Volume 7 No. 1/2013 Content

J. BALÁŠ, M. SMĚTÁKOVÁ, B. STREJCOVÁ, A. MARTIN 6 The effect of equipment weight on energy cost in ski-mountaineering

Z. HAVEL, H. KYNŠTOVÁ A comparison of the performance among female students of the specializations Outdoor Activities and Occupational Therapy in the motor tests at the 12 UJEP.

P. KORVAS, V.KRUPKOVÁ 20 Physiological and energy comparison of recreational horse riding

J. KRESTA Selected quality indicators measuring locomotor activity apparatus Adidas 26 miCoach Pacer

R. VOBR, P. BAHENSKÝ, P. POŽÁREK The influence of load intensity on the classic cross-country skiing technique 34 of students Faculty of Education South Bohemian University

M. MAŠEK, S. BARTŮŇKOVÁ, M. ŠTEFL, J. SUCHÝ 40 Scuba diving: reactivity of breathing gases

R. ŠINKOVSKÝ, P. DUŠKOVÁ 48 Issues of use of slackline in physical education

O. LOUKA Ground motion in the snow, firn and ice in course of winter alpine hiking 56 at Faculty of Education UJEP in Ústí nad Labem Content

J. BALÁŠ, M. SMĚTÁKOVÁ, B. STREJCOVÁ, A. MARTIN 6 The effect of equipment weight on energy cost in ski-mountaineering

Z. HAVEL, H. KYNŠTOVÁ A comparison of the performance among female students of the specializations Outdoor Activities and Occupational Therapy in the motor tests at the 12 UJEP.

P. KORVAS, V.KRUPKOVÁ 20 Physiological and energy comparison of recreational horse riding

J. KRESTA Selected quality indicators measuring locomotor activity apparatus Adidas 26 miCoach Pacer

R. VOBR, P. BAHENSKÝ, P. POŽÁREK The influence of load intensity on the classic cross-country skiing technique 34 of students Faculty of Education South Bohemian University

M. MAŠEK, S. BARTŮŇKOVÁ, M. ŠTEFL, J. SUCHÝ 40 Scuba diving: reactivity of breathing gases

R. ŠINKOVSKÝ, P. DUŠKOVÁ 48 Issues of use of slackline in physical education

O. LOUKA Ground motion in the snow, firn and ice in course of winter alpine hiking 56 at Faculty of Education UJEP in Ústí nad Labem Editorial Board

Editor-in-Chief Mgr. Martin Nosek, Ph.D., University of Jan Evangelista Purkyně in Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic

Members Assos.Prof. PaedDr. Ladislav Bláha, Ph.D., University of Jan Evangelista Purkyně in Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic Assoc. Prof. Ladislav Čepička, Ph. D., University of West Bohemia in Pilsen, Czech Republic Assoc. Prof. PaedDr. Tomáš Dohnal, CSc., Palacký University Olomouc, Czech Republic Assoc. Prof. Iván López Fernández, Ph. D., University of Malaga, Spain Prof. PaedDr. Karol Görner, Ph. D., Matej Bel University in Banská Bystrica, Slovak Republic Prof. Juris Grants, Ph. D., Latvian Academy of Sport Education, Riga, Latvia Nevin Harper, Ph. D., University of Victoria, Canada Mgr. Jan Hnízdil, Ph.D., University of Jan Evangelista Purkyně in Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic Assoc. Prof. PhDr. Soňa Jandová, Ph.D., Technical University of Liberec, Czech Republic Prof. PaedDr. Ján Junger, Ph. D., University of Prešov in Prešov, Faculty of Sports, Slovak Republic Assoc. Prof. PaedDr. Bronislav Kračmar, CSc., Charles´ University in Prague, Czech Republic Assoc. Prof. PaedDr. Pavel Korvas, CSc., Masaryk Univerzity, Czech Republic PaedDr. Oto Louka, CSc., University of Jan Evangelista Purkyně in Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic Assoc. Prof. Krzystof Prusik, Ph.D., Academy of Physical Education and Sport in Gdansk, Poland Assoc. Prof. PhDr. Jana Pyšná, Ph.D., University of Jan Evangelista Purkyně in Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic Prof. MUDr. Ladislav Pyšný, CSc., MBA, University of Jan Evangelista Purkyně in Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic Peter R. Rehor, Ph.D., Centre for Sport and Exercise Education at Pacific Institute for Sport Excellence and Camosun College, Victoria, Canada Assoc. Prof. PhDr. Jiří Suchý, Ph.D., Charles´ University in Prague, Czech Republic Mgr. Michal Šafář, Ph. D., Palacky University in Olomouc, Czech Republic Mgr. Roman Šinkovský, Ph.D., University of Pardubice, Czech Republic

Executive Editor Mgr. Martin Nosek, Ph.D., University of Jan Evangelista Purkyně in Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic

Design - layout Mgr. Michal Červenka, University of Jan Evangelista Purkyně in Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic address Mgr. Martin Nosek, Ph.D. Faculty of Education, University of Jan Evangelista Purkyně in Ústí nad Labem, České mládeže 8, 400 96 Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic e-mail: [email protected]

1RESEARCH PAPERS Editorial Board

Editor-in-Chief Mgr. Martin Nosek, Ph.D., University of Jan Evangelista Purkyně in Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic

Executive Editor Mgr. Martin Nosek, Ph.D., University of Jan Evangelista Purkyně in Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic

1RESEARCH PAPERS skiing, running and off-road biking. In non-com- After finishing the level section (6 min), the parti- The effect of equipment weight on petitive conditions, Tosi et al. (2009) found that the cipant had to start the slope ascent immediately efficiency of locomotion on mountaineering skis in- (6 min). Then, a rest of 15 minutes was allowed to creases with speed, up to a maximum of about 25% change equipment. The equipment was assigned energy cost in ski-mountaineering at a speed close to the self-selected value in the field. randomly during the three attempts. All participants In his previous study, Tosi et al. (2010) indicated that undertook all six conditions (three types of the ski- Jiří Baláš1, Martina Smětáková1, Barbora Strejcová1, Andrew Martin2 ski mountaineering appears slightly more energy de- -equipment at the level and inclined ski terrain). 1Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic manding than walking in similar conditions (packed 2School of Sport & Exercise, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand snow, 21 % gradient). The authors also found in the Ski equipment range of speed (0,93 – 1,25 m•s-1) considered in the Three equipment sets with different weight (light, Abstract study, a small contribution of ankle loading on the moderate and heavy) were used. The light equipment The aim of the study was to compare the effect of using ski-mountaineering equipment (skis, bindings, boots) of energy efficiency i.e., 1 kg of added weight to an 80 weighed 3200 g - boot 680 g (Scarpa alien Carbon, different weight on the energy cost of skiing locomotion. Six ski-mountaineers performed 6 randomly assigned kg equipped person only resulted in an increment of Italy, size 42), the binding 140 g (Montura Haereo, conditions (locomotion at level and at 20° slope with three sets of ski-mountaineering equipment of different about 2 % in energy cost. Italy) and ski 780 g (Sporten Guru, Czech Republic, weight) on natural snow. Repeated measures ANOVA was used to test the effect of the equipment on heart rate In competitive ski-mountaineering and in marke- 163 cm). The moderate equipment weighed 7754

cant effect (p < 0,001) of the ski equipment for all physiological variables (HR, VO2, VE, RER) on the 20° slope to reduce the energy cost of ascent. Common equi- binding 1327 g (Silvretta Pure, Germany) and the ski

and for VO2, VE (p < 0,05) on the level terrain. The relative contribution of weight (with respect to the total pment (skis, binding, boots) on the market usually 1450 g (K2 Superlight RLS,USA, 153 cm). The hea-

body weight) to the VO2 increase at the 20° slope can be expressed by the equation: % VO2 = 1,97 % weight. weighs from 6 kg to 10 kg, although race equipment vy equipment weighed 9600 g - boot 1430g (Scar- The current study showed a substantial effect of the equipment weight on the energy cost of ski-mountaineering. weighs less than 4 kg. The added weight of 0,5-2 kg pa Rush, Italy, size 42), the binding 2600 g (Marker on ankles (Tosi, et al., 2009) may not correspond to Duka, USA) and the ski 2070 g (K2 side stash, USA, Key words: the differences when using light and heavy equip- 188 cm). The same 100% natural mohair ski skin of energy cost, ski-mountaineering, equipment ment. Therefore, the aim of this current study was 150 cm length (Contour, Italy) was used for all three to compare the effect of the weight of different ski- ski sets. The length of the ski poles was set indivi- Souhrn -mountaineering equipment on the energy cost of dually so that the skier had a right angle at the el- Cílem studie bylo posoudit vliv skialpinistického vybavení (lyže, vázání, boty) s různou hmotností na ener- skiing locomotion. bow joint when the arms were parallel to the body getickou náročnost lokomoce na sněhu. Šest skialpinistů podstoupilo v náhodném pořadí 6 měření (chůze na in a standing position. All participants had similar lyžích po rovině a ve 20° svahu se třemi váhově rozdílnými skialpinistickými sety) v přírodních podmínkách. Methods body proportion and were able to use the equipment

lyžařského vybavení na všechny sledované fyziologické proměnné (HR, VO2, VE, RER) ve 20° a na VO2, VE Six ski-mountaineers (mean age 30,0 ± 5,5 years, Respiratory and heart rate analysis

na celkovou hmotnost lyžaře) lze vyjádřit regresní rovnicí: % VO2 = 1,97 % hmotnosti lyžaře. Tato studie gularly participating in ski-mountaineering com- carbon dioxide production (VCO2) were measured shledala významný vliv hmotnosti vybavení na energetickou náročnost skialpinismu. petitions volunteered in the study. All participants during the whole ski test by a portable breath-by- reported at least 5 years’ experience with ski-moun- -breath indirect calorimetry system (MetaMax®, Klíčová slova: taineering and were familiar with different equip- Cortex Biophysic, Germany). The MetaMax® was fi- energetická náročnost, skialpinismus, vybavení ment. Written informed consent was obtained from xed onto the chest by a provided harness. Before the all participants. The study received approval from testing, the device was calibrated with a known gas

Introduction -touring is practised on the same skis, but the overall the local ethics committee. mixture of 15 % O2 and 5 % CO2. Additionally, befo- Ski-mountaineering and ski-touring are the most difficulty of the terrain is easier than in ski-moun- re each test, the auto-calibration of ambient air and common names for a rapidly developing mountain taineering, so the use of the additional mountainee- Terrain measurements volume calibration according to the manufacturer’s activity on skis. The skis allow the ascent and descent ring equipment is not necessary. The terrain measurements were taken at a ski centre guidelines were performed. The volume calibration of non-groomed slopes thanks to a heel detachable Although locomotion on skis is common for count- at about 700 m above sea level on part of a groomed was performed using a 3 l syringe. Data were ave- binding and climbing skins. Ski-mountaineering is ries with cold winters, interest in medical aspects of 360 m long ski slope with mean inclination of 20˚ raged over 60 s intervals and the last minute from a competitive but also recreational activity traditi- ski-mountaineering has grown recently (Diaz et al., (variation from 18˚ to 22˚) and level 360 m long ski all testing conditions was taken for analysis. The re- onally connected to mountaineering. Competitive 2010; Duc, Cassirame, & Durand, 2011; Faulhaber, route. The ambient temperature varied between 2,2 spiratory exchange ratio was computed by dividing ski-mountaineering is organised by the International Flatz, & Burtscher, 2007; Schenk, Faulhaber, Gatte- and 3,2 ˚C and the snow temperature between -3,5˚ measured CO2 by measured O2. The heart rate (HR) Ski Mountaineering Federation (ISMF) and compe- rer, Burtscher, & Ferrari, 2011). Schenk et al. (2011) and -2,3˚ during the whole measurement. The ski was monitored through MetaMax® using a Polar titions are divided according to the duration of the consider competitive ski mountaineering as an ac- slope and ski route were marked by coloured plates heart transmitter belt (Polar Electro OY, Finland). race, number and length of the ascents/descents tivity with cardiopulmonary strain requiring a high every 30 m. The participants had to pass through (ISMF, 2012). Ski-mountaineers may use crampons, degree of physical fitness. Duc et al. (2011) suggest the section in 30 s, i.e. at a speed of 1 m•s-1. Every Data analysis ice-axes and ropes to overcome normally inaccessi- that ski-mountaineering can be viewed as one of the participants had a GPS (Garmin eTrex 20, USA) to The normality for all variables was tested by one ble areas, such as rock faces or steep ice slopes. Ski- most strenuous endurance sports like cross-country verify his speed. sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov goodness of fit. All

6 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 7 skiing, running and off-road biking. In non-com- After finishing the level section (6 min), the parti- The effect of equipment weight on petitive conditions, Tosi et al. (2009) found that the cipant had to start the slope ascent immediately efficiency of locomotion on mountaineering skis in- (6 min). Then, a rest of 15 minutes was allowed to creases with speed, up to a maximum of about 25% change equipment. The equipment was assigned energy cost in ski-mountaineering at a speed close to the self-selected value in the field. randomly during the three attempts. All participants In his previous study, Tosi et al. (2010) indicated that undertook all six conditions (three types of the ski- Jiří Baláš1, Martina Smětáková1, Barbora Strejcová1, Andrew Martin2 ski mountaineering appears slightly more energy de- -equipment at the level and inclined ski terrain). 1Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic manding than walking in similar conditions (packed 2School of Sport & Exercise, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand snow, 21 % gradient). The authors also found in the Ski equipment range of speed (0,93 – 1,25 m•s-1) considered in the Three equipment sets with different weight (light, Abstract study, a small contribution of ankle loading on the moderate and heavy) were used. The light equipment The aim of the study was to compare the effect of using ski-mountaineering equipment (skis, bindings, boots) of energy efficiency i.e., 1 kg of added weight to an 80 weighed 3200 g - boot 680 g (Scarpa alien Carbon, different weight on the energy cost of skiing locomotion. Six ski-mountaineers performed 6 randomly assigned kg equipped person only resulted in an increment of Italy, size 42), the binding 140 g (Montura Haereo, conditions (locomotion at level and at 20° slope with three sets of ski-mountaineering equipment of different about 2 % in energy cost. Italy) and ski 780 g (Sporten Guru, Czech Republic, weight) on natural snow. Repeated measures ANOVA was used to test the effect of the equipment on heart rate In competitive ski-mountaineering and in marke- 163 cm). The moderate equipment weighed 7754

(HR), oxygen consumption (VO2), ventilation (VE) and respiratory exchange ratio (RER). There was a signifi- ting this area, there is a trend to use the lightest gear g - boot 1100g (Scarpa F1 Race, Italy, size 42), the cant effect (p < 0,001) of the ski equipment for all physiological variables (HR, VO2, VE, RER) on the 20° slope to reduce the energy cost of ascent. Common equi- binding 1327 g (Silvretta Pure, Germany) and the ski and for VO2, VE (p < 0,05) on the level terrain. The relative contribution of weight (with respect to the total pment (skis, binding, boots) on the market usually 1450 g (K2 Superlight RLS,USA, 153 cm). The hea- body weight) to the VO2 increase at the 20° slope can be expressed by the equation: % VO2 = 1,97 % weight. weighs from 6 kg to 10 kg, although race equipment vy equipment weighed 9600 g - boot 1430g (Scar- The current study showed a substantial effect of the equipment weight on the energy cost of ski-mountaineering. weighs less than 4 kg. The added weight of 0,5-2 kg pa Rush, Italy, size 42), the binding 2600 g (Marker on ankles (Tosi, et al., 2009) may not correspond to Duka, USA) and the ski 2070 g (K2 side stash, USA, Key words: the differences when using light and heavy equip- 188 cm). The same 100% natural mohair ski skin of energy cost, ski-mountaineering, equipment ment. Therefore, the aim of this current study was 150 cm length (Contour, Italy) was used for all three to compare the effect of the weight of different ski- ski sets. The length of the ski poles was set indivi- Souhrn -mountaineering equipment on the energy cost of dually so that the skier had a right angle at the el- Cílem studie bylo posoudit vliv skialpinistického vybavení (lyže, vázání, boty) s různou hmotností na ener- skiing locomotion. bow joint when the arms were parallel to the body getickou náročnost lokomoce na sněhu. Šest skialpinistů podstoupilo v náhodném pořadí 6 měření (chůze na in a standing position. All participants had similar lyžích po rovině a ve 20° svahu se třemi váhově rozdílnými skialpinistickými sety) v přírodních podmínkách. Methods body proportion and were able to use the equipment

K vyhodnocení vlivu hmotnosti vybavení na srdeční frekvenci (SF), spotřebu kyslíku (VO2), ventilaci (VE) a without any mentioned limitation on ski technique. respirační poměr (RER) byla použita ANOVA s opakováním měření. Byl shledán významný vliv (p < 0,001) Participants lyžařského vybavení na všechny sledované fyziologické proměnné (HR, VO2, VE, RER) ve 20° a na VO2, VE Six ski-mountaineers (mean age 30,0 ± 5,5 years, Respiratory and heart rate analysis

(p < 0,05) při lokomoci na rovině. Nárůst VO2 ve 20° svahu daný navýšením hmotnosti vybavení (s ohledem body mass 69,5 ± 2,7 kg, height 1,74 ± 0,04 m) re- Minute ventilation (VE), oxygen uptake (VO2) and na celkovou hmotnost lyžaře) lze vyjádřit regresní rovnicí: % VO2 = 1,97 % hmotnosti lyžaře. Tato studie gularly participating in ski-mountaineering com- carbon dioxide production (VCO2) were measured shledala významný vliv hmotnosti vybavení na energetickou náročnost skialpinismu. petitions volunteered in the study. All participants during the whole ski test by a portable breath-by- reported at least 5 years’ experience with ski-moun- -breath indirect calorimetry system (MetaMax®, Klíčová slova: taineering and were familiar with different equip- Cortex Biophysic, Germany). The MetaMax® was fi- energetická náročnost, skialpinismus, vybavení ment. Written informed consent was obtained from xed onto the chest by a provided harness. Before the all participants. The study received approval from testing, the device was calibrated with a known gas

6 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 7 -1 -1 -1 data showed normal distribution. Descriptive sta- (p < 0,05) on the level terrain (Table 1, Figure 1a). Discussion king increases VO2 by 0,8 % (ml•kg •min •100g ). tistics (means, standard deviations) were used to Physiological values from all skiing conditions re- The objective of the study was to verify if the use In our case, the lightest equipment weighed 3160 g characterize the physiological response during the presented a steady state, except for the ascent with of competitive ski-mountaineering equipment has which means a 25% (3,4 ml•kg-1•min-1) increase in -1 ski tests. Repeated measures ANOVA was used to the heaviest equipment, where the values were an effect on energy expenditure in comparison with VO2 compared to walking and 77% (9,8 ml•kg •- assess the effect of the ski equipment. A linear re- also increasing during the last minute of measu- commonly used equipment. Three sets of equip- min-1) increase when using the heaviest equipment gression analysis was used to estimate the degree rement. With the heaviest equipment, skiers had ment were used for the study which may represent (9600 g), according to Miller and Stamford’s (1987) of correlation between the added weight and the RER higher than 1 and the increase in VE was not three different styles of ski-mountaineering: com- equation. Consequently, skiing on the level terra- oxygen increase. To control for Type-I error, the accompanied by a similar increase in VO2. Skiers petition set - the emphasis on a low weight of equi- in, without counting the added energy cost caused significance level was set to 0,05. All analyses were apparently achieved intensity over the ventilatory pment, ski touring – balance between comfortable by the weight of the equipment, appears similarly performed by the statistical software SPSS for Win- anaerobic threshold. ascent and descent, free ride – accent on the stabili- energy demanding as walking with poles. dows Version 20 (Chicago, IL, USA). We found a significant interaction of the20° slope ty during the descent. The slope inclination chosen The main strength and also limitation of the study and the ski equipment for VE (p < 0,001) and RER in the current study (20°) was higher than in similar is the measurement on natural snow in terrain con- Results (p < 0,001) but not for HR, VO2 (Fig. 1) confirming studies dealing with angle locomotion with poles ditions. The quality of snow may have considerable There was a significant effect (p < 0,001) of ski higher glycolytic demands and anaerobic contribu- with or without skis (Hansen & Smith, 2009; Tosi, et impact on energy cost of locomotion on the snow. equipment for all physiological variables (HR, tion with heavier equipment on the 20° slope than al., 2009). The idea was to simulate real conditions The friction during a diagonal stride technique and

VO2, VE, RER) on the 20° slope and for VO2, VE on the level terrain. where skiers try to overcome the altitude with the a double pole technique represented 10% to 50% of shortest, most economical and advantageous way energy expenditure (Saibene, Cortili, Roi, & Co- Table 1 Heart rate (HR), oxygen consumption (VO2), ventilation (VE) and respiratory exchange ratio (RER) (Jindra, Heppnar, & Vomáčko, 2012). lombini, 1989). The friction in ski-mountaineering in ski-mouintaineering with three equipment sets during level and 20° slope locomotion. The p-values re- The current study showed a substantial effect of skis is due to skins with hairs gripping the snow in present a significant effect of weight the equipment weight. The differences in 2VO con- the backward direction and sliding in the forward sumption were 10% between light and moderate direction. The effect of friction was not measured

Inclination Equipment HR VO2 VE RER equipment and 18% between light and heavy equi- in the current study, however, it seems desirable to (bpm) (ml•min-1) (l•min-1) pment on the slope. Tosi et al. (2009) proposed a include it in further studies to understand better 0° light 97 ± 9 1,18 ± 0,18 30,2 ± 5.0 0,83 ± 0,03 function of the percentage of added load, % weight, the biomechanical and physiological aspects of lo- with respect to the total (including ski, bindings comotion on the snow. moderate 103 ± 14 1,32 ± 0,12 32,5 ± 2,8 0,82 ± 0,02 and boots) weight of the subject at the 11,9° uphill heavy 106 ± 17 1,57 ± 0,27 37.6 ± 3,8 0,84 ± 0,04 ski locomotion: % energy cost = 1,71% weight. We Conclusion p < 0,05 p < 0,05 used the same idea at the 20 ° slope with the result: We found a significant effect of the equipment wei- % VO = 1,97% weight. The higher beta coefficient ght on the energy cost of ski-mountaineering. The 20° light 149 ± 11 3,08 ± 0,18 74,9 ± 9,0 0,89 ± 0,06 2 in our study may be explained by the steeper slope relative contribution of weight to the VO2 increase moderate 156 ± 12 3,38 ± 0,20 81,2 ± 6.2 0,89 ± 0,03 used as the work against gravity was higher. on the 20° slope can be expressed by the equation:

heavy 166 ± 11 3,63 ± 0,19 103,3 ± 13,9 1,01 ± 0,02 The locomotion on skis appears slightly more ener- % VO2 = 1,97 % weight. Locomotion on level terra- p < 0,001 p < 0,001 p < 0,001 p < 0,001 gy demanding than walking and snowshoeing in in seems to have similar oxygen cost as walking similar conditions (Tosi, et al., 2009). In the current with poles when we subtract the energy cost caused

study, the VO2 at the level terrain with the lightest by the equipment weight. -1 -1 The percentage of VO2 increase was expressed as a linear function of the equipment weight with respect to equipment was 17,0 ml•kg •min , s = 2,7, with the total body weight (Fig. 1b). We found a significant (n = 18, r = 0,75, p < 0,001) positive dependence of the heaviest equipment 22,6 ml•kg-1•min-1, s = 4.4. Acknowledgements

VO2 increase on added equipment weight: % VO2 = 1,97 • % weight. Figard-Fabre et al. (2009) found the average VO2 The study was supported by a grant from the Czech 14,1 ml•kg-1•min-1 during walking with poles at a Ministry of Education MSM 0021620864 and Spe- slightly faster speed (1,17 m•s-1). The added weight cific University research SVV 2013 - 265603, The of ski equipment may partially explain the higher authors would like to thank to Jan Heppnar for pro- oxygen uptake in skiing. Miller and Stamford (1987) viding the ski equipment, measurement facilities showed that added weight on the ankle at level wal- and technical advice.

References Diaz, E., Ruiz, F., Hoyos, I., Zubero, J., Gravina, L., Gil, J., et al. (2010). Cell damage, antioxidant status, and cortisol levels related to nutrition in ski mountaineering during a two-day race. Journal of Sports Science Figure 1a Oxygen uptake (VO2) during level and 20° slope ski-mountaineering with light, moderate and and Medicine, 9(2), 338-346. heavy equipment; 1b. Percentage increase of the oxygen consumption (VO2) as a function of heavier equip- Duc, S., Cassirame, J., & Durand, F. (2011). Physiology of Ski Mountaineering Racing. International Journal ment (% weight). Zero on the x axis represents the total weight of the skier with the lightest equipment used of Sports Medicine, 32(11), 856-863, (skis, bindings, boots) Faulhaber, M., Flatz, M., & Burtscher, M. (2007). Frequency of cardiovascular diseases among ski moun-

8 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 9 -1 -1 -1 data showed normal distribution. Descriptive sta- (p < 0,05) on the level terrain (Table 1, Figure 1a). Discussion king increases VO2 by 0,8 % (ml•kg •min •100g ). tistics (means, standard deviations) were used to Physiological values from all skiing conditions re- The objective of the study was to verify if the use In our case, the lightest equipment weighed 3160 g characterize the physiological response during the presented a steady state, except for the ascent with of competitive ski-mountaineering equipment has which means a 25% (3,4 ml•kg-1•min-1) increase in -1 ski tests. Repeated measures ANOVA was used to the heaviest equipment, where the values were an effect on energy expenditure in comparison with VO2 compared to walking and 77% (9,8 ml•kg •- assess the effect of the ski equipment. A linear re- also increasing during the last minute of measu- commonly used equipment. Three sets of equip- min-1) increase when using the heaviest equipment gression analysis was used to estimate the degree rement. With the heaviest equipment, skiers had ment were used for the study which may represent (9600 g), according to Miller and Stamford’s (1987) of correlation between the added weight and the RER higher than 1 and the increase in VE was not three different styles of ski-mountaineering: com- equation. Consequently, skiing on the level terra- oxygen increase. To control for Type-I error, the accompanied by a similar increase in VO2. Skiers petition set - the emphasis on a low weight of equi- in, without counting the added energy cost caused significance level was set to 0,05. All analyses were apparently achieved intensity over the ventilatory pment, ski touring – balance between comfortable by the weight of the equipment, appears similarly performed by the statistical software SPSS for Win- anaerobic threshold. ascent and descent, free ride – accent on the stabili- energy demanding as walking with poles. dows Version 20 (Chicago, IL, USA). We found a significant interaction of the20° slope ty during the descent. The slope inclination chosen The main strength and also limitation of the study and the ski equipment for VE (p < 0,001) and RER in the current study (20°) was higher than in similar is the measurement on natural snow in terrain con- Results (p < 0,001) but not for HR, VO2 (Fig. 1) confirming studies dealing with angle locomotion with poles ditions. The quality of snow may have considerable There was a significant effect (p < 0,001) of ski higher glycolytic demands and anaerobic contribu- with or without skis (Hansen & Smith, 2009; Tosi, et impact on energy cost of locomotion on the snow. equipment for all physiological variables (HR, tion with heavier equipment on the 20° slope than al., 2009). The idea was to simulate real conditions The friction during a diagonal stride technique and

8 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 9 taineers in the Austrian Alps. [Article]. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 28(1), 78-81. Figard-Fabre, H., Fabre, N., Leonardi, A., & Schena, F. (2009). Physiological and perceptual responses to Nordic walking in obese middle-aged women in comparison with the normal walk. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 108(6), 1141-1151. Hansen, E. A., & Smith, G. (2009). Energy Expenditure and Comfort During Nordic Walking with Different Pole Lengths. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 23(4), 1187-1194. ISMF. (2012). International Ski Mountaineering Federation - Sporting Rules & Regulations, Ranking Rules & Regulations. Retrieved 02/01, 2013, from http://www.ismf-ski.org/. Jindra, M., Heppnar, J., & Vomáčko, L. (2012). What speed and slope inclination should be chosen during ski-mountaineering. The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 52(Suppl. 1 to No. 6), 10-11. Miller, J. F., & Stamford, B. A. (1987). Intensity and energy cost of weighted walking vs running for men and women. [Article]. Journal of Applied Physiology, 62(4), 1497-1501. Saibene, F., Cortili, G., Roi, G., & Colombini, A. (1989). The energy-cost of level cross-country skiing and the effect of the friction of the ski. [Article]. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 58(7), 791-795. Schenk, K., Faulhaber, M., Gatterer, H., Burtscher, M., & Ferrari, M. (2011). Ski Mountaineering Competi- tion: Fit for It? Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine, 21(2), 114-118. Tosi, P., Leonardi, A., & Schena, L. (2009). The energy cost of ski mountaineering: effects of speed and ankle loading. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 49(1), 25-29. Tosi, P., Leonardi, A., Zerbini, L., Rosponi, A., & Schena, F. (2010). Energy cost and efficiency of ski mountaineering. A laboratory study. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 50(4), 400-406.

Author: Mgr. Jiří Baláš, Ph.D, email:[email protected]

10 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 11 taineers in the Austrian Alps. [Article]. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 28(1), 78-81. Figard-Fabre, H., Fabre, N., Leonardi, A., & Schena, F. (2009). Physiological and perceptual responses to Nordic walking in obese middle-aged women in comparison with the normal walk. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 108(6), 1141-1151. Hansen, E. A., & Smith, G. (2009). Energy Expenditure and Comfort During Nordic Walking with Different Pole Lengths. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 23(4), 1187-1194. ISMF. (2012). International Ski Mountaineering Federation - Sporting Rules & Regulations, Ranking Rules & Regulations. Retrieved 02/01, 2013, from http://www.ismf-ski.org/. Jindra, M., Heppnar, J., & Vomáčko, L. (2012). What speed and slope inclination should be chosen during ski-mountaineering. The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 52(Suppl. 1 to No. 6), 10-11. Miller, J. F., & Stamford, B. A. (1987). Intensity and energy cost of weighted walking vs running for men and women. [Article]. Journal of Applied Physiology, 62(4), 1497-1501. Saibene, F., Cortili, G., Roi, G., & Colombini, A. (1989). The energy-cost of level cross-country skiing and the effect of the friction of the ski. [Article]. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 58(7), 791-795. Schenk, K., Faulhaber, M., Gatterer, H., Burtscher, M., & Ferrari, M. (2011). Ski Mountaineering Competi- tion: Fit for It? Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine, 21(2), 114-118. Tosi, P., Leonardi, A., & Schena, L. (2009). The energy cost of ski mountaineering: effects of speed and ankle loading. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 49(1), 25-29. Tosi, P., Leonardi, A., Zerbini, L., Rosponi, A., & Schena, F. (2010). Energy cost and efficiency of ski mountaineering. A laboratory study. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 50(4), 400-406.

