November-December: 17-19. A report on the need, creation, and protection of wilderness areas.

369 4-37

IV. HEALTH AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

A. Physical and Mental Health

Dubos, Rene. 1965. MAN ADAPTING. NewHaven: Yale University Press.$2.95. The focus is on man and his health, but theentire relation of man and his environment is covered.

Dubos, Rene. 1968. MAN, MEDICINE AND HISENVIRONMENT. New York: Praeger. $4.50.

Dubos, Rene. 1959. MIRAGE OF HEALTH.New York: Doubleday [Anchor]. $1.25. An excellent discussion ofman and his health.

Fein, Rashi. 1970. 'The Case for National HealthInsurance." Saturday Review, August 22: 27-.

Fletcher, J.1954. MORALS AND MEDICINE. Princeton,New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

Gardner, J. W. 1965."Health, Education, and Welfare. " Science, 150:1684- 1686. By the former secretary.

Kilbourne, Edwin D. and Wilson G. Smillie.Editors,1969. HUMAN ECOLOGY AND PUBLIC HEALTH. New York: Macmillan.$11.95.

Lave, Lester B. and Eugene P. Seskin.1970. "Air Pollution and Human Health." Science, 169: 723-733.

Lemkau, Paul V.1949. MENTAL HYGIENE IN PUBLIC HEALTH.New York: McGraw-Hill.

Linder, F. E. 1966. "The Health of the AmericanPeople. " Scientific American, June: 21-29.

Moller, Clifford.1968, ARCHITECTURAL ENVIRONMENTAND OUR MENTAL HEALTH. New York: Horizon.

National Academy of Sciences.1968. "Heart Transplants." Saturday Review, April 6: 59-. Some recommended rules.

Nolen, William A. 1970. THE MAKING OF A SURGEON.New York: Random House. By one in training.

Peterson, 0. L.1963."Medical Care in the U.S. " Scientific American,August: 19-27.

;01, 370 4-38

Rushmer, Robert F. and Lee L. Huntsman.1970."Biomedical Engineering. " Science, 167: 840-844.

Tobin, Richard L. 1970. "Decade of Hope, Legacy of Health. " Saturday Review, April 4: 22-. The S. S. HOPE cruises the world providing medical training and treatment.

The American Red Cross. 1957. FIRST AID TEXTBOOK (4th Edition). Garden City, New York: Doubleday. An extremely valuable and comprehensive source.

B. Health Problems Barron, F. et al.1964. "The Hallucinogenic Drugs." Scientific American, April: 29-37.

Bioscience.1966. The October issue is devoted almost entirely to drugs.

Ford, Amasa B.1970."Casualties of Our Time." Science, 167: 256-263. Social and technological changes produce new sources of death and disability which raise public alarm and call for new advances in medicine.

Grinspoon, Lester.1969. "Marihuana." Scientific American, December: 17-25.

Hammond, E. C.1962. "The Effects oZ Smoking." Scientific American, July: 39-51.

Lasagna, Louis.1969."The Pharmaceutical Revolution: Its Impact on Science and Society." Science, 166:1227-1233.

Lave, Lester B. and Eugene P. Seskin.1970."Air Pollution and Human Health." Science, 169: 723-733.

Modell, W. 1963."Hazards of New Drugs." Science, 139: 1180-1185. Nichols, J. R. 1965. "How Opiates Change Behavior." Scientific American, February: 80-88. Rose, J. Editor.1964. OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES: A GUIDE TO THEIR RECOG- NITION (Public Health Service Publication). Washington, D. C.: U.S. Govern- ment Printing Office. $2.25.

Sachs, David Peter.1970. "Work at Your Own Risk." Saturday Review, June 6: 64-. Dangers in the occupational environment.

U.S. Department of Transportation.1968. ALCOHOL AND HIGHWAY SAFETY REPORT. Washington, D. C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 371 Ir.

4-39

U.S. President's Advisory Commission on Narcotic and Drug Abuse. 1963. FINAL REPORT. Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office. $0. 55.

U.S. Public Health Service.1965. SMOKING AND HEALTH. REPORT OF THE ADVISORY COMMITTEE TO THE SURGEON GENERAL.(Public Health Service Publication.) Washington, D. C. :U.S. Goverrunent Printing Office. The basic study.

C. Recreation and Activities

Angier, Bradford.1956. HOW TO STAY ALIVE IN THE WOODS. New York: Collier.$0. 95.

Bonatti, Walter. ON THE HEIGHTS. New York: Oxford University Press. $5.95. An account of his many hair-raising climbs.

Brooks, Joe.1970. COMPLETE GUIDE TO FISHING ACROSS NORTH AMERICA. New York: (Outdooir Life) Harper & Row. $7.95.

Casewit and Pownall. 1970. ME MOUNTAINEERING HANDBOOK. New York: Lippincott.$5.95.Covers every aspect of the sport from equipment to techniques. Well written.

Craighead.1952. HOW 'DO SURVIVE ON LAND AND SEA. Washington, D. C.: U.S. Naval Institute.$4.50.

Dalrymple, Bryon W. 1970. COMPLETE GUIDE TO HUNTING ACROSS NORTH AMERICA. New York: (Outdoor Life) Harper & Row. $10.00.

Fletcher, Colin.1968. THE COMPLETE WALKER. New York: Knopf. $7.95. On camping and backpacking.

Fletcher, Colin.1967. THE MAN WHO WALKED MROUGH TIME. New York: Knopf.$6. 95.

Henderson, K. A.1965. HANDBOOK OF AMERICAN MOUNTAINEERING. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin. $5.00.Published by the American Alpine Club, many illustrations, widely used.

Kirk, D. R.1970. WILD EDIBLE PLANTS OF ME WESTERN U.S. Heraldsburg, California: Naturegraph Publications. $3. 95.

Lomax, Alan.1960. ME FOLK SONGS OF NORM AMERICA. New York: Doubleday.300 songs and history.$10.95.

372 4-40

McLaughlin, Terence.1970. MUSIC AND COMMUNICATION. New York:St. Martin's Press.$6.95. Covers the ground between sound and listener, particularly the patterns of music.

