sign in sign up
<<
Home , Flesh (theology), Garden of Eden, Original sin

The Journal of in the Social Sciences

theories explain some but not all theories explain all crime. Opposing viewpoints from early criminological theory illustrate the shaky foundations of the criminological discipline. The classical school of criminology viewpoint is based on the of the offender, while the positivist school of criminology viewpoint is based on deterministic characteristics of the offender. As with most problems that theorists attempt to solve using opposite ends of a spectrum, neither can be completely accurate which means there must be some middle ground or alternative perspective that addresses the problem more fully. Though there is no “modern theory” – a theory posited within the last 500 years – that addresses the existence of criminality fully, there is a perspective that, when adopted, seems to address the root of criminal behavior. Prior to the establishment of the classical and positivist schools of criminology, a practical application of the supernatural theory of crime was the foundation for society. This supernatural perspective will be addressed later but it is the modern outgrowth of the Scriptural view of crime as specified within the pages of the Holy . Over time, the Scriptural view of crime gave way to the supernatural theory because the supernatural theory made it easier to punish & & The , Image Credit: Pixabay individuals who engaged in criminal activity. This article will discuss the Biblical support for the of man – also known as the nature and – as the root cause of criminal conduct. Herein, A Scriptural View of Crime the two terms, total depravity of man and sin nature, will be used interchangeably to refer to By Jared A. Linebach, Ph.D. the state of mankind as defined by . The term original sin will be used to refer to the Shorter University as described in Genesis 3. It should also be noted at the outset that the There are many perspectives on the discussion of the sin nature will be from view of man, particularly as it relates to the God’s perspective not from man’s depravity of man. The abundance of theories perspective. There are plenty of other on how and why people commit can theories that deal with the depravity of man easily be found in any criminological theories from man’s perspective. book. However, no single theory explains every act of social deviance. That is, all Defining : Imago Dei

25 Christus Cultura

bearers of God – they were as perfect as they, Humanity was created by God and for or we, would ever be. All of this was God. God created man from the dust of shattered after the temptation – not as a result earth and created woman from man on the of the temptation, but rather a result of sixth day of creation. This was the only time, yielding to the temptation – of during account, that God is at the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and recorded as identifying the whole of His work in the midst of the garden (Genesis 2-3, as “very good” (Genesis 1:31, ESV). When ESV). Moses records the creation account and provides God’s discussion with Himself about Defining Human Nature: Sin Nature the creation of man, he does so using some In order to begin to define the specific terms: “’Let us make man in our concept of the sin nature, original sin must image, after our likeness’” (Genesis 1:26, first be established. While the term “original ESV). The meaning of image and likeness sin” is found nowhere in the 66 books that has casually come to represent a physical make up the canon of Scripture – the Holy likeness to God. However, the real meaning Bible – original sin, as a concept, is well is a bit less obvious. established by the Apostle Paul. The concept The use of “our image” and “likeness” of original sin is one that begins in the in Genesis indicates a deeper meaning than beginning. Original sin, as described in physical likeness, especially since “God is Genesis 3, portrays the first man, Adam, and spirit” (John 4:24, ESV). It seems much more his female counterpart, Eve the suitable likely that being made in the helper, as having stepped outside the confines relates more to our moral, intellectual, and of God’s command. Adam and Eve ate of spiritual nature (Munyon, 1994). The image the hanging from the Tree of of God is more about who we are and less the Knowledge of . It made about something we have or something we do no difference to a Holy God that Adam and (Munyon, 1994). Eve were coerced or entrapped in this Another scholar describes the image temptation to consume the fruit by the of God as both a “natural and moral image” serpent. While the serpent reaped its own (Menzies & Horton, 1993, p. 84). The natural consequences by presenting the temptation, image encompasses the intellectual aspects of the act of disobedience against the Divine was the person, but elaborates to include elements committed freely by Adam and Eve. of personality, sensibility, and rationality. In One result of the original sin, Adam contrast, the moral image houses our will, our and Eve were forced to leave the freedom to make decisions. “Moral image in where God had originally placed them to live mankind is also the quality of our personality out their days. The original sin not only had that relates to the rightness or wrongness of geographic consequences, but it also had the use of our powers” (Menzies & Horton, physiological and psychological consequences. 1993, p. 85). It is this sense of right and The physiological consequences came in the wrong that allow us to relate to God. form of hard manual labor, pain in childbirth, These two perfectly formed first and – thought not immediate physical humans – Adam and Eve – came to reside in death. The psychological consequences came the . They enjoyed fellowship in the form of subjugation to one’s husband with God, walking with Him in the cool of and the realization that one would eventually the day. They enjoyed the fruit of the garden die. Original sin, while limited to the Garden and were allowed to eat of any of it except of Eden, has lasting consequences for all of that from one tree. They enjoyed perfect humanity. communion and communication with God in The original sin is only the starting that place. There, they were perfect image

