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SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION Evolution of communication signals and information during species radiation Garcia et al. Supplementary Figs. 1-15 Supplementary Tables 1-13 Supplementary references 1 a PC2$ b LD2 4$ 8 LD3 PC3$$ 10 PC1$ 3$ 9$ )3$ LD1 -10 )3$ -6 )$4$ 30 - 6 Supplementary Fig. 1. Embedding of the six drumming types in a 3D acoustic space, built either a) from a Principal Component Analysis based on the 22 acoustic variables used to characterize drumming signals, or b) from a Discriminant Function Analysis carried out using these Principal Components (see Methods for details). Each dot represents one woodpecker species. The first three Principal Components (1a) explained respectively 29, 14 and 11% of the variance in drumming acoustic structure (total = 54.5%, Supplementary Table 11). The first three Linear Discriminants (2b) explained respectively 58, 17 and 14% of the variance between species-specific drumming acoustic structure (total = 89%, Supplementary Table 12). 2 Normalized Local Information (%) Normalized MIL (%) 25 50 75 100 a ● b Sas_och ● Mel_cac ● Sas_abn ● Mic_bra ● Mel_rad ● Picum_inn ● Dendrop_nam ● Mel_aur ● Cel_tor ● (SF,SS, Din_raf ● Chrysop_men ● 100 Mel_for ● AC, DK) Dendroc_med ● Mel_sup ● Mel_car ● Dend_nog ● Leuco_albo ● Dryob_nut ● Pico_arc ● (SF,RS,IS) Mel_uro ● Dryob_pub ● Mel_hof ● Dry_lin ● (SF,SS,AC) Dend_leu ● Dry_mar ● Dry_pil ● Dry_jav ● 75 Pico_tri ● Pico_dor ● (%) Dendrop_xan ● (SF,RS,IS) Dend_syr ● L Chrysoc_luc ● Dend_maj ● Cam_gay ● Dendrop_pyr ● MI Cam_mel ● Dend_hyp ● Mel_puc ● (SF,IS) Col_auru ● Cel_gra ● Mel_fla ● Cel_cas ● (SS,AC, Cel_ele ● 50 Picus_awo ● Dryob_min ● DK,RS,IS) Col_pun ● Picus_can ● Col_aura ● Dry_sch ● Picus_vai ● Col_mel ● Col_rub ● ● Mel_pyg Normalized includingallspecies Leuco_bor ● including all species Mel_ery ● Ven_nig ● Cel_lug ● Cel_flavu ● Mei_tri ● Gec_gra ● 25 Picus_vir ● Mei_tuk ● Mel_lew ● Cel_flave ● Ven_cal ● Normalized (%) Mutual Information Ven_aff ● Cel_spe ● Ven_cas ● Dendrop_fus ● Ven_spi ● Ven_pas ● Leuco_vil ● Dryob_sca ● Leuco_fum ● Leuco_ari ● Cam_mag ● Cam_hae ● Cam_rub ● SF SS AC DK RS IS Cam_leu ● Cam_pol ● Cam_rob ● Cam_gua ● (n = 38) (n = 22) (n = 15) (n = 7) (n = 5) (n = 5) Sph_thy ● Sph_rub ● Sph_var ● Sph_nuc ● Picum_neb ● Picum_exi ● Picum_cir ● Picum_tem ● Drumming type Picum_ruf ● Picum_aur Supplementary Fig. 2. a, Normalized amount of information (i.e. normalized local mutual information values = MIL) in each woodpecker species’ drumming. The dashed red line indicates the averaged normalized mutual information across all species (i.e. the overall mutual information; n=92). The solid red line indicates the ceiling value of averaged normalized mutual information. b, Normalized MIL for each drumming type (box plots denote mean ± SE (boxes) and min/max values (whiskers)). The number of species drumming with a given type is indicated in brackets. Tests and significance levels are indicated as follows: (SF) significant difference with SF; (SS) significant difference with SS; (AC) significant difference with AC; (DK) significant difference with DK; (RS) significant difference with RS; (IS) significant difference with IS. Abbreviations without formatting indicate P < 0.05; abbreviations in bold indicate P < 0.005; abbreviations in bold and underscored indicate P < 0.001; P values are adjusted for multiple comparisons between groups (one-way ANOVA, Tukey post hoc test). 3 Permutation Test 250 150 Frequency 50 0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 Percent Correct Supplementary Fig. 3. Histogram of percent correct classifications for 1000 permutations runs of a permuted DFA (pDFA). This permutation test shows that the classification rate of 16.5% produced by the DFA is highly significant (p < 0.001; dashed line is the ‘chance’ level = 1/ number of species = 1.09%, and the actual value of 16.5% is far off the chart). 