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English Sentence Patterns and Sentence Analysis in American Structural Linguistics

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English Sentence Patterns and Sentence Analysis in American Structural Linguistics ENGLISH SENTENCE PATTERNS AND SENTENCE ANALYSIS IN AMERICAN STRUCTURAL LINGUISTICS By Shoroku YAMAZAKI lnstrt‘cto，・0／E％glish， the FacultyαデTe記tile Science a¢d Technology， Shinshu Univβrsity （Received September 20，1963） CONTENTS I⊇reface ．・・r・・，。．…・・．h．．．．．．．．．．・．……．。・”…・・．，．．岡．・．。．．… ．・…・T－・・。・・一… 。… け・・・・… 6・・… 。・・・・… 1 Chapter L A genera1 view．pf American structural linguis．ヒics…・…－1・…・－2 1， The gist of American structural linguistics……甲…・・一……………2 2． L｛nguistic strqctures in English and Japanese 軸…・…… …＋・………・∴ 3 Chapter II． Structural patterrls of Engligh sentences・…・…・…・…………・……・4 1．What signals basic sentences of statement， questlQn， and request…5 2； ComPllca壱ions i皿present－day E血glish 。＿＿．．＿．．＿＿＿＿＿。＿，．＿＿，7 3． Structural relationship of answers to questions…・…・……一………1・・15 Chapter III． Sentence analysis－・… ……・… 艸……・……… 。・…・・………・・…・…・・…・19 1． Immediate c伽stituents and layers of structure・・一……………・……1・20 2． Ptiocedure of sentence analysis by layers of structure …・・………・…25 Chapter IV． Analysis of cQmplicated English senteuce三員to simp玉e sente聴ce patterns…・・………・………・……6…………・r…・… …・・…・…・29 1． Basic statement pattems………・…………一一・……………・一・・一…29 2． Compl量cated EngHsh sentence and its analysis …・………・。………・・…・31 Chapter V， Conclusion……一・一…………一・一・……………・一・……………・…・33 1． On English grammar … ………・・…………・……・・……………・…… …・∴…33 2． On English learning ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・… 鱒・・… 鱒・・… 一・・・… 鱒・・・・… ．・・・・・・・・・・・… …・34 Reference books・・…・………・・………・……・…・………・……・・…………・…扇・・…・36 PREFACE My previous paper in the Journal of the Faculty of Textile Science and Technoiogy， Shinshu University（No．33， Sefies D， Arts， No．5， pec．1962） dealt with the nature of langUage and the teaching and learning of a foreign language based upon American structural Iinguistics． It was a gene士al view of American structural linguistics and a detailed elucidation．of．its．．basic principles． ．This paper wi11． deal with English sentence p耳tterns and sentence analysis based upon American strμctural linguistics． It is．a problem of．the structure of耳nglish and dt．． the same． time a problem co加ected．with being．able to produce and respond to the signals of structttral meaning． From the point of view 6f Ametican structural．1inguistics，“grammar is the particular system of devices脚hich a language uses to signa！one of its 2 Shoroku YAMAzAKI No．37 various layers of meaning str砥ctural meaning” （Charles C， Fries）． English sentence patte士ns are the frames or inolds in which English words must be grasped． To develop such a set of habits in English sentences will eventually be to have ethcient readi1ユg ability， Ithink， therefore， it is very圭mportant for English teaching and learni1ユg to identify the patterns of form and arrangement by which the“words”are put together． I owe this paper for the most important part to the Strκcture o／English by Charles C． Fries（Longmans， Green and Company， London， 1959）． CHAPTER I， A GENERAL VIEW OF AMERICAN STRUCTURAL LINGUISTICS I、 The Gist of Ameriean Structural Linguisti㈱ Structural linguistics is a science． Structural linguistics， 1ike other sci． ences， seeks to describe what is observable． It does not prescribe what should be・But teaching is not a science， for the teacher must select， choose， de6ide what to teach， and in what sequence・ James Sledd ha＄said that the linguist provides the descriptiQn on which wise prescription is based， The Eramework of linguistics gives one a perspective on language as a whole， as a system， thus eliminating the feeling that was unavoi4able in the old approach that of having a proliferation of facts about language， so鵬etimes connected， some． times not． Structural linguistics can be applied to any language， not just English， It a照1yzes a language into significant sounds， the pattarn of sounds we call words， and the patterns of words we call phrases， clauses， and senteces， Linguists are in agreement about a number of basic tenets， （1） Speech is language・Speech is the primary symboU3ation of reality． Wriitng symbolizes speech and is a secondary symbolization． （2） Lallguage changes． Change Cahriot be噛termed either good or bad， It is the very nature of language． Speech changes all the time． Writing tends not to change． （3）Correctness in speech is relative to time， place， circumstance， and other features of the environment． （4） The native speaker of a language， however ignorant， knows the grammar， that is， the sound structure， the forms of卑he words・s and the syntactic arrangements of that language， （5）There is no universal grammar． Each language must be analyzed separately according to its own system． Structural linguistics has clarified the confusion between acquiring a ski11 1earning to speak， read， and write a玉anguage and learning a language about language， that is， consciously learning the rules and regulations of a language・It has contributed greatly to our understanding ρf the nature of language， Language is part of one’s social heredity． It is acqllired． All people have language． From the view of the linguist，、all Ianguages are ad． equate． The lingdist does not apply the word primitive to languages；all ユanguages are linguistically fully developed． No．