26 The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences

The flow and purpose of these point for the conversation about the sin passages clearly indicate the divine nature. Just as with original sin, the terms sin conceptualization of the sin nature. Sin and nature or the total depravity of man are not the sin nature entered the human race through found in the Scriptures. However, just like Adam “in an abuse of the freedom given to original sin, the framework for understanding created beings equipped with a will” (Menzies the sin nature is abundantly clear. The & Horton, 1993, p. 87) and has been concepts of sin nature and total depravity can transmitted to every other human, making the be expressed in positive and negative terms. entire human race sinners and worthy of the “Negatively, it means that man, as a result of consequences for that sin: death (Romans the fall, has lost his and 6:23). The exact mode of transmission for the for God. Positively, it means that man’s sin nature is a mystery. Genetic transmission moral nature has become corrupted, and that and evolutionary development transmission he has an irresistible bias toward evil” are two posited modes of transmission. (Barabas, 1967, p. 213). Scripture gives no clear answer to the The notion of the sin nature is most question about how the sin nature is clearly expressed by the Apostle Paul in his propagated within the human race. What is writings. First, Romans 5 provides the known is that sin is an all-pervasive tendency clearest picture of the sin nature within man. which must be dealt with if the human race is A deeper analysis of passages to live as God intended. will be assessed later but Romans chapter five gives an excellent description of the Human Nature in the transmission of the sin nature. “Therefore, The Old Testament discusses the just as sin entered the world through one man characteristics of human nature. The account [Adam], and death through sin, and in this begins in Genesis 2 after the creation of all way death came to all men, because all things, to be discussed in greater detail later. sinned” (Romans 5:12, NIV). The Apostle The major theme relating to the sin nature in Paul’s point is expounded in five additional the Old Testament is that, since the original passages in Romans 5: sin of Adam – known simply as “the fall” – , • “the many died by the trespass of the the human race was and is sinful from before one man” (Romans 5:15, NIV) we were born. Psalm 51:1-5 states “Have • “the result of the one man’s sin: The mercy on me, O God, according to your judgment followed one sin and steadfast love; according to your abundant mercy blot out my transgressions. Wash me brought condemnation [to all]” thoroughly from my iniquity, and cleanse me (Romans 5:16, NIV) from my sin! For I know my transgressions, • “by the trespass of the one man, death and my sin is ever before me. Against you, reigned [from the time of Adam to the you only, have I sinned and done what is time of Moses; verse 14] through that evil in your sight, so that you may be justified one man” (Romans 5:17, NIV) in your words and blameless in your • “the result of one trespass was judgment. Behold, I was brought forth in condemnation for all men” (Romans iniquity, and in sin did my mother conceive 5:18, NIV) me” (ESV). The continue a few chapters • “through the disobedience of the one later to discuss the beginning of the human man the many were made sinners” sinful condition. Psalm 58:1-3 states “Do you (Romans 5:19, NIV) indeed decree what is right, you ? Do you judge the children of man uprightly? No, in