4 AncState = 1.075 Var = median_PC2 AncState = 1.621 Var = median_PC1 Dendropicos namaquus Dendrocoptes medius Dendropicos namaquus a Dendrocoptes medius b Picoides tridactylus Melanerpes aurifrons Picoides dorsalis Melanerpes carolinus Picoides tridactylus Melanerpes radiolatus Picoides arcticus Melanerpes aurifrons Melanerpes superciliaris Picoides dorsalis Dendropicos namaquus Melanerpes carolinus MelanerpesMelanerpes superciliaris radiolatus Picoides arcticus Dendrocoptes medius Melanerpes uropygialis Picoides tridactylus Melanerpes hoffmannii Melanerpes uropygialis Melanerpes aurifrons Picoides dorsalis Melanerpes carolinus Picoides arcticus Melanerpes pygmaeus Melanerpes hoffmannii Melanerpes radiolatus Melanerpes superciliaris Melanerpes pygmaeus Melanerpes flavifrons Dendropicos xantholophus Dendropicos pyrrhogaster Dendropicos fuscescens Dendrocopos hyperythrus Melanerpes uropygialis Dendrocopos noguchii Dendrocopos leucotos Melanerpes pucherani Dendrocopos major Melanerpes flavifrons Dendropicos xantholophus Dendropicos pyrrhogaster Melanerpes hoffmannii Dendropicos fuscescens Dendrocopos hyperythrus Dendrocopos syriacus Dendrocopos noguchii Dryobates minor Dendropicos xantholophus Dendrocopos leucotos Dendropicos pyrrhogaster Melanerpes pucherani Dendropicos fuscescens Melanerpes cactorum Melanerpes pygmaeus Dendrocopos major Dendrocopos hyperythrus Dryobates pubescens Dendrocopos syriacus Dendrocopos noguchii Dendrocopos leucotos Melanerpes formicivorus Dryobates scalaris Melanerpes cactorum Dryobates minor Dendrocopos major Dryobates nuttallii Melanerpes flavifrons Dryobates pubescens Dendrocopos syriacus Melanerpes erythrocephalus Melanerpes formicivorus Dryobates scalaris Dryobates minor Leuconotopicos borealis Melanerpes erythrocephalus Melanerpes pucherani Dryobates nuttallii Dryobates pubescens Leuconotopicos fumigatus Leuconotopicos borealis Dryobates scalaris Leuconotopicos albolarvatus Melanerpes cactorum Dryobates nuttallii Leuconotopicos fumigatus Melanerpes lewis Leuconotopicos villosus Melanerpes formicivorus Leuconotopicos albolarvatus Leuconotopicos borealis Leuconotopicos arizonae Leuconotopicos fumigatus Sphyrapicus nuchalis Melanerpes Melanerpeslewis erythrocephalus Leuconotopicos villosus Veniliornis affinis Leuconotopicos arizonae Leuconotopicos albolarvatus Sphyrapicus nuchalis Sphyrapicus ruber Veniliornis spilogaster Veniliornis affinis Leuconotopicos villosus Veniliornis cassini Leuconotopicos arizonae Sphyrapicus ruber Melanerpes lewis Veniliornis spilogaster Sphyrapicus varius Veniliornis passerinus Veniliornis cassini Veniliornis affinis Sphyrapicus nuchalis Sphyrapicus thyroideus Veniliornis nigriceps Sphyrapicus varius Veniliornis passerinus Veniliornis spilogaster Veniliornis callonotus Sphyrapicus thyroideus Sphyrapicus ruber Veniliornis nigriceps Veniliornis cassini Campephilus gayaquilensis Picumnus innominatus Veniliornis callonotus Sphyrapicus varius Veniliornis passerinus Picumnus nebulosus Campephilus gayaquilensis Picumnus innominatus Veniliornis nigriceps Campephilus melanoleucos Picumnus cirratus Sphyrapicus thyroideus Picumnus nebulosus Veniliornis callonotus Picumnus temminckii Campephilus melanoleucos Picumnus cirratus Campephilus guatemalensis Campephilus gayaquilensis Picumnus innominatus Picumnus rufiventris Picumnus temminckii Campephilus pollens Picumnus exilis Campephilus guatemalensis Picumnus nebulosus Campephilus melanoleucos Picumnus rufiventris Picumnus aurifrons Campephilus pollens Picumnus exilis Picumnus cirratus Campephilus robustus Sasia ochracea Campephilus guatemalensis Picumnus aurifrons Picumnus temminckii Sasia abnormis Campephilus robustus Sasia ochracea Campephilus rubricollis Micropternus brachyurus Campephilus pollens Picumnus rufiventris Meiglyptes tukki Sasia abnormis Picumnus exilis Campephilus rubricollis Micropternus brachyurus Campephilus leucopogon Meiglyptes tristis Campephilus robustus Picumnus aurifrons Gecinulus grantia Meiglyptes tukki Dinopium rafflesii Meiglyptes tristis Sasia ochracea Campephilus leucopogonCampephilus rubricollis Campephilus magellanicus Picus awokera Gecinulus grantia Picus canus Sasia abnormis Picus vaillantii Dinopium rafflesii Picus viridis Campephilus magellanicus Picus awokera Micropternus brachyurus Campephilus haematogaster Chrysophlegma mentale Campephilus leucopogon ChrysocolaptesCeleus grammicus lucidus Colaptes aurulentus Picus canus Colaptes auratus Colaptes punctigula Colaptes rubiginosus Meiglyptes tukki Colaptes melanochloros Picus vaillantii Celeus castaneus Picus viridis Meiglyptes tristis Campephilus haematogasterCampephilus magellanicus Chrysophlegma mentale Celeus flavus ChrysocolaptesCeleus grammicus lucidus Colaptes aurulentus Colaptes auratus Colaptes punctigula Gecinulus grantia Celeus spectabilis Colaptes rubiginosus Colaptes melanochloros Celeus castaneus Dinopium rafflesii Celeus elegans CampephilusCeleus haematogasterflavus Picus awokera Chrysocolaptes lucidus Celeus lugubris Celeus spectabilis Celeus grammicus Picus canus Picus vaillantii Celeus elegansCeleus castaneus Picus viridis Chrysophlegma mentale Celeus flavescens Celeus lugubris Colaptes aurulentus Celeus torquatus Celeus flavus Colaptes auratus Colaptes punctigula Celeus spectabilis Colaptes rubiginosus Colaptes melanochloros Dryocopus lineatus Celeus flavescens Dryocopus schulzi Celeus torquatus Celeus elegans Dryocopus pileatus Celeus lugubris Dryocopus javensis Dryocopus martius Dryocopus lineatusDryocopus schulzi Dryocopus pileatus Celeus flavescens DryocopusCeleus martius torquatus Dryocopus javensis Dryocopus lineatus Dryocopus schulzi −3.4 3.7 Dryocopus pileatus Dryocopus javensis Dryocopus martius −4 9.1 length=12 lambda =