Merrill, Bill.1971. THE HIKERS AND BACKPACKERS HANDBOOK.New York: Winchester Press.$5.95.

Milne, Malcolm.1968. THE COMPLETE BOOK OF MODERN MOUNTAINEERING. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. $15.00.

Nesbitt, Paul H. et al.1959. THE SURVIVAL BOOK. New York: Funkand Wag- nails. $1.95.

Ormond, Clyde.1962. COMPLETE BOOK OF HUNTING. NewYork: Harper & Row (Outdoor Life). $6.95.

Osgood, William and Leslie Hurley. 1969. SKI TOURING.Rutt land, Vermont: C. E. Tuttle Company. $5. 00.

Schwartz, Alvin.1967. HOW TO FLY A KITE, CATCH A FISH, GROWA FLOWER. New York: Pocket Books.$0.75. Seattle Mountaineers. MOUNTAINEERING, FREEDOM OFME HILLS. $6.75. The most widely used text on climbing technique andequipment ever printed, with many illustrations.

Sloane, Eugene A. 1970. THE COMPLETE BOOK OFBICYCLING. New York: Trident Press. $9. 95.

Sports Illustrated.1961. BOOK OF SWIMMING. New York: Lippincott.$3.50.

373

' A 4-41

V. MULTIMEDIA MATERIALS

A. Films

"America's Wonderland/The National Parks." National Geographic Society. McGraw-Hill #648069, Film-C/16mm/53 minutes/ 1&2, S-$610, R-$46. Survey: Hawaii volcanoes National Park to Yellowstone, Grand Canyonto Virgin Islands. Conservation that works.

"Air Pollution and You. " Current Affairs Films. U.S. Departmentof HEW/ #F-1528-X, Filmstrip/C/35mm, FL. 46-frame filmstripwith captions and outlines the basic problem of air pollution, its principal effectson health and property, some approaches to its control, and the Federal program.

"Air Pollution: Take a Deep Deadly Breath." ABC-TV. Complete- -#M-1540-X, Film C/16mm/54 minutes, FL. Unusual presentation of the problem of pollution-interviews with people from all walks of life, punctuated witha variety of pollution sources.

Association-Sterling Films. Catalog of 27 conservation-ecology films includes the well-known Sierra Club film library. 16mm sound. Sample titles: "1985, " "RedwoodsSaved?, " "Nature Next Door. " Free loan, sale and rental.

"Bulldozed America." CBS-TV. National Audubon Society.Film-BW/16mm/ 27 minutes, R-$10. Some of the most serious threats to natural beauty and wilderness. The redwoods, mining, urban sprawl, billboards, air and water pollution, and damming wild rivers.

"Challenge for Urban Renewal." NBC. Films, Inc. /C#33-0023; BW #33-0024, Film-C/B&W/16mm/28 minutes, S-C=$327.50, BW=$167.50. Illustrates the problem of mass unplanned migration from city to suburbgrowth of suburbs at expense of the cities creation of vast metropolitan areas, air pollution, water contamination, and over-crowded highways.

"Conservation, A Job for Young America." Allan Kichel, Jr. McGraw-Hill/ #400285, Film-C/16mm/ 19 minutes, S-$250, R-$15.Litter and what young people can do about it.

Contemporary Films/McGraw-Hill. Special brochure describes the content of 67 films (16mm) "that show what's happening.and what can be done now to combat the very serious environmental threats that face us. " For rental or purchase.

Denoyer-Geppert Audiovisuals."Investigations in Ecology, " six units each consisting of 60 color sequential captioned slides in Kodak Carousel cartridge, with teacher'a manual; organized to show interrelationship of organisms and

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their environment, understanding of pollution, overpopulation, extinction of wilderness, decimation of wildlife. On approval purchase offered.

Encyclopaedia Britannica. Special catalog on earth science films, "Our Environ- mental Crisis, " covers some twenty-five 16mm films for junior and senior high school. Films for environmental science "define the problems" of conservation. Three ecology series:"Basic Ecology, " "Ecological Proces- ses, " "Ecology Communities."

FREE FILMS ON AIR POLLUTION. 1969. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. $0.15. A listing of HEW films. "Man, Beast and the Land." NBC. McGraw-Hill/#672535, Film -C/16mm/52 minutes/1&2, S-$610, R-$40. A close look at ecological relationshipsthat dominate the Serengeti-Mara plainlands of East Africa.Realistically simulates safari led by two devoted conservationists, Dr. and Mrs. Lee Talbot.

NBC Educational Enterprises. Collection of 17 color 16mm filmson "Man and His Environment" depicts the destruction of man's environment. Sample titles are: "The Ravaged Earth," "Room to Breathe, " "Who Killed Lake Erie?, " etc. May be rented, previewed, or purchased.

"Our Endangered Wildlife." NBC-TV. McGraw-Hill/#672336, Film-C/16mm/ 61 minutes/1&2, S-$575, R-$35. Five of seventy-eight species threatened with extinction--key deer, whooping cranes, Kirtland's warbler, timber wolves, bald eagles.

"Pollution is a Matter of Choice." NBC. NBC Educational Enterprises/#0073Cl, Film-C/l6mm/53 minutes. S-$497 .50, R-$24.40. Modernman has the power to preserve or ruin his environment. What are the priorities? People want what technology gives but are destroyed by its wastes.

"Population Explosion." National Film Board of Canada. McGraw-Hill/#696789, Film-C/16mm/15 minutes. S-$200, R-$12.50. Advancesin medical technology are reducing mortality, thereby creating food shortages. Efforts to increase food production in underdeveloped nations are explained.

"Problems of Conservation: Forest and Range." EncyclopaediaBritannica Educa- tional Corporation. Encyclopaedia Britannica Educational Corporation/C#2786, BW #2787, Film C&BW/16mm/16 minutes. S-C-$167.50, BW $86.This film introduces two conservation concepts.It shows how large areas in the U.S. are used as productive forest andrange land and illustrates the "multiple-use" programs of protection.and management. The dilemma facing modern conservationists is the struggle to retain large undevelopedareas while demands for food, lumber, and recreation fora rapidly expanding population press.

