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PENNIE-DISSERTATION-2017.Pdf Exploring College Leaders’ Critical Incident Experiences Pursuant to Improving Campus Safety Policies during the Mass-shooting Era by Demetrick D. Pennie, M.A., Ed.D A Dissertation In Higher Education Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctorate of Education Approved Fred Hartmeister, J.D., Ed.D. Chair of Committee Stephanie J. Jones, Ed.D. Roy E. Alston, Ph.D. Mark Sheridan, Ph.D. Dean of the Graduate School May, 2017 © Copyright 2017, Demetrick D. Pennie Texas Tech University, Demetrick D. Pennie, May 2017 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This doctorate degree culminates a long and arduous process by which the integration of theory and practice were used to develop meaningful solutions. As with any other demanding process, my advances towards completion were not taken alone. I would like to first express my sincerest gratitude to my Committee Members: Dr. Fred Hartmeister, Dr. Stephanie J. Jones, and Dr. Roy Alston for their guidance and leadership throughout this rigorous process. Secondly, I would like to express my heartfelt appreciation to my colleagues and fellow cohort members for motivating me to achieve this prestigious honor. Additionally, I would be remiss if I did not “thank” all of the distinguished practitioners for offering their expert opinions in support of the research. I would also like to say “thank you” to all of the research participants for choosing to be a part of this informative study. Finally, my deepest appreciation goes to my family for understanding and supporting me during this difficult journey. Personally, attaining a doctorate degree from Texas Tech University is the greatest accomplishment that I have ever achieved. It is truly an honor to now be amongst the top two percent of America’s distinguished populace. I understand that with this distinction comes great responsibility to educate and challenge the limits of traditional thinking in an effort to help advance the progressive domain of academia. DEDICATION This degree is dedicated in honor and memory of my greatest inspiration, my grandmother, Allene Ruth Pennie. Thank you for always supporting and believing in me! Rest in peace knowing that your influence guided me to accomplish this goal and that your legacy will transcend forever through my work in academia. ii Texas Tech University, Demetrick D. Pennie, May 2017 TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................... ii ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................... vii LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................... x I. CHAPTER I (INTRODUCTION) ................................................................... 1 The Mass-shooting Era ..................................................................................... 2 Profile of Attackers ........................................................................................... 3 Motivations for Violent Crimes ........................................................................ 4 Gun Violence Attacks and Mental Health ........................................................ 5 Motives Beyond Mental Health ....................................................................... 6 Decision-Making Relative to Campus Security ................................................ 6 Lack of Preparedness for Critical Incidents ...................................................... 8 Reforming Response Tactics............................................................................. 9 Target Hardening vs. Overarching Protections ............................................... 11 Developing Campus Policies .......................................................................... 12 Background of the Study ................................................................................ 13 System-wide Adoption of Technology ........................................................... 14 Statement of the Problem ...................................................................................... 16 Campus Police Restrictions ............................................................................ 16 Intelligence Measures...................................................................................... 18 Lack of Communication .................................................................................. 20 Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................. 23 Research Questions ............................................................................................... 23 Significance of the Study ...................................................................................... 24 Summary of Conceptual Framework .................................................................... 25 Conceptual Framework Diagram .......................................................................... 29 Summary of Methodology ................................................................................... 30 Definitions of Terms ............................................................................................ 33 Assumptions of the Study ..................................................................................... 35 Limitations of the Study ........................................................................................ 35 iii Texas Tech University, Demetrick D. Pennie, May 2017 Summary ............................................................................................................... 37 Organization of Remainder of the Study .............................................................. 38 II. CHAPTER II (LITERATURE REVIEW) .................................................. 39 History of Campus Security and Policing ...................................................... 42 History of Campus Gun Violence .................................................................. 56 Impetus for Change in Campus Security ................................................. 58 Notable Shooting Attacks ......................................................................... 60 Shaping the Campus Policing Model ............................................................. 62 Administrators’ Influence on the Campus Security .................................. 69 Campus Security Approaches .................................................................. 71 Campus Police Culture .............................................................................. 75 Challenges for Campus Police ....................................................................... 78 Virginia Tech Shooting as the Catalyst for Change ................................. 80 College Presidents' Influences on Campus Policing Culture ................... 83 Indirect Issues Impacting Campus Security ................................................... 86 Mental Health and Behavior Issues .......................................................... 86 FERPA and HIPAA .................................................................................. 90 Continuing Evolution of Campus Security .............................................. 93 College Leadership Practices Enable Extremism ........................................... 96 Freedom of Speech Protections ................................................................. 98 Radicalization of College Students .......................................................... 99 White Supremacy Extremism ....................................................................... 102 Radical Islam Extremism ............................................................................. 104 Black Liberation Extremism ........................................................................ 105 International Students from Terrorist Countries .................................... 106 Immigration and Threats to Campus Security ........................................ 109 Challenges to Permanent Disciplinary Sanctions .................................. 113 Use-of-Force Issues on College Campuses ............................................ 119 Campus Police Improper Use-of-Force ................................................. 120 Police Use-of-Force and Accommodations for Mental Illness .............. 125 Employing New Measures to Campus Security ..................................... 130 Social Media's Threat to College Safety ................................................. 131 Advocating for Change .......................................................................... 132 Conceptual Framework of Study ................................................................. 136 Summary ................................................................................................ 138 III. CHAPTER III (METHODOLOGY) ....................................................... 139 iv Texas Tech University, Demetrick D. Pennie, May 2017 Restatement of the Purpose .......................................................................... 139 Restatement of the Research Questions ....................................................... 139 Research Design ............................................................................................ 140 Establishing the Paradigm ....................................................................... 140 Type of Study .........................................................................................
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