27 Christus Cultura

bring a clean thing out of an unclean? There your hearts you devise wrongs; your is not one” (ESV). While some of the earlier hands deal out violence on earth. The wicked passages provide a bit of when it comes are estranged from the womb; they go astray to remedying the , the from birth, speaking lies” (ESV). The theme passage seems to indicate that there is no of post-fall sinfulness from birth is clearly turning back from one’s sinfulness, or delineated. However, Isaiah provides a bit of uncleanness. As the sin nature is examined good news as it relates to our condition. through an Old Testament lens, there seems Isaiah 48:8-9 states “You have never heard, to be no permanent cure for the sin nature. you have never known, from of old your ear has not been opened. For I knew that you Human Nature in the New Testament would surely deal treacherously, and that from The Old Testament was the written before birth you were called a rebel. ‘For my Word of God prior to the incarnation of name's sake I defer my ; for the sake of which required a specific theme for my praise I restrain it for you, that I may not discussing the sin nature. As the New cut you off’” (ESV). Isaiah’s words illustrate Testament passages are assessed, it is clear that God is not pleased with our natural state, that a different theme can be, and must be, but He also does not desire to completely expressed by God. The major theme as it wipe us out as He did to humanity with the relates to sin nature in the New Testament is flood – except and his family. that there is a contrast between the sinful So, the sin of Adam and Eve lead to nature and the spirit that must be explored. their banishment from the Garden of Eden The Apostle Paul clearly delineates this theme and to the transmission of a broken nature to when he says: “For the desires of the are the rest of humanity. However, against the Spirit, and the desires of the Spirit Deuteronomy 24:16 explains: “Fathers shall are against the flesh, for these are opposed to not be put to death because of their children, each other, to keep you from doing the things nor shall children be put to death because of you want to do” (Galatians 5:17, ESV). Just their fathers. Each one shall be put to death as in the Old Testament, the term sin nature for his own sin” (ESV) and “In those days does not exist in the pages of the New they shall no longer say: ‘The fathers have Testament. However, the concept is certainly eaten sour grapes, and the children's teeth are carried over from the Old Testament set on edge.’ But everyone shall die for his framework. own iniquity. Each man who eats sour grapes, The New Testament does not spend his teeth shall be set on edge” (Jeremiah 31: time debating the merit or existence of a 29-30, ESV). Additionally, 18:20 sinful nature. Rather, the writers of the New states “The who shall die. The son Testament assume – work from the premise – shall not suffer for the iniquity of the father, that the sinful nature is a reality in the life of nor the father suffer for the iniquity of the all humanity. makes that point very son. The righteousness of the righteous shall clear in a discourse with a young rich ruler: be upon himself, and the wickedness of the “And as he was setting out on his journey, a wicked shall be upon himself” (ESV). These man ran up and knelt before him and asked three passages clearly explain the state of the him, “Good Teacher, what must I do to inherit human condition. Somehow the original sin eternal life?” And Jesus said to him, “’Why committed in Eden led to the sinfulness of do you call me good? No one is good except Adam and Eve, and it led to the inclination to God alone’” (Mark 10:17-18, ESV, emphasis commit sinful acts by their descendants. added). Christ was making a point to the The last concept to discuss before young man that goes beyond the scope of this moving to the New Testament passages can chapter, but nonetheless, Jesus is expressing be found in Job 14:4 which states “Who can

28 The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences

refers to the physical body but is using the the state of human nature: our nature is totally term in Romans 7 and 8 to describe the “seat corrupt, sinful. This utterly sinful nature to of wrong desire” (Marino, 1994, p. 278). which Jesus refers is completely contrary to Second, the flesh does what is evil (See his wholly holy nature. His nature – the result Romans 7:5; Galatians 5:17-21) and nothing of His divinity as evidenced by His good dwells there (Romans 7:18). Third, the conception by the and virgin birth Apostle Paul recognizes that a battle is raging – is one that is completely without blemish or within his being; a battle for control of the spot which is what made Him the perfect body and actions. contrast to the sinful nature. The Apostle Paul continues in the As has already been stated, the next chapter. “For those who live according consequences of that original sin have lasting to the flesh set their minds on the things of effects on all of us. Some of the ways in the flesh, but those who live according to the which all humans living today are affected by Spirit set their minds on the things of the that first sin include: Spirit. For to set the mind on the flesh is • that all humans are bound to Adam in death, but to set the mind on the Spirit is life some way (See Romans 5:12-21; 1 and peace. For the mind that is set on the Corinthians 15:21-22), flesh is hostile to God, for it does not submit • that all humans are completely unable to God's law; indeed, it cannot. Those who are in the flesh cannot please God” (Romans to impress God with our ability to do 8:5-8, ESV). The Apostle Paul is still using good (See Romans 3:23), and sarx to describe the flesh here, but is using • that all humans have been affected by phroneō for mind. The Apostle Paul is actually and have contributed to the using a word that means to think after or be universality of sin in that an adult with of a certain mind (Vine, 1996). a corrupt nature will produce The Apostle Paul’s usage in the New offspring with a corrupt nature (See Testament correlates closely with the Old Job 14:4; Matthew 7:17-18; Luke 6:43) Testament usage of lev or levav which refers to (Marino, 1994). heart, mind, and understanding. Taken together, the Old and New Testament terms The existence of the sin nature is not for mind/heart connote a place that can be refuted in the pages of the New Testament. corrupted (See Genesis 6:5; Deuteronomy However, the writers of the New Testament 15:9; Isaiah 29:13) but is not the seat of do focus on contrasting the two natures: the corruption within the human being (Marino, sinful nature and the spirit-lead nature. 1994). The prophet Jeremiah warns of the Romans 7:18-20 states “For I know that capabilities of the heart – the levav – in a nothing good dwells in me, that is, in my thematically appropriate verse for a theory of flesh. For I have the desire to do what is right, crime from a Scriptural standpoint: “The but not the ability to carry it out. For I do not heart is deceitful above all things, and do the good I want, but the evil I do not want desperately sick [or wicked]; who can is what I keep on doing. Now if I do what I understand it?” (Jeremiah 17:9, ESV). do not want, it is no longer I who do it, but sin that dwells within me” (ESV). Romans 7 The Two “” details the difference between the two natures. Fortunately for the whole of First, the sinful nature is one that resides in humanity, God did not leave us to flounder in the flesh though the body is not of itself evil. a state of total depravity. He made a way for The Greek word used for flesh is sarx. The us to rejoin Him and His family. Apostle Paul knows that sarx traditionally