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"Problems of Conservation: Wildlife." Encyclopaedia BritannicaEducational Corporation. Film-C&BW/16mm, FL. The relationship between living things and the environment.Extinction is a natural process; however, man is the first animal to change the environment so drasticallyas to cause the wholesale extinction of other species while endangering himself. Man's past and present influence on wildlife conservation practicesare described.

"Silent Spring of Rachel Carson." CBS Reports. McGraw-Hill/#408044,Film - BW/16mm/54 minutes/1&2. R-$25. Stimulating--and disturbing--a study of promise and perils of widespread pesticide use.

"The Ecology of Cultivated Areas." Our Living World Series. McGraw-Hill/ #613618, Film-C/16mm/16 minutes. S-$215, R-$12.50. Misuse of soil and other resources, grasslands of cultivated areas. Current conservation measures--contour cultivation, strip cropping, terracing, impounding of reservoirs and ponds, classification of land for bestuse.

"The Food Revolution." CBS. McGraw-Hill/#648003, Film-C/16mm/26minutes. S-$350, R-$18. Focuses attention on efforts tocope with problem of feeding ever-increasing population: food synthesis techniques, high efficiency farming, the sea as a food source.

"The Garbage Explosion." Encyclopaedia Britannica EducationalCorporation. Encyclopaedia Britannica Educational Coporation/C-#2977, BW-#2978, Film -C/BW/16mm/16 minutes. S-C=$200, S-BW4102.50. A rapidly growing economy is producing equally rapid environmental pollution, with the increase in waste materials. The nature, volume, and composition of solid wastes are discussed. The advantages and disadvantages ofcurrent disposal methods are discussed, and long-range solutionsare shown.

The Graphic Curriculum, Inc. Catalog of 16mm filmson aspects of conservation, ecology, survival, population control, such as: "Search to Survive," "Movements and Migrations, " "The Hostile Environment." Producedin cooperation with NET, NSTA, American Library Association, and American Institute of Biological Sciences. Preview prints available.

The Institute for the Study of Science in Human Affairs issued in March 1969a booklet, A SELECTION OF FILMS FOR THE STUDY OF SCIENCE IN HUMANAFFAIRS. Order from: The Institute for the Study of Science in Human Affairs, Columbia University, New York, New York 10027.

"The Poisoned Air." CBS-TV. U.S. Department of HEW/#M-1418-X, Film-C/ 16mm/50 minutes, FL. Spans the world withscenes of air pollution. Inter- views with public officials and car manufacturers.City programs are shown, and the importance of citizen action is emphasized.

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"The Sense of Wonder and the Edge of the Seal." ABC News. McGraw-Hill/ #656325, Film-C/16mm/30 minutes/1, 21 minutes/2,S-$600, R-$35. A "natural" film in the most la-A-alsense, from the writings of Rachel Carson.

Time-Life Films. Ten 16mm films produced by BBC-TV, suchas: "Torrey Canyon," "The Living Sea, " "Science and Foresight." Availablefor rental or purchase.

"Time of Man." Ealing Corporation. 16mm, 50minutes. S-$450, R-$40. An extremely informative look at man, his culture, and his position in the environment.

Universal Education and Visual Arts. Applicable topicsare contained in over forty 16mm films, six series of filmstrips and overheadtransparency sets. Sample titles:"Life on a Mountain," "The Living Tide, " and "What Are the Major Causes of Air Pollution." Grades:intermediate to college.

"Urbanissimo." John and Faith Hub ley. McGraw-Hill/#408087,Film-C/16mm. S-$90, R-$10. Conservation of America's resourcesitsland, its wildlife, and its natural beauty.

"We Need Each Other." A group of four 50-minute 16mmfilms, covering topical ecology problems; with student and teacher aid materials.From the Xerox Corporation.

B. Kits and Records

AIR POLLUTICN STUDY PROGRAM. Eduquip, Incorporated, 1220Adams Street, Boston, Massachusetts 02124. Kits for experimentson detection and analysis.

"America the Beautiful." Gary McFarland: Skye Label.A musical account of its disappearance.

AUDUBON ECOLOGY CHART. National AudubonSociety, 1130 Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10028. $2.15 formaps and charts (33" x 50").

CONSERVATION KIT. American Petroleum Institute,School Program, 1271 Avenue of the Americas, New York, New York 10020.Free pictures and discussion kit, 1970.

EARTH ISLAND. (An Introduction to Ecology in Action.)Educational Division, Department EC, Simon and Schuster, Inc., 1 West 39thStreet, New York, New York 10018. A multimedia set of materialsto help students understand how we are destroying our environment andwhat they can do to save the earth from negligence. The kit contains three full-coloranimated filmstrips by the illustrator Manny Stollman; two 12-inchsoundtrack LP records; one 377 4-45

Teacher's Manual; 22 different Eco-Data cards (4copies of each) with illustrated readings of important ecological issues; fourlarge posters. Also available for $1.25 extra (net $1.00)are student workbooks.Price of the package is $75.00.

"Earth Rot." A musical comment on the state of theenvironment. David Axelrod: Columbia Records.

ECOLOGY POSTER CARDS. Milton Bradley, Springfield,Massachusetts.$3.00. ECOLOGYTHE GAME OF MAN AND NATURE. UrbanSystems, Incorporated. 1033 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts.1971.$10.00. While advancing through four ages of development, playerstry to achieve a balance between man's activities and the natural environment.

"Environmental Overheads." HAMMOND-NEWSWEEK, VISUALSTUDY SERIES. Hammond, Incorporated, Education Division, 515Valley StLeet, Maplewood, New Jersey 07040. Various overhead transparencieson urban and world problems of natural resources, environment, andconservation.

ENVIRONMENTAL POSTERS. Environmental ProtectionAgency, Office of Public Affairs, Rockville, Maryland. Full-color photographs.

EXTINCTION: THE GAME OF ECOLOGY: SinaverAssociates, Incorporated. 20 Second Street, Stamford, Connecticut. $11.95.Examines the key processes by which species survive and evolve or become extinct.

