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Five Most Important Modeling and Simulation Projects, Events, And/Or Five important modeling and simulation projects, events, and/or technologies starting with the 1960’s to the present. The following are considered modeling and simulation technologies by decades they were developed in. This is by no means a complete list, since modeling and simulation has been practiced throughout known history. However, with the advent of the transistor based computer, modern modeling and simulation really took off. The 1960’s: Real-time Flight Simulation with Digital Computers Since man has dreamed of taking to the skies, there has been modeling and simulation involved. We can only hypothesize how Leonardo Davinci used modeling and simulation to come up with his sketches of flying machines. Since the invention of the airplane, student pilots had to familiarize themselves with the mechanics and feel of flight. In fact, the first truly synthetic flight training device was invented around 1910, where two half-sections of a barrel mounted and moved manually to represent the pitch and roll of an airplane. The prospective pilot sat in the top section of this device and was required to line up a reference bar with the horizon (Moore 2004). This device provided good control input and orientation training but still left much to be desired. In the late 20’s and early 30’s, they began including instrument flight training by linking the instrument gauges to the controls. It was about this time that Ed Link began selling his version of a pilot trainer to the Army Air Corps (Link S&T, 2009) and also the first Celestial Navigation Trainer to the Royal Air Force (RAF). The Navy, not to be outdone, sent Commander Luis de Florez to investigate the RAF synthetic training and as a result, Bell Telephone Laboratories produced a Navy PBM-3 aircraft simulator; probably the first operational flight trainer that simulated the aerodynamic characteristics of a specific aircraft (More 2004). The advantages of digital computers, which include improved flexibility, repeatability and standardization, were realized by the U.S. Navy who initiated a research program at the University of Pennsylvania in 1950 to develop a special machine to be used directly for real-time flight simulation. This machine, developed by the Sylvania Corporation and completed in 1960, was named the Universal Digital Operational Flight Trainer (UDOFT). The UDOFT project had demonstrated the feasibility of digital simulation and the solution of the aircraft dynamic equations. In the early 60's Link developed a special purpose digital computer, the Link Mark I, designed for real- time simulation. This machine had three parallel processors for arithmetic, function generation, and radio station selection. In the late 60’s, general-purpose digital computers designed by IBM for process control applications were found to be suitable for simulation, and the use of special purpose machines declined. Today, special purpose digital computers designed for very high speed processing, such as computer-generated imagery, are also being replaced with general purpose video graphics cards that can be used on standard PCs. Digital simulation is of course not just being used for real-time flight simulation. Digital simulation enables entirely new designs to be prototyped digitally and investigated. As a result, performance and manufacturing issues are better understood on the computer, offering the opportunity to make informed decisions, before the manufacturing process is put into motion. The 1970’s: Computer Based Gaming The first computer game is claimed to be developed in 1962 by Steve Russell, Peter Samson, Dan Edwards and Martin Graetz, together with Alan Kotok, Steve Piner and Robert A. Saunders on an MIT on a PDP-1, an early DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation) interactive mini computer (Russel, 2009). The game was only used as a diagnostic program and the lead for the project, Steve Russell, never profited from it. Steve Russell later transferred to Stanford University, where he introduced computer game programming and Spacewar to an engineering student called Nolan Bushnell. Bushnell went on to write the first coin-operated computer arcade game and start Atari Computers. In fact, in the early 1970s, Nolan Bushnell created the first video game, Pong. Pong used no simulation per se, and although it was simplistic, it was revolutionary in the area of computer-based gaming (Laughran, 2009). With the introduction of the desktop PC, computer gaming became more popular. Although the graphics were still black and white wire frame, the first version of Microsoft Flight Simulator in the 80’s made aviation enthusiasts very excited. Now, the Microsoft FlightSim software and graphics rival some of the best custom image generators available with multiple screen support and real-world weather data. Advances in microprocessors and in the gaming art have also led to more realistic multiple user real-time strategy 3D games and single user strategy games like SimCity, which allows the users to create and control worlds of their own creation. With the development of the Internet, the commercial distributed gaming industry has evolved at a rapid pace. Although the funding and profit model is different for the commercial gaming industry, there are interesting similarities with the DoD distributed modeling and simulation efforts. Both are interested in networking hundreds or even thousands of players in a believable artificial world using low cost graphics, and computer generated characters with human behavior models (Herman & Lineberger, 1997). The only drawbacks are a lack of specific features used for military training like playback and recording for After Action Reviews (AAR) (Robar, 2004). The 1980’s: Simulator Networking (SIMNET) Simulator networking is based on work done in the early 70’s by Robert Metcalfe to develop computer Local Area Networks (LANs) and the Ethernet standards (Bellis, 2009). In 1981, Captain Jack A. Thorpe was assigned to the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and in 1983, with the help of Dr. Craig Fields, Thorpe initiated Simulator Networking (SIMNET) with the goal of developing a new generation of high tech, realistic, networkable, microprocessor-based simulators that cost 100 times less than existing simulators. DARPA teamed with the Army to demonstrate the goal in a combined arms environment, which eventually ended with a network of 260 simulators at 11 sites in the United States and Europe. In 1987, Thorpe wrote a paper entitled, "Future Views: Aircrew Training 1980-2000." Thorpe hypothesized that, "... advances which are seen on the horizon are not simple improvements in teaching techniques or higher fidelity simulators, but rather bold concepts which tightly align training systems with real combat readiness and make them indistinguishable" (Cosby, 2009). Thorpe's original concept is depicted in the following four scenes. Scene one shows a real time overhead source collecting information about simulations worldwide and communicating these data to distributed simulation planning centers. Scene two shows planners analyzing the situation using a three dimensional holographic rendering of the defined area with analysts planning a future operation. Scene 1 Scene 2 Scene three (lower left) shows four aircraft simulators in which crews are flying in the virtual environment and executing the plan. Scene four (lower right) shows the chain of command watching the real time dress rehearsal and assessing the overall plan. Scene 3 Scene 4 SIMNET became a low-cost virtual environment for training small units consisting of vehicle simulators like tanks or helicopters. Up to 850 units managed to exchange data in a 1Mbps network (Voss, 1993). In 1990, the SIMNET program was transferred to the Army and in 1992 the Army began a procurement under Colonel James Shiflett, Program Manager of Combined Arms Tactical Training System (CATT). In short, over a 10-year period DARPA and the Army invested approximately $300 million to develop and prove the SIMNET technology. Eventually, in effort to formally generalize and extend the SIMNET protocol, the Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) protocol was developed. Now the Army is in the early stages of committing roughly $1 billion to acquire a global 21st Century large-scale network of virtual simulators for collective training and combat development (Cosby, 2009). The 1990’s: Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) and the High Level Architecture (HLA) The Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS or IEEE 1278) protocol was the first object-event architecture, where the world is a collection of objects interacting with each other by discrete events. Originally there were 27 Packet Data Units (PDUs) that contained event data like entity state, fire, detonation, collision, etc. Each DIS node is autonomous and are responsible for distributing the state of objects they maintain. To help ease network traffic, services like Dead Reckoning (DR) and predictive modeling algorithms are used. As size and scope of distributed simulations grew, the simulation industry and the DoD decided a new architecture was needed. The development of the High Level Architecture (HLA) is based on the fact that no single, large simulation could satisfy the needs of all users, that all uses of simulations and useful ways of combining them in the future could not be anticipated in advance and that future technological capabilities and a variety of operating considerations would have to be accommodated (Turrell, 2009). This meant the adoption of a
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