Author: Mgr. Jiří Baláš, Ph.D, email:[email protected]

10 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 11 Similar components were identified by Haskell (1985). level of motor abilities of Occupation therapy stu- A comparison of the performance His health-related fitness components are: aerobic fit- dents, a college students, compared to general po- ness, muscular fitness – maximal muscular strength pulation. and endurance, flexibility and body composition. The aim of the study is to contribute to the expansi- among female students of the In this paper we compare the level of performance on of knowledge about the level of motor skills of PF (fitness) of female students of Outdoor Activities female students of Outdoor Activities and students (OA), study program of Physical Education and of Fakulty of Health Studies UJEP, represented by specializations Outdoor Activities Sport (PES) with female students of Occupation the- female students of Occupational Therapy. rapy, study program of Specialization in health. We are convinced that the OA group is a specific one, Methodology of the study and Occupational Therapy in the which is next to the health related fitness focused more on performance related fitness. Female college Hypothesis of the study: students of Occupation therapy are expected to pre- 1. the first year students of Outdoor Activities motor tests at the UJEP. fer health related fitness. (PES) will have a higher level of motor skills In the published article „Motor tests for admitting than students of Occupational Therapy. Zdeněk Havel, Hana Kynštová students branch outdoor activities“ (Hnízdil & Ha- 2. the motor abilities level of Occupational thera- Fakulty of Health Studies, Jan Evangelista Purkyně University, Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic vel, 2011, 16) we investigated motor skills level of py students will be higher in comparison with PES students in comparison with general populati- general population. Abstract on. When determining the level of motor skills, we According to the results mentioned in the pub- The aim of the study is to contribute to the widening of knowledge concerning the motor abilities among were aware that motor skills are not directly measu- lication Hnízdil & Havel (2011, 16), we used the the female students of Outdoor Activities at the PF and Occupational Therapy at the FZS. For our rese- rable (Měkota & Novosad, 2005, 23) and that their same standardized tests as in 2011. arch, two questions have been asked. First, what is the difference in the level of motor abilities between the level is inferred by the indicators, which in this case 1. Somatic measurements: body height, body wei- female students of the above mentioned specializations and second, what is the level of motor abilities of were motor tests. This is why we selected tests which ght and calculated BMI the students of Occupational Therapy, i.e. college students, compared to general population? The results do not infer only to motor skills but also to health- 2. Strength capability: both hands throw of full showed that in all the measured tests, the sample of Outdoor Activities reveals higher averages and apart -related physical fitness. 2kg heavy ball, forward jump from standing from flexibility, also higher medians. It has also been demonstrated, that again apart from flexibility, it The female students of OA reached values of gene- position with legs together, pull-ups on a hori- proves a statistical significance at the 0,01 level in favour of the Outdoor Activities. The presumption, that ral population in – bleep test, forward jump from zontal bar, endurance in pull up on a horizontal the students of Occupational Therapy will have a higher level of motor abilities than the general population standing position and deep bend in a sitting positi- bar, sit-ups repeatedly for one minute was not confirmed. on. Above-standard values were reached by students 3. Flexibility: joint agility – deep bend in sitting in – endurance in pull-up on horizontal bar, sit-ups position Key words: repeatedly for one minute, both hands throw of full 4. Coordination skills: Iowa brace test as a test of Outdoor activities, occupational therapy, measuring and testing, motor abilities, performance, fitness 2kg heavy ball, aerobic fitness – Katch-McArdle Step coordination abilities (Čepička, 1999; Štěpnič- Test and Iowa Brace test. ka, 1976) Souhrn We asked two questions in our research. The first, 5. Endurance capability: bleep test Cílem studie je přispět k rozšíření poznatků o úrovni motorických schopností studentek oboru AVP PF a what is the difference in the level of motor skills 6. Aerobic fitness:”Katch-McArdle Step test”, ra-

studentek FZS UJEP, reprezentované studentkami Ergoterapie. Pro naše sdělení jsme si položili dvě otázky. between female students of PES and female students ted by the maximum oxygen consumption, VO2 První, jaký je rozdíl v úrovni motorických schopností mezi studentkami obou oborů a druhou, jaká je úroveň of Occupation therapy and the second, what is the max, see Table 1 (Pollock & Wi1more, 1990). motorických schopností studentek Ergoterapie, tedy studentek VŠ, ve srovnání s obecnou populací. Z výsledků vyplynulo, že u všech měřených testů má soubor AVP vyšší průměry a kromě flexibility i mediány a že kromě Table 1 Classification of aerobic capacity for women 20 – 29 years old. flexibility se jedná o statistickou významnost na hladině 0,01 ve prospěch AVP. Nepotvrdil se předpoklad, že studentky (VŠ) oboru Ergoterapie ve srovnání s obecnou populací budou mít vyšší úroveň motorických schop- Level Low Bellow Average Above High ností než obecná populace. the standard the standard Women <29 29 – 34 35 - 40 41 - 46 >46 Klíčová slova: Aktivity v přírodě, ergoterapie, měření a testování, pohybové schopnosti, výkonnost, zdatnost All tests were taken from the literature. The basic li- which is described in the literature Komeštík (1995), Introduction By Bunce (1998), when evaluating the level of heal- terature was „Unifittest (6 - 60) Měkota, Kovář, et al., including its standards. The level of physical performance and implied phys- th-related fitness, it is required to consider two basic (1996)”. Measuring and testing took place according ical fitness are essential for health of every individual areas: to the manual referred in this literature. The excep- Characteristics of the sample and his lifestyle. Physical fitness is according to Bun- 1. structural factors: height, weight, body compo- tion was Katch-McArdle Step Test from which we The research sample consisted of first-year fema- ce (1995) divided with respect to its impact on: sition infer aerobic fitness from and therefore we include le students of study fields Outdoor activities and 1. health-related physical fitness 2. functional factors: cardio-respiratory enduran- also its evaluation. The second exception was the Occupational therapy. The students of OA gain 2. performance-related physical fitness ce, muscular strength, endurance and flexibility. test of throwing 2kg heavy full ball with both hands, knowledge and acquire skills that will enable them

12 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 13 Similar components were identified by Haskell (1985). level of motor abilities of Occupation therapy stu- A comparison of the performance His health-related fitness components are: aerobic fit- dents, a college students, compared to general po- ness, muscular fitness – maximal muscular strength pulation. and endurance, flexibility and body composition. The aim of the study is to contribute to the expansi- among female students of the In this paper we compare the level of performance on of knowledge about the level of motor skills of PF (fitness) of female students of Outdoor Activities female students of Outdoor Activities and students (OA), study program of Physical Education and of Fakulty of Health Studies UJEP, represented by specializations Outdoor Activities Sport (PES) with female students of Occupation the- female students of Occupational Therapy. rapy, study program of Specialization in health. We are convinced that the OA group is a specific one, Methodology of the study and Occupational Therapy in the which is next to the health related fitness focused more on performance related fitness. Female college Hypothesis of the study: students of Occupation therapy are expected to pre- 1. the first year students of Outdoor Activities motor tests at the UJEP. fer health related fitness. (PES) will have a higher level of motor skills In the published article „Motor tests for admitting than students of Occupational Therapy. Zdeněk Havel, Hana Kynštová students branch outdoor activities“ (Hnízdil & Ha- 2. the motor abilities level of Occupational thera- Fakulty of Health Studies, Jan Evangelista Purkyně University, Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic vel, 2011, 16) we investigated motor skills level of py students will be higher in comparison with PES students in comparison with general populati- general population. Abstract on. When determining the level of motor skills, we According to the results mentioned in the pub- The aim of the study is to contribute to the widening of knowledge concerning the motor abilities among were aware that motor skills are not directly measu- lication Hnízdil & Havel (2011, 16), we used the the female students of Outdoor Activities at the PF and Occupational Therapy at the FZS. For our rese- rable (Měkota & Novosad, 2005, 23) and that their same standardized tests as in 2011. arch, two questions have been asked. First, what is the difference in the level of motor abilities between the level is inferred by the indicators, which in this case 1. Somatic measurements: body height, body wei- female students of the above mentioned specializations and second, what is the level of motor abilities of were motor tests. This is why we selected tests which ght and calculated BMI the students of Occupational Therapy, i.e. college students, compared to general population? The results do not infer only to motor skills but also to health- 2. Strength capability: both hands throw of full showed that in all the measured tests, the sample of Outdoor Activities reveals higher averages and apart -related physical fitness. 2kg heavy ball, forward jump from standing from flexibility, also higher medians. It has also been demonstrated, that again apart from flexibility, it The female students of OA reached values of gene- position with legs together, pull-ups on a hori- proves a statistical significance at the 0,01 level in favour of the Outdoor Activities. The presumption, that ral population in – bleep test, forward jump from zontal bar, endurance in pull up on a horizontal the students of Occupational Therapy will have a higher level of motor abilities than the general population standing position and deep bend in a sitting positi- bar, sit-ups repeatedly for one minute was not confirmed. on. Above-standard values were reached by students 3. Flexibility: joint agility – deep bend in sitting in – endurance in pull-up on horizontal bar, sit-ups position Key words: repeatedly for one minute, both hands throw of full 4. Coordination skills: Iowa brace test as a test of Outdoor activities, occupational therapy, measuring and testing, motor abilities, performance, fitness 2kg heavy ball, aerobic fitness – Katch-McArdle Step coordination abilities (Čepička, 1999; Štěpnič- Test and Iowa Brace test. ka, 1976) Souhrn We asked two questions in our research. The first, 5. Endurance capability: bleep test Cílem studie je přispět k rozšíření poznatků o úrovni motorických schopností studentek oboru AVP PF a what is the difference in the level of motor skills 6. Aerobic fitness:”Katch-McArdle Step test”, ra- studentek FZS UJEP, reprezentované studentkami Ergoterapie. Pro naše sdělení jsme si položili dvě otázky. between female students of PES and female students ted by the maximum oxygen consumption, VO2 První, jaký je rozdíl v úrovni motorických schopností mezi studentkami obou oborů a druhou, jaká je úroveň of Occupation therapy and the second, what is the max, see Table 1 (Pollock & Wi1more, 1990). motorických schopností studentek Ergoterapie, tedy studentek VŠ, ve srovnání s obecnou populací. Z výsledků vyplynulo, že u všech měřených testů má soubor AVP vyšší průměry a kromě flexibility i mediány a že kromě Table 1 Classification of aerobic capacity for women 20 – 29 years old. flexibility se jedná o statistickou významnost na hladině 0,01 ve prospěch AVP. Nepotvrdil se předpoklad, že studentky (VŠ) oboru Ergoterapie ve srovnání s obecnou populací budou mít vyšší úroveň motorických schop- Level Low Bellow Average Above High ností než obecná populace. the standard the standard Women <29 29 – 34 35 - 40 41 - 46 >46 Klíčová slova: Aktivity v přírodě, ergoterapie, měření a testování, pohybové schopnosti, výkonnost, zdatnost All tests were taken from the literature. The basic li- which is described in the literature Komeštík (1995), Introduction By Bunce (1998), when evaluating the level of heal- terature was „Unifittest (6 - 60) Měkota, Kovář, et al., including its standards. The level of physical performance and implied phys- th-related fitness, it is required to consider two basic (1996)”. Measuring and testing took place according ical fitness are essential for health of every individual areas: to the manual referred in this literature. The excep- Characteristics of the sample and his lifestyle. Physical fitness is according to Bun- 1. structural factors: height, weight, body compo- tion was Katch-McArdle Step Test from which we The research sample consisted of first-year fema- ce (1995) divided with respect to its impact on: sition infer aerobic fitness from and therefore we include le students of study fields Outdoor activities and 1. health-related physical fitness 2. functional factors: cardio-respiratory enduran- also its evaluation. The second exception was the Occupational therapy. The students of OA gain 2. performance-related physical fitness ce, muscular strength, endurance and flexibility. test of throwing 2kg heavy full ball with both hands, knowledge and acquire skills that will enable them

12 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 13 to manage fitness activities for a broad population of their own investigations. During their theoretical Table 4 Statistical characteristics of somatic features and tests of Occupational therapy students groups in various parts of society independently, and practical education they acquire skills and com- professionally, safely and economically. Their speci- petences for implementation of occupational thera- Tests x SD Me Mo R alized field of study is complemented by wide range py screenings for an analysis of the patient activities, BMI 22,12 3,30 21,8 23,23 14,56 of practical disciplines of the sciences, which enab- sensomotor evaluation, mobility and locomotion, Stage 2,41 1,06 2 1,5 4,5 le graduates to perform physical activities in a wide for screening tests of cognitive function in relation range of natural conditions. to the analysis of routine daily activities. VO2 max 38,59 3,20 39,21 39,21 13,30 Students of Occupational therapy acquire knowledge The sample was consisted of 13 students of Outdoor Throw 576,76 109,04 540 510 460 that allows them application of specialized occupa- activities and 37 students of Occupational therapy. Long jump fwd 144,16 28,16 145 145 128 tional therapy methods and procedures to provide The age is given to the date of measurement with an health care. In practice, they suggest optimal oc- accuracy of one month (Table 2). The measurement Chin endurance 12,70 5,60 12 9 25 cupational therapy on the basis of indications, re- and testing took place in April and October of 2011 Sit-ups 27,41 6,28 26 25 24 commended medical procedures and on the basis and 2012 in the sports hall UJEP. Flexibility 26,41 7,15 27 23 35 IBT - - 14 11 16 Table 2 The average age (x) and number (n) of students

Outdoor activities x 19,7 Motor tests standing position with legs together, sit-ups repea- n 13 The OA sample has higher averages in all measured tedly for one minute, endurance in pull-up on the tests besides flexibility also medians (Tables 3 and trapeze, bleep test, aerobic fitness – Katch-McArdle Occupational therapy x 19,8 4). Statistical significance in favor of OA (Table 5) Step Test. The difference between samples in flexibi- n 37 is significant at the level 0,01 for tests: both hands lity test is very small, both averages and medians are throw of 2kg heavy full ball, jump forward from nearly identical. Statistical processing test values are compared by Mann-Whitney U test For statistical evaluation of the data we used the and - test. Table 5 Comparison of test scores of OA students and Occupational therapy students program Statistica. We performed the following statistical calculations: basic statistical characteristics Body composition Tests t - test ω2,d – v % of position and variability (arithmetic average, stan- Body weight and height were assessed as somatic in- BMI 0,52 - dard deviation, Me, Mo, R – variation range), t- test dicators to calculate BMI. The derived value of BMI Stage **11,44 72,61 for independent samples, Mann Whitney U test, - (Table 3 and 4) informs us whether the body weight test, and for substantive significance d, , . corresponds to the height or whether it is excessi- VO2 max **3,93 22,77 ve or reduced. By calculating the average values of Throw **6,17 43,07 Results BMI we found out that both samples are according Long jump forward **5,63 38,52 The results and values of Iowa Brace test are shown to Riegrová & Ulbrichová (1993) rated as “normal in tables 3-6. The average values of BMI and motor value”. The values of all statistical characteristics, Chin endurance *3,94 24,37 tests of both women samples were compared by t- with exception of variation range (R), differs in both Sit-ups **10,56 69,28 test for independent samples (Table 5). Iowa Brace samples very slightly, it is not statistical significance. Flexibility 0,20 - IBT p-level = 0,006528 78,52 Table 3 Statistical characteristics of somatic features and tests of OA students Significance level of t-test *) 0,05 = 2,012 , **) 0,01 = 2,684 Tests x SD Me Mo R Cohens coefficient - d = 0,7852 – the middle effect BMI 22,54 1,97 22,97 6,6 By comparing the average values of individual tests pull-up on the trapeze test they reached the average Stage 6,66 1,30 6,75 7 4,5 performed by students of Occupational therapy with of their age category. According to Pollock & Wi-

VO2 max 45,91 10,05 44 44 40 values of general population referred to in the litera- 1more (1990) they also reached the average values Throw 800,83 110,57 825 690 370 ture “Unifittest (6-60) Měkota, Smith, et al., (1996), in aerobic fitness – Katch-McArdle Step test. The Long jump fwd 204,5 43,03 200 200 148 we find out that performance of this sample is re- resulting averages of both hand throwing 2kg heavy latively poor. The lowest level was reached in bleep full ball and deep bend in sitting position also reach Chin endurance 31,17 15,94 31,5 50 48 test, for their average did not reached on average of 6 average values of their ages according to standards Sit-ups 48,33 4,75 48 48 15 year old girls. In forward jump from standing positi- of Komeštík (1995) Flexibility 26,87 6,50 26 26 25 on with legs together test students reached only the average of 9 years old girls and their performance Iowa Brace test IBT - - 16,5 18 6 in sit-ups for one minute repeatedly reached to the In Tables 3 and 4 there are result values of Iowa average of 10 years old girls. Only in endurance in Brace test within the scope of evaluated battery,

14 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 15 to manage fitness activities for a broad population of their own investigations. During their theoretical Table 4 Statistical characteristics of somatic features and tests of Occupational therapy students groups in various parts of society independently, and practical education they acquire skills and com- professionally, safely and economically. Their speci- petences for implementation of occupational thera- Tests x SD Me Mo R alized field of study is complemented by wide range py screenings for an analysis of the patient activities, BMI 22,12 3,30 21,8 23,23 14,56 of practical disciplines of the sciences, which enab- sensomotor evaluation, mobility and locomotion, Stage 2,41 1,06 2 1,5 4,5 le graduates to perform physical activities in a wide for screening tests of cognitive function in relation range of natural conditions. to the analysis of routine daily activities. VO2 max 38,59 3,20 39,21 39,21 13,30 Students of Occupational therapy acquire knowledge The sample was consisted of 13 students of Outdoor Throw 576,76 109,04 540 510 460 that allows them application of specialized occupa- activities and 37 students of Occupational therapy. Long jump fwd 144,16 28,16 145 145 128 tional therapy methods and procedures to provide The age is given to the date of measurement with an health care. In practice, they suggest optimal oc- accuracy of one month (Table 2). The measurement Chin endurance 12,70 5,60 12 9 25 cupational therapy on the basis of indications, re- and testing took place in April and October of 2011 Sit-ups 27,41 6,28 26 25 24 commended medical procedures and on the basis and 2012 in the sports hall UJEP. Flexibility 26,41 7,15 27 23 35 IBT - - 14 11 16 Table 2 The average age (x) and number (n) of students

14 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 15 median, modus and variation range. The OA samp- α0,01. It is a statistical significance with a medium body exercises, items 1 and 9 can be also conside- ward jump from standing position with both legs le has relatively high median and modus but lower effect but significant percentage (75,52). According red as flexibility test. In table 3 and 4 there are re- together, endurance in pull-up on a horizontal bar variation range. The values of Iowa Brace test are to standards of Komeštík (1995) in the tab. 6 and sult values of Iowa Brace test, median, modus and by reverse grasp, sit-ups repeatedly for one minute, compared by Mann Whitney U test (Table 5). We χ2 - test calculations, we can confirm higher per- variation range. The fulfillment of Komeštík (1995) deep bend in sitting position, Iowa Brace test and we found statistical significance between our sam- formance of OA students at the level of significance standards by individual students is in table 6. Měko- calculated BMI. ples in favor of the OA group on significance level χ2 0,05. ta and Novosad (2005) state that maximal capacity The results showed: of coordination abilities is reached in the period of a) the calculated average BMI value is according to Table 6 Iowa-Brace test evaluation of samples according to Komeštík (1995) 20 to 30 years of age. The results indicate that 34% of Riegerová and Ulbrichtová (1993) “normal” for both Occupational therapy students failed the test and we files (tables 3 and 4). We can claim that body compo- Study field Bad Good Excellent χ2-test η2 can deduce low development of coordination skills sition of both samples is consistent with the average OA 0 6 7 7,546 0,094 in physical education during previous studies. of general population and at the same time it confir- The results of motor skills tests and resulting heal- ms that college students control their weight. Occupational 12 17 8 th-related physical fitness have changed our opini- b) the OA sample have higher averages in all tests therapy on about university students, when we taught that and, with exception of flexibility, also medians (tab- Excellent - > 16 points, Good 13-16 points, bad < 13 points. χ2 0,05 = 5,368 they care about physical activity and strive for some les 3 and 4). Statistical significance (table 5) in favor (Komeštík, 1995) fitness. The level of basic motor performance of stu- of OA group is significant at level 0,01 for all tests dents studying medical degree course, where they besides flexibility, where both average and median Discussion evidenced by high percentage of substantive significa- are taught the importance of physical activity for are nearly identical. The students of Physical education and sport are ex- nce. But we did not expect Occupational therapy stu- healthy lifestyle in a number specialized subjects, is c) our hypothesis that students of Occupational the- pected to have good to excellent level of motor skills. dents to have very low level in some tests (table 3). On striking. The only mitigating factor is that we tested rapy will have higher level of motor skills than the This is of course applied to the students of OA. As the basis of experience with bleep test, we tried to mo- the first year students. general population was not confirmed. The compa- mentioned in the introduction, we found out that tivate students to the limit but the results showed that rison of average test scores (bleep test, forward jump students of OA reached the average values of general endurance of university students depends primarily Conclusion from standing position with both legs together, population in three tests (bleep test, forward jump on their free characteristics which were, in the area We asked two questions in our study. First, what is sit-ups repeatedly for 1 minute) with averages of with legs together from standing position and deep of performed physical activity, missing. The situation the difference in the level of motor skills between stu- general population (Měkota & Kovář, et al., 1996), bend in sitting position). Values of five tests (endu- was similar in other two tests where endurance is a dents of both disciplines and second, what is the level showed that this group has very low performance, rance in pull up on horizontal bar, sit-ups repeatedly component (sit-ups repeatedly for one minute and of motor abilities of Occupational therapy students, reaching not even below average values in their age for one minute, both hands throw of full 2kg heavy endurance in pull up on horizontal bar). therefore college students, compared to general popu- category (table 3). Their performance in other tes- ball and Iowa Brace test) were above the average of Our assumption that students of Occupational thera- lation. This corresponded with our hypotheses. ts, including aerobic fitness surveyed by Katch-M- general population. py will have a higher level of motor skills than gene- To answer these questions, we collected values of 13 cArdle step test, was equal to general population ral population was not confirmed. The comparison students of the first year female students of Physical d) our hypotheses were not confirmed BMI of average test scores (bleep test, forward jump from Education and Sports, field Outdoor Activities and e) the level of basic performance of students studying The average BMI value is according to Riegrová & standing position with both legs together, sit-ups 37 female students of degree program Specializati- medical degree is, with respect to fact that they are Ulbrichová (1993) „normal“ for both samples (table repeatedly for 1 minute) with averages of general ons in Health, field Occupational Therapy. taught about the importance of physical activity for 3 and 4). However, if we look at the values of indivi- population (Měkota & Kovář, et al., 1996), showed Students were measured in following tests: bleep healthy lifestyle in number of specialized subjects, dual students, we find that only one student of OA that this group has a very low performance, reaching test, both hands throw of full 2 kg heavy ball, for- very surprising. is underweight. In sample of Occupational therapy not even below average values in their age category there were 12 underweight students. On the other (table 3). Their performance in other tests, including hand, 6 students were found out to have slight obesi- aerobic fitness surveyed by Katch-McArdle step test, ty and one with severe obesity. Nevertheless, we can was equal to general population. Aerobic fitness, sy- References conclude that body composition of students of both nonymous of cardiorespiratory endurance, is a pillar Bunc, V. (1995). Pojetí tělesné zdatnosti a jejích složek. Těl. Vých. Sport. Mlád., 61, č. 5, 6 – 9. samples conforms to the population average and at of health related fitness. Ravanský (2011) defines it Bunc, V. (1998). Zdravotně orientovaná zdatnost a možnosti její kultivace na základní škole. Těl. Vých. Sport. the same time it confirms that college students con- as the ability to receive, transport and utilize oxy- Mlád. č.4, 2-10, trol their weight. gen. Physiological base is the involvement of “slow” Čepička, L. (1999). Stanovení obtížnosti motorického testu. Česká kinantropologie. 3(1), 87-94. muscle fibers and application of oxidative ways of Haskell, W. L., Montoye, H. J., & Orenstein, D. (1985). Physical activity and exercise to achieve health-related Motor tests satisfying energy needs. Although the results of this physical fitness components. Public Health Rep. 100(2):202–2. The results confirmed our first hypothesis that -stu test did not affect other tests with endurance factor, Hnízdil, J., & Havel, Z. (2011). Motor tests for admittingstudents branch outdoor activities. Journaal of out- dents of OA will have higher level of motor skills than it is possible to believe that students use their aerobic door activities, 5(2), 16-29. students of Occupational therapy – significant at level endurance in later age. Komeštík, B. (1995). Antropomotorika. Hradec Králové: Gaudeamus. 0,01 for all tests with exception of flexibility (table 5) Máček, M.,& Radvanský, J. (2011). Fyziologie a klinické aspekty pohybové aktivity. Praha: Galén. which is strongly influenced by genetic factors. The Iowa Brace test Měkota, K., Kovář, R., et al. (1996). Unifittest (6 – 60). Manuál pro hodnocení základní motorické výkon- values of strength tests of Occupational Therapy stu- Iowa Brace test battery includes coordination-de- nosti a vybraných charakteristik tělesné stavby mládeže a dospělých v České republice. Ostrava: Pedagogická dents were really low compared to OA students, as manding movements, balance and coordination fakulta Ostravské univerzity.

16 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 17 median, modus and variation range. The OA samp- α0,01. It is a statistical significance with a medium body exercises, items 1 and 9 can be also conside- ward jump from standing position with both legs le has relatively high median and modus but lower effect but significant percentage (75,52). According red as flexibility test. In table 3 and 4 there are re- together, endurance in pull-up on a horizontal bar variation range. The values of Iowa Brace test are to standards of Komeštík (1995) in the tab. 6 and sult values of Iowa Brace test, median, modus and by reverse grasp, sit-ups repeatedly for one minute, compared by Mann Whitney U test (Table 5). We χ2 - test calculations, we can confirm higher per- variation range. The fulfillment of Komeštík (1995) deep bend in sitting position, Iowa Brace test and we found statistical significance between our sam- formance of OA students at the level of significance standards by individual students is in table 6. Měko- calculated BMI. ples in favor of the OA group on significance level χ2 0,05. ta and Novosad (2005) state that maximal capacity The results showed: of coordination abilities is reached in the period of a) the calculated average BMI value is according to Table 6 Iowa-Brace test evaluation of samples according to Komeštík (1995) 20 to 30 years of age. The results indicate that 34% of Riegerová and Ulbrichtová (1993) “normal” for both Occupational therapy students failed the test and we files (tables 3 and 4). We can claim that body compo- Study field Bad Good Excellent χ2-test η2 can deduce low development of coordination skills sition of both samples is consistent with the average OA 0 6 7 7,546 0,094 in physical education during previous studies. of general population and at the same time it confir- The results of motor skills tests and resulting heal- ms that college students control their weight. Occupational 12 17 8 th-related physical fitness have changed our opini- b) the OA sample have higher averages in all tests therapy on about university students, when we taught that and, with exception of flexibility, also medians (tab- Excellent - > 16 points, Good 13-16 points, bad < 13 points. χ2 0,05 = 5,368 they care about physical activity and strive for some les 3 and 4). Statistical significance (table 5) in favor (Komeštík, 1995) fitness. The level of basic motor performance of stu- of OA group is significant at level 0,01 for all tests dents studying medical degree course, where they besides flexibility, where both average and median Discussion evidenced by high percentage of substantive significa- are taught the importance of physical activity for are nearly identical. The students of Physical education and sport are ex- nce. But we did not expect Occupational therapy stu- healthy lifestyle in a number specialized subjects, is c) our hypothesis that students of Occupational the- pected to have good to excellent level of motor skills. dents to have very low level in some tests (table 3). On striking. The only mitigating factor is that we tested rapy will have higher level of motor skills than the This is of course applied to the students of OA. As the basis of experience with bleep test, we tried to mo- the first year students. general population was not confirmed. The compa- mentioned in the introduction, we found out that tivate students to the limit but the results showed that rison of average test scores (bleep test, forward jump students of OA reached the average values of general endurance of university students depends primarily Conclusion from standing position with both legs together, population in three tests (bleep test, forward jump on their free characteristics which were, in the area We asked two questions in our study. First, what is sit-ups repeatedly for 1 minute) with averages of with legs together from standing position and deep of performed physical activity, missing. The situation the difference in the level of motor skills between stu- general population (Měkota & Kovář, et al., 1996), bend in sitting position). Values of five tests (endu- was similar in other two tests where endurance is a dents of both disciplines and second, what is the level showed that this group has very low performance, rance in pull up on horizontal bar, sit-ups repeatedly component (sit-ups repeatedly for one minute and of motor abilities of Occupational therapy students, reaching not even below average values in their age for one minute, both hands throw of full 2kg heavy endurance in pull up on horizontal bar). therefore college students, compared to general popu- category (table 3). Their performance in other tes- ball and Iowa Brace test) were above the average of Our assumption that students of Occupational thera- lation. This corresponded with our hypotheses. ts, including aerobic fitness surveyed by Katch-M- general population. py will have a higher level of motor skills than gene- To answer these questions, we collected values of 13 cArdle step test, was equal to general population ral population was not confirmed. The comparison students of the first year female students of Physical d) our hypotheses were not confirmed BMI of average test scores (bleep test, forward jump from Education and Sports, field Outdoor Activities and e) the level of basic performance of students studying The average BMI value is according to Riegrová & standing position with both legs together, sit-ups 37 female students of degree program Specializati- medical degree is, with respect to fact that they are Ulbrichová (1993) „normal“ for both samples (table repeatedly for 1 minute) with averages of general ons in Health, field Occupational Therapy. taught about the importance of physical activity for 3 and 4). However, if we look at the values of indivi- population (Měkota & Kovář, et al., 1996), showed Students were measured in following tests: bleep healthy lifestyle in number of specialized subjects, dual students, we find that only one student of OA that this group has a very low performance, reaching test, both hands throw of full 2 kg heavy ball, for- very surprising. is underweight. In sample of Occupational therapy not even below average values in their age category there were 12 underweight students. On the other (table 3). Their performance in other tests, including hand, 6 students were found out to have slight obesi- aerobic fitness surveyed by Katch-McArdle step test, ty and one with severe obesity. Nevertheless, we can was equal to general population. Aerobic fitness, sy- References conclude that body composition of students of both nonymous of cardiorespiratory endurance, is a pillar Bunc, V. (1995). Pojetí tělesné zdatnosti a jejích složek. Těl. Vých. Sport. Mlád., 61, č. 5, 6 – 9. samples conforms to the population average and at of health related fitness. Ravanský (2011) defines it Bunc, V. (1998). Zdravotně orientovaná zdatnost a možnosti její kultivace na základní škole. Těl. Vých. Sport. the same time it confirms that college students con- as the ability to receive, transport and utilize oxy- Mlád. č.4, 2-10, trol their weight. gen. Physiological base is the involvement of “slow” Čepička, L. (1999). Stanovení obtížnosti motorického testu. Česká kinantropologie. 3(1), 87-94. muscle fibers and application of oxidative ways of Haskell, W. L., Montoye, H. J., & Orenstein, D. (1985). Physical activity and exercise to achieve health-related Motor tests satisfying energy needs. Although the results of this physical fitness components. Public Health Rep. 100(2):202–2. The results confirmed our first hypothesis that -stu test did not affect other tests with endurance factor, Hnízdil, J., & Havel, Z. (2011). Motor tests for admittingstudents branch outdoor activities. Journaal of out- dents of OA will have higher level of motor skills than it is possible to believe that students use their aerobic door activities, 5(2), 16-29. students of Occupational therapy – significant at level endurance in later age. Komeštík, B. (1995). Antropomotorika. Hradec Králové: Gaudeamus. 0,01 for all tests with exception of flexibility (table 5) Máček, M.,& Radvanský, J. (2011). Fyziologie a klinické aspekty pohybové aktivity. Praha: Galén. which is strongly influenced by genetic factors. The Iowa Brace test Měkota, K., Kovář, R., et al. (1996). Unifittest (6 – 60). Manuál pro hodnocení základní motorické výkon- values of strength tests of Occupational Therapy stu- Iowa Brace test battery includes coordination-de- nosti a vybraných charakteristik tělesné stavby mládeže a dospělých v České republice. Ostrava: Pedagogická dents were really low compared to OA students, as manding movements, balance and coordination fakulta Ostravské univerzity.

