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International Journal of Interreligious and Intercultural Studies (IJIIS) ISSN: 2654-2706, Volume I, Number 1, October 2018

FEMALE DEITIES IN BALINESE SOCIETY: LOCAL GENIOUS, INDIAN INFLUENCES, AND THEIR

I Ketut Ardhana Faculty of Cultural Science, Universitas Udayana Universitas Hindu (UNHI), - < [email protected]>

Abstract

One of the main issues that has been discussed in Indonesia regarding the democracy process in a modern world is about the feminism and gender issues. On the one hand, women are con- sidered to play limited roles, whilst on the other hand, the men have always been considered to play a signi›cant role. This can be traced back in the long process of the Balinese history not only in terms of political aspect, but also in the context of socio cultural aspects. It is important to look at what has happened in the Balinese societies, since Bali is known as a Hindu mozaic in Southeast . The Balinese society has its own culture based on local culture that is strongly infiuenced by the Indian or Indic culture. The Balinese society is a patrilineal system, in which a man has a higher position, but in fact it was even Bali had a woman princess, who was of mixed Javanese and Balinese heritage, a wife of King Udayana of Bali between the 10th and 11th century. Both of them were considered as the Balinese kings at the same time. In the era of these two kings they were successful in integrating between and . Until now, the Balinese believe the of as . The main questions that will be addressed in this paper are ›rstly: how do the Balinese interpret the female deities? Secondly, how do they worship them? Thirdly, what is the meaning of this worship in terms of religious and cultural aspects in the modern and postmodern time? By discussing these issues, it is expected that we will have a better understanding on how the Balinese worship the female deities in the prehistoric, classical, and modern times in the context of a global or universal culture.

Keywords: Local genious, women and feminism deities, Hinduism, Balinese culture.

42 I Ketut Ardhana

Introduction mosaic in (Ramstedt, One main issue that has been 1999: 403). The Hindu in Bali discussed in Indonesia regarding the is named as Water Religion or Agama democracy process in a modern world . The meaning of water or “tirtha” revolves around feminism and gender refers to the River of Sindhu in issues. This can be understood since (Ardhana, 2016: 1). At the present there are many differences between time, there are a number of common the social roles and expectations of grounds between men and women. On the one hand, the and Indian Hinduism. For instance, in women are considered to play a limited Indian Hinduism many people look role, while on the other, the men play a upon as the supreme . signi›cant role. This development can In Balinese Hinduism, many people be traced back to the long process of take upon Widhi Wasa as Indonesian history in the context of its the supreme God. The Balinese term political and social cultural aspects. of Sanghyang Widhi Wasa is just like It is important to look at what Brahman, since Sanghyang Widhi has happened in the Minangkabau Wasa is believed to encompass global and the Balinese societies, since dualities. This can be seen in Kakawin both these societies are renowned Sutasoma, written by Mpu Tantular as to be strongly concerned about their follows: cultural heritage in comparison to other “Rwaneka dhatu winuwus war-a societies in Indonesia. In the case of the Wiswa. Bhineka rakwa ringapan kena parwanosen. Mangkang jinatwa kalawan predominantly Islamic Minangkabau siwatwa tunggal. Bhineka tunggal ika tan society in West , which was hana mangrwa”. infiuenced by Hinduism in an earlier In the Balinese terminology, it is period, women hold a higher social well known as Rwa Bhineda, in which position than men under the matrilineal the ideology of unity and diversity later system. In Bali, where most of the developed. population are and are under a In Balinese Hinduism, Sanghyang patrilineal system, men hold a higher Widhi Wasa is believed to have position than women. The difference several , and most of the Hindu of the position is signi›cant in how and of Bali were we should understand the cultures of traditionally merged. Indeed, there both the Minangkabau and the Balinese are similarities between the beliefs society in the context of modern and of Balinese Hinduism and Indian post modern Indonesia. Hinduism. However, a number of It is important to note that Bali is Balinese Hindu beliefs and practices the only one and the latest of a Hindu were merged into Balinese Hinduism