29 Christus Cultura

the timeline found with the second and third And you were dead in the trespasses chapters of Genesis. Within the pages of and sins in which you once walked, Scripture, a chronological account is not following the course of this world, always given. However, almost always within following the prince of the power of a chapter or even a book of is the the air, the spirit that is now at work account provided chronologically. The details in the sons of disobedience—among found in chapters two and three of Genesis whom we all once lived in the are no different – they may be presented out passions of our flesh, carrying out the of chronological order but there is no way to desires of the body and the mind, and discern that based on the information were by nature children of wrath, like provided. Therefore, the best course of the rest of mankind. But God, being action is to take Scripture literally as it details rich in mercy, because of the great the account of . love with which he loved us, even when we were dead in our trespasses, Timeline of Genesis 2 and 3 made us alive together with Christ— Genesis 2 begins with a review of the rest by grace you have been saved. that God enjoyed after creating the whole of (Ephesians 2:1-5, ESV) the universe. In verse 7, we begin to see a more detailed account of the creation of man This passage contrasts the two and the events that followed. The account natures, but it also hints at a contrast between found in chapter 2, in order, are as follows: what has commonly been referred to as the • God formed man out of the dust of “two Adams”. “Thus it is written, ‘The first the earth and breathed life into his man Adam became a living being’; the last nostrils causing the man to become a Adam became a life-giving spirit. But it is not living soul. the spiritual that is first but the natural, and then the spiritual. The first man was from the • God planted a garden eastward in earth, a man of dust; the second man is from Eden and place the man within it. ” (1 Corinthians 15:45-47, ESV). It o Within the garden, all manner can be understood from this passage that the of trees and plants could be first Adam is the Adam of Genesis who was found. created in God’s own image yet partook of • God gave a decree to the man. the fruit of the Tree of the Knowledge of o The man could eat freely of Good and Evil condemning all of humanity to any tree within the garden. isolation from God. By contrast, the second The man was required to Adam, the as 1 Corinthians o avoid eating from one specific explains, is none other than Jesus Christ who tree: the tree of the knowledge came into this world to reconcile all of humanity back to God and heal our broken of good and evil. relationship with Him. o If man ate of the tree of the While many could recite the account knowledge of good and evil, of the creation from memory, it can often be he would surely die that day. described as the gist of the story rather than a • God recognized that Adam needed presentation of the details of that account someone to help him – it is not good found within the pages of Scripture. Far too for man to be alone. often, the details and precise order of events • God formed every manner of beast gets lost in our memory of the account. and fowl. He brought them before Understanding the comparison of the two Adams begins with a proper understanding of