16 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 17 Měkota, K., & Novosad, J. (2005). Motorické schopnosti. Olomouc: Univerzita Palackého v Olomouci, Fa- kulta tělesné kultury. Pollock, M. L., & Wilmore, J. (1990). Exercise in health and disease: Evaluation and prescription for prevention and rehabilitation. Philladeplhia: W.B. Saunders. Riegrová, J., & Ulbrichová, M. (1993). Aplikace fyzické antropologie v tělesné výchově a sportu. Olomouc: Univerzity Palackého v Olomouci, PF. Štěpnička, J. (1976). Somatotyp, držení těla, motorika a pohybová aktivita mládeže. Praha: Univerzita Kar- lova, FTVS.

Authors: Doc. PhDr. Zdeněk Havel, CSc ., [email protected], PhDr. Hana Kynštová, Ph.D., [email protected]

18 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 19 Měkota, K., & Novosad, J. (2005). Motorické schopnosti. Olomouc: Univerzita Palackého v Olomouci, Fa- kulta tělesné kultury. Pollock, M. L., & Wilmore, J. (1990). Exercise in health and disease: Evaluation and prescription for prevention and rehabilitation. Philladeplhia: W.B. Saunders. Riegrová, J., & Ulbrichová, M. (1993). Aplikace fyzické antropologie v tělesné výchově a sportu. Olomouc: Univerzity Palackého v Olomouci, PF. Štěpnička, J. (1976). Somatotyp, držení těla, motorika a pohybová aktivita mládeže. Praha: Univerzita Kar- lova, FTVS.

Authors: Doc. PhDr. Zdeněk Havel, CSc ., [email protected], PhDr. Hana Kynštová, Ph.D., [email protected]

18 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 19 Modern horse riding in Czech Lands is dated ced on rider during longer distance of riding or Physiological and energy back to Department Sokol of Prague foundation higher speed. During the horse riding, the whole in 1891.Today Czech equestrian sport is organized rider’s body works and there happen to dynamic by Czech Equestrian Federation (ČJF), which inc- changes in muscle tension in most postural musc- comparison of recreational horse ludes most equestrian disciplines (show jumping, les with a frequency, which is corresponding to the dressage, eventing, wagonering, vaulting, reining, rhythm of the horse. The muscles of the limbs are endurance and para-equestrian) excepting horse- primarily used for controlling the horse. The most riding -races, which are managed and organized by the stressed muscle groups of the lower limbs are knee Jockey Club. ČJF is a member of the International adductors, flexors and extensors, during the chan- Pavel Korvas, Veronika Krupková Equestrian Federation (FEI) and the Czech Olym- ging of the body center of gravity (jump, canter). A Faculty of Sports Studies, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic pic Committee (ČOV) since 1927. Currently it result of dynamometer tests does not prove signi- has approximately 13500 members in 1600 riding ficantly greater muscle strength of riders. Perhaps, Abstract clubs. The number of horses is constantly increa- the strength of adductors has bigger differences of The aim of this study was to monitor the level of load during recreational riding in various kinds of gaits and sing in Czech Republic since 1996, which shows statistic significance (Melichna, 1995). to find out the differences between two groups of beginners and advanced recreational riders. the popularity of horses. In these days, 7500 hor- Physiological stress of riders varies according to dis- Eighteen horse-riders were monitored in a field research (14 women, 4 men, M=26 years) during three kinds ses are registered in Czech central register (http:// cipline. More generally, it is a mild to sub maximal of horse gaits: step, trot and canter. The horse-riders were divided into two groups (beginners and advanced www.cjf.cz/). We distinguish three different gaits - exercise intensity. In recreational riding, it is usually horse-riders) according to their level of skills which were evaluated by two experts. The subjects were mo- walk, trot and canter. Walk is the least demanding stress of mild to medium intensity. In the competi- nitored during step, light trot and work canter. The test consists of 5-minute riding in step, 5-minute rest, 5 for both horse and rider, the average speed in walk tive equestrian sport, the intensity rises to the sub minutes in trot, 5 minutes of rest and 3 minutes in canter. We monitored heart rate and energy consumption, 5-7 km / h. It is used also in hippo therapy. The maximal level and in short-term to the maximum. horse speed. Simple descriptive statistics and t-test were used. trot is more difficult than walk and it is often used These values are achieved especially before jump and For both group we found out increasing values of HRmean and energy consumption with increasing speed of to overcome long distances. The average speed of in jump (Paalman, 2006). The heart rate of rider and horse movement. The highest difference between groups for HRmean was found out for step (29,6 %), than the trot is 12-15 km / h. The trotting breeds reach horse are changing at the same time, but the horse’s for trot by 14,2 %, and the smallest for canter, only by 3 %. exceptionally high speeds (40 km/h) on the track values are always higher than the rider’s. During mo- The highest difference of HR and energy consumption was found out between step and trot for both groups. of 3 km. Canter is the fastest basic gait. It is very nitoring there were discovered significant differences difficult for both horse and rider. There is a large of the average heart rate between amateurs and pro- Key words: variation of speed from very slow canter around fessionals, but also between men and women (Me- energy consumption, hearth rate, horseman, horse gait 15 km/h to 60 km/h during the horse-race. The lichna, 1995). Experienced riders use 60-90% of their length of carter usually does not exceed 5 minu- VO2max in trot and canter, but top riders use only Souhrn tes. Thoroughbreds are the fastest horses. They are 38-58% of VO2max in the same disciplines. Two ri- Cílem studie bylo monitorovat úroveň zatížení při rekreačním ježdění při různých druzích chodu a zjistit able to reach speed over 60 km/h at the distance ders, who have completed the track of ten barriers rozdíly mezi začátečníky a pokročilými rekreačními jezdci. of 1 km and 70km/h at the distance of 500m (Jokl, in less than one minute, have used their VO2max Při terénním výzkumu bylo monitorováno 18 jezdců na koni (14 žen, 4 muži, M=26 let) při třech druzích 1977). Canter is used in hippo rehabilitation, pe- of 73-78%. An experienced rider, who has comple- chodu koně, krok, klus, cval. Jezdci byli rozděleni do dvou skupin podle jezdeckých dovedností na začátečníky dagogical and psychological riding or driving of ted dressage in ten minutes, reached only 40% of his a pokročilé. U testovaných osob byla před výkonem monitorována srdeční frekvence a výdej energie v klidu (v handicapped people. Other gait is gallop but it VO2max. However, most riders usually use 60% of sedu) po dobu 5 min. Jezdci zahájili test 5 min jízdy v kroku, následoval 5 min odpočinek, 5 min. jízdy v klusu, 5 does not belong to others. The gallop is very much their aerobic capacity. Work performance of current min odpočinek a v závěru 5 min ve cvalu. Měřena byla srdeční frekvence, výdej energie a rychlost pohybu koně. like the canter, except that it is faster, more groun- ride is relatively high and it is approximately 120W at U všech typů chodů dosáhli začátečníci vyšších hodnot SF než pokročilí. Byl zaznamenán trend snižování d-covering, and the three-beat canter changes to bicycle ergometry. In some competitions of equestri- rozdílů ve výši HR mezi oběma skupinami s rostoucí rychlostí pohybu koně. Nejvyšší rozdíly byly zjištěny a four-beat gait. It is the fastest gait of the horse, an disciplines (especially during the short physical pro nejpomalejší chod – krok (29,6 %), pro klus 14,2 % a pro cval jen 3 %. Největší nárůst hodnoty srdeční averaging about 40 to 48 km/h. It is recommended performance) is appeared (like in other sports) the frekvence u obou skupin byl zjištěn mezi krokem a klusem. only to experienced riders. There are many other formation of lactic acid in the muscles. Tests of dif- gaits, but these are specially rehearsed as part ferent disciplines demonstrated the values of two to Klíčová slova: of some equestrian discipline, such as dressage five times higher than the resting values. For examp- jezdec, srdeční frekvence, výdej energie, chod koně (Tettenbornová, 1996). le, the values, which were measured after jump com- Horse riding belongs to outdoor activities, which petition, reached 6,2 mmol.l-1 and 13,1 mmol.l-1 Introduction ppo rehabilitation or therapeutic riding (Hollý, are healthy for physical, mental and social aspects after dressage (Melichna, 1995, www.Answers.com). The concept of riding contains a wide range of to- 2005). The main equestrian sports include show of human. It has a positive effect on the entire According to Melichny (1995) is the energy expendi- pics, which historically includes the use of horses jumping, dressage, eventing, wagonering, Vaul- musculoskeletal system, it helps to improve and ture of the rider during the walk 12,5 kJ / min. (260% in the entertainment, leisure time or as an object ting, western riding, hunting riding, endurance keep the quality of the cardiovascular and respi- nál.BM) during the trot is rising to 33,5 kJ / min. of culture and sport. Today the role of horses is riding, horse racing and Para-Equestrian. The ratory systems. It is proved, that horse riding im- (700% nál.BM) and during the canter is reaching to mainly concentrated in horse racing and recre- world popular equestrian games can be men- proves the level of coordination skills, especially 42 kJ / min. (880% nál.BM). The differences in ener- ational riding, but at the same time it is actively tioned especially Polo, Horseball and Pólokros preparedness of endurance and power, because gy expenditure between trot and canter are smaller used in healthcare, especially hippo therapy, hi- (Slyová, 2002). there are many physical demands, which are pla- than the differences between walk and trot.

20 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 21 Modern horse riding in Czech Lands is dated ced on rider during longer distance of riding or Physiological and energy back to Department Sokol of Prague foundation higher speed. During the horse riding, the whole in 1891.Today Czech equestrian sport is organized rider’s body works and there happen to dynamic by Czech Equestrian Federation (ČJF), which inc- changes in muscle tension in most postural musc- comparison of recreational horse ludes most equestrian disciplines (show jumping, les with a frequency, which is corresponding to the dressage, eventing, wagonering, vaulting, reining, rhythm of the horse. The muscles of the limbs are endurance and para-equestrian) excepting horse- primarily used for controlling the horse. The most riding -races, which are managed and organized by the stressed muscle groups of the lower limbs are knee Jockey Club. ČJF is a member of the International adductors, flexors and extensors, during the chan- Pavel Korvas, Veronika Krupková Equestrian Federation (FEI) and the Czech Olym- ging of the body center of gravity (jump, canter). A Faculty of Sports Studies, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic pic Committee (ČOV) since 1927. Currently it result of dynamometer tests does not prove signi- has approximately 13500 members in 1600 riding ficantly greater muscle strength of riders. Perhaps, Abstract clubs. The number of horses is constantly increa- the strength of adductors has bigger differences of The aim of this study was to monitor the level of load during recreational riding in various kinds of gaits and sing in Czech Republic since 1996, which shows statistic significance (Melichna, 1995). to find out the differences between two groups of beginners and advanced recreational riders. the popularity of horses. In these days, 7500 hor- Physiological stress of riders varies according to dis- Eighteen horse-riders were monitored in a field research (14 women, 4 men, M=26 years) during three kinds ses are registered in Czech central register (http:// cipline. More generally, it is a mild to sub maximal of horse gaits: step, trot and canter. The horse-riders were divided into two groups (beginners and advanced www.cjf.cz/). We distinguish three different gaits - exercise intensity. In recreational riding, it is usually horse-riders) according to their level of skills which were evaluated by two experts. The subjects were mo- walk, trot and canter. Walk is the least demanding stress of mild to medium intensity. In the competi- nitored during step, light trot and work canter. The test consists of 5-minute riding in step, 5-minute rest, 5 for both horse and rider, the average speed in walk tive equestrian sport, the intensity rises to the sub minutes in trot, 5 minutes of rest and 3 minutes in canter. We monitored heart rate and energy consumption, 5-7 km / h. It is used also in hippo therapy. The maximal level and in short-term to the maximum. horse speed. Simple descriptive statistics and t-test were used. trot is more difficult than walk and it is often used These values are achieved especially before jump and For both group we found out increasing values of HRmean and energy consumption with increasing speed of to overcome long distances. The average speed of in jump (Paalman, 2006). The heart rate of rider and horse movement. The highest difference between groups for HRmean was found out for step (29,6 %), than the trot is 12-15 km / h. The trotting breeds reach horse are changing at the same time, but the horse’s for trot by 14,2 %, and the smallest for canter, only by 3 %. exceptionally high speeds (40 km/h) on the track values are always higher than the rider’s. During mo- The highest difference of HR and energy consumption was found out between step and trot for both groups. of 3 km. Canter is the fastest basic gait. It is very nitoring there were discovered significant differences difficult for both horse and rider. There is a large of the average heart rate between amateurs and pro- Key words: variation of speed from very slow canter around fessionals, but also between men and women (Me- energy consumption, hearth rate, horseman, horse gait 15 km/h to 60 km/h during the horse-race. The lichna, 1995). Experienced riders use 60-90% of their length of carter usually does not exceed 5 minu- VO2max in trot and canter, but top riders use only Souhrn tes. Thoroughbreds are the fastest horses. They are 38-58% of VO2max in the same disciplines. Two ri- Cílem studie bylo monitorovat úroveň zatížení při rekreačním ježdění při různých druzích chodu a zjistit able to reach speed over 60 km/h at the distance ders, who have completed the track of ten barriers rozdíly mezi začátečníky a pokročilými rekreačními jezdci. of 1 km and 70km/h at the distance of 500m (Jokl, in less than one minute, have used their VO2max Při terénním výzkumu bylo monitorováno 18 jezdců na koni (14 žen, 4 muži, M=26 let) při třech druzích 1977). Canter is used in hippo rehabilitation, pe- of 73-78%. An experienced rider, who has comple- chodu koně, krok, klus, cval. Jezdci byli rozděleni do dvou skupin podle jezdeckých dovedností na začátečníky dagogical and psychological riding or driving of ted dressage in ten minutes, reached only 40% of his a pokročilé. U testovaných osob byla před výkonem monitorována srdeční frekvence a výdej energie v klidu (v handicapped people. Other gait is gallop but it VO2max. However, most riders usually use 60% of sedu) po dobu 5 min. Jezdci zahájili test 5 min jízdy v kroku, následoval 5 min odpočinek, 5 min. jízdy v klusu, 5 does not belong to others. The gallop is very much their aerobic capacity. Work performance of current min odpočinek a v závěru 5 min ve cvalu. Měřena byla srdeční frekvence, výdej energie a rychlost pohybu koně. like the canter, except that it is faster, more groun- ride is relatively high and it is approximately 120W at U všech typů chodů dosáhli začátečníci vyšších hodnot SF než pokročilí. Byl zaznamenán trend snižování d-covering, and the three-beat canter changes to bicycle ergometry. In some competitions of equestri- rozdílů ve výši HR mezi oběma skupinami s rostoucí rychlostí pohybu koně. Nejvyšší rozdíly byly zjištěny a four-beat gait. It is the fastest gait of the horse, an disciplines (especially during the short physical pro nejpomalejší chod – krok (29,6 %), pro klus 14,2 % a pro cval jen 3 %. Největší nárůst hodnoty srdeční averaging about 40 to 48 km/h. It is recommended performance) is appeared (like in other sports) the frekvence u obou skupin byl zjištěn mezi krokem a klusem. only to experienced riders. There are many other formation of lactic acid in the muscles. Tests of dif- gaits, but these are specially rehearsed as part ferent disciplines demonstrated the values of two to Klíčová slova: of some equestrian discipline, such as dressage five times higher than the resting values. For examp- jezdec, srdeční frekvence, výdej energie, chod koně (Tettenbornová, 1996). le, the values, which were measured after jump com- Horse riding belongs to outdoor activities, which petition, reached 6,2 mmol.l-1 and 13,1 mmol.l-1 Introduction ppo rehabilitation or therapeutic riding (Hollý, are healthy for physical, mental and social aspects after dressage (Melichna, 1995, www.Answers.com). The concept of riding contains a wide range of to- 2005). The main equestrian sports include show of human. It has a positive effect on the entire According to Melichny (1995) is the energy expendi- pics, which historically includes the use of horses jumping, dressage, eventing, wagonering, Vaul- musculoskeletal system, it helps to improve and ture of the rider during the walk 12,5 kJ / min. (260% in the entertainment, leisure time or as an object ting, western riding, hunting riding, endurance keep the quality of the cardiovascular and respi- nál.BM) during the trot is rising to 33,5 kJ / min. of culture and sport. Today the role of horses is riding, horse racing and Para-Equestrian. The ratory systems. It is proved, that horse riding im- (700% nál.BM) and during the canter is reaching to mainly concentrated in horse racing and recre- world popular equestrian games can be men- proves the level of coordination skills, especially 42 kJ / min. (880% nál.BM). The differences in ener- ational riding, but at the same time it is actively tioned especially Polo, Horseball and Pólokros preparedness of endurance and power, because gy expenditure between trot and canter are smaller used in healthcare, especially hippo therapy, hi- (Slyová, 2002). there are many physical demands, which are pla- than the differences between walk and trot.

20 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 21 The main point of this study was to determine what librated to the individual characteristics of the ri- Table 2 Relative values of the average HR for beginners (%) of maximum HR level of functional load and energy expenditure is der, such as gender, age, height, weight and physical reached by the recreational riders during the diffe- fitness. Before the procedure we monitored heart groups walk trot canter rent types of horse gaits. rate and energy expenditure of tested riders in the beginners M (% SF ) 72,2 82,0 86,4 resting (sitting) position for 5 min. Then they rode max SD 11,9 11,1 13,0 Methodology in walk for 5 minutes, in trot for 5 minutes and in

The research was conducted on 18 probands (14 wo- the end in canter for 3 minutes. Between each gait advanced M (% SFmax) 56,5 73,2 84,8 men and 4 men). An average age of the riders was 26 was a break for 2 minutes. Every ride was measured SD 8,2 9,8 7,2 years (SD 9,73) in the range from 15 to 50 years. The separately. We used descriptive statistics and t-test riders were split to two groups – beginners (n=9) and (p ≤ 0,05) for data processing. intermediate (n=9). The beginners were engaged in In comparison of the relative load of maximum heart walk and the canter (p=0,046). The variance is also recreational riding in length from 0,5 to 1,5 year and Results rate achieved beginners significantly higher results in higher in every each gait for beginners. advanced riders from 3 to 15 years. During the measuring, it was found, that the aver- the walk (p = 0,011). There was no significant diffe- The test was conducted in a large outdoor enclosu- age speed of the monitored riders in the walk was rence of 8,8% in the trot and in the canter were values Energy expenditure re. The substrate was mixed. There were grass, clay 5,2 km / h., in the trot 10,2 km / h. and in the ca- very similar. For advanced riders, all differences are The lowest energy expenditure were logically fou- and sometimes also sand. During the research trot nter 14,9 km / h. From tables it is clear, that the statistically significant in relative values of the aver- nd in both groups during the slowest horse gait - and canter were applied. The research was condu- stress of riders gradually increased from the easy age heart rate during each gait. These differences are walk. For beginners’ group was always found higher cted at average altitude of 160 m above sea level. horse gait after the fastest canter. The values of the small for beginners, only it is significant between the dispersion of values in all gaits. We used Sporttester Polar 800 with GPS for getting heart rate at rest position (sitting) of the beginners data, with which was monitored heart rate, energy were slightly higher than the values of the advan- Table 3 Average energy expenditure in both groups during all gaits expenditure and the average speed of the horse in ced riders (+6.5%), but this difference was not sta- each gait. For each measuring was sporttester ca- tistically significant. groups walk trot canter (kJ.min-1.kg-1) (kJ.min-1.kg-1) (kJ.min-1.kg-1) Table 1 The average heart rate of both groups in individual gaits and in rest position beginners M 0,63 0,78 0,86 SD 0,2 0,2 0,3 groups relaxation walk trot canter (SF/min) (SF/min) (SF/min) (SF/min) advanced M 0,38 0,67 0,83 beginners x 90,6 140 160 168 SD 0,07 0,17 0,22 SD 17,1 22,3 19,7 25,3 advanced x 85 108 140 163 For beginners group, the energy expenditure incre- did not discover statistically significance between SD 9,6 13,2 14,3 14,4 ased to 23,8% between walk and trot. The greatest the groups in the other types of gait. During the difference was obtained during walk and canter, in trot had beginners about 16,4% higher expenditure which energy expenditure was higher by 36,5%. (p = 0,142) and in the canter achieved beginners The lowest value of the average heart rate of begi- (p=0,003; 16,5%). In comparison of the average The energy expenditure of the canter was higher by higher energy expenditure than the advanced ride- nners was detected in the walk, which is the sim- heart rate of both groups in each gait, the greatest 10,2% than in the trot. None of these differences rs only about 3,6% (p = 0,395). plest for the rider. We discovered that the value of differences were found in the walk. The advanced was significant. We were found bigger differences the heart rate in the trot was 14,2% higher than in riders achieved 29,6% lower average heart rate of energy expenditure in the group of advanced ri- Discussion the walk. This difference was statistically significa- than the group of beginners. This difference was ders between each gait than it was in the group of The relative values of the average heart rate from the nt (p=0,042). Similarly, the difference between the statistically significant (p=0,002). The advanced beginners. In the comparison of the trot and canter maximum values indicate that the stress during the average heart rate in canter and walk was statisti- riders reached 14,2% lower value of the average was measured higher energy expenditure (76,3%) walk is on the level of the aerobic metabolism in both cally significant (p = 0,016) and the value of the heart rate than the beginners and also this diffe- in the trot, which is a statistically significant dif- groups and the level of this stress is also sufficient for canter was about 20,0% higher than in the walk. rence was statistically significant (p = 0,021). The ference (p = 0,000). Difference between the walk the improvement and maintenance. During the trot The beginners reached in the canter only 5% of the difference between the groups during the canter and canter was 118% and also it was significant advanced riders are still on the level of aerobic me- average heart rate higher than in the trot, so that was insignificant (p = 0,317), because the advan- (p=0,000). Insignificant difference was found only tabolism but beginners start to reach a point where was without statistical significance of differences. ced riders reached an average heart rate only 3% between the trot and canter (p = 0,066), where was usually begins slightly involving the anaerobic me- In the group of advanced riders were significant lower than the beginners. Because we did not have a higher energy consumption (23,8%) in the canter. tabolism, especially for less skilled riders. But the differences in the value of the average heart rate an accurate data of the maximum heart rate of The group of beginners achieved in all gaits higher level of involvement of the anaerobic metabolism is among all courses. This value was 29,6% higher each rider, which would be detected by standard average energy expenditure than it was in the group low and the organism is still able to eliminate meta- in the trot than in the walk, which is a significant testing procedures, we only indicative the relative of advanced riders. The biggest difference between bolites. During the canter is already involved more difference (p = 0,000) and the canter was higher values of the average heart rate, which the respon- the groups was found in the walk (p = 0,003), in anaerobic metabolism in both groups, but the aero- by 50,9% than the walk (p = 0,000). The signifi- dents have achieved in individual gaits. For the which the beginners achieved by 65,7% higher bic method of energy supply should be dominated cant difference was also between trot and canter calculation of SFmax was used a formula 220 - age. energy consumption than the advanced riders. We (Máček, 1997). The determined values for the ave-

22 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 23 The main point of this study was to determine what librated to the individual characteristics of the ri- Table 2 Relative values of the average HR for beginners (%) of maximum HR level of functional load and energy expenditure is der, such as gender, age, height, weight and physical reached by the recreational riders during the diffe- fitness. Before the procedure we monitored heart groups walk trot canter rent types of horse gaits. rate and energy expenditure of tested riders in the beginners M (% SF ) 72,2 82,0 86,4 resting (sitting) position for 5 min. Then they rode max SD 11,9 11,1 13,0 Methodology in walk for 5 minutes, in trot for 5 minutes and in

22 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 23 rage HR are similar to results of Bachmann (1968) crease in range of motion, in which the riders get (in. Melichna 1995) or measurements of the amateur from sitting position to hanging out, and therefore riders, which are stated by Melichna (1995). Howe- it started very active work of their lower limbs. Du- ver, the same author states significantly lower values ring this move, the voltage increases; the body has to for both professional women and professional men. coordinate body movement with the horse and keep The average energy consumption, during the walk of an appropriate location. Differences between a trot beginners, reached 0,63 kJ.min-1.kg-1, so it is compa- and canter are not so huge, but the speed increases, rable to walk on plain filed with speed of 6,5 km / which affects the intensity of the rider’s load. Range h. The energy consumption of advanced riders was of motion is not substantially increased, only power significantly higher; it reached 0,38 kJ.min-1.kg-1, so demands and dynamics of motion are greater. it is comparable to walk on plain field with speed of 4,5 km / h. The energy consumption, during the trot Conclusion of beginners, reached 78 kJ.min-1.kg-1 and it already Higher values of heart rate, for both slower horse corresponds with runnig speed of 9,5 km / h on plain gaits, reached the beginners, because of the lower field. For advanced people, who have reached 67 kJ. levels of skills, techniques and higher levels of emo- min-1.kg-1, this means rapid walking in terrain with tion. In all horse gaits was achieved a sufficiently speed of 6 km / h. Energy consumption during the high stress of drivers for the development or main- canter was similar in both groups with no significa- tenance of fitness, especially of aerobic endurance. nt difference (0,86 and 83 kJ.min-1.kg-1 resp.) and The highest differences in heart rate and energy corresponded to a faster running speed of 13 - 13,5 expenditure were found between walk and trot for km / h or cross-country skiing at speed of 15 km / h both groups because of increasing range of riders’ (Bunc,Teplý, 1989, Bunc, 1996, Harris, 2012). motion, especially of the legs and activity of the A significant difference between the walk and trot body in high speed of running horse. for HR and energy expenditure is evoked by an in-

References Bunc, V., & Teplý, Z. (1989). Hodnocení energetické náročnosti základních tělesných aktivit. Čas.Lék.čes. 128, s. 1580-1583. Bunc, V. (1996). Nové pohledy na minimální množství pohybových činností. TVSM, 62 (7), s 2 - 7. Česká jezdecká federace (2012). Retrieved from: http://www.cjf.cz/. Harris, J. (2012). Energy cost of riding Retrieved from: http://www.arkagency-naha.com/naha/pdf/ener- gy_cost.pdf. Hermsen, K. (1998). Encyklopedie koní. Dobřejovice: Rebo. Hollý, K., & Horňáček, K. (2005). Hipoterapie, léčba pomocí koně. Ostrava: Montanex. Jokl, Z. (1977). Jezdectví a dostihový sport.: Praha: Stát. zeměď. nakl. Máček, M., & Máčková, J. (1997). Fyziologie tělesných cvičení. Brno: MU. Melichna, J. et al. (1995). Fyziologie tělesné zátěže II. Speciální část – 2.díl. Praha: Karolinum. Paalman, A. (2006). Skokové ježdění. Praha: Brázda. Slyová, D. (2002). Obrazový průvodce jezdectví. Praktická příručka. Praha: Svojtka&Co. Tettenbornová, M. (1996). Škola jezdectví. Praha: Svojtka&Co.