43 The Feminim Deities in the Balinese Society: Local Genious, Indian Infiuences, and Its Worship due to historical links that the Balinese how do Balinese worship these female shared with the Javanese, particularly deities? Thirdly, what is the meaning during the golden age of Hindu of this worship in terms of religious , namely, the Kediri and cultural aspects either in modern period in the 10th and 11th century. or postmodern time? By discussing Kieven notes that there are many these issues, it is expected that we will and religious practices in Bali such as have a better understanding of how the the concept of in the context Balinese worship the female deities in of Pitrayadnya, which supports the idea the prehistoric, classical, and modern of sraddha (Kieven, 2014: times within the context of a global or 107). Pitrayadnya is a ritual or Hindu universal culture. By analysing these ceremony for the ancestors, starting issues, it is expected that we will have from the death to the holy ceremony in a better understanding of how the Bali. Balinese worship the female deities These kinds of religious issues in relation to the notion of sustainable have had their roots in the long religious and cultural developments process of Indonesian history from and in the context of the strengthening prehistoric period to classical history, the Indonesian and global or universal and we can see now in the modern culture. and postmodern times. Hence, to have a better understanding of these Oral Tradition and Folklore of issues it is important to look at what Female Deities in Bali happened in the prehistoric period, Based on the archeological and later when the Balinese society got historical accounts, the ancient Javanese Indian or Indic infiuence in terms of the and Balinese cultures were, in many spread of or Hinduism. respects, infiuenced by the Indian or Additionally, one needs to touch on the Indic culture. These infiuences, as classical Balinese history regarding how Eiseman (2000) notes, were engaged at the have interpreted a highly evolved level, and fiourished the role of female deities in the long as far back as 3000 BCE along the period of Balinese history, in which banks of the River Sindu, now called can be seen the dominant role of Hindu Indu. It is from this name of River Javanese culture in creating present day Sindu or Indus that the word —Hindu“ Balinese culture. derived (Eiseman, 2000: 14). Early Therefore, in this paper I would contacts between India and Indonesia like to focus on several issues: began 2000 years ago until today. In ›rstly, how have the Balinese people fact, Balinese culture has been strongly interpreted the female deities? Secondly, infiuenced by the Indian culture, with

44 I Ketut Ardhana its components very much based on cultural traditions in villages such as Indian or , indigenous Trunyan and Tenganan that were built and ancestral worship that are before the Hindu era. still being practised today. In southeastern Indonesia, in Ardika (2012: 2) notes that , for instance, there is archeological excavations at Sembiran considerable evidence that shows how and Pacung in north eastern Bali its traditions could be closely linked to unearthed several types of Indian Hinduism in regards to the legends of pottery as well as glass and carnelian Bima. While it is still unclear about beads. He adds that Sembiran and the previous , the Ninth Raja is Pacung produced the largest collection believed to have begun human history of Indian potteries in Southeast Asia. In in Sumbawa. The ninth Raja, Maharadja addition, he argues that there were direct Dewanata ruled the Paradise, contacts between Bali and India in the called Kahyangan. He had ›ve children, ›rst century. Philosophy has been the namely, , Sang Bima, main wellspring of ideas and Hinduism Sang Dewa, Sang Lula or Kula, and and Buddhism which originated in Sang Rajuna. It is told that the ›rst India, which has been travelling beyond child stayed in the Paradise while the the frontiers of their origin to Southeast other children went to and ruled Asia for more than two thousand years the island. Later other traditions claim (Timbul Haryono 2012: 41-42). In that Sang Bima was brought by a bird addition, Heine-Geldern (1956: 1) notes to Bima where he established a kerajaan that this philosophy had spread to the or kingdom (Ardhana, 2000: 34—35). Southeast Asian regions such as Java This evidence shows the attempt of at the beginning of the century. The legitimisation of the Biman kings as development of the Indian civilization the descendants of ancestors who were was not a coercive expansion in Java; in Javanese Hindus. In addition to this, fact local people had shown their loyalty there is also the in a mythological to the original Indian culture against , called naga, that is believed to be outside infiuences. The ancient Balinese the Gottin () of the . people are called or Bali Mula These beliefs have been found in India (Indigenous Balinese). The centre of and other regions in Asia such as , Bali Aga is located in East and North Myanmar, , and Java; Bali, generally around the coastal lakes important infiuences that still exist as or in the mountainous regions such as collective memories of the people in the Sidatapa, Pedawa, Tigawasa, Sembiran, region. Lateng, and Dausa (Rema 2014: 5). With regards to these indigenous Bali Aga society has been sustaining its and ancestral , not many