30 The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences

• The eyes of the man and woman were the man who named each one, but opened, they recognized their none were found to be suitable as a nakedness, and they hid. helper. • The man and the woman made • God caused the man to enter a deep clothes out of fig leaves in an attempt sleep, took one of his ribs, and formed to cover their nakedness. woman from that rib. • God, in the cool of the day, comes At this point, things seem to be going calling in the garden for the man and really well. Adam has named all the beast of the woman. the field and all the fowl of the air. Adam has • The man explains that he hid from even been provided a wife, a helper, whom he God because he was afraid because he can enjoy. Both Adam and Eve are naked and was naked. are not ashamed of being so. They were • God inquires who told them that they innocent and without blemish at that time. were naked. They enjoyed all that the garden in Eden had to offer. However, chapter 3 of Genesis o Part of that inquiry is God’s begins with a description of the antagonist of asking if the man and woman the account. While the details found in ate of the forbidden tree’s chapter 2 are all initiated by and focused fruit. around God, the details of chapter 3 are • The man speaks up first placing the focused around the activities of man: there is blame on the woman, and indirectly a lesson in that. The main details, in order, of God, who gave him the fruit to eat. chapter 3 are as follows: • God turns to the woman who places • The serpent, who was more subtle the blame on the serpent who than all other beasts, speaks to the deceived her. woman saying “Did God actually say, ‘You shall not eat of any tree in the Consequences are placed on each of garden’?”. the three parties. The man gets his • The woman then corrects the serpent punishment, the woman gets her punishment, and the serpent gets his punishment. Despite identifying that they may eat of any passing blame onto someone else, everyone is tree in the garden except one. responsible for his or her own actions in this However, the woman does not quite account. quote God correctly either: “You shall not eat of the fruit of the tree that is in Contrasting Characteristics of the Two the midst of the garden, neither shall Adams you touch it, lest you die.” The first Adam, the one found in • The serpent then tells the woman that Genesis tending the garden, and the second she will not die, but that her eyes will Adam, the one foretold by the prophets and be opened and she will be like God. fulfilled in Christ, have some similarities. Both Adams were flesh and blood in the • Seeing that the fruit of the tree was image of God. Both Adams bore the good for food, the woman decided to consequences of sin and were sentenced to eat of the fruit. death. Both Adams were representatives for • The woman offered the fruit to the their respective natures: bringing life or death. man who decided to eat it. Both Adams engaged in one defining act that

31 Christus Cultura

Through the first Adam, the perfect altered the course of humanity. While these imago dei was broken. The whole of humanity similarities exist, the differences between the still resembles God’s image in some ways but two Adams are much more important in the does not perfectly resemble God’s image. discussion about the sin nature. The point the second Adam, Christ, was to The differences that exist between the reconcile humans back to God. We still do two Adams are not just slight differences. not perfectly resemble God, but, after the They seem to be diametrically opposed to one point of , God no longer sees the another; these differences are complete shortcomings of the individual when He looks opposites as they concern the whole of at him or her. Christ’s single act on the cross humanity. The differences are outline as of Calvary allowed for all of Adam’s follows: disobedience to be undone. That is the hope • The first Adam was form out of the of the : men no longer need to remain dust of the earth, while the second separated from God but rather can be Adam was sent from heaven (1 separated to God! Corinthians 15:47).

• The first Adam was made a living

being, while the second Adam was a

life-giving spirit (1 Corinthians 15:45). • The first Adam was characterized with disobedience, while the second Adam was characterized by obedience (Romans 5:19). • The first Adam transgressed (Hosea 6:7), while the second Adam was tempted in every way as we are but was without sin (Hebrews 4:15). • The first Adam was faithless (Hosea 6:7), while the second Adam was faithful (Hebrews 3:1-2). • The first Adam ushered sin into humanity (Romans 5:12), while the Image Credit: Pixabay second Adam ushered the no-strings- attached gift of into humanity (Romans 5:15-16). • The first Adam’s actions resulted in Significance to Criminological Theory death, while the second Adam’s While the discourse of Scripture actions resulted in resurrection provides a great deal of hope for the believer (Romans 5:17-18). regarding the sin nature, there is still a nature that pulls individuals toward sin or • The first Adam brought death to all lawlessness. This pull is described by the humanity, while the second Adam Apostle Paul in Romans: “For we know that brought life to all humanity (1 the law is spiritual, but I am of the flesh, sold Corinthians 15:21-22). under sin. For I do not understand my own actions. For I do not do what I want, but I do