GUIDANCE ASSOCIATES. Pleasantville, New York. Environmental and vocational filmstrips--the most valuable being "TheWisdom of Wildness, " by Charles A. Lindbergh.

MAN AND THE ENVIRONMENT. Houghton-MifflinCompany. 1970-71 science catalog for grades 7-12; lists books, films,programs, kits, and overhead transparencies relating to ecological problems. Newecology-based life science course, "Man and the Environment,"utilizes games, role playing, and simulation.

PARADLSE ISLAND. Simile II, P. 0. Box 1023, LaJolla, California 92037.In this population game, students deal with suchconcepts as incentives for population growth in young nations, population mix, andthe need for population control as a society increases its technological base. Asample set is available for $3.00; the complete kit fora class of 18 to 35 students is $25. 00.

POLLUTION DETECTION KIT. Oak Ridge AssociatedUniversities, Tennessee, and National Science Foundation. "This Atomic World." c/oEdward Aebischer, Head, Information St.rvices Department, ORAUIncorporated, P. 0. Box 117, Oak Ridge, Tennessee.

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POSTERS ON POLLUTION. Argus Communications, 3505 North Ashland Avenue, Chicago, Illinois 60657.

PRINCIPLES OF MODERN BIOLOGY. Behavioral Research Laboratories.Nine- volume, complete introduction to ecology/biology in programmed format, self-paced. Produced by Kenneth B. Armitage, Richard W. Holm, and Paul R. Ehrlich.Includes nine corresponding teacher's manuals and the test booklets.Intermediate grades.

SMOG/DIRTY WATER. Strategy games for children or adults @ $10.00. Urban Systems, Incorporated, 1033 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massa- chusetts 02138.

STARPOWER. Simile II, P. 0. Box 1023, La Jolla, California 92037. This simulation games deals with the whole question of power structures within a society.It is particularly applicable with regard to industrial pollution and governmental controls over environmental pollution. Sample instructions are available for $3.00, the complete kit for a class of 18 to 35 students is $25.00.

THE BLUE WODJET .Simile II, P. 0. Box 1023, La Julia California 92037. Using this simulation game, students become more aware of the problems pollution control efforts create for industry and of the ways in which citizens and industrial leaders can deal with those problems. Sample sets are available for $3.00; the complete kit for a class of 18 to 25 students is $25.00.

THE ENVIRONMEWAL CHALLENGE OF THE 1970S. Six taped interviews of scientists and politicians. Washington Tapes, Incorporated, 5540 Connec- ticut Avenue, N.W., Washington, D. C. 20015.

THE POLLUTION GAME. Houghton-Mifflin Company. Students simulate in a game of progressive contamination of our environment then try to reverse the contamination to preserve the environment; students experience the antagonisms and frustrations of trying to change technology and social behavior. Junior and high school level.

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VI.ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

Abel, Dana L.1970."Environmental Education." Bioscience, 20: 1015-1016. Abraham, G. K. 1970. "Oversimplification? Pollution Problems." Forecast for Home Economics, 16: F-16.

Adams, U. A. 1970."Education for Survival." School Management, 14: 10-13.

"Agri-business and Its Potential for Environmental Education." 1971. American Vocational Journal, 46: 24-26.

A LIST OF AVAILABLE CURRICULUM MATERIALS. Environmental Science Center, 5400 Glenwood Avenue, Golden Valley, Minnesota 55422. Ames, E. A. 1970. "Schools and the Environment." Theory Into Practice, 9: 175-177.

Archibald, David and Paul Gundlack.1970. "Environmental Education: An Integrated Approach." Environmental Education, 1: 75-76. "Art, Artists, and Environmental Awareness." Art Education, 23: 53-54. Arth, A. A. et al. 1970. "Environmental Awareness, the Way of Survival." Educa- tional Leadership, 28: 274-275.

Bailey, Liberty Hyde.1903. THE NATURE-STUDY IDEA. New York: Doubleday, Page, and Company.

Bain, H. P. 1970. "Education for Survival." Art Education, 23: 14-15.

Balzer, L. 1971. "Environmental Education in the K-12 Span." American Biology Teacher, 33: 220-225.

Bates, M. 1970. "Human Environment." Theory into Practice, 9: 146-149.

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES CURRICULUM STUDY. University of Colorado, P.O. Box 930, Boulder, Colorado 80302. EARTH SCIENCE CURRICULUM PROJECT. P.O. Box 1559, Boulder, Colorado 80302. The BSCS and ESCP groups are of interest because of their current projects along environmental lines. The BSCS is attemptinga joint science-social science studies text; the ESCP is developingan inner city environmental education curriculum. Each group publishes a newsletter available from the address listed above.

Borton, Terry. 1970. REACH, TOUCH AND TEACH: STUDENT CONCERNS AND PROCESS EDUCATION. New York: McGraw-Hill. This is the major publication that has appeared to date from the Affective Development Project.

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Brehman, T. R. et al.1971."Environmental Activities and Problem Solving." Science Teacher, 38: 55-56. "Challenge to Art Education." 1970. Art Education, 23: 38-43.

Congressional Quarterly. 1968. EDUCATION IN AMERICA. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly, Incorporated. $2.95. Covers all aspects and all levels.

Cook, R. S. and George T. O'Hearn. 1971. PROCESS FOR A QUALITY ENVIRON- MENT. Green Bay: University of Wisconsin Press. $2.50. Papers presented to the National Conference on Environmental Education.

Damio, W. 1971. "Ecology Bookology." Media and Methods, 7: 26.

Davis, James Garrett. ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING RECOMMENDATIONS. Environ- mental Science Center, 5400 Glenwood Avenue, Golden Valley, Minnesota 55422. This is a collection of practical suggestions for the establishment and use of an outdoor environmental study area at the Blake School in Hopkins, Minnesota. The information is valuable for any school interested in the use of the surrounding environment.

Divorky, Diane. Editor. 1969. HOW OLD WILL YOU BE IN 1984? New York: Avon. Student papers on concepts of the school environment.

Durrenberger, Robert W. 1970. ENVIRONMENT AND MAN/A BIBLIOGRAPHY. Palo Alto, California: National Press Books. $2.50.