Author: doc. PaedDr. Pavel Korvas, CSc.; email: [email protected]

24 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 25 rage HR are similar to results of Bachmann (1968) crease in range of motion, in which the riders get (in. Melichna 1995) or measurements of the amateur from sitting position to hanging out, and therefore riders, which are stated by Melichna (1995). Howe- it started very active work of their lower limbs. Du- ver, the same author states significantly lower values ring this move, the voltage increases; the body has to for both professional women and professional men. coordinate body movement with the horse and keep The average energy consumption, during the walk of an appropriate location. Differences between a trot beginners, reached 0,63 kJ.min-1.kg-1, so it is compa- and canter are not so huge, but the speed increases, rable to walk on plain filed with speed of 6,5 km / which affects the intensity of the rider’s load. Range h. The energy consumption of advanced riders was of motion is not substantially increased, only power significantly higher; it reached 0,38 kJ.min-1.kg-1, so demands and dynamics of motion are greater. it is comparable to walk on plain field with speed of 4,5 km / h. The energy consumption, during the trot Conclusion of beginners, reached 78 kJ.min-1.kg-1 and it already Higher values of heart rate, for both slower horse corresponds with runnig speed of 9,5 km / h on plain gaits, reached the beginners, because of the lower field. For advanced people, who have reached 67 kJ. levels of skills, techniques and higher levels of emo- min-1.kg-1, this means rapid walking in terrain with tion. In all horse gaits was achieved a sufficiently speed of 6 km / h. Energy consumption during the high stress of drivers for the development or main- canter was similar in both groups with no significa- tenance of fitness, especially of aerobic endurance. nt difference (0,86 and 83 kJ.min-1.kg-1 resp.) and The highest differences in heart rate and energy corresponded to a faster running speed of 13 - 13,5 expenditure were found between walk and trot for km / h or cross-country skiing at speed of 15 km / h both groups because of increasing range of riders’ (Bunc,Teplý, 1989, Bunc, 1996, Harris, 2012). motion, especially of the legs and activity of the A significant difference between the walk and trot body in high speed of running horse. for HR and energy expenditure is evoked by an in-

Author: doc. PaedDr. Pavel Korvas, CSc.; email: [email protected]

24 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 25 by various portable toddlers (sport-testers, cardio- The motion sensors Selected quality indicators tachometers, heart rate indicators), which are cu- One of the motion sensors are pedometers, which rrently available on the market. work on the principle of a spring, which detects The pedagogical approach mainly focuses on a change in motion in vertical axis (when step). measuring locomotor activity description of specific characteristics of physical The advantage of pedometers is affordability and activity, such as kinematical type of activity, speed simple handling. However, it’s the major limitation of execution, duration, frequency, etc. (Psotta, is usability for locomotion physical activities only apparatus Adidas miCoach Pacer 2003). (walking, running). In practice, these two approaches are complemen- Other motion sensors, called accelerometers, work Jan Kresta tary and they are used for planning and managing on the different principle. Accelerometers register Fakulty of Education, Jan Evangelista Purkyně University, Department of Physical Education and Sport, musculoskeletal exercise. To manage physical ac- acceleration or deceleration of motion directly, Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic tivity with using heart rate we can also use other and currently they have 3-axis which leads to more parameters such as speed, time, distance and their accurate data compared to pedometers (Hnízdil, Abstract mutual relations (Hnízdil, Škopek, & Havel, 2012). Škopek, &Havel, 2012). These devices allow mea- Adidas miCoach Pacer is a three-axis accelerometer used for monitoring locomotive physical activity in Therefore we can talk about more complex moni- suring length and frequency of steps, acceleration outdoor environment. The aim of this paper is to determine the degree of reliability and validity of Adidas toring of physical activity. It is used in sports trai- or deceleration of motion or duration of physical miCoach device in measuring distance of locomotion with changes of direction and without change of ning, educational process or eventually in recreati- activity, eventually expenditure of energy. direction. onal activities. The following range of tools is used The quality of measuring by using GPS is delibera- The sample was consisted of 8 students aged 23,3 ± 1,38 years; body height 177,6 ± 4.1 cm, body weight to monitor outdoor locomotive activities: tely limited for public use. For military purposes it 79,1 ± 6.5 kg. We evaluated continuous locomotion on an athletic track and discontinuous (by shuttle run works in the order of centimeters but for personal test) in sports hall. Results: the covered distances, measured by Adidas miCoach device, are significantly Devices functioning with the help of use in the order of meters or tens of meters. In the different from the criteria (range r = 0,17-0,57). The largest inaccuracies are evident in unorthodox ways satellite navigation system sports environment, the accuracy up to 99% was of locomotion (running backwards and run sideways). We did not prove that product Adidas miCoach Global Positioning System is a satellite service that found (Aughey, 2011). The validity of accelerometers provides valid and reliable information about measuring distances in locomotion movement activities. enables autonomous satellites using spatial positio- and pedometers is satisfactory (r = 0,6-0,9) in basic ning with global coverage. Electronic radio receiver types of locomotion such as continuous, prolonged Key words: users that based on signals sent from the satellites walking or running (Psotta, 2003). On the contra- miCoach, reliability, validity, locomotion, outdoor allow to calculate their position with an accuracy of ry, validity of these devices significantly decreases tens of meters to the unit. When used for military or when changing the type of locomotion activity (eg. Souhrn scientific purposes may be accurate to a few centi- from running forward to run sideways etc.), when Přístroj Adidas miCoach pacer je tříosý akcelerometr, který je využíván pro monitorování lokomoční po- meters. There are several systems of satellite naviga- changing the direction or when measuring the lo- hybové aktivity v outdoorovém prostředí. Cílem příspěvku je stanovení míry reliability a validity přístroje tion: the European system Galileo, China‘s Compass, comotion of short alternating high intensity. Eg. Adidas miCoach pacer pro měření vzdálenosti lokomoce bez změn směru a se změnami směru. Výzkumný Russian Glonass, the American Navstar GPS, etc. the accuracy in sport games was within the range soubor tvořilo 8 studentů ve věku 23,3 ± 1,38 roku; tělesná výška 177,6 ± 4,1 cm; tělesná hmotnost 79,1 Part of the service system GPS (Global Positioning of 5-25% (Psotta, 2003). The values of correlation ± 6,5 kg. Posuzovali jsme kontinuální lokomoci na atletické dráze a nekontinuální („člunkovým“ způso- System), but with limited accuracy, is freely availab- coefficient appears to be relatively high (r=0,9-1) in bem) ve sportovní hale. Výsledky: vzdálenosti překonané lokomocí, změřené přístrojem Adidas MiCoach, le to civilian users. In the area of monitoring phys- studies supporting the use of accelerometers for tre- se signifikantně liší od kritéria (rozpětí r = 0,17-0,57). Největší nepřesnosti jsou patrné u neortodoxních ical activities, this method is quite enjoying great ating obesity (Horner, 2011). způsobů lokomoce (běh vzad a cval stranou, Neprokázali jsme, že by výrobek Adidas MiCoach poskytoval popularity. The advantage is the easy availability On a today market, there are many devices working validní a reliabilní informace o měření vzdálenosti při lokomočních pohybových aktivitách. of devices, which includes modules that with the on different principles of controlling the motion GPS signal works. On the market are devices that (heart rate, accelerometer, GPS), which are desig- Klíčová slova: are specifically designed for monitoring physical ned to monitor outdoor physical activities and they Adidas miCoach, reliabilita, validita, lokomoce, outdoor activities or use various software applications such are available to the public (eg The Nike +, Garmin as in mobile phones, watches. Popular applications Forerunner, Adidas miCoach). It is even possible Introduction rately, it is necessary to know the input data, ie. include Endomondo or Sportracker (Agency, 2013; to get a device with specific needs, eg for seniors One of the fundamental concepts of kinanthropo- it has to be somehow monitored and evaluated. SporTracker, 2013). These applications allow you to (Burns, 2012). logie is physical activity. This term means purpo- There are different approaches to physical activity monitor a wide range of outdoor activities (eg, run- One of the basic parameters of the measuring de- seful physical activity associated with participati- monitoring, which can be divided into two areas. ning, cycling, hiking, skiing, paddling, rowing) and vices is the distance covered by physical activity on of striated muscles. This activity is in context The physiological approach focuses on monitoring their parameters such as distance covered, speed, (locomotion, cycling, alpine skiing etc). We are with motion abilities, skills and physical fitness. nature and degree of energetic metabolism activa- duration, tempo, etc. In conjunction with the map going to focus on locomotive physical activity and Physical activities in natural environment (outdo- tion (Frömel, Novosad, & Svozil, 1999). The most data can be analyzed physical activity from geogra- quality of accelerometer measurements. or activities) are one of alternatives. Our subject common and at the same time the most accessible phic view. Unfavorably seems limited or impossible The aim of study is to contribute to the issue of acce- will be outdoor activities – running and its mo- method of monitoring and evaluating intensity of use in indoor activities (such as sports games), and lerometers measurements quality. The specific task nitoring. exercise is heart rate monitoring (Hnízdil, Škopek, limited or poor accuracy when GPS signal (eg in was to determine the degree of reliability and vali- If we want to regulate this motion activity delibe- & Havel, 2012; Šmíd, 2009). This is made possible mountainous terrain). dity of Adidas miCoach Pacer device for measuring

26 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 27 by various portable toddlers (sport-testers, cardio- The motion sensors Selected quality indicators tachometers, heart rate indicators), which are cu- One of the motion sensors are pedometers, which rrently available on the market. work on the principle of a spring, which detects The pedagogical approach mainly focuses on a change in motion in vertical axis (when step). measuring locomotor activity description of specific characteristics of physical The advantage of pedometers is affordability and activity, such as kinematical type of activity, speed simple handling. However, it’s the major limitation of execution, duration, frequency, etc. (Psotta, is usability for locomotion physical activities only apparatus Adidas miCoach Pacer 2003). (walking, running). In practice, these two approaches are complemen- Other motion sensors, called accelerometers, work Jan Kresta tary and they are used for planning and managing on the different principle. Accelerometers register Fakulty of Education, Jan Evangelista Purkyně University, Department of Physical Education and Sport, musculoskeletal exercise. To manage physical ac- acceleration or deceleration of motion directly, Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic tivity with using heart rate we can also use other and currently they have 3-axis which leads to more parameters such as speed, time, distance and their accurate data compared to pedometers (Hnízdil, Abstract mutual relations (Hnízdil, Škopek, & Havel, 2012). Škopek, &Havel, 2012). These devices allow mea- Adidas miCoach Pacer is a three-axis accelerometer used for monitoring locomotive physical activity in Therefore we can talk about more complex moni- suring length and frequency of steps, acceleration outdoor environment. The aim of this paper is to determine the degree of reliability and validity of Adidas toring of physical activity. It is used in sports trai- or deceleration of motion or duration of physical miCoach device in measuring distance of locomotion with changes of direction and without change of ning, educational process or eventually in recreati- activity, eventually expenditure of energy. direction. onal activities. The following range of tools is used The quality of measuring by using GPS is delibera- The sample was consisted of 8 students aged 23,3 ± 1,38 years; body height 177,6 ± 4.1 cm, body weight to monitor outdoor locomotive activities: tely limited for public use. For military purposes it 79,1 ± 6.5 kg. We evaluated continuous locomotion on an athletic track and discontinuous (by shuttle run works in the order of centimeters but for personal test) in sports hall. Results: the covered distances, measured by Adidas miCoach device, are significantly Devices functioning with the help of use in the order of meters or tens of meters. In the different from the criteria (range r = 0,17-0,57). The largest inaccuracies are evident in unorthodox ways satellite navigation system sports environment, the accuracy up to 99% was of locomotion (running backwards and run sideways). We did not prove that product Adidas miCoach Global Positioning System is a satellite service that found (Aughey, 2011). The validity of accelerometers provides valid and reliable information about measuring distances in locomotion movement activities. enables autonomous satellites using spatial positio- and pedometers is satisfactory (r = 0,6-0,9) in basic ning with global coverage. Electronic radio receiver types of locomotion such as continuous, prolonged Key words: users that based on signals sent from the satellites walking or running (Psotta, 2003). On the contra- miCoach, reliability, validity, locomotion, outdoor allow to calculate their position with an accuracy of ry, validity of these devices significantly decreases tens of meters to the unit. When used for military or when changing the type of locomotion activity (eg. Souhrn scientific purposes may be accurate to a few centi- from running forward to run sideways etc.), when Přístroj Adidas miCoach pacer je tříosý akcelerometr, který je využíván pro monitorování lokomoční po- meters. There are several systems of satellite naviga- changing the direction or when measuring the lo- hybové aktivity v outdoorovém prostředí. Cílem příspěvku je stanovení míry reliability a validity přístroje tion: the European system Galileo, China‘s Compass, comotion of short alternating high intensity. Eg. Adidas miCoach pacer pro měření vzdálenosti lokomoce bez změn směru a se změnami směru. Výzkumný Russian Glonass, the American Navstar GPS, etc. the accuracy in sport games was within the range soubor tvořilo 8 studentů ve věku 23,3 ± 1,38 roku; tělesná výška 177,6 ± 4,1 cm; tělesná hmotnost 79,1 Part of the service system GPS (Global Positioning of 5-25% (Psotta, 2003). The values of correlation ± 6,5 kg. Posuzovali jsme kontinuální lokomoci na atletické dráze a nekontinuální („člunkovým“ způso- System), but with limited accuracy, is freely availab- coefficient appears to be relatively high (r=0,9-1) in bem) ve sportovní hale. Výsledky: vzdálenosti překonané lokomocí, změřené přístrojem Adidas MiCoach, le to civilian users. In the area of monitoring phys- studies supporting the use of accelerometers for tre- se signifikantně liší od kritéria (rozpětí r = 0,17-0,57). Největší nepřesnosti jsou patrné u neortodoxních ical activities, this method is quite enjoying great ating obesity (Horner, 2011). způsobů lokomoce (běh vzad a cval stranou, Neprokázali jsme, že by výrobek Adidas MiCoach poskytoval popularity. The advantage is the easy availability On a today market, there are many devices working validní a reliabilní informace o měření vzdálenosti při lokomočních pohybových aktivitách. of devices, which includes modules that with the on different principles of controlling the motion GPS signal works. On the market are devices that (heart rate, accelerometer, GPS), which are desig- Klíčová slova: are specifically designed for monitoring physical ned to monitor outdoor physical activities and they Adidas miCoach, reliabilita, validita, lokomoce, outdoor activities or use various software applications such are available to the public (eg The Nike +, Garmin as in mobile phones, watches. Popular applications Forerunner, Adidas miCoach). It is even possible Introduction rately, it is necessary to know the input data, ie. include Endomondo or Sportracker (Agency, 2013; to get a device with specific needs, eg for seniors One of the fundamental concepts of kinanthropo- it has to be somehow monitored and evaluated. SporTracker, 2013). These applications allow you to (Burns, 2012). logie is physical activity. This term means purpo- There are different approaches to physical activity monitor a wide range of outdoor activities (eg, run- One of the basic parameters of the measuring de- seful physical activity associated with participati- monitoring, which can be divided into two areas. ning, cycling, hiking, skiing, paddling, rowing) and vices is the distance covered by physical activity on of striated muscles. This activity is in context The physiological approach focuses on monitoring their parameters such as distance covered, speed, (locomotion, cycling, alpine skiing etc). We are with motion abilities, skills and physical fitness. nature and degree of energetic metabolism activa- duration, tempo, etc. In conjunction with the map going to focus on locomotive physical activity and Physical activities in natural environment (outdo- tion (Frömel, Novosad, & Svozil, 1999). The most data can be analyzed physical activity from geogra- quality of accelerometer measurements. or activities) are one of alternatives. Our subject common and at the same time the most accessible phic view. Unfavorably seems limited or impossible The aim of study is to contribute to the issue of acce- will be outdoor activities – running and its mo- method of monitoring and evaluating intensity of use in indoor activities (such as sports games), and lerometers measurements quality. The specific task nitoring. exercise is heart rate monitoring (Hnízdil, Škopek, limited or poor accuracy when GPS signal (eg in was to determine the degree of reliability and vali- If we want to regulate this motion activity delibe- & Havel, 2012; Šmíd, 2009). This is made possible mountainous terrain). dity of Adidas miCoach Pacer device for measuring

26 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 27 distance covered by locomotion without changes of speed were the same as in the first measurement 1200 m walk (m) 1200 m run (m) 400 m run 400 m side direction and with changes of direction. but the distance was covered by shuttle run test, backwards (m) gallop (m) ie 20m section repeatedly (there were changes of proband test test test test Methodology direction). Unlike on the athletic track, one more A 1240 1180 430 410 The sample was consisted of 8 students studying measurement was added. A combination of diffe- physical education at the age of 23,3 ± 1,38 years; rent methods of locomotion (running forward, ru- B 1170 1260 480 340 body height 177,6 ± 4,1 cm, body weight 79,1 ± 6,5 nning backward, run sideways) at a distance of 80 C 1210 1200 480 420 kg. They were trained individuals. m – the agility test (FIFA, 2012)(This test was not D 1090 1180 460 360 The subject of our study is Adidas miCoach Pacer included in comparing of covered distance on the E 1220 1190 420 420 device (company Adidas, Germany). This device is athletics track and in the sportshall). Both the first being sold in a kit with step sensor, handset and he- and the second measurement took place on the F 1190 1250 470 350 art rate monitor. The device is designed for training same athletics track and in the same sports hall, G 1230 1200 460 400 of running in outdoor environment and by using at the same time, in the same clothes and shoes of H 1100 1170 440 370 the manufacturer’s website you can plan and eva- probands. The speed of probands was checked by x 1177,50 1203,75 455,00 383,75 luate your training. The device can be used in two Dartfish video tool. modes. The free mode records only training data The measured data were transferred by Adidas s 57,68 33,35 22,68 32,49 (distance, speed, number of steps, time and heart miCoach Manager software into the online appli- Me 1200 1195 460 385 rate) and also allows to plan trainings according cation on the website of manufacturer. From this to manufacturer’s online templates or your own graphical and text online view, the rates of distan- ones. The second mode provides information to ce and speed were deducted and these rates were the runner through the handset in real time – the summarized and tabulated. The tool we used for so-called coaching. After the training, data are tran- statistical processing of the data was program Sta- smitted to online training diary for an evaluation. tistica Trial (StatSoft, Inc.). Technical data of miCoach Pacer: size 56 × 41 The criterial parallel validity was related to the cri- × 16.75 mm, weight 22,9 g, 2,4 GHz operating teria, which was validated 400 m athletics track. frequency, connection range 2,5 m, fixing by clip For the assessment the differential graph was used on the back of garment. Heart rate monitor is si- (Bland & Altman, 1986). This graphical method zed 63 × 38 × 10,5 mm, weight 19,5 g, range 14- evaluates dissimilarity between two methods of 240 pulses min-1. The step sensor has dimensions measuring (Hendl, 1997), in our case the measu- (including shoes clip) 45 × 29 × 13 mm, weight 9 rements taken by Adidas miCoach device and the g, speed range from 3,6 to 19,8 km.h-1. The step corresponding distance on the athletics track. On Picture 1 Bland-Altmans graph for comparison of Picture 2 Bland-Altmans graph for comparison of sensor is attached to the shoe using one-piece clip the x-axis there are averages of involved measu- measuring methods by Adidas miCoach device and measuring methods by Adidas miCoach device and or is inserted into the hollow of compatible sho- rement methods and on the y-axis there are dif- the criteria (1200m walk). the criteria (1200m run). es (Adidas, 2013). The manufacturer gives a cali- ferences between them. The graph also contains a brated accuracy of measuring speed and distance horizontal line showing the average difference and while running 98% and uncalibrated 95%. two horizontal lines at the levels of +1,96 s diffe- Before the measuring took place, the calibration rence and -1,96 s difference. was performed exactly according to the instructi- The reliability was evaluated by repeated measu- ons given by manufacturer. The manufacturer rements, so-called test-retest. We used descriptive recommends calibration distance at least 400m statistics and we determined the degree of reliabi- of uninterrupted run. To calibrate the device, we lity by Pearson’s correlation coefficient. used distance 500m on an athletics track which is homologated by Czech Athletic Federation. Results and discussion The following measurements were performed by all probands (every measurement took place Validity and measuring twice, after one week): 1st – measurements on The results and descriptive statistics of measuring Picture 3 Bland-Altmans graph for comparison of Picture 4 Bland-Altmans graph for comparison of the athletic track – walk forward (speed up to 7 on 400m athletics track – walk forward (speed measuring methods by Adidas miCoach device and measuring methods by Adidas miCoach device and km.h-1), running forward 1200 m (7 – 15 km.h-1), up to 7 km.h-1), run forward 1200m (7-15 km.h- the criteria (400m run backwards). the criteria (400m side gallop). running backwards 400 m (8 – 12 km.h-1), run si- 1), run backwards 400m (8-12 km.h-1), side gallop deways 400m (8 – 12 km.h-1). The second measu- 400m (8-12 km.h-1). x - average, s – standard devi- From the graphs above (pictures 1-4) we do not consider presence of systematic or proportional error. All rement took place in the sports hall – distance and ation, Me – median (tab.1). items can be assumed to have a certain resemblance between the two methods.

28 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 29 distance covered by locomotion without changes of speed were the same as in the first measurement 1200 m walk (m) 1200 m run (m) 400 m run 400 m side direction and with changes of direction. but the distance was covered by shuttle run test, backwards (m) gallop (m) ie 20m section repeatedly (there were changes of proband test test test test Methodology direction). Unlike on the athletic track, one more A 1240 1180 430 410 The sample was consisted of 8 students studying measurement was added. A combination of diffe- physical education at the age of 23,3 ± 1,38 years; rent methods of locomotion (running forward, ru- B 1170 1260 480 340 body height 177,6 ± 4,1 cm, body weight 79,1 ± 6,5 nning backward, run sideways) at a distance of 80 C 1210 1200 480 420 kg. They were trained individuals. m – the agility test (FIFA, 2012)(This test was not D 1090 1180 460 360 The subject of our study is Adidas miCoach Pacer included in comparing of covered distance on the E 1220 1190 420 420 device (company Adidas, Germany). This device is athletics track and in the sportshall). Both the first being sold in a kit with step sensor, handset and he- and the second measurement took place on the F 1190 1250 470 350 art rate monitor. The device is designed for training same athletics track and in the same sports hall, G 1230 1200 460 400 of running in outdoor environment and by using at the same time, in the same clothes and shoes of H 1100 1170 440 370 the manufacturer’s website you can plan and eva- probands. The speed of probands was checked by x 1177,50 1203,75 455,00 383,75 luate your training. The device can be used in two Dartfish video tool. modes. The free mode records only training data The measured data were transferred by Adidas s 57,68 33,35 22,68 32,49 (distance, speed, number of steps, time and heart miCoach Manager software into the online appli- Me 1200 1195 460 385 rate) and also allows to plan trainings according cation on the website of manufacturer. From this to manufacturer’s online templates or your own graphical and text online view, the rates of distan- ones. The second mode provides information to ce and speed were deducted and these rates were the runner through the handset in real time – the summarized and tabulated. The tool we used for so-called coaching. After the training, data are tran- statistical processing of the data was program Sta- smitted to online training diary for an evaluation. tistica Trial (StatSoft, Inc.). Technical data of miCoach Pacer: size 56 × 41 The criterial parallel validity was related to the cri- × 16.75 mm, weight 22,9 g, 2,4 GHz operating teria, which was validated 400 m athletics track. frequency, connection range 2,5 m, fixing by clip For the assessment the differential graph was used on the back of garment. Heart rate monitor is si- (Bland & Altman, 1986). This graphical method zed 63 × 38 × 10,5 mm, weight 19,5 g, range 14- evaluates dissimilarity between two methods of 240 pulses min-1. The step sensor has dimensions measuring (Hendl, 1997), in our case the measu- (including shoes clip) 45 × 29 × 13 mm, weight 9 rements taken by Adidas miCoach device and the g, speed range from 3,6 to 19,8 km.h-1. The step corresponding distance on the athletics track. On Picture 1 Bland-Altmans graph for comparison of Picture 2 Bland-Altmans graph for comparison of sensor is attached to the shoe using one-piece clip the x-axis there are averages of involved measu- measuring methods by Adidas miCoach device and measuring methods by Adidas miCoach device and or is inserted into the hollow of compatible sho- rement methods and on the y-axis there are dif- the criteria (1200m walk). the criteria (1200m run). es (Adidas, 2013). The manufacturer gives a cali- ferences between them. The graph also contains a brated accuracy of measuring speed and distance horizontal line showing the average difference and while running 98% and uncalibrated 95%. two horizontal lines at the levels of +1,96 s diffe- Before the measuring took place, the calibration rence and -1,96 s difference. was performed exactly according to the instructi- The reliability was evaluated by repeated measu- ons given by manufacturer. The manufacturer rements, so-called test-retest. We used descriptive recommends calibration distance at least 400m statistics and we determined the degree of reliabi- of uninterrupted run. To calibrate the device, we lity by Pearson’s correlation coefficient. used distance 500m on an athletics track which is homologated by Czech Athletic Federation. Results and discussion The following measurements were performed by all probands (every measurement took place Validity and measuring twice, after one week): 1st – measurements on The results and descriptive statistics of measuring Picture 3 Bland-Altmans graph for comparison of Picture 4 Bland-Altmans graph for comparison of the athletic track – walk forward (speed up to 7 on 400m athletics track – walk forward (speed measuring methods by Adidas miCoach device and measuring methods by Adidas miCoach device and km.h-1), running forward 1200 m (7 – 15 km.h-1), up to 7 km.h-1), run forward 1200m (7-15 km.h- the criteria (400m run backwards). the criteria (400m side gallop). running backwards 400 m (8 – 12 km.h-1), run si- 1), run backwards 400m (8-12 km.h-1), side gallop deways 400m (8 – 12 km.h-1). The second measu- 400m (8-12 km.h-1). x - average, s – standard devi- From the graphs above (pictures 1-4) we do not consider presence of systematic or proportional error. All rement took place in the sports hall – distance and ation, Me – median (tab.1). items can be assumed to have a certain resemblance between the two methods.

28 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 29 Then we calculated correlation coefficient to determine validity 1200 m walk (m) 1200 m run (m) 400 m run 400 m run 80 m FIFA backwards (m) sideways (m) agility test (m) Table 2 Validity coefficients (r) of each tested items. proband test retest test retest test retest test retest test retest H 1120 1060 1280 1200 430 420 360 370 70 70 1200 m walk 1200 m run 400 m run 400 m run backwards sideways x 1143,75 1125,00 1227,50 1182,50 437,50 446,25 401,25 396,25 83,75 82,50 s 50,69 47,51 62,05 75,36 20,53 32,04 44,22 29,73 13,02 10,35 coherently r 0,57 0,41 0,27 0,17 on an athletic Table 5 Reliability coefficients (r) of each tested items track 1200 m walk 1200 m run 400 m run 400 m run 80 m FIFA Reliability of measurements 7 km.h-1), run forward 1200m (7-15 km.h-1), run bac- backwards sideways agility test st nd -1 The results of 1 and 2 measurements on 400m kwards 400m (8-12 km.h ), run sideways 400m (8- coherently r 0,57 0,4 0,53 0,79 X -1 athletics track – walk forward (speed up to 12 km.h ). x - average, s – standard deviation (tab.3). on an athletic track Table 3 The results of st1 and 2nd measurements on 400m athletics track incoherently r 0,35 0,84 0,51 0,08 0,57 at the athle- 1200 m walk (m) 1200 m run (km.h-1) 400 m run 400 m side tic track backwards (km.h-1) gallop (km.h-1) proband test retest test retest test retest test retest Discussion cording physical activity) also show, that the device A 1240 1230 1180 1220 430 420 410 410 With regard to our aim of the work, we state that responds slightly tardily when starting locomoti- B 1170 1180 1260 1260 480 430 340 370 the distance covered by locomotion measured by on – information about distance is retrieved after C 1210 1190 1200 1240 480 450 420 410 Adidas miCoach device is significantly different about 2-3 seconds. D 1090 1210 1180 1260 460 470 360 370 from the criteria. The range of correlation coeffici- The degree of reliability by test-retest was assessed ent was r = 0,17 to 0,57. The greatest inaccuracies by continuous locomotion (Table 3-5) on the athle- E 1220 1230 1190 1220 420 420 420 380 are evident in unorthodox ways of locomotion (ru- tic track, where the coefficient of reliability was in F 1190 1180 1250 1260 470 470 350 350 nning backwards, sideways gallop, see Tab 2). This range r = 0,4 to 0,79. Very surprising is the high rate G 1230 1190 1200 1240 460 460 400 410 confirms the statement of Psotta who claims that at a sideways gallop (r = 0,79). However, this value measuring of distance using accelerometers has low is slightly misleading according to the above validi- H 1100 1100 1170 1260 440 450 370 370 validity with other forms of locomotion than conti- ty of the device. x 1177,50 1188,75 1203,75 1245,00 455,00 446,25 383,75 383,75 nuous running forward (Psotta, 2003). The reliability of measurements in the sports hall s 57,68 41,21 33,35 17,73 22,68 20,66 32,49 23,26 It was not a surprise to us that the measurement of performed in “shuttle” way on 20m section had a unorthodox ways of locomotion is not valid, but we very large range for every type of locomotion (r = were surprised by the values we found when run- 0,08 to 0,84). We were very surprised by the values The results of 1st and 2nd measurements in sports hall run backwards 400m (8-12 km.h-1), side gallop 400m ning forward. Finding of this is in contrast with re- of FIFA agility test, where changes in locomotion by shuttle run on 20m section - walk forward (speed (8-12 km.h-1), FIFA agility test (changes of direction search which assessed the quality of similar devices and direction are made, which were very similar (test up to 7 km.h-1), run forward 1200m (7-15 km.h-1), and locomotion). x - average, s – standard deviation. where measuring accuracy of 3%, as stated by the x=83,75 ±13,02 m vs. retest x=85,50 ±10,35 m). manufacturer was confirmed (Hnízdil, Škopek, & The product, Adidas miCoach, is not designed for Table 4 The results of st1 and 2nd measurements in sports hall by shuttle run on 20m section Havel, 2012). This was probably also caused by the intermittent physical activities such as sport games 1200 m walk (m) 1200 m run (m) 400 m run 400 m run 80 m FIFA fact, that running speed range was 7-15 km.h-1. but for running training. There is another device backwards (m) sideways (m) agility test (m) Given the fact that the device is designed especia- made by the same manufacturer called Speed_Cell, proband test retest test retest test retest test retest test retest lly for running, we expected much better measure- which is designed specifically for sport games. It ment validity – however, we are aware that the rese- would be interesting to verify the measuring quality A 1210 1210 1210 1130 440 440 450 360 70 70 arch sample limits predicative value of our results. of this device because the manufacturer indicates a B 1130 1130 1280 1290 440 440 360 370 90 90 We believe that the fact, that distance is measured similar function – it is also an accelerometer. C 1210 1110 1140 1110 410 490 440 420 100 100 only in tens of meters, not in ones, has a negative As for the user‘s convenience, we have no objecti- influence on results. This is evident from the onli- ons – especially online web interface is very plea- D 1130 1080 1280 1200 440 500 360 410 80 80 ne application, because it is not possible to deduct sant for recreational athletes. E 1170 1120 1210 1130 480 410 360 440 70 90 distance not rounded to dozen. Nevertheless, it is F 1060 1120 1280 1290 440 430 440 380 100 80 interesting that the device is able to measure each Conclusion G 1120 1170 1140 1110 420 440 440 420 90 80 meter, because this information is verbally stated Our paper have not proved, that Adidas miCoach after completing your training. Some graphs (re- product provides sufficient valid and reliable -in

30 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 31 Then we calculated correlation coefficient to determine validity 1200 m walk (m) 1200 m run (m) 400 m run 400 m run 80 m FIFA backwards (m) sideways (m) agility test (m) Table 2 Validity coefficients (r) of each tested items. proband test retest test retest test retest test retest test retest H 1120 1060 1280 1200 430 420 360 370 70 70 1200 m walk 1200 m run 400 m run 400 m run backwards sideways x 1143,75 1125,00 1227,50 1182,50 437,50 446,25 401,25 396,25 83,75 82,50 s 50,69 47,51 62,05 75,36 20,53 32,04 44,22 29,73 13,02 10,35 coherently r 0,57 0,41 0,27 0,17 on an athletic Table 5 Reliability coefficients (r) of each tested items track 1200 m walk 1200 m run 400 m run 400 m run 80 m FIFA Reliability of measurements 7 km.h-1), run forward 1200m (7-15 km.h-1), run bac- backwards sideways agility test st nd -1 The results of 1 and 2 measurements on 400m kwards 400m (8-12 km.h ), run sideways 400m (8- coherently r 0,57 0,4 0,53 0,79 X -1 athletics track – walk forward (speed up to 12 km.h ). x - average, s – standard deviation (tab.3). on an athletic track Table 3 The results of st1 and 2nd measurements on 400m athletics track incoherently r 0,35 0,84 0,51 0,08 0,57 at the athle- 1200 m walk (m) 1200 m run (km.h-1) 400 m run 400 m side tic track backwards (km.h-1) gallop (km.h-1) proband test retest test retest test retest test retest Discussion cording physical activity) also show, that the device A 1240 1230 1180 1220 430 420 410 410 With regard to our aim of the work, we state that responds slightly tardily when starting locomoti- B 1170 1180 1260 1260 480 430 340 370 the distance covered by locomotion measured by on – information about distance is retrieved after C 1210 1190 1200 1240 480 450 420 410 Adidas miCoach device is significantly different about 2-3 seconds. D 1090 1210 1180 1260 460 470 360 370 from the criteria. The range of correlation coeffici- The degree of reliability by test-retest was assessed ent was r = 0,17 to 0,57. The greatest inaccuracies by continuous locomotion (Table 3-5) on the athle- E 1220 1230 1190 1220 420 420 420 380 are evident in unorthodox ways of locomotion (ru- tic track, where the coefficient of reliability was in F 1190 1180 1250 1260 470 470 350 350 nning backwards, sideways gallop, see Tab 2). This range r = 0,4 to 0,79. Very surprising is the high rate G 1230 1190 1200 1240 460 460 400 410 confirms the statement of Psotta who claims that at a sideways gallop (r = 0,79). However, this value measuring of distance using accelerometers has low is slightly misleading according to the above validi- H 1100 1100 1170 1260 440 450 370 370 validity with other forms of locomotion than conti- ty of the device. x 1177,50 1188,75 1203,75 1245,00 455,00 446,25 383,75 383,75 nuous running forward (Psotta, 2003). The reliability of measurements in the sports hall s 57,68 41,21 33,35 17,73 22,68 20,66 32,49 23,26 It was not a surprise to us that the measurement of performed in “shuttle” way on 20m section had a unorthodox ways of locomotion is not valid, but we very large range for every type of locomotion (r = were surprised by the values we found when run- 0,08 to 0,84). We were very surprised by the values The results of 1st and 2nd measurements in sports hall run backwards 400m (8-12 km.h-1), side gallop 400m ning forward. Finding of this is in contrast with re- of FIFA agility test, where changes in locomotion by shuttle run on 20m section - walk forward (speed (8-12 km.h-1), FIFA agility test (changes of direction search which assessed the quality of similar devices and direction are made, which were very similar (test up to 7 km.h-1), run forward 1200m (7-15 km.h-1), and locomotion). x - average, s – standard deviation. where measuring accuracy of 3%, as stated by the x=83,75 ±13,02 m vs. retest x=85,50 ±10,35 m). manufacturer was confirmed (Hnízdil, Škopek, & The product, Adidas miCoach, is not designed for Table 4 The results of st1 and 2nd measurements in sports hall by shuttle run on 20m section Havel, 2012). This was probably also caused by the intermittent physical activities such as sport games 1200 m walk (m) 1200 m run (m) 400 m run 400 m run 80 m FIFA fact, that running speed range was 7-15 km.h-1. but for running training. There is another device backwards (m) sideways (m) agility test (m) Given the fact that the device is designed especia- made by the same manufacturer called Speed_Cell, proband test retest test retest test retest test retest test retest lly for running, we expected much better measure- which is designed specifically for sport games. It ment validity – however, we are aware that the rese- would be interesting to verify the measuring quality A 1210 1210 1210 1130 440 440 450 360 70 70 arch sample limits predicative value of our results. of this device because the manufacturer indicates a B 1130 1130 1280 1290 440 440 360 370 90 90 We believe that the fact, that distance is measured similar function – it is also an accelerometer. C 1210 1110 1140 1110 410 490 440 420 100 100 only in tens of meters, not in ones, has a negative As for the user‘s convenience, we have no objecti- influence on results. This is evident from the onli- ons – especially online web interface is very plea- D 1130 1080 1280 1200 440 500 360 410 80 80 ne application, because it is not possible to deduct sant for recreational athletes. E 1170 1120 1210 1130 480 410 360 440 70 90 distance not rounded to dozen. Nevertheless, it is F 1060 1120 1280 1290 440 430 440 380 100 80 interesting that the device is able to measure each Conclusion G 1120 1170 1140 1110 420 440 440 420 90 80 meter, because this information is verbally stated Our paper have not proved, that Adidas miCoach after completing your training. Some graphs (re- product provides sufficient valid and reliable -in

30 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 31 formation about measuring distances covered by as a pilot one and we are going to investigate this locomotion activitiy it was designed for – which is device more in the future. The object of our inte- running. The indication of accuracy in the range of rest will be, in addition to distance characteristics 95-98%, provided by manufacturer, was not confir- of physical activities, speed, heart strokes and step med in our study. Our research can be conceived characteristics.