32 The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences

is appropriate as outlined in Matthew 18:15- the very thing I hate” (Romans 7:14-15, ESV). 20. First, when a brother in Christ commits a The Apostle Paul recognized that even having wrong against an individual, the individual is a transformed life, accepting the gift of Christ to go and speak to the brother. If that is which is eternal life, is not sufficient to negate effective, the chain of correction ends. or obliterate the sinful nature swirling within However, when that is not effective in each person. Perhaps, then, the question that correcting the behavior, a small group of two should be asked is not “how is it that some or three go to speak with the brother in an engage in criminal activity”, but rather it attempt to correct the behavior. If that is should be asked: “how is it that some do not effective, the chain of correction ends. engage in criminal activity?”. However, when that is not effective, the Given the facts of Scripture, it would group grows to the entire congregation. The seem significantly more likely that one would whole of the local fellowship gets involved in engage in lawless, criminal, sinful acts rather the correction. The goal is not to shame the than actively avoid that kind of behavior. It brother into submission, but rather the goal is must be true that it is easier for humans to to help the brother recognize the err of his choose the sinful, lawless action as the ways and reconcile him back to the local Apostle Paul describes. However, God has fellowship and to God. established various institutions to help curb or The third sphere endowed with manage the urge to engage in criminal authority by God is the government. In the behavior. Some of those institutions are: the Old Testament, judges were used as family, the community, and the government. governing bodies for the people of Israel. God has established these spheres of However, the Israelites demanded a king like influence that people might be able to better other nations (1 Samuel 8:5-6). God granted live with one another. The smallest sphere is that request and in so doing gave authority to that of the family environment. The family the king over the people. Israel, and all other has a very clear chain of command in nations, have had godly, benevolent rulers, Scripture. First, the father is the head of the and they have all had ungodly, malevolent household, answerable to God for the rulers. The type of ruler really makes little spiritual direction of the family (Ephesians difference in his or her ability to exercise 6:4). Second, the wife is answerable to God authority over the people. “Let every person but also to her husband. She is to support her be subject to the governing authorities. For husband in his pursuit to establish a godly there is no authority except from God, and home and family (Ephesians 5:22-24). Third, those that exist have been instituted by God. children are to obey their parents (Ephesians Therefore whoever resists the authorities 6:1-3). The task of leadership over the resists what God has appointed, and those children rests with the father and mother. It who resist will incur judgment” (Romans is their job to ensure that children are directed 13:1-2, ESV). Those who fail to obey the and disciplined toward the right things. laws established by the governing authorities Scripture teaches: “Train up a child in the way will feel the wrath of that governing authority: he should go; even when he is old he will not “for he, [the governing authority], is God’s depart from it” (Proverbs 22:6, ESV). This servant for your good. But if you do wrong, be first sphere, the family, can go a long way afraid for the does not bear the sword in vain” toward curbing lawless, sinful acts in (Romans 13:4, ESV, emphasis added). The individuals. sword has often been used as an illustration The second sphere is that of for capital punishment; however, it is at least a community. This community might also be tool for discipline and correction, the point of referred to as the local fellowship, the which is to encourage people to act rightly – congregation. Therein, a specific progression

33 Christus Cultura

Jr. (Eds.), Vine’s complete expository that is, in accordance with God’s law. dictionary of Old and New Testament When these spheres of influence fail, words. Nashville, TN: Thomas individuals cave to the sinful nature within Nelson Publishers. them and criminal, lawless behavior can result. Various theoretical perspectives have merit when it comes to understanding why individuals commit crime. However, none of those theories even come close to an overarching, all-encompassing reason why crime exists. The acceptance that sinfulness is within everyone is the only explanation for all types and variations of criminal or deviant activity. The real choice is whether to take God at His Word.

References Barabas, S. (1967). Zondervan’s Pictorial Bible Dictionary. M. C. Tenney (Ed.). Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. Jeeves, M. A. (1976). Psychology & Christianity: The view both ways. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. Lamoureux, D. O. (2015). Beyond original sin: Is a theological paradigm shift inevitable? Perspectives on Science and Christian , 67(1), 35-48. Lee, J. & Theol, M. (2014). The human dark side: Evolutionary psychology and original sin. Journal of Religious Health, 53, 614-629. Marino, B. R. (1994). The origin, nature, and consequences of sin. In Editor S. M. Horton (Ed.), : Revised edition (pp. 255-290). Springfield, MO: Logion Press. Menzies, W. W. & Horton, S. M. (1993). Bible doctrines: A Pentecostal perspective. Springfield, MO: Logion Press. Munyon, T. (1994). The creation of the universe and humankind. In Editor S. M. Horton (Ed.), Systematic theology: Revised edition (pp. 215-253). Springfield, MO: Logion Press. Vine, W. E. (1996). An expository dictionary of New Testament words with their precise meanings for English readers. In Editors M. F. Unger and W. White,

34