45 The Feminim Deities in the Balinese Society: Local Genious, Indian Infiuences, and Its Worship accounts of female deities in the ancient tale. To explain how popular prehistoric times in Bali can be found. and signi›cant the story of Men Brayut Visual evidence of the presence of these is to the Balinese, several villages in women/female deities worshipped by Bali have built and temple the Balinese lie in statues that exist, reliefs devoted to Men Brayut so that particularly in mountainous regions. The people can come to pray to her. These story about Men Brayut (a mother with can be found at the Pura Goa Gajah her many children), for instance, tells and the Pura Dalem in Belang Samu the extraordinary character of a Balinese Village, Kusamba. In fact, there are two woman. It is believed that anyone who examples of sites in which devotees mentions this name by mentioning this come to pay their respects on certain name will be blessed with children. It is days to Men Brayut. said that Men Brayut was a housewife who came from a poor family and had Local Genious, Lingga, and 18 children. To ful›l the needs of her From historical accounts, Indian big family, she worked very hard, even or Hindu ideas on astrology and performing work usually done by men. cosmology have been found to exist Moreover, she was able to sustain peace in the western part of India from the and harmony within her big family and 3rd century. The spread of Indic or other people in her community. Thus her Indian knowledge occurred over a long exemplary behaviours are encouraged period in Southeast Asia and other to be followed by Balinese. Not only is regions. These ideas spread to Java in Men Brayut a symbol of prosperity, she the early part of the century, according is also a symbol of the motherland, as to Heine-Geldern (1956: 1). As like described by how her children always what occurred in other Southeast Asian stayed closed to her, even grasping her countries, in the Balinese life, Indian hair or legs to survive. She was equal ideas turned out to be signi›cant and and even handed in her treatment of strong evidence are found that those all her children. This symbolic story ideas contribute to the formation of the has become part of Balinese folklore Balinese identity (Ardhana, 2011). and is often told as a bedtime story, It can be seen in the context of relating how strong Balinese women parallelism between the macro cosmos are in carrying out tasks in their daily and the micro cosmos. In addition to lives. Having a strong work ethic, this, it would appear that these ideas patience, honesty, care, and a sense had spread to the regions in peaceful of camaraderie and ability to remain ways (Villiers 1993: 44, Sardesai 1997: steadfast in facing problems are 17). Certain inscriptions from the qualities that are highlighted in this Hindu period, particularly in the 4th

46 I Ketut Ardhana century, have been found in Indonesia. reign of King Udayana. For example, it is known from the A relatively new element in the inscriptions found in the ›rst Hindu context of world division is the concept kingdom of Kutai in East . of Tri Hita Karana which originated According to archeologists, it was from the Hindu scriptures. It signi›es the ›rst Hindu kingdom in Indonesia a close relationship between religious subsequently followed in in philosophy and the space orientation the seventh century, by Tarumanegara as in the Balinese traditional architecture, the second Hindu kingdom in Indonesia. namely in the positioning of God, Historical accounts show that after West Man, and Devil, called Tri Angga. Java, Hindu then went on to spread to The concept of Tri Angga relates very Central Java. Natural disaster was one closely with the spiritual compass, of the reasons why the spread evolved which consists of nine directions called from West Java to . In addition the Nawa Sanga or the Sanga Mandala to this, during this period (7-8th (Wisseman Christie, 1986). In terms of Century), Hindu lessons were written in the cosmological orientation it consists Palawa scripts and language. of eight cardinal directions and the This could be one reason why not centre. Each direction is symbolized by many people could understand better a God and his colour as shown in table the Hindu or Indic lessons. Stutterheim 1. (1929: 190) researches the Ancient It shows that some elements of the Bali civilization within the historical Indic culture had been absorbed and periodization of Java, especially in adapted as Balinese culture, or what is the beginning of the era, and called “Balinization”. continues with the power deprivation The family , the most sacred by of which the exact period area of the compound, is located in the is unknown. Following this period, most auspicious northeast (kaja-kangin) a new period called the Ancient Bali corner of a Balinese house compound. periodization (Oudebalische Periode) It is identi›ed metaphorically with the began. Moreover, the developments head. The area of the family shrine which took place from the pre-historical is always enclosed within a sacred period until the classical historical enclosure (pamerajan). Inside the period of Bali showed that a civilization area of the family shrine are other had formed in Bali enriched with shrines dedicated to various Hindu Hindu-Buddhist values at the same gods (e.g. , ), nature time. These values with strong Hindu spirits (Sridevi, Ibu Pertiwi), and family infiuences developed from East Java in ancestors. It is important to note that the 11th and 12th centuries during the refer to their land as Ibu

47 The Feminim Deities in the Balinese Society: Local Genious, Indian Infiuences, and Its Worship

Table 1. The Mandala System

The Direction The Colour The God Puseh Center all colours God Shiwa Kaja North black God Wisnu Kaja Kangin Northeast blue God Sambu Kangin East white God Iswara Kelod Kangin Southeast violet God Maheswara Kelod South red God Kelod Kauh Southwest orange God Kauh West yellow God Mahadewa Kaja Kauh Northwest green God Sangkara