References Adidas. (2013). miCoach. Retrieved 03/13, 2013, fromAdidas.com: http://www.adidas.com/com/micoach/. Agency, D. C. (2013). Endomondo. Retrieved 03/13, 2013, from Endomondo.com: http://www.endomondo. com/ Aughey, R. J. (2011). Applications of GPS technologies to field sports. Int J Sports Physiol Perform, 6(3), 295-310. Bland, M., & Altman, D. (1986). Statistical methods for assesing agreement between two methods of clinical measurement. Lancet, 8, 307-310. Burns, W. P. (2012). Evaluation of a technology enabled garment for older walkers. Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC). IEEE. Burs, W. (2012). Evaluation of a Technology Enabled Garment for Older Walkers. 34th Annual International Conference of the IEEE EMBS, San Diego, 2100-2103. FIFA. (2012). Refereeing. Zurich: FIFA. Frömel, K. (2008). Validita a reliabilita funkce "meření počtu kroků“ u přístroje Actitrainer v kontrolova- ných podmínkách. Universitatis Palackianae Olomoucensis Gymnica, 38(2), 63. Frömel, K., Novosad, J., & Svozil, Z. (1999). Pohybová aktivita a sportovní zájmy mládeže. Olomouc: FTK U P. Hendl, J. (1997). Statistické přístupy k porovnání biomedicinských metod měření. Česká kinantropologie, 6, 87-96. Hendl, J. (2006). Přehled statistických metod zpracování dat: analýza a metaanalýza dat. Praha: Portál. Hnízdil, J., Škopek, M., & Havel, Z. (2012). Validita a reliabilita akcelerometru S3+ pro měření rychlosti chůze a běhu systémem Polar RCX5. Studia sportiva, 6, 61-68. Horner, F. E. (2011). Reliability and validity of the 3DNX accelerometer during mechanical and human treadmill exercise testing. International Journal of Obesity, 35, 88-97. Neuls, F. (2009). Validity and reliability of“ step count“ function of the ActiTrainer Activity Monitor under controlled conditions. Acta Universitatis Palackianae Olomucensis. Gymnica, 38(2), 55-64. Preston, T. B. (2012). Accelerometer validity and placement for detection of changes in physical activity in dogs under controlled conditions on a treadmill. Research in Veterinary Science, 93(1), 412-6. Psotta, R. (2003). Analýza intermitentní pohybové aktivity . Praha: Karolinum . SporTracker, L. (2013). Sportracker. Retrieved 03/13, 201, from: http://www.sportracker.com/. Stockinger, M. (2012). Aktuální přístupy k problematice intermitentního (přerušovanéhoú zatížení. Studia sportiva, 6/1, 141-144. Šmíd, P. (2009). Rozhodování ve sportovních hrách. V R. Dušan (Editor), Telesná výchova a šport na uni- verzitách IV . Nitra : Slovenská polnohospodárská univerzita.

Author: Mgr. Jan Kresta; email: [email protected]

32 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 33 formation about measuring distances covered by as a pilot one and we are going to investigate this locomotion activitiy it was designed for – which is device more in the future. The object of our inte- running. The indication of accuracy in the range of rest will be, in addition to distance characteristics 95-98%, provided by manufacturer, was not confir- of physical activities, speed, heart strokes and step med in our study. Our research can be conceived characteristics.

Author: Mgr. Jan Kresta; email: [email protected]

32 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 33 Our study deals with the change of techniques of Ilavský and Suk (2005) describe the energy trans- The influence of load intensity on classical cross-country skiing during alternating formation, which is at cross-country skiing more two-stroke form, with increasing intensity. We used than 90% covered by aerobic processes. Only after a scale, which was defined by Blahuš (1981), for our scratch, before the uphill and before the finish, it the classic cross-country skiing evaluation: Scaling is a set of methods for qualitati- leads to an increase in the proportion of anaero- ve data transfer to the scale (range) in order to in- bic processes. Cross country skiing is difficult for fer their quantitative character. In our case, it was the switching frequent of the load during the race technique of students Faculty a record of the movements, which was followed by (sub-maximal to maximum gradients in the relative an assessment of the frequency of pre-established release in the downhill.). Number of breaths per 1 technical errors. Soumar and Bolek (2001) realize min., during the cross-country skiing, reaches the of Education South Bohemian that the cross-country skiing is a recurring cycles values up to 60 breaths; minute ventilation of lungs of movement in changing conditions. They mean, - the volume of air, which passes in 1 min. with ex- with cyclicality, the alternating parts of the loco- changing inside the lungs - is approximately 120-

University motor cycle in one type of running. The changes 152 liters. Maximum oxygen consumption - VO2 in the track, which are meant the profile, microre- max – by the world‘s elite is more than 5.5 l / min., Radek Vobr, Petr Bahenský, Petr Požárek lief, change of the quality of the snow and running more than 80 ml / kg.min., the best female skiers 3.4 South Bohemian University, Faculty of Education, Department of Physical Education and Sport, České track. At the same time we realize that with grading to 4.1 l / min., or 70 - 75 ml / kg.min. Budějovice, Czech Republic of tiredness is necessary to change the type of cross- country skiing. Adolfa’s study (2006) points out that Methodology Abstract during the same speed of the classical technique of Our work is a descriptive study, based on studies of The aim of this study was to evaluate the cross country skiing technique in dependence on the load intensity cross-country skiing is higher heart rate and energy 6 probands. Each of them skied by classic technique of students studying Physical Education at the Faculty of Education at the University of South Bohemia. This consumption than during the skating. This observed (alternating two-stroke form) 3x track of 1,500 m, work is essentially a descriptive study, based on multiple case studies of 6 probands – 4 men and 2 women. difference is between 7 and 25%. They point out that which the first 1300 meters was used for inducti- According to video analysis was made the evaluation of technique errors of students´ cross-country skiing if more measurements were carried out for different on and the last 200 meters in uphill was recorded in three different load zones. We supposed that the number of technique errors will increase with the level of types of athletes, ages and performance levels, so it on video and then it was analyzed. We used camera load. This assumption was confirmed. When students were running in the intensity of 130–150 beats was would reach average values, which would corre- Nikon CoolPix P500 with parameters CMOS back found only one technique error, in the intensity of 150-170 beats were a total of 10 errors, and in the intensity spond to the correct execution of technique. Korvas illumination Wide Zoom 36x, 12.1 megapixels, full above 170 beats were found a total of 19 errors. The results indicate that the observed physical activity has (2007) mentions the factors affecting the resistan- HD movie. not yet been fully automatized in variable conditions of different load intensity. ce of cross-country skiing in snow cover, especially In the first section was set up intensity between 130 when there is friction between the sliding skis (skis, and 150 beats by Sport-Testers. In the second, the Key words: edges of skis, boots, and bindings) and snow surfa- intensity was set up at 150-170 beats. In the third cross-country skiing, training intensity, technique, students ce, and snow resistance, which is acting during the was the minimum heart rate 170 beats. Among sliding against the front projection of ski tip, boot or the sections was the passive rest, 5 minutes. The Souhrn overcoming inequalities in the snow track. The fric- number of technical faults was taken as relevant Cílem předkládané studie bylo vyhodnocení techniky běhu na lyžích v závislosti na intenzitě zatížení u stu- tion (R) of the ski in the snow track depends on the variables which were previously quantified. It was dentů tělesné výchovy na Pedagogické fakultě Jihočeské univerzity. Tato práce je ve své podstatě deskriptivní size of the force components (N), where the ski has these three technical faults: change of ski tempo, studií, vycházející z několikanásobné případové studie celkem 6 probandů - 4 mužů a 2 žen. Na základě perpendicular effect to the snow surface and the co- slip of the jumping-off foot and loss of balance in analýzy videozáznamu bylo provedeno vyhodnocení technických chyb v běžecké technice studentů a to ve efficient of friction (F) between the running surface unifoot-hold position. We used the time of skiing třech různých zónách zatížení. Předpokládali jsme, že počet chyb v technice běhu se bude zvyšovat s úrovní and snow. At the same time we aware the following in specific part of the track as a variable. To deter- zatížení. Tento předpoklad se potvrdil. Při běhu v intenzitě 130-150 tepů byla zjištěna pouze jedna technic- factors as ski movement (downhill, running, skating mine the statistical significance was used contin- ká chyba, v intenzitě 150-170 tepů se jednalo o 10 chyb a v intenzitě nad 170 tepů bylo zjištěno celkem 19 or classic technique), the level of skiing ability, prefe- gency table with the calculation of the test criteria chyb. Z výsledků je zřejmé, že sledovaná pohybová činnost ještě není plně zautomatizovaná v proměnlivých rred profile of the track, air temperature, snow and χ2 (Vincent, 1995). podmínkách různé intenzity zatížení. very important indicator - the quality of the snow. In cross-country skiing is given appropriate value of The researched file Klíčová slova: energy expenditure 1100 - 1900% of basal metaboli- The measurement was attended by 6 probands. běh na lyžích, intenzita, technika běhu, studenti sm, which is 11-19 times higher energy expenditure They were the students of the 3rd year of study in physical and mental rest, when it is 100% of the program of physical education, who have success- Introduction hensively and harmoniously develops functional predicted value of basal metabolism. In comparison fully completed all three courses of skiing during Cross-country skiing is one of the cyclical sports of fitness of the organism. It does not happen to abra- with other sports, this is one of the highest energy the study of physical education. Students were se- endurance character. It shows through the regular sion of the musculoskeletal system due to gravity in expenditure, when we take it as an endurance dis- lected randomly by lottery. The students agreed work of the lower and upper limbs and torso musc- the predominant character of the force-endurance cipline. During the cross-country skiing, the energy with the measurement and use of Sport-Testers les. Summary of sub-movements globally oppresses load and it does not put too high expectations on expenditure is about 1,4 kJ/min/kg in speed 14 km/h. during the course and this fact did not affect their the muscles of the whole body and thus compre- them. (Ilavský a Suk, 2005) (Ilavský a Suk, 2005) training.

34 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 35 Our study deals with the change of techniques of Ilavský and Suk (2005) describe the energy trans- The influence of load intensity on classical cross-country skiing during alternating formation, which is at cross-country skiing more two-stroke form, with increasing intensity. We used than 90% covered by aerobic processes. Only after a scale, which was defined by Blahuš (1981), for our scratch, before the uphill and before the finish, it the classic cross-country skiing evaluation: Scaling is a set of methods for qualitati- leads to an increase in the proportion of anaero- ve data transfer to the scale (range) in order to in- bic processes. Cross country skiing is difficult for fer their quantitative character. In our case, it was the switching frequent of the load during the race technique of students Faculty a record of the movements, which was followed by (sub-maximal to maximum gradients in the relative an assessment of the frequency of pre-established release in the downhill.). Number of breaths per 1 technical errors. Soumar and Bolek (2001) realize min., during the cross-country skiing, reaches the of Education South Bohemian that the cross-country skiing is a recurring cycles values up to 60 breaths; minute ventilation of lungs of movement in changing conditions. They mean, - the volume of air, which passes in 1 min. with ex- with cyclicality, the alternating parts of the loco- changing inside the lungs - is approximately 120-

34 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 35 Table 1 The basic somatic characteristics and age of the probands To assess of compliance with the intensity we pre- cause all probands except one, have more technical Men Height (cm) Weight (kg) Age (years) sent a table of time differences between parts of the faults during rising intensity. F.D. 180,0 71,0 24,5 track. In the first column is the difference of times between the first and second section T2 = T2-1 Table 6 The increasing of technical faults among the J.K. 186,0 87,0 22,0 (150-170)-T1 (130-150).In the second column is each segments of the track. J.B. 184,0 75,0 25,5 the difference of time between the second and the P.S. 176,0 77,5 22,6 third sector T3-2 = T3 (+170)-T2 (150-170). It is Difference CH2-CH1 CH3-CH2 CH3-CH1 evident, that every proband has to run faster with of faults average 181,5 77,6 23,7 an increasing of the intensity. F.D. 2 0 2 standard deviation 3,84 5,89 1,41 J.K. 2 3 5 Table 5 Time difference between segments. Women Height (cm) Weight (kg) Age (years) J.B. 0 3 3 S.B. 164,0 50,0 21,9 time difference T2-1 T3-2 P.S. 3 2 5 E.B. 163,0 50,0 22,3 F.D. 0:10 0:09 S.B. 2 2 4 average 163,5 50,0 22,1 J.K. 0:08 0:03 E.B. 0 0 0 standard deviation 0,50 0,00 0,18 J.B. 0:05 0:08 Total 9 10 19 P.S. 0:04 0:05 S.B. 0:04 0:02 To evaluate the statistical significance and cal- Scientific question TF 130-150 Time T1 number of faults culation of the second test criteria χ2 was used a E.B. 0:32 0:08 The frequency of technical faults of all probands J.B. 1:10 0 contingency table. During the comparison of the will increase with higher intensity of the load. Based calculated values (χ2= 16,2) with the degree of P.S. 1:08 0 on this scientific questions we will verify the validi- We are much more interested in the number of freedom (χ2=13,82) we confirmed the validity of ty of the following statements: S.B. 1:08 0 technical faults in the 200-meter section of the our scientific question. It means that the level of 1. The frequency of technical faults will be higher in E.B. 1:55 0 track. We assumed that the number of technical probability α ≥ 0.001 is statistically significant dif- the skiing track in the range of 150-170 beats than faults would increase between sectors during higher ference in the occurrence of the technical faults in in the skiing track in the range of 130-150 beats. Table 3 Time of skiing 200 meters and the number intensity. From Table 6 it is evident that the validity classical cross – country skiing in different degrees 2. The frequency of technical faults will be higher in of faults in technique within intensity of 150-170 of established scientific question is confirmed, be- of intensity. the skiing track in the range above 170 beats than beats in the skiing track in the range of 150-170 beats. Table 7 The increasing of technical faults expressed in the contingency table. 3. The frequency of technical faults will be higher in TF 150-170 Time T2 number of faults the skiing track in the range above 170 beats than F.D. 0:55 2 TF 130-150 TF 150-170 TF › 170 Total in the skiing track in the range of 130-150 beats. J.K. 1:00 3 observed 1 10 19 30 expected 10 10 10 30 Results and discussion J.B. 1:05 0 In our study, we recorded the time in the last part P.S. 1:04 3 Total 11 20 29 60 of the track and the number of technical faults in S.B. 1:19 2 the classic cross-country technique. Each proband was supposed to ski different parts of the track E.B. 1:23 0 with given intensity (130-150, 150-170 and above 170 bpm). Time of skiing the last 200 meters track Table 4 Time of skiing 200 meters and the number Conclusion of alpine skiing and in the third year is only cross- was taken as a covariate variable for monitoring the of faults in technique within intensity above 170 Cross-country skiing is a very popular sport in the country skiing. At the end of this course we realized compliance of the intensity. The faults in technique beats Czech Republic. This is demonstrated by the suc- this measuring, which was interested in changing a are monitored as a variable. Both factors are presen- cesses of Czech skiers in the international compe- technique of cross-country skiing depending on its ted in tables 2 – 4. TF nad 170 Time T3 number of faults titions. This is also the reason why the students of intensity. The results clearly show that at very low F.D. 0:46 2 physical education are familiarized with it, because intensity, the students were able to go technically Table 2 Time of skiing 200 meters and the number of they will teach this beautiful sport to others. On right, without a significant number of faults. But 10 J.K. 0:57 6 faults in technique within intensity of 130-150 beats our faculty has skiing long tradition supported by technical faults occurred during medium intensity. J.B. 0:57 3 significantly higher number of lessons than other And the number increased to 19 technical faults TF 130-150 Time T1 number of faults P.S. 0:59 5 schools. Basically, there are three compulsory cour- during very high intensity. It is obvious that the F.D. 1:05 0 S.B. 1:17 4 ses in the first three years of study. In the first year students are still in an early stage of motor learning it is a combined course of alpine skiing and cross- and to fully automate the movement they even must J.K. 1:08 1 E.B. 1:15 0 country skiing, in the second year it‘s only course train harder for a while.

36 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 37 Table 1 The basic somatic characteristics and age of the probands To assess of compliance with the intensity we pre- cause all probands except one, have more technical Men Height (cm) Weight (kg) Age (years) sent a table of time differences between parts of the faults during rising intensity. F.D. 180,0 71,0 24,5 track. In the first column is the difference of times between the first and second section T2 = T2-1 Table 6 The increasing of technical faults among the J.K. 186,0 87,0 22,0 (150-170)-T1 (130-150).In the second column is each segments of the track. J.B. 184,0 75,0 25,5 the difference of time between the second and the P.S. 176,0 77,5 22,6 third sector T3-2 = T3 (+170)-T2 (150-170). It is Difference CH2-CH1 CH3-CH2 CH3-CH1 evident, that every proband has to run faster with of faults average 181,5 77,6 23,7 an increasing of the intensity. F.D. 2 0 2 standard deviation 3,84 5,89 1,41 J.K. 2 3 5 Table 5 Time difference between segments. Women Height (cm) Weight (kg) Age (years) J.B. 0 3 3 S.B. 164,0 50,0 21,9 time difference T2-1 T3-2 P.S. 3 2 5 E.B. 163,0 50,0 22,3 F.D. 0:10 0:09 S.B. 2 2 4 average 163,5 50,0 22,1 J.K. 0:08 0:03 E.B. 0 0 0 standard deviation 0,50 0,00 0,18 J.B. 0:05 0:08 Total 9 10 19 P.S. 0:04 0:05 S.B. 0:04 0:02 To evaluate the statistical significance and cal- Scientific question TF 130-150 Time T1 number of faults culation of the second test criteria χ2 was used a E.B. 0:32 0:08 The frequency of technical faults of all probands J.B. 1:10 0 contingency table. During the comparison of the will increase with higher intensity of the load. Based calculated values (χ2= 16,2) with the degree of P.S. 1:08 0 on this scientific questions we will verify the validi- We are much more interested in the number of freedom (χ2=13,82) we confirmed the validity of ty of the following statements: S.B. 1:08 0 technical faults in the 200-meter section of the our scientific question. It means that the level of 1. The frequency of technical faults will be higher in E.B. 1:55 0 track. We assumed that the number of technical probability α ≥ 0.001 is statistically significant dif- the skiing track in the range of 150-170 beats than faults would increase between sectors during higher ference in the occurrence of the technical faults in in the skiing track in the range of 130-150 beats. Table 3 Time of skiing 200 meters and the number intensity. From Table 6 it is evident that the validity classical cross – country skiing in different degrees 2. The frequency of technical faults will be higher in of faults in technique within intensity of 150-170 of established scientific question is confirmed, be- of intensity. the skiing track in the range above 170 beats than beats in the skiing track in the range of 150-170 beats. Table 7 The increasing of technical faults expressed in the contingency table. 3. The frequency of technical faults will be higher in TF 150-170 Time T2 number of faults the skiing track in the range above 170 beats than F.D. 0:55 2 TF 130-150 TF 150-170 TF › 170 Total in the skiing track in the range of 130-150 beats. J.K. 1:00 3 observed 1 10 19 30 expected 10 10 10 30 Results and discussion J.B. 1:05 0 In our study, we recorded the time in the last part P.S. 1:04 3 Total 11 20 29 60 of the track and the number of technical faults in S.B. 1:19 2 the classic cross-country technique. Each proband was supposed to ski different parts of the track E.B. 1:23 0 with given intensity (130-150, 150-170 and above 170 bpm). Time of skiing the last 200 meters track Table 4 Time of skiing 200 meters and the number Conclusion of alpine skiing and in the third year is only cross- was taken as a covariate variable for monitoring the of faults in technique within intensity above 170 Cross-country skiing is a very popular sport in the country skiing. At the end of this course we realized compliance of the intensity. The faults in technique beats Czech Republic. This is demonstrated by the suc- this measuring, which was interested in changing a are monitored as a variable. Both factors are presen- cesses of Czech skiers in the international compe- technique of cross-country skiing depending on its ted in tables 2 – 4. TF nad 170 Time T3 number of faults titions. This is also the reason why the students of intensity. The results clearly show that at very low F.D. 0:46 2 physical education are familiarized with it, because intensity, the students were able to go technically Table 2 Time of skiing 200 meters and the number of they will teach this beautiful sport to others. On right, without a significant number of faults. But 10 J.K. 0:57 6 faults in technique within intensity of 130-150 beats our faculty has skiing long tradition supported by technical faults occurred during medium intensity. J.B. 0:57 3 significantly higher number of lessons than other And the number increased to 19 technical faults TF 130-150 Time T1 number of faults P.S. 0:59 5 schools. Basically, there are three compulsory cour- during very high intensity. It is obvious that the F.D. 1:05 0 S.B. 1:17 4 ses in the first three years of study. In the first year students are still in an early stage of motor learning it is a combined course of alpine skiing and cross- and to fully automate the movement they even must J.K. 1:08 1 E.B. 1:15 0 country skiing, in the second year it‘s only course train harder for a while.

36 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 37 References Adolf, P. (2006). Srdeční frekvence běžce na lyžích při klasickém a volném způsobu běhu (diplomová prá- ce). Brno: Masarykova Univerzita. Blahuš, P. (1981). K teorii testování pohybových schopností. Praha: Univerzita Karlova. Blahuš, P. (1996). K systémovému pojetí statistických metod v metodologii empirického výzkumu chování. Praha: Karolinum. Hendl, J. (2004). Přehled statistických metod. Praha: Portál. Ilavský, J., & Suk, A. (2005). Abeceda běhu na lyžích - metodický dopis. Praha: Svaz lyžařů ČR. Korvas, P. (2007). Běh na lyžích – Volný způsob běhu. Brno: Masarykova univerzita. Soumar, L., & Bolek, E. (2001). Běh na lyžích. Praha: Grada. Thomas, J.R. & Nelson, J.K. (1996). Research Methods in Physical Activity. Champaign: Human Kinetics. Vincent, W.J. (1995). Statistics in Kinesiology. Champaign: Human Kinetics.

Authors: PhDr. Radek Vobr, Ph.D., email: [email protected] Mgr. Petr Bahenský, email: [email protected] Mgr. Petr Požárek, email: [email protected]

TEORETICAL STUDIES 38 journal of outdoor activities 2 References Adolf, P. (2006). Srdeční frekvence běžce na lyžích při klasickém a volném způsobu běhu (diplomová prá- ce). Brno: Masarykova Univerzita. Blahuš, P. (1981). K teorii testování pohybových schopností. Praha: Univerzita Karlova. Blahuš, P. (1996). K systémovému pojetí statistických metod v metodologii empirického výzkumu chování. Praha: Karolinum. Hendl, J. (2004). Přehled statistických metod. Praha: Portál. Ilavský, J., & Suk, A. (2005). Abeceda běhu na lyžích - metodický dopis. Praha: Svaz lyžařů ČR. Korvas, P. (2007). Běh na lyžích – Volný způsob běhu. Brno: Masarykova univerzita. Soumar, L., & Bolek, E. (2001). Běh na lyžích. Praha: Grada. Thomas, J.R. & Nelson, J.K. (1996). Research Methods in Physical Activity. Champaign: Human Kinetics. Vincent, W.J. (1995). Statistics in Kinesiology. Champaign: Human Kinetics.

Authors: PhDr. Radek Vobr, Ph.D., email: [email protected] Mgr. Petr Bahenský, email: [email protected] Mgr. Petr Požárek, email: [email protected]

TEORETICAL STUDIES 38 journal of outdoor activities 2 ssary to adjust to pressure and a different perception air in the bag had always the same pressure as the Scuba diving: reactivity of breathing of sound, color, and object sizes but also to deal with surrounding water. Modern breathing devices ope- cold, dehydration and many other dangers. rate on this principle, even though they are of cour- Scuba diving is quite diverse. For example, it can be se much more technologically advanced (Oyhenart, gases divided into freediving and scuba diving. This may 2004). be done in freshwater tanks or in the sea; it can con- The diving bell, or caisson, is a chamber that is open Michal Mašek1, Staša Bartůňková1, Michal Štefl1, Jiří Suchý2 sist of wreck or cave diving, diving with air or with at the bottom and filled with compressed air, ena- 1 Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Charles University in Prague, Department of Physiology and a combination of various breathing gases, etc. This bling man to stay or work underwater. It is the oldest Biochemistry, Czech Republic sport always involves some degree of risk, mainly known device for prolonged work under water. Aris- 2 Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Charles University in Prague, Department of Pedagogy, Psycho- related to the changing behavior of gases underwa- totle already described this device in the 4th centu- logy and Didactics of Physical Education and Sport, Czech Republic ter, possibly causing health complications associated ry BC. In 1535, Guglielmo de Lorena used a device with compression and decompression. similar to modern diving bells. The diving bell was Abstract Diving has become a widespread sport. The number also used to salvage the cannons from the Swedish This review article addresses the topic of scuba diving in terms of both history and the current state of unde- of professional and recreational divers is estimated to warship Vasa shortly after it sank in 1628. In 1690, rstanding on the reactivity of breathing gases in hyperbaric environment. The article is divided into two be 7 million with an annual increase in new divers Edmund Halley designed a modernly constructed parts. The first part summarizes the findings on the history of diving, the first experiments with caissons, approaching 500,000. Published statistics reveal alar- caisson, equipped with windows for seabed research, and subsequent problems and their solutions. The second part of this research deals with the physiology of ming numbers (Vann, 2005). In the U.S. alone, 100 to which air was supplied in ballasted barrels (Oyhe- respiration, the behavior of breathing gases and their interrelations in high hydrostatic pressure environment. cases of drowning and 1100 cases of decompression nart, 2004). The aim of this work is to provide comprehensive information about the history of diving and important sickness have been reported in one year. It is there- Even experimental underwater habitats are con- knowledge about the physiology of underwater breathing, as scuba diving is one of the many specific outdoor fore crucial that everyone interested in this beautiful structed on the diving bell principle. The caisson, a activities where knowledge of physiology, anatomy, and the overall functioning of the human organism is sport is appropriately instructed. special diving bell, is used during the construction of needed for its pursuit. underwater structures. The term originates from the Methodology French word caisson. The air pressure in the caisson Key words: This review article is based on the study of academic is the same as in water, which allows staying inside it scuba diving, respiratory physiology, decompression sickness, nitrogen intoxication, hypercapnia, hypo- literature, scientific articles, publications and accessi- without a special suit (Bennett, 1982). A compressor capnia, hypoxia, hyperoxia, asphyxia ble specialized web databases. The aim of the work is is attached to the caisson, supplying air and changing to familiarize the reader with the latest findings on vitiated air. If the compressor supplies higher air pre- Souhrn the behavior of breathing gases in hyperbaric envi- ssure, the excess air escapes around the edges of the Přehledový článek se zabývá problematikou přístrojového potápění jak z hlediska historie, tak i stavu součas- ronment. In the search for information, the following bell to the water surface. ných poznatků o reaktivitě dýchacích plynů v hyperbarickém prostředí. Článek je rozdělen na dvě části. První keywords were used: diving, respiratory physiology, Caissons are also frequently used for work on the část rekapituluje poznatky z historie potápění, první pokusy s kesony, následné problémy a jejich řešení. Druhá carbon dioxide, hypercapnia, hypoxia, asphyxia. The foundation of bridge piers. Caissons are mostly made část této rešerše se zabývá fyziologií dýchání, chováním dýchacích plynů a jejich vzájemnými vztahy v prostředí selective criteria of primary documents for this stu- of steel or concrete. They sink under their own wei- s vysokým hydrostatickým tlakem. Cílem práce je podat ucelené informace o historii potápění a důležitých po- dy consisted in their full-length publication in major ght into a work pit and workers inside can then dig znatcích z oblasti fyziologie dýchání pod hladinou, neboť potápění s přístrojem je jednou z mnoha specifických scientific journals and academic monographs, pub- the bedrock. Subsequently, the caisson can be filled outdoorových aktivit, při jejímž provozování je nutné mít znalosti v oblasti fyziologie, anatomie i celkového lished since 2000. An exception was made in the case with concrete and be used as a part of the pier. Cai- fungování lidského organismu. of historical sources. The review study was designed ssons have been used for work under water since the in accordance with the instructions for this type of nineteenth century. As in other diving activities, it Klíčová slova: publications (Hendl, 2007). is necessary to follow correct decompression proce- přístrojové potápění, fyziologie dýchání, dekompresní nemoc, dusíkové opojení, hyperkapnie, hypokapnie, dures when working inside of caissons. If pressure is hypoxie, hyperoxie, asfyxie. Diving history not gradually decreased, caisson disease may arise. The earliest preserved records of fully functional Following the widespread use of caissons, divers ex- Introduction phere, of the impact of individual gases on the orga- diving equipment are about six millennia old (Vr- perienced an increased occurrence of decompressi- At the turn of the nineteenth century, industriali- nism depending on their partial pressures, and also bovský, 1998). Other, though not entirely reliable, on sickness. In sport diving, caissons are currently zation led to a significant development of various of the changes in gases at an increasing hydrostatic references to diving come from the days of the Assy- mostly used to diversify diving (Bookspan, 2005). sectors, including sports. This was also the case of pressure. This information led to the creation of rian Empire. In sources from Ancient Greece, we can The first documented case of caisson disease (de- diving, thanks to the development of new materials decompression tables that determined the speed at already find more reliable information in the work compression sickness - DCS), was already described and the subsequent improvement of diving equip- which a diver should emerge to the surface in rela- of Herodotus and Aristotle, who even described the in 1841. The symptoms were described by a mining ment and diving suits. tion to the depth of immersion and the time spent use of a diving bell (Oyhenart, 2004). The oldest engineer, who observed pain and convulsions in mi- New medical knowledge has had a significant im- underwater (Oyhenart, 2004). and most primitive devices were air tanks - flexible ners who were exposed to higher air pressure in a pact on diving, especially in the field of diffusion Even today, a person who wants to engage in diving leather bags, from which divers could breathe under- shaft, from which water was drawn. Another repor- and transport of breathing gases, of chemical cont- activities has to have appropriate knowledge and water. With increasing depth, the bag decreased in ted case of decompression sickness describes the ex- rol of respiration, etc. This was also related to new skills, as diving still counts among the outdoor acti- volume proportionally to the surrounding pressure perimental submarine dive of the Sub Marine Explo- knowledge of the composition of the Earth’s atmos- vities entailing many risks. At great depths, it is nece- of the water environment, so that the compressed rer in 1867, during which the diving pioneer Julius