Dwyer, R. L. 1971."School Camping Programs: Ecology in the Outdoor Classroom." Social Education, 35: 74-77.

"Ecological Programs in Vocational Education." 1971. American Vocational Journal, 46: 20-26.

EDUCATION PRODUCT REPORT. 1971. Environmental Education Materials, Washington, D.C. Volume 4, Numbers 6 and 7. March-April. A bibliography of selected materials.

Engleson, D. E. 1970."Status of Conservation Courses in Wisconsin High Schools." Science Teacher, 37: 33-35.

"Environmental Citizenship: Where to Begin?" Art Education, 23: 33-35.

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION: EDUCATION THAT CANNOT WAIT. 1970. Washing- ton, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. $0.30. A valuable definition and rationale of environmental education.

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ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION FOR EVERYONE--A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CURRICULUM MATERIALS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES. Washington, D.C.: NEA Publi- cation Sales. Stock Number 471-14600. $0.75.

"Environmental-Related Research in Agricultural Education." 1971. Agricultural Education, 43: 229-230.

"Environmental Science Education in Ohio." 1971. Agricultural Education, 43: 244-246.

ENVIRONMENT AND THE SCHOOLS. 1971. Washington, D.C.: National Schools Public Relations Association. $4.00.

Entorf, J. F. 1971. "Becoming Aware of Waste: Teaching Unit on Recycling." School Shop, 30: 78-79.

Evans, B. 1971."Traditional Conservation Education Is Inadequate." Compact, 5: 18-20.

Fleck, H. 1970. "Facing the .Environmental Crisis." Forecast for Home Economics, 16: F-9. Fong, M. K. 1971. "Survival Training." Compact, 5: 31-33. Fuller, D. M. 1970. lunk Environment Project." Art Education, 23: 16-33.

Glass, B. 1971. "Human Multitude: How Many Is Enough?" American Biology Teacher, 33: 265-269.

Glenn, H. T. 1971. "Learn and Teach the New Pollution-Control Methodology." School Shop, 30: 71-73.

Grubough, R. et al. 1971. "Environmental Managem'ent and Vocational Agriculture." Agricultural Education, 43: 222.

Gustafson, J. A. 1969. "Conservation Education, Today and Tomorrow." Sc. hence Education, 53: 187-190.

Hammon, S. 1970. "Sound Polluted Schools." School Management, 14:14-15. Hardy, C. A. 1971. "Environmental Education: An Action Proposal." Contemporary Education, 42: 276-279.

Harlin, U. K. 1971. "Health Scientist Views Environmental Problems." Journal of School Health, 41: 48.-51.

Hebert, R. 1971."Ecology: A Shared Journey." Personnel and Guidance Journal, 49: 737-739. 382 4-50

Hill, W. 1970. "Relating Geography to Environmental Education." Journalof Geog- raphy, 69: 485-487. Howarth, C., Jr.1970. "Challenge to Environmental Education." Art Education, 23: 36-37. "Industrial Education and the Environment." 1971. School Shop, 30: 63-91.

INTERACTION OF MAN AND THE BIOSPHERE. Chicago: Rand McNally. This is a junior high life science text developed to accompany MATTER AND ENERGY.

Kormondy, E. J.1971. "Environmental Education: The Whole Man Revisited." American Biology Teacher, 33: 15-17.

Kra 11, R. 1970. "Mudhole Ecology." American Biology Teacher, 32: 351-353. Krupsky, C. H. 1971. "Stop Our Pollution: Projects and Activities." School and Community, 57: 32.

"Laboratory School and Field Campus Used in a Biology Methods Course." 1970. American Biology Teacher, 32: 537-543.

"Lack of Material, Jealousy Hamper Environmental Courses: 1971. Educational Product Report, 4:5. Lanier, V. 1970."Ecology: Cop-out or Foul-up." Arts and Activities, 68: 46-48. Maley, D. 1971. "Environmental Education: Solving the Problems." Man/Science/- Technology, 30: 146-148.

MAN: A COURSE OF STUDY. Education Development Center, 15 Mifflin Place, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138. An elementary course following a format that would be of value at any level. The lives of salmon, herring gulls, baboons, and Eskimos are studied with the aim of answering the question, "What is human about man?" Manson, G. A. et al.1970. "Perspectives on Man and His Environment." Journal of Geography, 69: 279-283.

MAN THE MEANING MAKER. Boston, Massachusetts: Beacon Press. This is an elementary curricular package that could be put to use at any grade level. The vethal environment is studied objectively, raising questions of how our perceptions are colored by our capabilities of communication and expression. Mar land, S. P., Jr.1971. "Environmental Education Cannot Wait." American Educa- tion,7: 6-10.

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"Mathematics Educators Must Help Face theEnvironmental Pollution Challenge. "1970. Math Teacher, 64: 33-36.

McCammon, L. C. 1970. "Man's Greatest Challenge,the Quest for Environmental Quality." Journal of School Health, 40: 284-289.

McDonald, Rita. 1970. GUIDE TO LITERATUREON ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES. Washington, D.C.: American Society for EngineeringEducation.

McGowan, A. 1971. "Experiment in EnvironmentalEducation." Physics Teacher, 9: 141-144.

Meadows, B. J. 1970. "Denver School DramatizesPopulation-Pollution." American Biology Teacher, 32: 281-283.

Mings, R. C.1971. "Some Suggestions for Reorienting ConservationEducation." Social Studies, 62: 160-163.

MINNESOTA STATE PUBLICATIONS CATALOG.St. Paul Minnesota: Minnesota State Publications. Free. Includes environmental educationcurriculum material.

Moore, J. A.1971. SCIENCE FOR SOCIETY: A BIBLIOGRAPHY.Washington, D.C.: AAAS Publication.

Murphy, J.1970. "Exercise in Winter Ecology." ScienceTeacher, 37: 59-61. Needam, D. 1970. "Pollution Isa Teaching and Action Program." Grade Teacher, 88: 24-53.

Norton, T. W. 1971. "Atmosphereas a Science Classroom Resource." Physics Teacher, 9: 265-267.