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  • Interspecific Social Dominance Mimicry in Birds

    Interspecific Social Dominance Mimicry in Birds

    bs_bs_banner Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2014. With 6 figures Interspecific social dominance mimicry in birds RICHARD OWEN PRUM1,2* 1Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520-8150, USA 2Peabody Natural History Museum, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520-8150, USA Received 3 May 2014; revised 17 June 2014; accepted for publication 21 July 2014 Interspecific social dominance mimicry (ISDM) is a proposed form of social parasitism in which a subordinate species evolves to mimic and deceive a dominant ecological competitor in order to avoid attack by the dominant, model species. The evolutionary plausibility of ISDM has been established previously by the Hairy-Downy game (Prum & Samuelson). Psychophysical models of avian visual acuity support the plausibility of visual ISDM at distances ∼>2–3 m for non-raptorial birds, and ∼>20 m for raptors. Fifty phylogenetically independent examples of avian ISDM involving 60 model and 93 mimic species, subspecies, and morphs from 30 families are proposed and reviewed. Patterns of size differences, phylogeny, and coevolutionary radiation generally support the predic- tions of ISDM. Mimics average 56–58% of the body mass of the proposed model species. Mimics may achieve a large potential deceptive social advantage with <20% reduction in linear body size, which is well within the range of plausible, visual size confusion. Several, multispecies mimicry complexes are proposed (e.g. kiskadee- type flycatchers) which may coevolve through hierarchical variation in the deceptive benefits, similar to Müllerian mimicry. ISDM in birds should be tested further with phylogenetic, ecological, and experimental investigations of convergent similarity in appearance, ecological competition, and aggressive social interactions between sympatric species.
  • Hairy Woodpecker Picoides Villosus

    Hairy Woodpecker Picoides Villosus

    Hairy Woodpecker Picoides villosus Folk Name: Sapsucker Status: Resident Abundance: Uncommon to Fairly Common Habitat: Forests and heavily forested neighborhoods The Hairy Woodpecker is the larger doppelganger of the Downy Woodpecker, and the fine points of differentiating between the two are provided in the account of the Downy Woodpecker (just above). The Hairy was once considered “rather common” in the Central Carolinas, but its relative abundance appears to have slowly declined in many areas over the past century as development has increased. In Charlotte in 1944, Elizabeth Clarkson designated the Hairy Woodpecker as simply a permanent resident and noted the Downy as a “common” permanent resident. the Downy Woodpecker, in order to insure the long- Forty years later, the designation remained the same for term success of their breeding population. The Hairy the Downy while the notation for the Hairy was changed is able to survive in urban areas as wooded patches get to “declining in recent years.” smaller, but may not be able to survive for as long as the In The South Carolina Breeding Bird Atlas, published Downy, and may ultimately disappear. The presence of in 2003, John Cely examined Breeding Bird Survey route wooded riparian corridors and larger islands of wooded data from the state and wrote: “The Hairy Woodpecker habitat would be beneficial to the survival of the Hairy shows one of the most significant population declines Woodpecker in most urban and suburban areas. of any bird in South Carolina during the past 30 years.” (Cely also felt it important to note that the sample size was small and that regional populations were not exhibiting the same trend decline.) A look at recent BBS trend estimates for this species shows a continuing decline in South Carolina, and the trend is apparently flat, or “holding steady,” in North Carolina.