40 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 41 ssary to adjust to pressure and a different perception air in the bag had always the same pressure as the Scuba diving: reactivity of breathing of sound, color, and object sizes but also to deal with surrounding water. Modern breathing devices ope- cold, dehydration and many other dangers. rate on this principle, even though they are of cour- Scuba diving is quite diverse. For example, it can be se much more technologically advanced (Oyhenart, gases divided into freediving and scuba diving. This may 2004). be done in freshwater tanks or in the sea; it can con- The diving bell, or caisson, is a chamber that is open Michal Mašek1, Staša Bartůňková1, Michal Štefl1, Jiří Suchý2 sist of wreck or cave diving, diving with air or with at the bottom and filled with compressed air, ena- 1 Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Charles University in Prague, Department of Physiology and a combination of various breathing gases, etc. This bling man to stay or work underwater. It is the oldest Biochemistry, Czech Republic sport always involves some degree of risk, mainly known device for prolonged work under water. Aris- 2 Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Charles University in Prague, Department of Pedagogy, Psycho- related to the changing behavior of gases underwa- totle already described this device in the 4th centu- logy and Didactics of Physical Education and Sport, Czech Republic ter, possibly causing health complications associated ry BC. In 1535, Guglielmo de Lorena used a device with compression and decompression. similar to modern diving bells. The diving bell was Abstract Diving has become a widespread sport. The number also used to salvage the cannons from the Swedish This review article addresses the topic of scuba diving in terms of both history and the current state of unde- of professional and recreational divers is estimated to warship Vasa shortly after it sank in 1628. In 1690, rstanding on the reactivity of breathing gases in hyperbaric environment. The article is divided into two be 7 million with an annual increase in new divers Edmund Halley designed a modernly constructed parts. The first part summarizes the findings on the history of diving, the first experiments with caissons, approaching 500,000. Published statistics reveal alar- caisson, equipped with windows for seabed research, and subsequent problems and their solutions. The second part of this research deals with the physiology of ming numbers (Vann, 2005). In the U.S. alone, 100 to which air was supplied in ballasted barrels (Oyhe- respiration, the behavior of breathing gases and their interrelations in high hydrostatic pressure environment. cases of drowning and 1100 cases of decompression nart, 2004). The aim of this work is to provide comprehensive information about the history of diving and important sickness have been reported in one year. It is there- Even experimental underwater habitats are con- knowledge about the physiology of underwater breathing, as scuba diving is one of the many specific outdoor fore crucial that everyone interested in this beautiful structed on the diving bell principle. The caisson, a activities where knowledge of physiology, anatomy, and the overall functioning of the human organism is sport is appropriately instructed. special diving bell, is used during the construction of needed for its pursuit. underwater structures. The term originates from the Methodology French word caisson. The air pressure in the caisson Key words: This review article is based on the study of academic is the same as in water, which allows staying inside it scuba diving, respiratory physiology, decompression sickness, nitrogen intoxication, hypercapnia, hypo- literature, scientific articles, publications and accessi- without a special suit (Bennett, 1982). A compressor capnia, hypoxia, hyperoxia, asphyxia ble specialized web databases. The aim of the work is is attached to the caisson, supplying air and changing to familiarize the reader with the latest findings on vitiated air. If the compressor supplies higher air pre- Souhrn the behavior of breathing gases in hyperbaric envi- ssure, the excess air escapes around the edges of the Přehledový článek se zabývá problematikou přístrojového potápění jak z hlediska historie, tak i stavu součas- ronment. In the search for information, the following bell to the water surface. ných poznatků o reaktivitě dýchacích plynů v hyperbarickém prostředí. Článek je rozdělen na dvě části. První keywords were used: diving, respiratory physiology, Caissons are also frequently used for work on the část rekapituluje poznatky z historie potápění, první pokusy s kesony, následné problémy a jejich řešení. Druhá carbon dioxide, hypercapnia, hypoxia, asphyxia. The foundation of bridge piers. Caissons are mostly made část této rešerše se zabývá fyziologií dýchání, chováním dýchacích plynů a jejich vzájemnými vztahy v prostředí selective criteria of primary documents for this stu- of steel or concrete. They sink under their own wei- s vysokým hydrostatickým tlakem. Cílem práce je podat ucelené informace o historii potápění a důležitých po- dy consisted in their full-length publication in major ght into a work pit and workers inside can then dig znatcích z oblasti fyziologie dýchání pod hladinou, neboť potápění s přístrojem je jednou z mnoha specifických scientific journals and academic monographs, pub- the bedrock. Subsequently, the caisson can be filled outdoorových aktivit, při jejímž provozování je nutné mít znalosti v oblasti fyziologie, anatomie i celkového lished since 2000. An exception was made in the case with concrete and be used as a part of the pier. Cai- fungování lidského organismu. of historical sources. The review study was designed ssons have been used for work under water since the in accordance with the instructions for this type of nineteenth century. As in other diving activities, it Klíčová slova: publications (Hendl, 2007). is necessary to follow correct decompression proce- přístrojové potápění, fyziologie dýchání, dekompresní nemoc, dusíkové opojení, hyperkapnie, hypokapnie, dures when working inside of caissons. If pressure is hypoxie, hyperoxie, asfyxie. Diving history not gradually decreased, caisson disease may arise. The earliest preserved records of fully functional Following the widespread use of caissons, divers ex- Introduction phere, of the impact of individual gases on the orga- diving equipment are about six millennia old (Vr- perienced an increased occurrence of decompressi- At the turn of the nineteenth century, industriali- nism depending on their partial pressures, and also bovský, 1998). Other, though not entirely reliable, on sickness. In sport diving, caissons are currently zation led to a significant development of various of the changes in gases at an increasing hydrostatic references to diving come from the days of the Assy- mostly used to diversify diving (Bookspan, 2005). sectors, including sports. This was also the case of pressure. This information led to the creation of rian Empire. In sources from Ancient Greece, we can The first documented case of caisson disease (de- diving, thanks to the development of new materials decompression tables that determined the speed at already find more reliable information in the work compression sickness - DCS), was already described and the subsequent improvement of diving equip- which a diver should emerge to the surface in rela- of Herodotus and Aristotle, who even described the in 1841. The symptoms were described by a mining ment and diving suits. tion to the depth of immersion and the time spent use of a diving bell (Oyhenart, 2004). The oldest engineer, who observed pain and convulsions in mi- New medical knowledge has had a significant im- underwater (Oyhenart, 2004). and most primitive devices were air tanks - flexible ners who were exposed to higher air pressure in a pact on diving, especially in the field of diffusion Even today, a person who wants to engage in diving leather bags, from which divers could breathe under- shaft, from which water was drawn. Another repor- and transport of breathing gases, of chemical cont- activities has to have appropriate knowledge and water. With increasing depth, the bag decreased in ted case of decompression sickness describes the ex- rol of respiration, etc. This was also related to new skills, as diving still counts among the outdoor acti- volume proportionally to the surrounding pressure perimental submarine dive of the Sub Marine Explo- knowledge of the composition of the Earth’s atmos- vities entailing many risks. At great depths, it is nece- of the water environment, so that the compressed rer in 1867, during which the diving pioneer Julius

40 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 41 H. Kroehl died. Another situation reported in 1869 attributed to the COMEX Hydra 11 team. In 1992, Control respiration Specifics of gas behaviour in hyperbaric also resulted from diving activities, in which the di- the team achieved a depth of 701 meters at a pressure Breathing is controlled by neural and chemical enviroment ver used an air-filled helmet (Vrbovský et al., 1997). of 7181 kPa (Levett, 2008). mechanisms. Peripheral nervous control occurs During diving, hydrostatic pressure and temperature If the pressure decreased too fast, nitrogen was relea- in the lungs and is related with the stimulation of of the surrounding water changes, and it is thus ne- sed too quickly and bubbles formed within tissues of Physiology of respiration receptors during the inspiratory expansion of the cessary to accept gas behavior, subject to the laws of the body. They caused symptoms of divers’ disease, The composition of inhaled air corresponds to alveoli. This feedback stimulation inhibits the tone physics. ranging from itching, rashes, and joint pain to failure approximately 78 % of nitrogen (N), 21 % of oxygen of the inspiratory center and expiratory occurs, al- of sensory input, paralysis, and death. (O2), 1 % of rare gases and 0.03 % of carbon dioxide ternating rhythmically with inhalation. The respi- Nitrogen

French philosopher Paul Bert conducted extensive (CO2), while exhaled air has a varying composition ratory center is located in the medulla oblongata, Nitrogen, as an inert gas, does not cause any pro- research in the area of decompression sickness. In at different stages of the exhalation process. When with an inhalation (inspiration) and exhalation blems at normal atmospheric pressure (1 atm). Du- 1878, he discovered that the breathing of compre- exhalation begins, its percentage composition is the (expiration) region. To a certain extent, the cen- ring a diver´s descent, it dissolves well like other ga- ssed air leads to the accumulation of large amounts same as in inhaled air, since air is exhaled from a ter’s control is volitional, subject to the cerebral ses. Divers describe a certain “descent comfort.” Yet of nitrogen in the body, which dissolves in the blo- dead space of approximately 150 - 230 ml. In the se- cortex. We can choose how we breathe or when already at a pressure of 3 – 4 atm, at a depth of about odstream and bodily tissues. At a sudden pressure cond stage of exhalation, alveolar air, containing less we stop breathing for some time. Nevertheless, 30 meters, nitrogen can have narcotic effects, and drop, nitrogen cannot be naturally released from O2 and more CO2, is expelled. The total volume of air the control is mostly involuntary. The impulse for nitrogen narcosis can occur. A predisposition, such the bloodstream. This results in the formation of gas during inhalation and exhalation is about 500 – 600 the chemical control of respiration is the change as stress, fatigue, cold, hard work, CO2 accumulati- bubbles in the entire body. The resulting pain expe- ml. The air we breathe is cleansed, moisturized, and of partial pressures of breathing gases, oxygen on, or even alcohol, can lead to this condition. The rienced by divers and construction workers was first warmed by passing through the respiratory tract. On partial pressure (pO2) and carbon dioxide partial danger lies in the frequent unawareness of the symp- attributed to rheumatism. To overcome this issue, the contrary, the air we exhale is cooled down. pressure pCO2), as well as the degree of acidity or toms, such as euphoria and impaired concentration Bert recommended them to ascend to the surface at The gas exchange between blood and inhaled air oc- alkalinity of blood (pH), acting as feedback. The or decision-making. The narcotic effects of nitrogen a slower pace. This measure immediately resulted in curs in the small pulmonary circulation system. The gas exchange occurs by simple diffusion, depen- can be managed by sufficient oxygen supply and in the divers’ improved health and in the reduction of transfer of O2 and CO2 from inhaled air occurs in the ding on the diffusion surface, the concentration hyperbaric chambers (with an initial compression, fatal consequences of the disease. Bert also discove- alveoli by simple diffusion. Its number is estimated at gradient on both sides of the membrane, membra- followed by gradual decompression). red that increasing of the pressure could reduce the about 500 million. Gas molecules have to overcome ne thickness and partial gas pressures. In a nor- Decompression sickness (caisson disease). During effects of the disease. In 1893, his proposal led to the the alveolar walls (the flat respiratory epithelium), mal situation, the pO2 of alveolar air is 13.3 kPa. an (especially a faster) ascent phase of scuba diving, construction of the first decompression chamber in the capillary wall (flat endothelial cells) and the cyto- Peripheral receptors in carotid and aortic bodies nitrogen dissolved in the body is released in the form

America (Oyhenart, 2004). Bert’s recommendati- plasmatic membrane of erythrocytes. The transport react to the decline already at a pO2 decrease to 7.3 of bubbles into bodily fluids. The bubbles mechani- on that divers ascend from depth more slowly has of breathing gases depends on the total surface of the kPa, which results in increased ventilation. Under cally compress and tear tissue, restricting circulation however not solved all problems experienced by di- alveoli (about 55–80 m2), the thickness of the alveo- normal conditions, however, the main stimulus in firm tissues, damage vascular walls and release vers. These issues still concerned divers at a depth of lar wall, as well as on the number of capillaries and for increased ventilation is the increase in carbon substances promoting blood clotting, block circula- more than 40 meters, irrespective of the duration of the degree of their blood supply. Gas diffusion thus dioxide, stimulating the inspiratory center in the tion in the venous system and embolize into lungs, submersion. In the years 1905-1907, English philo- corresponds to both the time during which blood is medulla oblongata. The higher the pCO2, the more have an affinity for fat tissue and thus even for the sopher J.S. Haldane conducted a number of experi- in contact with the air inside the alveoli (about 0.75 the breathing rate and the breathing volume incre- nervous tissue it surrounds. ments with divers of the Royal Navy and discovered s but also 0.3 s is sufficient) and to the difference in ase. The critical value is considered to be a pCO2 of DCS risk factors include age, gender, and the amount that the problem consisted in insufficient air venti- O2 pressure in the alveoli and in the blood that flows 6.6- 9.3 kPa, during which an opposing, narcotic of fat. The elderly, obese patients, and women with an lation of the divers’ helmets. The lack of ventilati- through the capillaries. The greater the O2 partial effect on the respiratory center occurs. In the blo- increased tendency for thrombus formation (relation influenced the concentration of carbon dioxide, pressure, the greater is the amount of O2 that binds od, oxygen binds mainly to hemoglobin (98.5 %), vely often associated with hormonal contraceptives) which was constantly causing gradual poisoning. to hemoglobin. Diffusion is however easier for CO2, while the rest is dissolved in plasma (1.5 %). Car- are at a higher risk. Genetic predisposition and men- Haldane recommended increasing the flow of air to as its concentration gradient is only 1 kPa in contrast bon dioxide is transported in a bicarbonate buffer strual phases (the first and last week of the menstrual the diver’s helmet in direct proportion to the pressu- to 8.5 kPa for O2. system, binding to carbonic acid (70 %), hemoglo- cycle, Lee 2003), as well as fatigue, cold, dehydration, re (depth) of the diver’s environment. He also pro- Higher pressure is one of the significant deviati- bin (23 %), while a small amount is freely dissol- and intercurrent disease also contribute to the risk duced a set of tables (see appendix), which determi- ons for the human organism in underwater envi- ved in plasma (7 %). Nitrogen, as an inert gas, is (Brubakk, 2003). ned the maximum length of diver‘s stay at a certain ronment. Hydrostatic pressure increases proportio- freely dissolved in plasma and does not cause any Currently, we distinguish two types of acute decom- depth. Furthermore, he developed a decompression nally with increasing depth. When scuba diving, the problems in daily life. Oxygen is crucial to life fun- pression sickness with the following symptoms: method at the ascent of the diver. In the following diver inhales air (or a gas mixture) that is under the ctions. For 1 liter of oxygen, 20-30 liters of air have • type I – unusual fatigue, muscle and bone pain, years, Haldane’s tables were adapted and modified, same pressure as the pressure in the surrounding en- to pass through the lungs in a resting position (Ga- rash, red and blue marbling, itching and lympha- while the basic principles are still used today for di- vironment. Although the percentage of gas content nong, 2005). At expiration, excess CO2 is expelled tic swelling of limbs and face vers’ ascent procedures. Haldane’s discoveries led to in inhaled air remains constant, the partial pressures by the lungs and alveoli by simple diffusion, as in • type II – dry cough, pain under the sternum, a shift of the maximum diving depth to 65 meters of each gas increases with increasing depth. At sea the case of oxygen. Common partial pressures in shock and CNS damage with loss of feeling, para- to which, at those times, it was possible to manually level, the pressure is approximately 1 atm, while at a arterial blood are pO2 10.0-13.3 kPa and pCO2 4.8- lysis, hallucinations, and convulsions (Bookspan, pump air (Willmshurst, 1998). depth of 10 meters, it is already 2 atm - every 10 me- 6.0 kPa.. From a clinical perspective, a significant 2005)

The deepest working dive was achieved to a depth of ters, pressure increases by 1 atm (Levett, 2008). decrease in pO2 is under 6.5 kPa and an increase in Symptoms develop from 5 minutes to 24 hours af-

534 meters (5494 kPa). The world record is however pCO2 at over 6.5 kPa (Cinglová, 2010). ter surfacing, most frequently after 1 hour (Joiner,

42 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 43 H. Kroehl died. Another situation reported in 1869 attributed to the COMEX Hydra 11 team. In 1992, Control respiration Specifics of gas behaviour in hyperbaric also resulted from diving activities, in which the di- the team achieved a depth of 701 meters at a pressure Breathing is controlled by neural and chemical enviroment ver used an air-filled helmet (Vrbovský et al., 1997). of 7181 kPa (Levett, 2008). mechanisms. Peripheral nervous control occurs During diving, hydrostatic pressure and temperature If the pressure decreased too fast, nitrogen was relea- in the lungs and is related with the stimulation of of the surrounding water changes, and it is thus ne- sed too quickly and bubbles formed within tissues of Physiology of respiration receptors during the inspiratory expansion of the cessary to accept gas behavior, subject to the laws of the body. They caused symptoms of divers’ disease, The composition of inhaled air corresponds to alveoli. This feedback stimulation inhibits the tone physics. ranging from itching, rashes, and joint pain to failure approximately 78 % of nitrogen (N), 21 % of oxygen of the inspiratory center and expiratory occurs, al- of sensory input, paralysis, and death. (O2), 1 % of rare gases and 0.03 % of carbon dioxide ternating rhythmically with inhalation. The respi- Nitrogen

534 meters (5494 kPa). The world record is however pCO2 at over 6.5 kPa (Cinglová, 2010). ter surfacing, most frequently after 1 hour (Joiner,

42 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 43 2001). Since it is not possible to anticipate how symp- • Inadequate pulmonary ventilation – occurs to insufficient supply. It can result from a primary and hypercapnia. In a healthy person, it can occur toms develop, it is necessary to begin with first aid mainly during heavy physical exertion with ina- oxygen deficiency (for example, when breathing air when drowning. It can arise when a diver is under as soon as the first symptoms appear and to rapidly dequate lung ventilation or during an improper with low oxygen content in a diving bell) or from stress and pulls his mouthpiece away, when he expe- transport the injured to the doctor. Decompression construction of lung mechanics, its damage, or inadequate breathing, or hypoventilation (e.g. du- riences convulsions and fails to hold the mouthpiece sickness therapy consists of supplying oxygen and in situations where the diver tries to conserve air ring a reduction effort). Another risk for divers is in his mouth, or when the gas in the diving cylinder performing a single, or more frequently, a repetitive (shallow breathing). however also deliberate or unconscious hyperven- is fully consumed. (up to 3x) compression and decompression sequence Use of breathing apparatus with helmet – here, the tilation. Conscious hyperventilation before immer- in a hyperbaric chamber, which lasts 5 hours on aver- concentration of CO2 can increase due to the accu- sion is related to the diver’s attempt to prolong the Other Diving Problems age (Dankner, 2005). mulation of expired air; the diver has to “rinse his dive, while unconscious hyperventilation appears Apart from pathological conditions, caused by Decompression sickness may however also be chro- helmet” every 5-10 minutes with regard to the diffi- during stress (anxiety, fear). Although it is most specific gas behavior, other problems may arise. nic. It can occur after suffering the acute form or culty and strenuousness of performed work common in beginners, it can even happen to expe- They are mainly caused by improper diving tech- even without previous occurrences. Its symptoms Malfunction of the CO2 absorber – this occurs when rienced divers in surprising situations, such as an niques during descent or ascent. During descent, include chronic bone and joint problems. Divers using a malfunctioning closed-circuit device, where encounter with a shark. Hyperventilation leads to an ear barotrauma can occur (mostly due to na- can also chronically suffer from neurocognitive CO2 accumulates in the breathing bag. an exhalation of a larger amount of CO2, leading to sopharynx and sinus inflammations or improper dysfunction, such as impaired memory or loss of Poor ventilation of enclosed spaces – can occur for its decline - hypocapnia. Hypocapnia reduces the diving techniques). When cold water enters the concentration, loss of hearing, and pulmonary di- example during medical or dry decompression, stimulation of the respiratory center in the medulla, inner ear during an eardrum rupture, a severe im- sorders (Brubbak, 2003). when the operator forgets to ventilate the space, so causes hypoventilation, and then hypoxia. First, we pairment of the vestibular system can occur. This

the exchange of vitiated air with high CO2 cannot can observe euphoria, later dyspnoea, cyanosis of state, known as the labyrinth crisis, manifests it- Carbon dioxide occur. the lips and nails, dizziness, and eventually collapse self in 1-2 minutes by vomiting and a dangerous

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is formed in tissues as the Warning signs of increased levels of CO2 in the body and loss of consciousness. This condition is known loss of orientation. At surfacing, nose bleeding, main metabolic waste product. It is transported in include accelerated respiratory and heart rate. Gene- as deep water blackout. Transport hypoxia arises teeth damage, or intestine perforation may hap- the blood to the lungs, where it is expelled from the ral discomfort, such as fatigue, weakness, mild musc- for example during carbon monoxide (CO) poiso- pen. When breath is held during the ascent, a pul- body. le twitching and headaches may occur. The onset of ning. It was recorded during gas cylinder filling as a monary barotrauma may occur (pneumothorax

Hypercapnia entails an increase of pCO2. If CO2 is these symptoms is directly dependent on the partial result of contaminated air supply from combustion and air embolism). Pulmonary injury represents not continuously expired, it begins to accumulate and pressure of CO2. At a pCO2 of up to 2 kPa, symp- engines. These cases of air contamination are howe- one third of all deaths, while two thirds are caused act as a poison. If a diver performs strenuous physical toms appear only rarely. In the range of 2 – 5 kPa, an ver luckily rare in recreational diving. The amount by drowning. (Cinglová, 2010) activity underwater, muscle tissues will produce CO2 increase in pulmonary ventilation occurs, while the of CO present is not dangerous at the water surface, faster than the respiratory tract can eliminate it. In- afflicted experiences shortness of breath. Between yet it can cause death at greater depths. Poisoning Discussion creased levels of carbon dioxide cause the respiratory 5 – 10 kPa, ventilation continues to increase, while begins with headaches, and the issues depend on The matter of diving is very broad and multiface- reflex center to stimulate a faster rate of breathing. changes in attention and judgment occur, reflexes the intensity of breathing. The half time for CO ex- ted and it is not possible to approach the issue in a Due to the denser inhaled air at depth, this requires slow down, and motor coordination and orientation pulsion lasts 3 – 4 hours. Oxygen treatment is the complex manner within the scope of one article. The considerable effort of the diaphragm and other respi- become impaired. At a pCO2 above 10 kPa, signifi- most common form of therapy (Cinglová, 2010). article only marginally addresses other health risks, ratory muscles to overcome resistance. This excessive cant changes in the activity of the central nervous Oxygen toxicity. Oxygen toxicity is a condition re- such as various barotrauma during descent (compre- respiratory effort further increases the production of system (CNS) occur, resulting in overall convulsions sulting from an elevation of pO2. It can occur when ssion) and the risks of pulmonary embolism or pne- carbon dioxide, which in turn again results in a hi- and loss of consciousness, called shallow water blac- an inappropriately combined gas mixture is used - umothorax at ascent (decompression). gher demand for faster breathing. These complicati- kout. Treatment consists of an immediate reduction for example breathing pure oxygen or using Nitrox Breathing mixtures are also a very specific issue. ons can be eliminated only in a situation, where the of CO2 partial pressure by oxygen administration or (a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen) at greater depths. The negative experiences with gas behavior gradu- diver stops or at least greatly reduces his physical ac- at least by ensuring a sufficient supply of fresh air. At The most frequently used is the combination of 32- ally led to the testing and preparation of various tivity. Only then can the respiratory system expel the a pulmonary or cardiac arrest, it is absolutely nece- 36 % of O2 and 84 % of N, but someone also raises the combinations (air, oxygen, helium, nitrogen, hyd- elevated levels of CO2 and provide a balanced gas ex- ssary to start rescue breathing and an indirect heart amount of oxygen to 40 %. Oxygen toxicity can ma- rogen, neon). In case of air respiration (with 21 % change. Hypercapnia can also be caused by an unsui- massage at a ratio 30: 2 in adults and 15: 2 in children nifest itself in nervous or pulmonary forms (Joiner, of O2), oxygen becomes toxic at around 60-70 me- table technique called “intermittent breathing.” In- (Levett, 2008). 2001). CNS toxicity is tolerated individually. Some ters. Pure oxygen can only be used safely in depths termittent breathing consists of breath-holding that Hypocapnia is a decrease of pCO2 < 4.8 kPa. It is of the symptoms are impaired coordination, tunnel to 12 meters, where significantly shorter decom- the diver uses during scuba diving to conserve air most often induced by hyperventilation. vision, ear ringing, mydriasis, dizziness, and halluci- pression stops are advantageous. Nitrox, Heliox and thus prolong the time spent underwater. In fact, nations. The risk increases with hard work, resistance or Trimix are currently the most widely used gas this technique causes an increase in carbon dioxide Oxygen breathing with an increased production of CO2, and mixtures. It turned out, however, that Nitrox (a in the circulatory system. This actually stimulates Oxygen (O2) is a prerequisite for survival on Earth. It during hypothermia. Pulmonary toxicity is typical combination of 36% of oxygen and nitrogen) is faster breathing and the air supply is consumed faster can however also have an adverse effect on the body, for more challenging diving operations. It manifests only suitable for shallower dives (up to 30-40 me-

(Pandergast, 2009). The most common causes of CO2 both in its lack (hypoxia), and in its abundance that itself with breathing difficulties, chest pain and pre- ters). During dives at depths below 120 meters, increase in the body and the recommendations for can be toxic (hyperoxia). ssure, coughing, and decreased ventilation capacity. divers suffer from a hyperbaric neurological syn- the reduction of hypercapnia are as follows: Hypoxia. During diving, hypoxia occurs when the Other symptoms include irritability, nausea, and drome (HPNS), with excitation symptoms, such as

• Excessive dead space – is mainly caused by a bre- values of pO2 in the blood drop below 6.5 kPa. Hy- convulsions (especially facial muscle spasms). tremors and myoclonic spasms. To eliminate the athing tube with too large dimensions. poxic hypoxia is a lack of oxygen in the blood due Asphyxia (suffocation) is a combination of hypoxia narcotic effect at depths, Trimix, a combination of

44 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 45 2001). Since it is not possible to anticipate how symp- • Inadequate pulmonary ventilation – occurs to insufficient supply. It can result from a primary and hypercapnia. In a healthy person, it can occur toms develop, it is necessary to begin with first aid mainly during heavy physical exertion with ina- oxygen deficiency (for example, when breathing air when drowning. It can arise when a diver is under as soon as the first symptoms appear and to rapidly dequate lung ventilation or during an improper with low oxygen content in a diving bell) or from stress and pulls his mouthpiece away, when he expe- transport the injured to the doctor. Decompression construction of lung mechanics, its damage, or inadequate breathing, or hypoventilation (e.g. du- riences convulsions and fails to hold the mouthpiece sickness therapy consists of supplying oxygen and in situations where the diver tries to conserve air ring a reduction effort). Another risk for divers is in his mouth, or when the gas in the diving cylinder performing a single, or more frequently, a repetitive (shallow breathing). however also deliberate or unconscious hyperven- is fully consumed. (up to 3x) compression and decompression sequence Use of breathing apparatus with helmet – here, the tilation. Conscious hyperventilation before immer- in a hyperbaric chamber, which lasts 5 hours on aver- concentration of CO2 can increase due to the accu- sion is related to the diver’s attempt to prolong the Other Diving Problems age (Dankner, 2005). mulation of expired air; the diver has to “rinse his dive, while unconscious hyperventilation appears Apart from pathological conditions, caused by Decompression sickness may however also be chro- helmet” every 5-10 minutes with regard to the diffi- during stress (anxiety, fear). Although it is most specific gas behavior, other problems may arise. nic. It can occur after suffering the acute form or culty and strenuousness of performed work common in beginners, it can even happen to expe- They are mainly caused by improper diving tech- even without previous occurrences. Its symptoms Malfunction of the CO2 absorber – this occurs when rienced divers in surprising situations, such as an niques during descent or ascent. During descent, include chronic bone and joint problems. Divers using a malfunctioning closed-circuit device, where encounter with a shark. Hyperventilation leads to an ear barotrauma can occur (mostly due to na- can also chronically suffer from neurocognitive CO2 accumulates in the breathing bag. an exhalation of a larger amount of CO2, leading to sopharynx and sinus inflammations or improper dysfunction, such as impaired memory or loss of Poor ventilation of enclosed spaces – can occur for its decline - hypocapnia. Hypocapnia reduces the diving techniques). When cold water enters the concentration, loss of hearing, and pulmonary di- example during medical or dry decompression, stimulation of the respiratory center in the medulla, inner ear during an eardrum rupture, a severe im- sorders (Brubbak, 2003). when the operator forgets to ventilate the space, so causes hypoventilation, and then hypoxia. First, we pairment of the vestibular system can occur. This the exchange of vitiated air with high CO2 cannot can observe euphoria, later dyspnoea, cyanosis of state, known as the labyrinth crisis, manifests it- Carbon dioxide occur. the lips and nails, dizziness, and eventually collapse self in 1-2 minutes by vomiting and a dangerous

44 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 45 oxygen, nitrogen, and helium is used, minimizing Conclusion České republiky. the problem (Talpar, 2006). The main objective of this article was to draw atten- Wilmshurst, P. (1998). Diving and oxygen. British Medical Journal. vol. 317, 996-999. The article does not address freediving, in which re- tion to one of the aspects crucial to scuba diving cords that are achieved surpass all previous theories – the specific behavior of breathing gases, subject Author: PhDr. Michal Mašek, email: [email protected] about the limits of human capabilities. This interes- to known physical laws. During scuba diving, it is ting theme deserves a special article. Nor does the always necessary to observe all safety precautions article discuss specific problems, such as diving at and recommendations. It is important to carefully higher altitudes or repeated dives, for which there prepare and plan the dive, to check the equipment are other special decompression tables. Repeated and to respect the planned schedule. The maximum dives imply a higher amount of accumulated nit- planned depth should not be exceeded, while an rogen, while dives at higher altitudes involve faster accompanying person should constantly monitor nitrogen saturation. Decompression tables are used the diver. The diver should also strictly adhere to for an altitude from 0 – 700 and 701 – 2 500 meters decompression (or safety) stops at ascent and en- above sea level. We should also expect that the body sure that, at surfacing, the diving cylinder still has is sensitive to subsequent changes in hydrostatic a pressure of at least 50 atm, which is ¼ of the total and atmospheric pressure. To avoid decompression pressure of a full diving cylinder. When respecting sickness, it is therefore also necessary to observe the these rules, diving can become a safe outdoor acti- prescribed time between the flight and the last dive vity that brings many beautiful experiences. (usually 6 hours after a single dive and 18 hours after repeated dives), since the pressure of a normal The research was funded by the research project aircraft cabin during a flight corresponds to the pre- MSM 00216 208 64, specific university research 2013 ssure at an altitude of approximately 2000 - 2 500 – 267 603 and the program for the development of meters above sea level. scientific disciplines at Charles UniversityP38 .