Overcash, J. R. 1971. "Environmental Study in the City--Boston."Science Teacher, 38: 18-20.

Peddiwell, J. Abner. 1939. SABER-TOOTHCURRICULUM. New York: McGraw-Hill. Peddiwell's work is a classic study of the problemsof meeting environment with curriculum and vice versa. It isas valuable now as it was when f17:st published.

PEOPLE AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT.Columbia, South Carolina: J. C.Ferguson Publishing Company. This isa set of teacher guides raising environmental questions for classes K-12. At the secondary level, the workbooksalso branch out into subject areas such as life science, social studies,and home economics. Conservation Curriculum Improvement Project, SouthCarolina Department of Education.

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Pratt, A. L. Editor.1971. ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN THE COMMUNITY COLLEGE. Washington, D.C.: American Association of Junior Colleges.$4.00.

. A collection of articles with special reference to careers.

PROGRAMS IN ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION. (Stock Number471-14394.) The National Science Teachers Association, Washington, D.C.: NEAPublication Sales. $1.50.

Ritter, Paul. 1966. EDUCREATION: EDUCATION FOR CREATION,GROWTH, AND CHANGE. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Roberts, A. D. et al.1971. "Environmental Education." Clearing House, 45:451-455. Rogers, L. 1971."Conservation 70's: A Concept for Environmental Action." Science Education, 55: 57-60. Rosenthal, R. and L. F. Jacobson. 1968. "Teacher Expectations for theDisadvantaged Child." Scientific American, April: 19-23.

Roth, R.1970. "Environmental Management Education: Where from Here?" Theory into Practice, 9:187-190. Roth, Robert E. 1970."Fundamental Concepts for Environmental Management Educa- tion (K-16). Environmental Education, 1: 65-75. Rumpf, E. L. 1971."Ecological Challenge: Response at the National Level: USOE Takes First Steps." American Vocational Journal, 46: 20-21. Sager, M. C. 1971. "Ecological Balance of the Planet Earth." Social Education, 35: 47-52. Scherff, G. E. 1971."Exploring Industrial Pollution Control." School Shop, 30: 77. Schrank, J. J. 1970. "What Good Are Pelicans? A Guide to Teaching Materials in Ecology." Media and Methods, 6: 32-37. Sehgal, P. P. 1970. "Basis for Action in the Environmental Crisis." American Biology Teacher, 32: 480-483. Smalley, L. 1970."Is Industrial Arts Relevant without Talking about Pollution Control?" Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 59: 38. Smith, A. and C. M. Smith. 1970. "Aesthetics and Environmental Education." Journal of Aesthetic Education, 4: 125-140.

SOCIAL EDUCATION. The entire January 1971 issue is devoted to environmental education. 385 4-53

Sonnenfeld, J. 1970."Geopolitical Environment as a Perceptual Environment."Journal of geography, 69: 415-419.

Spolin, Viola. 1963. IMPROVISATION FOR THE THEATRE.Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press. Innovative teachingtechniques, including games, all pointed toward communication and environmentalawareness.

Stokes, R. L. 1971. "Art Education Fights Pollution."School and Community, 57: 26.

Stotler, D. 1971."Environmental Education as Liberation." American BiologyTeacher, 33:18-21. A fine article.

"Students Trained for Employment in NationalResource Management. " 1971. American Vocational Journal, 46: 32.

Swan, James. 1969. "The Challenge of EnvironmentalEducation." Journal of Phi Delta Kappa, 51: 26-28.

Swan, Malcolm D. Editor. 1970. TIPS AND TRICKSIN OUTDOOR EDUCATION. Danville, Illinois:Interstate Printers and Publishers. This is generallymore useful than its title implies. Though modest in format,it is probably the best handbook of specifically environmental teachingtechniques available.

Tanner, R. P. 1971."Future: Alternatives for Man's Environment."Man/Science/- Technology, 30: 149-151.

"Teachers and Students Writea Curriculum on Water Pollution." American Biology Teacher, 33: 211-213.

"Teaching for Consumer Conscience inBusiness Education." American Vocational Journal, 46: 22-23.

Terry, Mark. 1971. TEACHING FOR SURVIVAL.New York: Ballantine. $1.25. Excellent.

THE QUEST FOR ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY.1971. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. $0.35. An annotatedbibliography of federal and state action.

"Toward a More Humane Environment:A Symposium." Theory into Practice, 9: 145-202.

"Toward Real Public Involvement in EnvironmentalDecision Making." Art Education, 23: 30-32.

Trohanis, P. 1971. "Environmental-EcologicalEducation via Simultaneously Projected Multiple Images with Sound." Audio-VisualInstruction, 16: 19-26.

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"Update: Environmental Studies--CriticalReviews of Two Major Curricula." 1971. Education Product Report, 4: 35-47. U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1964.TEACHING SOIL AND WATER CONSERVA- TION. Washington, D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office. Viran, V. E. et al.1971. "Environmental EducationInformation,Ideas, and Activi- ties." The Instructor, 80: 51-62. Von Dommelen, D. B. 1970. "InteriorDesign and the Environmental Designer." Journal of Home Economics, 62: 342-343.

"What Schools Can Do About Pollution: ASymposium." Today's Education, 59: 14-29. Winkel, G. H. et al. 1971. "Ecology ofCities." Science Teacher, 38: 16-20.

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VII.FEDERAL AGENCIES AND STATUTES

A. Texts

Bureau of National Affairs. ENVIRONMENTAL REPORTER.Washington, D.C. : The Bureau of National Affairs, 1231 25th Street, N.W. $340 a year. Published weekly. Comprehensivesource of laws, cases, new developments, existing programs and agencies.

California Legislature (Assembly). 1970. ENVIRONMENTALBILL OF RIGHTS, Sacramento: Select Committee on Environmental Quality.The report lists the major reasons for environmental degradation,identifies the key policy issues, and lays out an orderly process for assessingman's future activities in order to assure environmental protection andprevent environmental crises.

Cooley, Richard A. and Geoffrey Wandesforde-Smith.Editors.1970. CONGRESS AND THE ENVIRONMENT. Seattle:University of Washington Press. A collection of case studies of important environmentallegislation, tracing its formation and effects.