37 English sentence patterns and sentence analysis in structural Iinguistics 3 In studying the system of a language，1inguists study three interlocking levels：phonology， morphology， and syntax． phonology includes both phonet． ics and phonemics． Phonetics furnishes the raw data of phonemic analysig． ． Aphoneme is defined as a sound signal unit consisting of one or more members which are phonetica11y similar and in complementary distribution． According othe analysis of English made by George Trager and Herlry Lee Smith（ノ1n Outline o／English Structure）， English has forty－five phonemes． These are divided into segmental phonemes：twenty－four consonants and nine vowels； and the supra－segmental phonenユes： four stresses， four pltches， and four junctures． A knowledge of the phonology of English is directly applicable to ． teaching English pronunciation， intonation豊and rhythm． The best textbooks on pronunciation are firmly based upon such knowledge． The morpheme lis the smallest meaningful linguistic ullit． The word bat has two consonants and one vowel which are meaningless ill themselves． But the whole form does have a meaning． Bat is a mQrpheme which is also a word． In the word tZnk’indness there are three morphemes， the pre倣’襯一， the base feind， and the su伍x－ness． Syntax is the descriptive analysis of form＄ 1arger than single words． Its basic concepts include the no伽ns of controlled substitution， syntactic classes， immediate co黛stituents， and syntactic cQn一 のstructlorlS． It is needless to say that such knowledge should mal〈e the di岱cult job of teach呈ng Engiish more sticcesSful． 2．Lingu玉sti。．Structures in Enghsh a無d Japanese In teaching and learning English， there is the dif五culty arising fromζhe great difεerence I in linguistic stl“uctul’e between Engiish and Japanese． To cite a few． examples， Eng正ish has a stress－timed rhythm， while Japanese has ° asyllable－timed rhythm． In other words， in English， stressed syllables recur at approximately reguiar intervals so that the more uれstressed syllables there are between stressed syllables， the more rapidly these unstressed syllables are pronounced． In Japanese， on the other h，and， eac hsyllable has an apProx噌 i類ately equal duration so th．at the lengむh of an utterallce is proportionate to the nuエnber of the syllab王es it contains， This means that the Japanese listening to English have great dif五culty in r¢cognizing unstressed syllables sandwiched between stressed syllables and that they carry over their syllable－ timed rhyth皿irlto the English they speak． Again the syllabic stucture of Japanese is very difだerent from that Qf English． The typical syHable in Japanese consists of a vowel preceded by a consonant， as in肋，加， te， etc．；there is no syllable ending with a consonant such as碑，αg，θ≠， etc． Naturally the Japanese are apt to add some unnecessary prop vowel after the syllable－final consonant and say， for example， eightQ instead ofθゴ£勉．α〃oπin English is a two－syllable word， but when borrowed by Japanese， it is pronounced as a four－syUable word；sitoron（The final n constitutes one Syllable，）． The dif丑culty that the Japanese experience in distinguishing between l andγsounds is very wel1－k且own． Rice and right are mQst probably misproriounced・ ．’ lice and light respectively though they think t◎ 4 Shoroku YAMAzAK1 No，37 say them correctly． Divergencies of grammar are more complex and intricate． Lexical dis・ crepancies are almost infinite． In fact， it can be said that any English word （except probably h圭ghly te（｝hnical ones）and its so－－called Japanese equivalant never cover the exactly identical area of meaning， Hand in Eng正ish correspo－ nds to the Japanese te when it refers to a part of the human body， but the Japanese never say‘‘te of a clock or a watch；”they use hari（“needle”） instead． This word heedle， in turn， refers to pine leaves， but hari never does， Similar cases can be multiplied infinitely． One of the fundamental＃eneヒs of the modern method．s of teaching a foreign language is that the best results can be obtained from making a careful comparison of the structure of the student’s・mother tongue and that of the foreign language to be taught with a view to discovering trouble spots and arranging the teaching materials accordingly， This kiiid of contrastive st．udy is especially necessary and important． The comparison of the sound systems of English and Japanese is al瓢ost complete． What awaits us is that of・the grammatical structures of the two languages， and this is
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