References Bennett, B.P., & Elliott, H.D. (1982). The Physiology and Medicine of Diving. London: Bailliere Tindall. Bookspan, J. (2005). Diving Physiology. Undersea & Hyperbaric Medical Society. Brubakk, A., Neuman, T., eds. (2003). Bennet and Elliott´s physiology and medicine of diving. 5th ed. London: Elsevier Science, Cinglová, L. (2010). Vybrané kapitoly z tělovýchovného lékařství. In Czech. Choice chapters from Sport Medicine. Praha: Karolinum. Dankner, R., Gall, N., Friedman, D. et al. (2005). Recompression treatment of Red Sea diving accidents: a 23 year summary. Clin J Sport Med. vol.15, 253-256. Ganong, W. (2005). Review of Medical Physiology. 22th ed. USA: McGrave-Hill Company. Hendl, J. (2007). Role přehledu ve vědě. In Czech. Role of Survey in Science. Česká Kinantropologie. roč. 11, 5-9. Joiner, J.T. (ed.) (2001). NOAA Diving. Manual-Diving for Science and Technology. 4th ed. Flagstaff: Best Publishing Co. Lee, V., St Leger D.M., Edge C. et al. (2003). Decompression sickness in women: a possible relation with the menstrual cycle. Aviat Space Environ Med. vol. 44, 1177-1182. Levett, D.Z.H., & Millar, I.L. (2008). Bubble trouble: a review of diving physiology and disease. Postgrad Med J. vol.84, 571-578. Oyhenart, J.M., & Mioulane P. (2004). Plongée-Passion et Mode ďEmploi. Czech translation. Potápění vášeň a profese. Praha: Euromédia Group k.s. Pendergast, D.R., & Lungren, C.E. (2009). The physiology and pathophysiology of the hyperbaric and diving environments. J Appl Physiol. vol.106, no.1, 274-275. Talpar, A.E., & Grossman, Y. (2006). CNS manifestation of HPNS: revisited. Undersea Hyperb Med. vol.33, 205-210. Vann, R.D., Freiberger, J.J., Caruso, J.L. et al. (2005). Report on decompression illness, diving fatalities and project diver exploration. DAN´s Review of Recreational Scuba Diving. Vrbovský, V. et al. (1997). Potápění s přístrojem. In Czech. Diving with apparatus. Praha: Svaz potápěčů

46 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 47 oxygen, nitrogen, and helium is used, minimizing Conclusion České republiky. the problem (Talpar, 2006). The main objective of this article was to draw atten- Wilmshurst, P. (1998). Diving and oxygen. British Medical Journal. vol. 317, 996-999. The article does not address freediving, in which re- tion to one of the aspects crucial to scuba diving cords that are achieved surpass all previous theories – the specific behavior of breathing gases, subject Author: PhDr. Michal Mašek, email: [email protected] about the limits of human capabilities. This interes- to known physical laws. During scuba diving, it is ting theme deserves a special article. Nor does the always necessary to observe all safety precautions article discuss specific problems, such as diving at and recommendations. It is important to carefully higher altitudes or repeated dives, for which there prepare and plan the dive, to check the equipment are other special decompression tables. Repeated and to respect the planned schedule. The maximum dives imply a higher amount of accumulated nit- planned depth should not be exceeded, while an rogen, while dives at higher altitudes involve faster accompanying person should constantly monitor nitrogen saturation. Decompression tables are used the diver. The diver should also strictly adhere to for an altitude from 0 – 700 and 701 – 2 500 meters decompression (or safety) stops at ascent and en- above sea level. We should also expect that the body sure that, at surfacing, the diving cylinder still has is sensitive to subsequent changes in hydrostatic a pressure of at least 50 atm, which is ¼ of the total and atmospheric pressure. To avoid decompression pressure of a full diving cylinder. When respecting sickness, it is therefore also necessary to observe the these rules, diving can become a safe outdoor acti- prescribed time between the flight and the last dive vity that brings many beautiful experiences. (usually 6 hours after a single dive and 18 hours after repeated dives), since the pressure of a normal The research was funded by the research project aircraft cabin during a flight corresponds to the pre- MSM 00216 208 64, specific university research 2013 ssure at an altitude of approximately 2000 - 2 500 – 267 603 and the program for the development of meters above sea level. scientific disciplines at Charles UniversityP38 .

46 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 47 other people, or as a unique opportunity of group ex- ciples and rules that must be followed. The proper Issues of use of slackline in perience. (Neuman, Vomáčko & Vomáčková, 1999). walking technique and principles of the movement Learning and education through experience often on the slackline are also very crucial. takes place in an environment with a great experien- During the lesson it is necessary to pay attention physical education tial potential. These places usually interact elements to the number of students using the line. At one of courage, risk and adventure. (Neuman, Vomáčko open section, based on measurements in the work Roman Šinkovský, Pavla Dušková & Vomáčková, 1999). Such an environment is usu- of Frank Bächl and Tilmann Heppy (2010b), the- Department of Physical Education and Sport, Univerzity of Pardubice, Czech Republic ally represented by natural areas and recently also re should be not more than two persons for the by artificially constructed interiors. Outdoor sports purpose of exercise. The students should work in Abstract offer a great opportunity to education through ex- groups to help those who performe exercises on Slackline is a modern physical activity, which gradually shifts from the level of leisure activities in the field of perience. In physical education climbing and rope the slackline. Make sure that the students walk sports and performance. Our work focuses on the possibility of using this physical activity in school physical activities are most commonly used. However, slac- with their feet in the direction of the line axis. They education. It also describes options and recommendations for anchoring and tightening the slackline in both kling offers just as great potential for the education should not stand, or walk with feet transverse to the the indoor and outdoor environment. This paper includes safety regulations and exercises for the school through experience. line. This increases the risk of injury and can easily physical education. lead to head injuries. Before the start of the lesson it Objective is recommended to wrap the ratchet with a rag or a Key words: The objective of this paper is to present the possi- tape to prevent the mismanipulation. slackline, school physical education, outdoor activities, physical activity, experiential education bilities of using the slackline in physical education It is quite uncomplicated to use the slackline for lessons. Further objective is to focus on its use with outdoor activities. For proper anchoring we just Souhrn regard to safety and to pinpoint the issues of ancho- need to find fittable terrain and suitable anchor Slackline je moderní pohybovou aktivitou, která se postupně z roviny volnočasové etabluje i na poli spor- ring in indoor and outdoor environments. Further- points. Mostly we can use healthy trees with a suffi- tovním a výkonnostním. Naše práce se zaměřuje na možnost využití této pohybové aktivity ve školní tělesné more, to compile a ciently large diameter and a slackline set (Kleindl, výchově, popisuje možnost a doporučení pro ukotvení a napínání slackline ve školní tělesné výchově, a to set of exercises using the slackline in different parts 2010). As suitable terrain is generally considered ve vnitřních i venkovních prostorech, Součástí práce jsou i bezpečnostní zásady a návrhy cviků pro školní of the PE lesson. lawn without undulations on its surface and with tělesnou výchovu, a to jak pro rušnou, hlavní i závěrečnou část hodiny. no dangerous, sharp objects around. We should Methodology check the place in advance to avoid uneven terrain Klíčová slova: At the beginning we used theoretical methods and remove dangerous objects which could da- slackline, školní tělesná výchova, outdoorové aktivity, pohybová aktivita, zážitková pedagogika (descriptive and comparative methods) which served mage the slackline or injure the slackliner. If the to compare slacklining as an outdoor and indoor ac- slackline is stretched up to 10 m, the tree diameter Introduction Theoretical outcomes tivity and also in assessing the possibility of ancho- should be at least 15 cm. The best option for the Slacklining is a relatively new physical activity that ring and tightening of the slackline in indoor and use of slackline in physical education is the tensio- occured approximately 30 years ago and is mainly Alternative options of teaching not only in outdoor spaces. Some information was obtained on ning system using a ratchet and shackles. With the performed by climbers and outdoor enthusiasts. It physical education the basis of three personal structured interviews with ratchet we can stretch the slackline fairly quickly, has a great potential for the development of coordi- The experiential education focuses on alternati- the relevant experts, who provided us with valuab- comfortably and the shackles connection extend nation, balance, concentration, but it also contributes ve education in sport and physical activities and it le, practical advice and most current information. the lifetime of the material. to the prevention and treatment of musculoskeletal emphasizes enjoyment and experience. The experi- The comparison was used for comparing different Slacklining may also a be typical outdoor activi- system, to the prevention and treatment of various ential education sometimes carries attributes such methods of attaching the slackline, where we paid ty performed in an indoor environment. It can be addictions and it can play a significant role in school as education through experience, experiential edu- attention to the fundamental principles of security. done in the gym, but it is often necessary to adapt physical education. Slacklining as a modern and dy- cation, adventure education or challenge education Among the empirical methods we chose the method it by drilling of suitable anchor points. This is often namic sport discipline is quite attractive to the youn- (Kirchner, 2009). According to Neuman, Vomáčka of direct participant observation. Here, we monito- connected to some construction work. Most gyms ger generation. Especially its challenge character is & Vomáčková (1999) education through experience red slackliners and discovered exercises, tricks and in the Czech Republic are not adapted to slackli- appealing, as you can not only walk, but even sit, lie provides the experience through extraordinary expe- options that the slackline offers. The exercises were ning. The gyms are quite often not equipped with down, jump or perform various tricks. riences and the individual experience is considered also discovered by experiment. On the basis of these quality equipment that would ensure safe anchor- Very significant is the general development of co- an important part of one´s personality development. two methods a set of exercises was then compiled. age of the slackline. One option to customize the ordination skills, meaningful leisure time activity, The education through experience is understood in gym is to drill holes in the wall for fastening steel an alternative option for school physical education, different contexts, such as the motivation of young Results plaques (Figure 1a), to insert a screw into the hole injury prevention or as part of sports training and people to self-education through extraordinary expe- and to support it with a steel plate. On the other side athletic preparation eg. skiers. Walking the slackli- riences; instructions for active leisure time activities Anchoring and tightening of slackline in of the bolt a steel plaque needs to be inserted and ti- ne strengthens the deep stabilization system, which (Blažková, 2008) and overcoming of the monotony physical education ghted with a nut. For better weight distribution it is affects, among other things, the correct posture. of everyday life; pushing the individual physical and In physical education, it is necessary to strictly fo- appropriate to drill two anchor points, e.g. two steel Slacklining represents not only a huge benefit for the mental boundaries; self-knowledge; broadening of llow safety precautions and to put the safety of stu- plaques. Similarly, the anchoring points are fixed physical development of an individual, but it also po- horizons; finding one´s place in the world; space for dents on the first place. Before the actual beginning on the climbing walls (Figure 1b). It is important sitively develops its psychological side. social learning; gaining self-confidence and trust in it is necessary to instruct students with safety prin- to note that by tightening the slackline great power

48 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 49 other people, or as a unique opportunity of group ex- ciples and rules that must be followed. The proper Issues of use of slackline in perience. (Neuman, Vomáčko & Vomáčková, 1999). walking technique and principles of the movement Learning and education through experience often on the slackline are also very crucial. takes place in an environment with a great experien- During the lesson it is necessary to pay attention physical education tial potential. These places usually interact elements to the number of students using the line. At one of courage, risk and adventure. (Neuman, Vomáčko open section, based on measurements in the work Roman Šinkovský, Pavla Dušková & Vomáčková, 1999). Such an environment is usu- of Frank Bächl and Tilmann Heppy (2010b), the- Department of Physical Education and Sport, Univerzity of Pardubice, Czech Republic ally represented by natural areas and recently also re should be not more than two persons for the by artificially constructed interiors. Outdoor sports purpose of exercise. The students should work in Abstract offer a great opportunity to education through ex- groups to help those who performe exercises on Slackline is a modern physical activity, which gradually shifts from the level of leisure activities in the field of perience. In physical education climbing and rope the slackline. Make sure that the students walk sports and performance. Our work focuses on the possibility of using this physical activity in school physical activities are most commonly used. However, slac- with their feet in the direction of the line axis. They education. It also describes options and recommendations for anchoring and tightening the slackline in both kling offers just as great potential for the education should not stand, or walk with feet transverse to the the indoor and outdoor environment. This paper includes safety regulations and exercises for the school through experience. line. This increases the risk of injury and can easily physical education. lead to head injuries. Before the start of the lesson it Objective is recommended to wrap the ratchet with a rag or a Key words: The objective of this paper is to present the possi- tape to prevent the mismanipulation. slackline, school physical education, outdoor activities, physical activity, experiential education bilities of using the slackline in physical education It is quite uncomplicated to use the slackline for lessons. Further objective is to focus on its use with outdoor activities. For proper anchoring we just Souhrn regard to safety and to pinpoint the issues of ancho- need to find fittable terrain and suitable anchor Slackline je moderní pohybovou aktivitou, která se postupně z roviny volnočasové etabluje i na poli spor- ring in indoor and outdoor environments. Further- points. Mostly we can use healthy trees with a suffi- tovním a výkonnostním. Naše práce se zaměřuje na možnost využití této pohybové aktivity ve školní tělesné more, to compile a ciently large diameter and a slackline set (Kleindl, výchově, popisuje možnost a doporučení pro ukotvení a napínání slackline ve školní tělesné výchově, a to set of exercises using the slackline in different parts 2010). As suitable terrain is generally considered ve vnitřních i venkovních prostorech, Součástí práce jsou i bezpečnostní zásady a návrhy cviků pro školní of the PE lesson. lawn without undulations on its surface and with tělesnou výchovu, a to jak pro rušnou, hlavní i závěrečnou část hodiny. no dangerous, sharp objects around. We should Methodology check the place in advance to avoid uneven terrain Klíčová slova: At the beginning we used theoretical methods and remove dangerous objects which could da- slackline, školní tělesná výchova, outdoorové aktivity, pohybová aktivita, zážitková pedagogika (descriptive and comparative methods) which served mage the slackline or injure the slackliner. If the to compare slacklining as an outdoor and indoor ac- slackline is stretched up to 10 m, the tree diameter Introduction Theoretical outcomes tivity and also in assessing the possibility of ancho- should be at least 15 cm. The best option for the Slacklining is a relatively new physical activity that ring and tightening of the slackline in indoor and use of slackline in physical education is the tensio- occured approximately 30 years ago and is mainly Alternative options of teaching not only in outdoor spaces. Some information was obtained on ning system using a ratchet and shackles. With the performed by climbers and outdoor enthusiasts. It physical education the basis of three personal structured interviews with ratchet we can stretch the slackline fairly quickly, has a great potential for the development of coordi- The experiential education focuses on alternati- the relevant experts, who provided us with valuab- comfortably and the shackles connection extend nation, balance, concentration, but it also contributes ve education in sport and physical activities and it le, practical advice and most current information. the lifetime of the material. to the prevention and treatment of musculoskeletal emphasizes enjoyment and experience. The experi- The comparison was used for comparing different Slacklining may also a be typical outdoor activi- system, to the prevention and treatment of various ential education sometimes carries attributes such methods of attaching the slackline, where we paid ty performed in an indoor environment. It can be addictions and it can play a significant role in school as education through experience, experiential edu- attention to the fundamental principles of security. done in the gym, but it is often necessary to adapt physical education. Slacklining as a modern and dy- cation, adventure education or challenge education Among the empirical methods we chose the method it by drilling of suitable anchor points. This is often namic sport discipline is quite attractive to the youn- (Kirchner, 2009). According to Neuman, Vomáčka of direct participant observation. Here, we monito- connected to some construction work. Most gyms ger generation. Especially its challenge character is & Vomáčková (1999) education through experience red slackliners and discovered exercises, tricks and in the Czech Republic are not adapted to slackli- appealing, as you can not only walk, but even sit, lie provides the experience through extraordinary expe- options that the slackline offers. The exercises were ning. The gyms are quite often not equipped with down, jump or perform various tricks. riences and the individual experience is considered also discovered by experiment. On the basis of these quality equipment that would ensure safe anchor- Very significant is the general development of co- an important part of one´s personality development. two methods a set of exercises was then compiled. age of the slackline. One option to customize the ordination skills, meaningful leisure time activity, The education through experience is understood in gym is to drill holes in the wall for fastening steel an alternative option for school physical education, different contexts, such as the motivation of young Results plaques (Figure 1a), to insert a screw into the hole injury prevention or as part of sports training and people to self-education through extraordinary expe- and to support it with a steel plate. On the other side athletic preparation eg. skiers. Walking the slackli- riences; instructions for active leisure time activities Anchoring and tightening of slackline in of the bolt a steel plaque needs to be inserted and ti- ne strengthens the deep stabilization system, which (Blažková, 2008) and overcoming of the monotony physical education ghted with a nut. For better weight distribution it is affects, among other things, the correct posture. of everyday life; pushing the individual physical and In physical education, it is necessary to strictly fo- appropriate to drill two anchor points, e.g. two steel Slacklining represents not only a huge benefit for the mental boundaries; self-knowledge; broadening of llow safety precautions and to put the safety of stu- plaques. Similarly, the anchoring points are fixed physical development of an individual, but it also po- horizons; finding one´s place in the world; space for dents on the first place. Before the actual beginning on the climbing walls (Figure 1b). It is important sitively develops its psychological side. social learning; gaining self-confidence and trust in it is necessary to instruct students with safety prin- to note that by tightening the slackline great power

48 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 49 arise, so it SHOULD NOT be clamped to the wall The wrong choice of material or anchor points in bars or volleyball poles. (Bächle & Hepp, 2010a) the gym can lead to very dangerous consequences.

Picture 3 Anchoring of a slackline at artificial climbing walls (Source: photo author)

Use of slackline in physical education Slacklining in physical education can be used in se- Picture 1a,b Attachment of rivets on an artificial climbing wall and drilling in a steel construction with steel plaques veral ways. It can be used not only individually in (Source: photo author) different parts of the lesson, but it can also become the main focus of the lesson or as a part of outdoor For a proper and safe anchoring Bächle and Hepp re- determined direction. The construction should be courses. The slackline can, in some cases, replace commend following instructions: to select columns well prepared with the help of small gymnastic boxes the rope and become a part of selected rope activi- only embedded in the ground; to anchor the slackli- or low benches (Figure 2b). This has several advan- ties or adventure courses. ne on the column at a height of 20-30 cm from the tages: low anchoring reduces the buckling moment These develop and practice creative movement, ground and then to lift it by using small gymnastic that effects the anchor point of the line; the slackline agility, strength, endurance, teamwork and origi- boxes (Figure 2a) – this ensures a very low anchoring can be devided in several sections for different exer- nality in solving problematic situations (Hanus & of the line; to check continuously the correct positi- cises; one can adapt the length of these sections; the Hrkal 1999). oning of the columns (pillars); to avoid anchoring of slackline will remain horizontal thanks to the sup- The tightening of a slackline is easier and faster than Picture 4 Running under the slackline in pairs two lines diametrically; and if a hook is chosen for port through boxes; the rocking of the line is limited setting up a rope and its dynamic character may (Source: photo author) fastening, it is necessary to load it only in the pre- which allows greater control and faster initial success. make the rope activities more attractive or more difficult. Tag games: The tag games must be modified and The exercises are divided into the lesson sections adapted for the use of a slackline. (initial, main and final part of the lesson). To fo- Modification: Two taggers hold a slackline trying llow the basic principles of the initial and final part to catch other children who, when caught, become of the lesson the slackline is only to be used as a taggers as well. Or the slackline can be tied into a supplement or compensation for a rope. The exer- loop and replace the „lasso“, in which children are cises associated with the slacklinine are especially captured, etc. suitable in the main part of the lesson. Main part of the lesson Initial part of the lesson Before we start with the exercises for the main The objective of this part is to prepare the body to part of the lesson, it is essential to practise the ba- the physical strain. In this part of the lesson it is sic posture, the initial ascending and descending important that all students (pupils) are in motion, of the slackline (first with help, then without it). not overloading their lower body and the physical During the actual exercises, it is important to en- strain increses gradually. sure smooth and soft landing (ideally the lawn), respectively to place a mat under the slackline. Its Running under and jumping over the location depends on the character of the exerci- Picture 2a Anchoring of the slackline at a column slackline se. The mat is mostly placed under the slackline Picture 2b Example of setting up the slackline in a gym The effectiveness of this exercise can be increased in the section where the exercise is performed or (Source: photo author) by forming more member groups which run under in the section where the greatest risk of falling the slackline and/or by increasing the frequency of arises. If it is not possible to use the slacklinine in a gym, artificial climbing walls (Picture 3). Here it can be rotation. It is necessary to select the proper ground Walking: The walking training should be done first there is still one more option to try slacklining as an seen either as an individual activity or as a part of to prevent damage to the slackline. with the shoulder support of classmates or with indoor activity. The slackline is easily to be set up at climbing activities or as the main focus of a lesson. Modification: jumping over, spinning the slacline in help of a pole. Gradually, the students try to use less both directions, running underneath backwards etc. and less support.

50 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 51 arise, so it SHOULD NOT be clamped to the wall The wrong choice of material or anchor points in bars or volleyball poles. (Bächle & Hepp, 2010a) the gym can lead to very dangerous consequences.

Picture 3 Anchoring of a slackline at artificial climbing walls (Source: photo author)

50 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 51 tricks. Initial training starts with the hop on from Knotting: We split a group of students into two sub- Discussion one step. The students help each other and secure groups and each of them stands at one end of the Slacklining offers an interesting, alternative form their positions. slackline. All the students grab the slackline with of education, or at least its diversification through both hands in one meter intervals. About two me- experience education. It can be used as a part or ters of the slackline remain between the two sub- supplement of a PE lesson, but it can also become a groups. Their joint goal is to tie a figure eight knot main activity or a part of an outdoor course. on the slackline. Everyone must hold the slackline We have verified that in our school system and its uninterruptly with both hands at the same spot institutions it is not easy to integrate slacklining in (Neuman, 2009). physical education. The interior of the gyms are not Modification: different types of knots, time limit, adapted to the operation of this activity and they competition between teams. often require construction work. Therefore, it is ea- Picture 5 Walking with the shoulder support of classmates sier to use slacklining within the physial education (Source: photo author) classes as an outdoor activity. Anchoring and tightening of a slackline in the nature is easier and more Kneeling, sitting, joga sitting affordable than in the interior. Similarly to walking, the kneeling (sitting) position Picture 8 Hop on the slackline with run-up Slacklining is best to include in the main part of the is better to train with the classmates support or with (Source: photo author) lesson, because here it can be used in its pure form. a pole. In the initial and final part the use of a slackline Holding the teacher: The exercise called „Holding usually substitutes the role of a rope. The perfor- the teacher“ may be applied in cases where a gym mance area is necessary to be ensured in compli- adapted to slacklining is available. One end remains ance with security policy. It is advisable to form a attached to the anchor point and the other end is three-member groups where the students help ea- held by a group of students. The slackline is eleva- chother and to ensure the area with a gym mat. To ted by two gymnastic boxes and the students try to Picture 10 Knotting increase efficiency of the lesson we can set up more hold the slackline while the teacher is walking on it (Source: photo author) slacklines at once. (Bächle & Hepp, 2010a). We consider this exercise All recommendations of the authors must be con- very attractive with team work and challenge cha- Electric fence: The slackline is stretched in the hei- sidered only as suggestions for the use of a slac- racter. In addition, the teacher can show the trust ght od 1,5 meter from the ground and it symbolizes kline during physical education lessons. These re- and confidence in his students. an „electric fence“. The students should get over the commendations can not guarantee complete safety. fence without touching it. Only the last one can go Picture 6 Modification of kneeling around or under it (Neuman, 2009). Conclusion (Source: photo author) The objective of this work was to introduce slacklining as a new physical activity with a great potential Lying: It is possible to train the lying position for physical education classes. The charm of slac- without support, but it is advisable to prepare an al- klining lies in its versatility, in its many options of ternative support to secure possible falling. use in many areas and in its attractiveness for the younger generation which subsequently loses interest in traditional physical activities. Slacklining is a modern, dynamic, affordable activity and it sup- ports the development of coordination, concentra- Picture 9 Holding the teacher tion and sense of balance. It‘s all about fun, active (Source: photo author) relaxation and meaningful spending of leisure time. Based on the comparison the appropriate methods Group marathon: The students are divided in Picture 11 Electric fence of anchoring and tightening of the slackline for the groups. Within one group they try to manage as (Source: photo author) use in physical education were introduced. Compa- many metres on the slackline as possible. Achieved ring the anchoring of a slackline in the indoor and distances are summed up, so that even the weaker Blind square: All the students are blindfolded. Af- outdoor areas show that it is easier to use slackli- students can succeed (Bächle & Hepp, 2010a). terwards each of them is taken by the teacher to one ning as an outdoor activity. From all the options a Picture 7 Variation of lying position of the loose slacklines. The students are objected to ratchet was chosen as the simplest and most effecti- (Source: photo author) Final part of the lesson create a square on the ground (Neuman, 2009). ve mean of stretching the slackline for the purpose The main objective of this part is to lower the heart Work out – chin-ups: If the slackline is stretched of physical education. We have compiled a set of Hop on the slackline with run-up: Hop on the rate, relaxation and compensation of the previous high enough, we can use it for eg. chin-ups or exercises, which concludes that slacklining, in its slackline with run-up is one of the more advanced physical strain. upswings. pure form, can be especially used in the main part

52 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 53 tricks. Initial training starts with the hop on from Knotting: We split a group of students into two sub- Discussion one step. The students help each other and secure groups and each of them stands at one end of the Slacklining offers an interesting, alternative form their positions. slackline. All the students grab the slackline with of education, or at least its diversification through both hands in one meter intervals. About two me- experience education. It can be used as a part or ters of the slackline remain between the two sub- supplement of a PE lesson, but it can also become a groups. Their joint goal is to tie a figure eight knot main activity or a part of an outdoor course. on the slackline. Everyone must hold the slackline We have verified that in our school system and its uninterruptly with both hands at the same spot institutions it is not easy to integrate slacklining in (Neuman, 2009). physical education. The interior of the gyms are not Modification: different types of knots, time limit, adapted to the operation of this activity and they competition between teams. often require construction work. Therefore, it is ea- Picture 5 Walking with the shoulder support of classmates sier to use slacklining within the physial education (Source: photo author) classes as an outdoor activity. Anchoring and tightening of a slackline in the nature is easier and more Kneeling, sitting, joga sitting affordable than in the interior. Similarly to walking, the kneeling (sitting) position Picture 8 Hop on the slackline with run-up Slacklining is best to include in the main part of the is better to train with the classmates support or with (Source: photo author) lesson, because here it can be used in its pure form. a pole. In the initial and final part the use of a slackline Holding the teacher: The exercise called „Holding usually substitutes the role of a rope. The perfor- the teacher“ may be applied in cases where a gym mance area is necessary to be ensured in compli- adapted to slacklining is available. One end remains ance with security policy. It is advisable to form a attached to the anchor point and the other end is three-member groups where the students help ea- held by a group of students. The slackline is eleva- chother and to ensure the area with a gym mat. To ted by two gymnastic boxes and the students try to Picture 10 Knotting increase efficiency of the lesson we can set up more hold the slackline while the teacher is walking on it (Source: photo author) slacklines at once. (Bächle & Hepp, 2010a). We consider this exercise All recommendations of the authors must be con- very attractive with team work and challenge cha- Electric fence: The slackline is stretched in the hei- sidered only as suggestions for the use of a slac- racter. In addition, the teacher can show the trust ght od 1,5 meter from the ground and it symbolizes kline during physical education lessons. These re- and confidence in his students. an „electric fence“. The students should get over the commendations can not guarantee complete safety. fence without touching it. Only the last one can go Picture 6 Modification of kneeling around or under it (Neuman, 2009). Conclusion (Source: photo author) The objective of this work was to introduce slacklining as a new physical activity with a great potential Lying: It is possible to train the lying position for physical education classes. The charm of slac- without support, but it is advisable to prepare an al- klining lies in its versatility, in its many options of ternative support to secure possible falling. use in many areas and in its attractiveness for the younger generation which subsequently loses interest in traditional physical activities. Slacklining is a modern, dynamic, affordable activity and it sup- ports the development of coordination, concentra- Picture 9 Holding the teacher tion and sense of balance. It‘s all about fun, active (Source: photo author) relaxation and meaningful spending of leisure time. Based on the comparison the appropriate methods Group marathon: The students are divided in Picture 11 Electric fence of anchoring and tightening of the slackline for the groups. Within one group they try to manage as (Source: photo author) use in physical education were introduced. Compa- many metres on the slackline as possible. Achieved ring the anchoring of a slackline in the indoor and distances are summed up, so that even the weaker Blind square: All the students are blindfolded. Af- outdoor areas show that it is easier to use slackli- students can succeed (Bächle & Hepp, 2010a). terwards each of them is taken by the teacher to one ning as an outdoor activity. From all the options a Picture 7 Variation of lying position of the loose slacklines. The students are objected to ratchet was chosen as the simplest and most effecti- (Source: photo author) Final part of the lesson create a square on the ground (Neuman, 2009). ve mean of stretching the slackline for the purpose The main objective of this part is to lower the heart Work out – chin-ups: If the slackline is stretched of physical education. We have compiled a set of Hop on the slackline with run-up: Hop on the rate, relaxation and compensation of the previous high enough, we can use it for eg. chin-ups or exercises, which concludes that slacklining, in its slackline with run-up is one of the more advanced physical strain. upswings. pure form, can be especially used in the main part

52 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 53 of the lesson. The students have the most time and gh experience, to motivate them to move and show space to try exercises repeatedly. Slacklining offers them something new, fun and unusual. This is its the opportunity to educate students (pupils) throu- greatest potential for the school physical education.

References Bächle, F., &. Hepp, T. (2010a). Slackline im schulischen Unterricht. Lehrhilfen für den sportuntericht [online]. Vol. 59, No. 10. Retrieved: 02/24, 2013, from: http://baechle-online.de/Dokumente/Slackline_lehrhilfen.pdf. Bächle, F., &. Hepp, T. (2010b). Wenn zu große Kräfte wirken – Notwendige Sicherheitsdiskussion beim Sacklinen Lehrhilfen für den sportuntericht [online]. Vol. 59, No. 4. Retrieved: 02/22, 2013, from: http:// baechle-online.de/Dokumente/Slackline_sicherheit.pdf. Blažková, M. (2008). Pedagogika volného času - charakteristika, cíle a metody. In: O výchově a volném čase: sborník z 3. mezinárodní konference 21. a 22. června 2007 na Katedře sociální pedagogiky PdF Univerzity Hradec Králové. Hradec Králové: Gaudeamus, 8-12. Hanuš, R., & Hrkal, J. (1999). Lanové překážky a lanové dráhy. Olomouc: Hanex. Hošek, V. (2002). Výchova k pohybovému prožitku. In: M. Novosad & L. Pyšný (Eds.). Pohyb a výchova. Ústí nad Labem: Univerzita Jana Evangelisty Purkyně, 40-42. Kirchner, J. (2009). Psychologie prožitku a dobrodružství: pro pedagogiku a psychoterapii. Brno: Computer Press. Kleindl, R. (2010). Slackline : Die Kunst des modernen Seiltanzens. Aachen: Meyer and Meyer Verlag. Neuman, J. (2009). Dobrodružné hry a cvičení v přírodě. Praha: Portál. Neuman, J., Vomáčko, L., &. Vomáčková, A. (1999). Překážkové dráhy, lezecké stěny a výchova prožitkem. Praha: Portál. Palaščáková- Špringrová, I. (2010). Funkce-Diagnostika-Terapie hlubokého stabilizačního systému. Praha: Rehaspring.

54 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 55 of the lesson. The students have the most time and gh experience, to motivate them to move and show space to try exercises repeatedly. Slacklining offers them something new, fun and unusual. This is its the opportunity to educate students (pupils) throu- greatest potential for the school physical education.