Deg ler, Stanley E.1970. STATE AIR POLLUTION CONTROLLAWS. Washington, D. C. : Bureau of National Affairs. Asummary of the status of the law on air pollution control in each state, the District of Columbia,Puerto Rico, and cities of Chicago, Detroit, New York, Philadelphia,and Pittsburgh. Contains administering agency description, regulationsin each state, and state air pollution control law.

Lear, J.Editor.1968."Science, Technology, and the Law." SaturdayReview, August 3.

Lewin, S. F., A. H. Gordon, and L. J. Hartelius.1970. LAW ANL' "FIE MUNI- CIPAL ECOLOGY, AIR, WATER, NOISE, OVERPOPULATION.Washington, D. C.: National Institute of Municipal Law Office.

Sherrod, H. F. 1970. ENVIRONMENTAL LAWREVIEW. New York: Clark Boardman Company.

U.S. House of Representatives. 1970. LAWS OF THEUNITED STATES RELATING TO WATER POLLUTION CONTROL AND ENVIRONMENTALQUALITY. (Committee on Public Works.) Washington, D. C.:U.S. Government Printing Office.$1. 00.

U.S. Senate.1970. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ACT OF1970. (Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Energy, NaturalResources and Environment. 91st Congress. Second Session.) Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

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U.S. Senate.1970. HOW CAN OUR PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT BEST BE CON- TROLLED AND DEVELOPED? (Pursuant to Public Law 88-246. 91st Congress. Second Session. ) Washington, D. C. :U. S. Government Printing Office.$1.00.

B. Federal Statutes

[AIR -- NO TITLE].1955.(P. L. 84-159.) This act established grants to states and educational institutions to trainper- sonnel and conduct research and control on air pollution.

AIRCRAFT NOISE ABATEMENT ACT. 1968.(P. L. 90-411.) This act, an amendment to the Federal Aviation Act, provides for standards of measurement and control of bircraft noise and sonic booms. AIR QUALITY ACT. 1967. (P. L. 90-148.) This act gave power to each state to set standards for primary and secondary ambient air quality standards, provided, however, that they were approved by the Secretary of HEW. It further provided for the establishment of air quality control regions, registration of fuel additives, a larger research program, vehicle inspection, and power to HEW to seek a court injunction againstany air pollutor if an emergency exists.

ATOMIC ENERGY ACT. 1946. This act established the Atomic Energy Commission, which took over the military nuclear program from the Manhattan Engineer District of the U.S. Army. The AEC today operates 12 programs for both civilian and military use, which include among others a weapons program, a biology and medicine program, a research program, and a reactor development program. The AEC is charged with both the development of military and peacefuluses of atomic energy, and with regulating the nuclear industry to assure that public health and safety are protected. CLEAN AIR ACT. 1963. (P. L. 88-206. ) This act increases grants to states and institutions for research and authorizes the Federal government to take action to abate interstate air pollution.

CLEAN AIR AMENDMENTS. 1970.(P. L. 91-604.) An omnibus amendment to the 1967 Clean Air Act, authorized national quality air control standards, with Federal enforcement of standards.It also made specific demands on automobile manufacturers for better emission control devices; aircraft, air, and noise pollution controls were also enforced.

CLEAN WATER RESTORATION ACT. 1966. (P. L. 89-753.) This law transfered the FWPCA to the Interior Department and provided for greatly increased grants to construct advanced waste water treatment facilities.

389 v, 4-57

ENDANGERED SPECIES CONSERVATION ACT. 1969.(P. L. 91-135.) This law instructs the Bureau of Sport Fisheriesand Wildlife to compile data on near-extinct wildlife, to plan and to provide technicalassistance, and to carry out programs designed to protect andconserve fish and wildlife. ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION ACT. 1970.(P. L. 91-516.) This act funds various programs under theU.S. Office of Education. Included are: environmental education curriculum development,demonstration, evaluation, and dissemination; teacher training;elementary, secondary, and community education program initiation andmaintenance; research grants; technical assistance; planning outdoor ecologicalstudy centers; and preparation of environmental and ecological materials suitablefor use by the mass media. Environmental education is concerned with man'stotal relationship with his natural and manmadeenvironment and includes the relation of population, pollution,resource management, conservation, transportation, technology, and urban and rural planning.

ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY IMPROVEMENT ACT.1970. (P. L. 91-224.) Established the Office of Environmental Qualityto assist Federal agencies to coordinate environmental programs and developinterrelated Federal criteria.

FEDERAL OIL POLLUTION ACT. 1924. (33U5C431.) This law prohibited oil pollution from ocean-goingvessels; however, enforcement under this law was cumbersome and ineffective.

FISH AND WILDLIFE COORDINATION ACT.1958.(P. L. 85-624. ) This act empowers the Federalgovernment to proviee assistance to, and cooperation with, all public and private agenciesin the development, protection, rearing and stocking of all species of wildlife;to conduct surveys and investigations of all wildlife in the public domain;and to require that any action which may alter land or wateror endanger any and all fish and game must receive prior permission from the U.S. Fish andWildlife Service.

INSECTICIDE, FUNGICIDE, AND RODENTICIDEACT. 1947. Amendments to 1964. This act prohibited the marketing ind transfer ofany poison or device without proper registration and approval of the U.S. Public Health Service. MOTOR VEHICLE AIR POLLUTION CONTROLACT. 1965. (P. L. 89-272.) This act gave the Secretary of HEW the authorityto establish regulations controlling emissionEi from allnew motor vehicles.

NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY ACT.1969.(P. L. 91-190. ) It pledged the Federal governmentto "identify and develop methods andpro- cedures...which will insure that presently unqualifiedenvironmental amenities and values may be given appropriateconsideration in decision- making..."

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NATIONAL MATERIALS POLICY ACT.1970.(P. L. 91-512.) This law establishes a committee to study the supply, the use, the recovery and disposal of natural resources by industry for the production of goods exclusive of food.

NATIONAL TRAILS SYSTEM ACT. 1968. (P. L. 90-543. ) This act calls for studies of historic national trails and creation of both historic and wilderness trails.