54 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 55 primary and secondary sources. Historical direct Ground motion in the snow, firn and method is the predominant process of responding to the question „how did this happen?“ This is a description of historical facts in accordance with ice in course of winter alpine hiking the timeline, based on knowledge that is based on the study and evaluation of sources, such as documents, newspaper, etc. (Hroch,1985). at Faculty of Education UJEP in Ústí Content analysis can be characterized as a „document analysis in order to understand and interpret the document“. The basic principle is in finding spe- nad Labem cific phenomena related to a specific topic (Reichl, 2009). Picture 1 The origins of the climbing in the Alps turn of the 18th Oto Louka Document means all materials in written, oral, and 19th century Fakulty of Education, Jan Evangelista Purkyně University, Department of Physical Education and Sport, Ústí electronic or other form of recording. During sor- (Louka, archive) nad Labem, Czech Republic ting, judging and choosing of retrieved documents we discovered that the main role evokes also sub- Original work tools (ax, hoe, hooks, etc.) (Pic. 2.) Abstract jectivity of the researcher, who processes the docu- were gradually modified, for facilitation of climbing, In our paper we tried to share more than 30 years of experience with climbing on winter and summer high ments, but no longer in the information contained to the form of the current tourist ax, as other tools, mountains, focused on safe and efficient move on snow, firn and ice, just like it is applied at our winter high in these documents (Hendl, 1999). climbers used hobnailed boots with studs, so-called mountain tourism and winter climbing courses at Faculty of Education, UJEP in Ústí nad Labem. Due to The critical analysis of the sources we understand trikuny (Image 3). This shoe was insufficient for mo- significant changes in material and methodology area in the last twenty years, we consider it appropriate to as assessment of information about certain pheno- vement in the steep icy terrain; the process required deal with this issue. In the conclusion of our paper we recommend optimal equipment for students like we mena, facts in historical context. We try to identi- a long and tedious cutting toehold in the ice with an practice on our courses. We also noted what is it our students learn on the courses, the extension of gained fy possible distortions arising from contemporary ax, later with ice- ax. The use of crampons, from the abilities and experience and what are the resulting competences. prejudices, sympathies or antipathies of the author beginning without front points, significantly facilita- of the phenomenon, or persons or distortion arising tes a movement and increased safety (Procházka et Key words: from contemporary political pressure of the sources al., 1990, Schubert, 1997, Bulička, 2012). move the snow, firn and ice, security, ice ax, crampons, mountaineering (Štumbauer, 1990). The primary sources can be considered chronicles, Souhrn notes, notebooks, personal correspondence. Secon- V našem příspěvku jsme se pokusili podělit se o více než 30 let zkušeností s lezením v zimních i letních veleho- dary sources, which are distant from the original rách, se zaměřením na bezpečný a účelný pohybu na sněhu, firnu a ledu, tak jak je aplikujeme při kurzovní sources, are such as newspaper reports, written re- výuce vysokohorské turistiky zimní a horolezectví zimní na Pedagogické fakultě UJEP v Ústí nad Labem. ports prepared on the basis of primary sources, an- Vzhledem k výrazným změnám v materiální a metodické oblasti v posledních dvaceti letech považujeme za nuals and many other printed sources (Štumbauer, vhodné zabývat se výše uvedeným tématem. Na závěr našeho článku jsme doporučili optimální vybavení pro 1990). In our work we used primary and secondary studenty, tak jak je máme vyzkoušené v naší praxi. Dále jsme uvedli, co se na kurzech učí, v jakém rozsahu written sources. All resources, which were thus ob- získávají studenti potřebné dovednosti a zkušenosti a jaké jsou výsledné kompetence. tained, were gradually supplemented by additional information. A substantial part of our work is based Klíčová slova: on personal experience of more than thirty years of pohyb na sněhu, firnu a ledu, bezpečnost, cepín, mačky, vysokohorská turistika. work in that region. Picture 2 The first ice axes adapted from the work tools (Louka, archive) Introduction sed on methodology training of safe movement on Short development of basic equipment In our article we were interested in basics of safe snow and ice. We did not pay attention to the is- The climbing of Swiss naturalist Horace Benedict and useful motion in the snow, firn and ice in the sue of avalanche prevention, which certainly has an de Saussure and Jean J. Balmatem on Mont Blanc way how we apply in course of winter alpine hiking. important place in safe movement in winter moun- (4810 m) in 1787 was a historical event in the de- This course was taken as elective subject at Faculty tains and other important safety aspects, because of velopment of mountaineering. This climbing gene- of Education at University Jana Evangelisty Purky- the reasons of limited scope in the article. Briefly rated considerable attention and attraction of more ně in Ústí nad Labem from 1984 to 2005. Since 2005 speaking, we introduced what students could ex- people in hiking and climbing in the Alps. The it has been taken as compulsory – elective and com- pect about course and which skills and experiences climbing of clients with mountain guides on easily pulsory subject. We tried to share our experiences could be acquired by students. accessible glaciers were already a popular activity at from 30 years of practice in (f.e.) Vysoké Tatry and the turn of the 18th and 19th century (Dieška a Širl, Alps. In our report, at first we took a brief look at Methods 1989). For safe movement on a glacier, the members the development of basic equipment, with a focus As the main method we used the direct historical of the group were binding to the rope and they wore Picture 3 Trikuny - especially hobnailed boots into the ice on contemporary possibilities. After that we focu- method, content analysis and critical analysis of hobnailed boots and they used poles, picture 1. (Louka, archive)

56 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 57 primary and secondary sources. Historical direct Ground motion in the snow, firn and method is the predominant process of responding to the question „how did this happen?“ This is a description of historical facts in accordance with ice in course of winter alpine hiking the timeline, based on knowledge that is based on the study and evaluation of sources, such as documents, newspaper, etc. (Hroch,1985). at Faculty of Education UJEP in Ústí Content analysis can be characterized as a „document analysis in order to understand and interpret the document“. The basic principle is in finding spe- nad Labem cific phenomena related to a specific topic (Reichl, 2009). Picture 1 The origins of the climbing in the Alps turn of the 18th Oto Louka Document means all materials in written, oral, and 19th century Fakulty of Education, Jan Evangelista Purkyně University, Department of Physical Education and Sport, Ústí electronic or other form of recording. During sor- (Louka, archive) nad Labem, Czech Republic ting, judging and choosing of retrieved documents we discovered that the main role evokes also sub- Original work tools (ax, hoe, hooks, etc.) (Pic. 2.) Abstract jectivity of the researcher, who processes the docu- were gradually modified, for facilitation of climbing, In our paper we tried to share more than 30 years of experience with climbing on winter and summer high ments, but no longer in the information contained to the form of the current tourist ax, as other tools, mountains, focused on safe and efficient move on snow, firn and ice, just like it is applied at our winter high in these documents (Hendl, 1999). climbers used hobnailed boots with studs, so-called mountain tourism and winter climbing courses at Faculty of Education, UJEP in Ústí nad Labem. Due to The critical analysis of the sources we understand trikuny (Image 3). This shoe was insufficient for mo- significant changes in material and methodology area in the last twenty years, we consider it appropriate to as assessment of information about certain pheno- vement in the steep icy terrain; the process required deal with this issue. In the conclusion of our paper we recommend optimal equipment for students like we mena, facts in historical context. We try to identi- a long and tedious cutting toehold in the ice with an practice on our courses. We also noted what is it our students learn on the courses, the extension of gained fy possible distortions arising from contemporary ax, later with ice- ax. The use of crampons, from the abilities and experience and what are the resulting competences. prejudices, sympathies or antipathies of the author beginning without front points, significantly facilita- of the phenomenon, or persons or distortion arising tes a movement and increased safety (Procházka et Key words: from contemporary political pressure of the sources al., 1990, Schubert, 1997, Bulička, 2012). move the snow, firn and ice, security, ice ax, crampons, mountaineering (Štumbauer, 1990). The primary sources can be considered chronicles, Souhrn notes, notebooks, personal correspondence. Secon- V našem příspěvku jsme se pokusili podělit se o více než 30 let zkušeností s lezením v zimních i letních veleho- dary sources, which are distant from the original rách, se zaměřením na bezpečný a účelný pohybu na sněhu, firnu a ledu, tak jak je aplikujeme při kurzovní sources, are such as newspaper reports, written re- výuce vysokohorské turistiky zimní a horolezectví zimní na Pedagogické fakultě UJEP v Ústí nad Labem. ports prepared on the basis of primary sources, an- Vzhledem k výrazným změnám v materiální a metodické oblasti v posledních dvaceti letech považujeme za nuals and many other printed sources (Štumbauer, vhodné zabývat se výše uvedeným tématem. Na závěr našeho článku jsme doporučili optimální vybavení pro 1990). In our work we used primary and secondary studenty, tak jak je máme vyzkoušené v naší praxi. Dále jsme uvedli, co se na kurzech učí, v jakém rozsahu written sources. All resources, which were thus ob- získávají studenti potřebné dovednosti a zkušenosti a jaké jsou výsledné kompetence. tained, were gradually supplemented by additional information. A substantial part of our work is based Klíčová slova: on personal experience of more than thirty years of pohyb na sněhu, firnu a ledu, bezpečnost, cepín, mačky, vysokohorská turistika. work in that region. Picture 2 The first ice axes adapted from the work tools (Louka, archive) Introduction sed on methodology training of safe movement on Short development of basic equipment In our article we were interested in basics of safe snow and ice. We did not pay attention to the is- The climbing of Swiss naturalist Horace Benedict and useful motion in the snow, firn and ice in the sue of avalanche prevention, which certainly has an de Saussure and Jean J. Balmatem on Mont Blanc way how we apply in course of winter alpine hiking. important place in safe movement in winter moun- (4810 m) in 1787 was a historical event in the de- This course was taken as elective subject at Faculty tains and other important safety aspects, because of velopment of mountaineering. This climbing gene- of Education at University Jana Evangelisty Purky- the reasons of limited scope in the article. Briefly rated considerable attention and attraction of more ně in Ústí nad Labem from 1984 to 2005. Since 2005 speaking, we introduced what students could ex- people in hiking and climbing in the Alps. The it has been taken as compulsory – elective and com- pect about course and which skills and experiences climbing of clients with mountain guides on easily pulsory subject. We tried to share our experiences could be acquired by students. accessible glaciers were already a popular activity at from 30 years of practice in (f.e.) Vysoké Tatry and the turn of the 18th and 19th century (Dieška a Širl, Alps. In our report, at first we took a brief look at Methods 1989). For safe movement on a glacier, the members the development of basic equipment, with a focus As the main method we used the direct historical of the group were binding to the rope and they wore Picture 3 Trikuny - especially hobnailed boots into the ice on contemporary possibilities. After that we focu- method, content analysis and critical analysis of hobnailed boots and they used poles, picture 1. (Louka, archive)

56 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 57 American Yvon Chouinard and Scottish Hammisch occur, because only ax allows us to safe braking and the ice-ax into the snow and that way is the bra- - stop with using the ice-ax after slipping - we brake MacInnes fundamentally modernized weaponry in stopping a fall. Improvised devices such as wands, ke applied. The legs are slightly apart and foreparts the fall with taking proper posture of body (tur- the 70th 20th century. Shortening handle of glaci- stone, stick, etc. can never guarantee us such an effi- help to brake. We never put down feet on the snow ning on your belly, feet are in the driving direction) al weapon in half, changed the shape of spikes ice- ciency and certainty as ice –ax (Schubert, 2010). when we wear the crampons!! and with correct holding of ice-ax. We hold the ice- axes on so-called the inverse, creation of crampons Tourist crampons (Pic. 4) are adjustable without - move with crampons, in first time we train that on -ax head with one hand and the ice-ax handle with with front spikes and screw clamps (tubes) signi- using any tools, it is only important that front side flat place and easy uphill, it is important to keep tip- other hand. We push continuously the pick of ice-ax ficantly increased the efficiency and safety of- mo and back side of crampons should be tighten and toes out not to stumble over. Gradually increase the into the snow and thereby we activate the brake. If vement on snow and ice. Original straight ice axes fit to boot. Other important advantages of this type intensity of the field and attach fall arrest and declen- we wear the crampons, we bend and lift the leg to (Pic. 4.) were exceeded by the improved shape of crampons are anti – snow plastic pads, which sig- sion in appropriate field. The recommended slope is avoid uncontrollable body rotation (Pic. 9). If we go sport ice axes (Pic. 5.) (Hill a Johnston, 2003; Růžič- nificantly contribute to safe walking or climbing, up to 40 °, snow, soft firn, preferably in the range of straight up the fall line and we are coupled into a ka a Šilhán, 1998). because they limit bonding of snow and creating a an opposite slope or on a flat place without the rocks rope team, we do better when we hold the ice-ax in „bakule“, which can cause loss of balance and sub- and stones. When we walk in crampons, we use the the hand, on whose side leads a rope. We shouldn’t sequent fall. The setting of the other type of cram- Eckstein technique, which is based on a simple prin- hesitate when we fall down and immediately turn pons is more difficult and we would have to use ciple; all spikes of crampons are trying to stick in the on our belly (Bulička, 2010). allen, spanner or screwdriver. The boot must fit per- snow. We move through the switchbacks, slant slope, fectly to crampon and the front spikes were above which saves our calf muscles (Procházka, 1990). An the toe. The unexpected release of crampons from ice ax is used as a stick, a handle is spiked consistently boots can have fatal consequences in the form of a in the vertical direction and we try to anchor it in Picture 4 Tourist ice axes and tourist crampons fall (Procházka et al., 1990, Schubert, 1997). different kinds of snow (Pic. 7). When we tranvers, (http://www.hudy.cz/cepiny-macky) - walk without crampons are used in a snowy slope we hold the ice-ax nearly to the slope. in which slightly breaks leg, in slope of 20° - 25°. We climb and descend facing the slope. It is necessary Picture 9 Braking with the ice-ax after slip (http://www.petzl. to keep balance. We achieve that with an upright com/en/outdoor/activities-techniques /ice-climbing) posture. We are digging a shoe vigorously in the snow. If snow consistent is low, we should poach The most common mistakes: it before we will transfer our weight. During the Incorrect posture- rotation of the body, the risk of descent, the body is slightly tipped forward. It is leg injury necessary to avoid excessive bending, rigidity and Incorrect holding of the ice-ax - high possession of Picture 5 Modern climbing ice axes and crampons long steps. Especially when we carry a heavier bag, the body does not allow sufficient pressure to pick (http://www.hudy.cz/cepiny-macky) we may lose balance and fall down. In the process of the ice- ax, after it is followed by ineffective bra- you can use sticks to help to keep the balance and king or dropping the ice-ax, etc. reduce a labour of your legs; the disadvantage is the Picture 7 Classic Eckstein technique (http://www.petzl.com/en/ We train quick twisting to the abdomen immedia- option of braking after a slip. outdoor/activities-techniques/ice-climbing) tely after the fall; we pay attention to the correct - descent without crampons and controlled slip is orientation, then we practice the correct position used while we are descending the slopes with relati- When the slope is increasing, we climb directly of the ice-ax, which is cross in front of the body, vely hard snow with a slope of 20 ° to 35 °. We des- after the fall line, we face to the slope, boots with and braking. We care about continuous pressure cend so that we spike the heels in the snow, ankles crampons are actively buried into the slope and the of the pick of the ice-ax under the body; we give and knees slightly bent; the projection of the center ice-ax is head-held, pick of ice- ax forward and we face away to avoid any injury. All this work must Picture 6 Ice screws (www.hudy.cz/skoby) of gravity intersects the surface feet, torso slightly jab it to the snow, so that we rely on it and hold it be fully automated and repeatedly practiced every bent. We alternately put down the feet parallel to slightly below the shoulder, the other arm rests on day. The question, what is better to braking, pick or Tourist ice axes and crampons (Pic. 4) can be used the slope in order to slip. We keep the balance of the slope to keep a balance (Pic. 8). adze, was solved by Pit Schubert and Jost Gudelius in the course of winter alpine hiking and course of alternating moving the center of gravity forward in 2008. They repeatedly made experiments and the basics of rock climbing in slope of 60 °. Another and backward and we check the sliding speed by adze won. Regardless of the quality of snow, firn or advantage is the low weight, versatility and econo- changing the angle of the ankle. There we can also ice is the most effective to use the pick of the ice-ax, mic accessibility. use dynamic methods like skiing or skating - jumps, with fast turn to belly and keep the ice-ax under the turns, braking. Sticks needn’t be used only for chec- body below the shoulders (Schubert, 2010). Basic Skills on snow and ice king balance, but also for braking a slip. - training of frontal ice climbing technique - we -setting crampons and ice ax loops - stop using the ice-ax after slipping, we perform it consider it as a superstructure of mentioned skills. We set the loop of the ice ax so that its length does not so that we brake the fall of rapid flipping over our We rehearse climbing with top rope; we use cram- limit the swing motion while we hold the ice ax han- abdomen to a stable position, the arms are bent pons and special ice-axes, which greatly facilitate dle and at the same time we would be sure that the under the body below the shoulders, we hold the the practice of climbing. The body occupies a posi- loop wouldn’t fall down from hand. We use the ice ax ice-ax in one hand behind its head, the other hand Picture 8 Technique of direct climb (http://www.petzl.com/en/ tion of Y or X, depending on the terrain, important whenever a potential risk of slipping and falling can on the handle and we press smoothly the pick of outdoor/activities-techniques/ice-climbing) thing is a balanced body position (Pic. 10).

58 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 59 American Yvon Chouinard and Scottish Hammisch occur, because only ax allows us to safe braking and the ice-ax into the snow and that way is the bra- - stop with using the ice-ax after slipping - we brake MacInnes fundamentally modernized weaponry in stopping a fall. Improvised devices such as wands, ke applied. The legs are slightly apart and foreparts the fall with taking proper posture of body (tur- the 70th 20th century. Shortening handle of glaci- stone, stick, etc. can never guarantee us such an effi- help to brake. We never put down feet on the snow ning on your belly, feet are in the driving direction) al weapon in half, changed the shape of spikes ice- ciency and certainty as ice –ax (Schubert, 2010). when we wear the crampons!! and with correct holding of ice-ax. We hold the ice- axes on so-called the inverse, creation of crampons Tourist crampons (Pic. 4) are adjustable without - move with crampons, in first time we train that on -ax head with one hand and the ice-ax handle with with front spikes and screw clamps (tubes) signi- using any tools, it is only important that front side flat place and easy uphill, it is important to keep tip- other hand. We push continuously the pick of ice-ax ficantly increased the efficiency and safety of- mo and back side of crampons should be tighten and toes out not to stumble over. Gradually increase the into the snow and thereby we activate the brake. If vement on snow and ice. Original straight ice axes fit to boot. Other important advantages of this type intensity of the field and attach fall arrest and declen- we wear the crampons, we bend and lift the leg to (Pic. 4.) were exceeded by the improved shape of crampons are anti – snow plastic pads, which sig- sion in appropriate field. The recommended slope is avoid uncontrollable body rotation (Pic. 9). If we go sport ice axes (Pic. 5.) (Hill a Johnston, 2003; Růžič- nificantly contribute to safe walking or climbing, up to 40 °, snow, soft firn, preferably in the range of straight up the fall line and we are coupled into a ka a Šilhán, 1998). because they limit bonding of snow and creating a an opposite slope or on a flat place without the rocks rope team, we do better when we hold the ice-ax in „bakule“, which can cause loss of balance and sub- and stones. When we walk in crampons, we use the the hand, on whose side leads a rope. We shouldn’t sequent fall. The setting of the other type of cram- Eckstein technique, which is based on a simple prin- hesitate when we fall down and immediately turn pons is more difficult and we would have to use ciple; all spikes of crampons are trying to stick in the on our belly (Bulička, 2010). allen, spanner or screwdriver. The boot must fit per- snow. We move through the switchbacks, slant slope, fectly to crampon and the front spikes were above which saves our calf muscles (Procházka, 1990). An the toe. The unexpected release of crampons from ice ax is used as a stick, a handle is spiked consistently boots can have fatal consequences in the form of a in the vertical direction and we try to anchor it in Picture 4 Tourist ice axes and tourist crampons fall (Procházka et al., 1990, Schubert, 1997). different kinds of snow (Pic. 7). When we tranvers, (http://www.hudy.cz/cepiny-macky) - walk without crampons are used in a snowy slope we hold the ice-ax nearly to the slope. in which slightly breaks leg, in slope of 20° - 25°. We climb and descend facing the slope. It is necessary Picture 9 Braking with the ice-ax after slip (http://www.petzl. to keep balance. We achieve that with an upright com/en/outdoor/activities-techniques /ice-climbing) posture. We are digging a shoe vigorously in the snow. If snow consistent is low, we should poach The most common mistakes: it before we will transfer our weight. During the Incorrect posture- rotation of the body, the risk of descent, the body is slightly tipped forward. It is leg injury necessary to avoid excessive bending, rigidity and Incorrect holding of the ice-ax - high possession of Picture 5 Modern climbing ice axes and crampons long steps. Especially when we carry a heavier bag, the body does not allow sufficient pressure to pick (http://www.hudy.cz/cepiny-macky) we may lose balance and fall down. In the process of the ice- ax, after it is followed by ineffective bra- you can use sticks to help to keep the balance and king or dropping the ice-ax, etc. reduce a labour of your legs; the disadvantage is the Picture 7 Classic Eckstein technique (http://www.petzl.com/en/ We train quick twisting to the abdomen immedia- option of braking after a slip. outdoor/activities-techniques/ice-climbing) tely after the fall; we pay attention to the correct - descent without crampons and controlled slip is orientation, then we practice the correct position used while we are descending the slopes with relati- When the slope is increasing, we climb directly of the ice-ax, which is cross in front of the body, vely hard snow with a slope of 20 ° to 35 °. We des- after the fall line, we face to the slope, boots with and braking. We care about continuous pressure cend so that we spike the heels in the snow, ankles crampons are actively buried into the slope and the of the pick of the ice-ax under the body; we give and knees slightly bent; the projection of the center ice-ax is head-held, pick of ice- ax forward and we face away to avoid any injury. All this work must Picture 6 Ice screws (www.hudy.cz/skoby) of gravity intersects the surface feet, torso slightly jab it to the snow, so that we rely on it and hold it be fully automated and repeatedly practiced every bent. We alternately put down the feet parallel to slightly below the shoulder, the other arm rests on day. The question, what is better to braking, pick or Tourist ice axes and crampons (Pic. 4) can be used the slope in order to slip. We keep the balance of the slope to keep a balance (Pic. 8). adze, was solved by Pit Schubert and Jost Gudelius in the course of winter alpine hiking and course of alternating moving the center of gravity forward in 2008. They repeatedly made experiments and the basics of rock climbing in slope of 60 °. Another and backward and we check the sliding speed by adze won. Regardless of the quality of snow, firn or advantage is the low weight, versatility and econo- changing the angle of the ankle. There we can also ice is the most effective to use the pick of the ice-ax, mic accessibility. use dynamic methods like skiing or skating - jumps, with fast turn to belly and keep the ice-ax under the turns, braking. Sticks needn’t be used only for chec- body below the shoulders (Schubert, 2010). Basic Skills on snow and ice king balance, but also for braking a slip. - training of frontal ice climbing technique - we -setting crampons and ice ax loops - stop using the ice-ax after slipping, we perform it consider it as a superstructure of mentioned skills. We set the loop of the ice ax so that its length does not so that we brake the fall of rapid flipping over our We rehearse climbing with top rope; we use cram- limit the swing motion while we hold the ice ax han- abdomen to a stable position, the arms are bent pons and special ice-axes, which greatly facilitate dle and at the same time we would be sure that the under the body below the shoulders, we hold the the practice of climbing. The body occupies a posi- loop wouldn’t fall down from hand. We use the ice ax ice-ax in one hand behind its head, the other hand Picture 8 Technique of direct climb (http://www.petzl.com/en/ tion of Y or X, depending on the terrain, important whenever a potential risk of slipping and falling can on the handle and we press smoothly the pick of outdoor/activities-techniques/ice-climbing) thing is a balanced body position (Pic. 10).

58 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 59 The most common mistakes: falling. Climber‘s weight rests on the picks of crampons, Chest harness „EGHT vario“ price: 460, - CZK, 240 the difference of used material. The skills acquired Convulsive and too strong jamming of the ice-ax human pelvis is stuck with the ice wall, ice- axes serves grams, (Rockempire) during basic training, students reward for climbing causes rapid growth of tideness and the possibility of only to keep balance, the main work is done by the legs. Climbing rope „Joker“ price 3190, - CZK, diameter to a relatively easily accessible peaks, such as Kozí 9.1 mm, single, half and twin, 50m (ref. Beal) štít, Jahňací štít and another in the valley of Zele- Ice screws „Expess Ice Screw“ price 1350, - CZK / né Pleso in the High Tatra Mountains. Sometimes pc, (Name: Black Diamond) we can travel with a small group of students like we In the footwear we can recommend universal did, not long time ago, to Mc. Blanc in 2012. leather shoes, such as „Alaska“ from Hawang, but We are 7 days on this course. The acquired skills also can be used touring boots or snowboarding and knowledge from this course give to students the boots, because (dtto) crampons can be set for all competencies for summer and winter alpine hiking types of boots. The instructors, who lead training, (non-glacial). This course is tied for other courses usually borrow to students the better sports equip- such as course of winter outdoors activities (basics ment, especially ice-axes, for climbing in ice slopes of alpine skiing and avalanche prevention), course over 60°. This procedure is sufficient to get an idea of winter rock climbing and course of summer rock of the difference in the technique of climbing and climbing.

References Bulička, M.(2010). Turistický cepín v praxi. Infohudy, č.10,8. Dieška, I., & Širl, V. (1989). Horolezectví zblízka. Praha : Olympia. Hendl, J. (1999). Úvod do kvalitativního výzkumu. Praha : SPN. Hill, P., & Johnston, S. (2003). Manuál horolezce a horského vůdce. Praha : Ivo Železný. Hroch, M. et al. (1985). Úvod do studia dějepisu. Praha : SPN. Procházka et al. (1990). Horolezectví. Praha : Olympia. Reichel, J. (2009). Kapitoly metodologie sociálních výzkumů. Praha : UK. Růžička, J., & Šilhán, F. (1998). Jištění je jistota. Brno: Montana. Schubert, P. (1997). Bezpečnost a riziko na skále, sněhu a ledu. Plzeň: Kletr. Schubert, P.(2010). Kdo správně brzdí, neprohrává. Infohudy, č.10, 10. Štumbauer, J. (1990). Základy vědecké práce v tělesné kultuře. Č. Budějovice : PF. Picture 10 Frontal technique (http://www.petzl.com/en/outdoor/activities-techniques/ice-climbing) Internet resources http://www.hudy.cz/cepiny, macky) We should pay attention to safety, discipline and closest top-quality ices are in Slovenský ráj, in the http://www.hudy.cz/friendy_vklinence_skoby/89913,360-ice-screw.html superintendence of students. We use top rope Tatra Mountains or in Austria. http://www.petzl.com/en/outdoor/activities-techniques/ice-climbing during basic ice-climbing course. Unconditional Photos: Oto Louka archive thing is the use of helmets for all participants, in- Conclusion Images: http://www.petzl.com/en/outdoor/activities-techniques/ice-climbing cluding the teacher. The lessons increase demands At the end of the article we would like to present on teacher attention, s/he should still be focused some recommendations for the material equipment. Author: PaedDr. Oto Louka, CSc., email: [email protected] on activities of students and prepared to deal with We mainly use materials from Rock Empire in our unexpected events. It is not necessary to be in courses. This Czech company has managed in the mountains for this course, it is possible to use froze last 3 years to compete with established brands in waterfalls. There are many waterfalls nearby Ústí the market, meets the EU standards and in addition nad Labem. The most known is the waterfall on the material can be bought for very reasonable pri- Vaňov stream. But also places around brook Ka- ces. So we currently recommend, for basic training, menice in Děčín. In Jizerské hory is a range of high this following material: quality terrains in Oldřichov. This is not a classic Tourist ice-ax „Chackan“ price 1290, - CZK, 400 g, waterfall, but rocks which are covered by ice after length 55, 60, 65 cm, (Rockempire) a thaw and frozen one more time. So situation is Tourist crampons „Machki“ prize 1690, - CZK, 920 different year by the year. Top-quality terrains are grams, size 36-48 EU (Rockempire) in Krkonoše, especially in the Elbe mine, but there Helmet „Galeos“ price 1090 - CZK, 409 grams, one is a problem with the protection of nature, ices are size, (Rockempire) not freely available, climbing is possible only af- Climbing harness „Lightning“ price: 890 CZK, 350 ter the negotiation of the management of NP. The grams, (Rockempire)

60 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 61 The most common mistakes: falling. Climber‘s weight rests on the picks of crampons, Chest harness „EGHT vario“ price: 460, - CZK, 240 the difference of used material. The skills acquired Convulsive and too strong jamming of the ice-ax human pelvis is stuck with the ice wall, ice- axes serves grams, (Rockempire) during basic training, students reward for climbing causes rapid growth of tideness and the possibility of only to keep balance, the main work is done by the legs. Climbing rope „Joker“ price 3190, - CZK, diameter to a relatively easily accessible peaks, such as Kozí 9.1 mm, single, half and twin, 50m (ref. Beal) štít, Jahňací štít and another in the valley of Zele- Ice screws „Expess Ice Screw“ price 1350, - CZK / né Pleso in the High Tatra Mountains. Sometimes pc, (Name: Black Diamond) we can travel with a small group of students like we In the footwear we can recommend universal did, not long time ago, to Mc. Blanc in 2012. leather shoes, such as „Alaska“ from Hawang, but We are 7 days on this course. The acquired skills also can be used touring boots or snowboarding and knowledge from this course give to students the boots, because (dtto) crampons can be set for all competencies for summer and winter alpine hiking types of boots. The instructors, who lead training, (non-glacial). This course is tied for other courses usually borrow to students the better sports equip- such as course of winter outdoors activities (basics ment, especially ice-axes, for climbing in ice slopes of alpine skiing and avalanche prevention), course over 60°. This procedure is sufficient to get an idea of winter rock climbing and course of summer rock of the difference in the technique of climbing and climbing.

60 journal of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 1/2013 ISSN 1802-3908 61 Journal of Outdoor Activities is a scientific magazine concerning with problems of all fields of outdoor activities, not only from the point of view of kinanthropology but also from the point of view of related fields. The magazine is published in the -En glish language. The abstracts of individual contributions are published also in the Czech language. The magazine is included in the EBSCO database.

FIELDS THAT THIS PERIODICAL WILL DEAL WITH AND RESEARCH: Historical reflection of outdoor activities Philosophical reflection of outdoor activities Volume 7 No. 2/2013 Psychological reflection of outdoor activities Physiological aspect of outdoor activities Outdoor Activities and Health Environmental Aspects of Outdoor Activities Management of Outdoor Activities

JOURNAL HEADINGS: Teoretical studies - original scientific papers concerning new findings and observations, eventualy review papers surveyining particular scientific problematice written in accurate and factual style Scientific nad research studies - original scientific studies reporting on a concrete research and its out- cumes written in accurate and factual style The magazine has been published since 2007, twice a year. Deadline for the articles is always on 1st April or 1st October.

SEND THE CONTRIBUTIONS FOR THE NEXT ISSUE BY 1st April 2014

www.pf.ujep.cz/joa Journal of Outdoor Activities is a scientific magazine concerning with problems of all fields of outdoor activities, not only from the point of view of kinanthropology but also from the point of view of related fields. The magazine is published in the -En glish language. The abstracts of individual contributions are published also in the Czech language. The magazine is included in the EBSCO database.

SEND THE CONTRIBUTIONS FOR THE NEXT ISSUE BY 1st April 2014