RECLAMATION ACT. 1902. This law authorized the Secretary of the Interior to locate, construct, operate, and maintain works for the storage, diversion, and development of waters for the reclamation of atid and semi-arid lands.

RESOURCE RECOVERY ACT. 1970. (P. L. 91-512.) (An omnibus amendment of the Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965.) It provided grants to States, interstate agencies, and localities for the establishment of solid waste disposal facilities, provided funds for the training of personnel in this field, and set regulations for solid waste recovery, collection, and disposal.

RIVERS AND HARBORS ACT. 1899. (33USC 401-413.) This law prohibited the dumping of pollution and debris into navigable waters or the construction of bridges, wharves, dams, etc. without Federal permission.It was originally designed to prevent impediments to navigation.It has lately been used as an antipollution measure.

SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL ACT. 1965.(P. L. 89-272.) This act provides research and training grants for states to establish solid waste recycling and disposal plants, guidelines for sYstem development, technical assistance to states, local governments, and interstate agencies for planning new systems and funds to the same for demonstration, construction, and application of solid waste systems.

[WATER -- NO TITLE]. 1961.(P. L. 87-88.) This law provided increased grants for waste treatment plant construction, monies for research in water pollution control, and established seven field laboratories.

WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ACT. 1948. (P. L. 80-845.) This act established the authority of the Federal Government to have a role in controlling interstate water pollution (although subordinate to the States). The act also provided for construction loans, although they were never funded.

WATER POLLUTION coNTROL ACT AMENDMENTS. 1956.(P. L. 84-660.) These amendments gave permanent water pollution control authority to the Federal government, authorized court action to halt interstate water pollution, and provided for grants to construct waste water treatment programs. 4-59

WATER QUALITY ACT.1965.(P. L. 89-234.) This law created the FederalWater Pollution Control Administrationwithin HEW, set water quality standardsfor Federal and State regulation,greatly streamlined enforcement procedures,and provided for projectgrants for research and developmenton combined sewers.

WATER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT ACT.1970.(P. L. 91-224.) It established Federal proceduresrelating to oil spills' pollution alongthe coastal areas and set stiff penaltiesfor willful pollution.It further provided for more strict marine sanitationdevices, training for wastetreatment personnel, and for demonstrationgrants for water treatment in lakes and mine areas.

WATER RESOURCES PLANNING ACT.1965.(P. L. 89-80.) This act provides for the developmentof the nation's waterresources, establishes a Water Resources Counciland River Basin Commissions,and funds state water planningprograms.

WATER RESOURCES RESEARCHACT.1964.(P. L. 88-379. ) 1966.(P. L. 89-404.) These acts established water researchcenters, promoted a nationalprogram of water research, and trainedwater scientists.

WATERSHED PROTECTION ANDFLOOD PREVENTION ACT.1954. This law requires that the U.S. ForestService and the Soil Conservation Service cooperate with all involvedpublic and private agencies in planning and installing forestry and landresource measures in the watershed toprotect against floods and fires.

WILD AND SCENIC RIVERS ACT.1968.(P. L. 90-542.) This law required that studies bemade jointly by the Departments of Interior and Agriculture to permanentlypreserve stated rivers in their natural state and to conduct special studieson certain named rivers beforeany construction or alteration would be allowedon them.

WILDERNESS ACT.1964.(P. L. 88-577. ) This act directs the Secretary of Interiorto review every roadless areaor island within the National Wildlifeand Refuge System of 5000acres or more and make recommendationsto the President to maintain theseareas as wilderness in their natural and primitive state.

The above listing comprises onlypartially the Federal laws which havean impact on the environment. Realistically,every bill entered into law has environmental implications. Only the major lawswere listed; however, the followingare additional laws which may be of environmentalinterest:

FEDERAL AID TO HIGHWAYS ACT.1958. 4-60

FEDERAL AVIATION ACT. 1958. FEDERAL POWER ACT. FLOOD CONTROL ACT. 1950. FOOD, DRUG, AND COSMETIC ACT. 1964. GENERAL MINING ACT. 1872. HIGHWAY BEAUTIFICATION ACT. 1965. HOMESTEAD ACT. 1862. MINERAL LEASING ACT. 1920. MINING CLAIMS, RIGHTS, AND RESTORATION ACT. 1955. MULTIPLE-USE SUBSTA1NED YIELD ACT. NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ACT. 1958. NATIONAL PARKS ACT. NATIONAL WATER COMMISSION ACT. 1968. NEW YORK HARBOR ACT. OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF ACT. POPULATION GROWTH AND AMERICAN FUTURE ACT.1970. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION ACT. 1846. SUBMERGED LANDS ACT. WATER PROJECT RECREATION ACT. 1965. WETLANDS ACT.

C. Federal Agencies

Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service, Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service, Cooperative State Research Service, Economic Research Service, Farmers Home Administration, Forest Service, Soil Conservation Service.

Appalachian Regional Commission

Atomic Energy Commission

Department of Commerce Economic Development Administration, Environmental Science Services Administration, National Bureau of Standards

Delaware River Basin Commission

Department of Defense Army Corps of Engineers

Environmental Protection Agency

Executive Office of the President Council on Environmental Quality, Office of Science and Technology

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Federal Power Commission

Department of Health, Education,and Welfare Environmental Health Service,Environmental Control Administration, Food and Drug Administration,National Institutes of Health, Education Office of Department of Housingand Urban Development Department a the Interior Bonneville Power Administration,Office of Coal Research, Bureauof Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, U.S.Geological Survey, Bureau ofIndian Affairs, Bureau of Land Management,Bureau of Mines, National ParkService, Bureau ot Outdoor Recreation,Bureau of Reclamation, Officeof Saline Water, Office of Water Resources Research

International Boundary and WaterCommission, United States andMexico International Joint Commission,United States and Canada Department of Justice

National Aeronautics and SpaceAdministration National Science Foundation

National Water Commission

Commission on Population Growthand the American Future Smithsonian Institution

Department of State

Tennessee Valley Authority

Department of Transportation U.S. Coast Guard, FederalAviation Administration Water Resources Council

*GPO 780536