Tri Loka SwahLoka Bwah Loka Bhur Loka Three places atmosphere lithosphere hydrosphere Three angga utama (main) madya (middle) nista (lower) Three spaces luhur (the highest) madya (centre) sor (bottom) head body foot Universe atmosphere lithosphere hydrosphere The earth mountain land sea The village pura (temple) masyarakat (compound) sea Pura (the temple) meru jaba tengah (middle area) jaba sisi (outside area) mrajan/sanggah bale (family room, bed kori/pamedalan (family temple) room, working room) (entrances/gate)

Pertiwi (woman or feminine) and not should be respected. It is important for Bapak Pertiwi (Man). Goddess Sri or the Balinese to observe the Balinese Dewi (), or Nyai calendar to determine the good and the Pohaci Sanghyang Asri (in Sundanese bad days in the context of performing language) represents the goddess of rituals and ceremonies (Eiseman, agriculture, and rice ›elds, both in 2000). A signi›cant event is the Tumpek Java and Bali. The worship has taken Wariga, which is celebrated every 210 place since the pre-Hinduism and pre- days or every six months in the Balinese Islamic Java. It is mentioned about the calendar. Wariga means the seventh role of Setesuyara, who is considered wuku in the Balinese calendar to seek as a goddess in Balinese mythology. out good and bad days for performing Setesuyara, together with the god Kala, rituals and ceremonies. Indeed, Tumpek control the underworld in Balinese Wariga has internal and external folklore. The Balinese believe that each meanings (Eiseman, 2000: 172). human being possesses a soul, which

48 I Ketut Ardhana

Table 2. The Balinese and Indian Names

The Balinese Names Hindu Names Kosika Iswara Garga Brahma Metri Mahadewa Kurusia Wisnu Pretalya Shiwa Centing Kuning Uma

Certain rituals related to before the period in East ancestral worship already exist in Java, it was believed that most of the Bali. In addition, megalithic culture local people were Wisnu adherents, in also continued in relation with the which the God Wisnu was considered establishment of the Balinese or Hindu as the highest god in the process of temples and (Ardhana, 1993 and Hinduisation in Java. The God Wisnu Ardhana, 2011). The statues worshipped and his consort the Goddess Sri (or as the various gods in India can be seen Goddess ) were believed to be the in Bali in the form of stones, namely the gods of prosperity. It is not surprising God Surya (or the Sun God). In the old that Wisnuism developed in the period Balinese myths, four gods had the task of Udayana’s reign, between the 9th of protecting the four directions in the and 11th century. When Kediri was form of the gods Kosika, Garga, Metri under the reign of Aerlangga, the third and Kurusia. However, in the process of son of Udayana, he was depicted as a Hindu-ization, these gods received new king who rode , a bird that was names (Gust, 1994: 14). a symbol of Wisnu, not Shiwa. It is From the above table it can be seen interesting to mention that Aerlangga that Centing Kuning had changed its was an oldest son of the king Udayana name into the Goddess Uma. According (989 - 910), who reigned Bali by to Purwa or the Old Puppet marrying with Mahendradatta of story, the story of Uma related to the East Java heritage. After becoming change was when the Betara (or a princess, she was better known God Shiwa) persuaded his wife to fall as Sri Gunapriyadharmapatni (989- in love with him. But Uma opposed 1011). At that time, the concept of him since his behavior was against Devarajacult, in which the Raja or good ethics. The sperm of the Betara King was believed to be similar to Guru fell in the ocean and gave birth God, also developed (Rema, 2014: to Bathara Kala. In Bali, for instance, 2). Bali had a woman princess, who before the 9th to 11th century and was half Javanese and Balinese,

49 The Feminim Deities in the Balinese Society: Local Genious, Indian Infiuences, and Its Worship named Shri Gunapriyadharmapatni (or Jero Gede) is a Chinese woman or Mahendradatta who was a wife called Jero Luh. The Jero Gde and Jero of King Udayana of Bali in the 10th Luh symbolize a man and a woman to 11th century. Both of them were represented in the belief of lingga considered to be the Balinese kings at and yoni. As Gottowick quotes from the same time. It is important to note Kemper (1991): that according to the local tradition that “the Lingga is a phallic representation, the Mahendradatta as “a woman king of attribute of, or symbol for, Shiwa. The Yoni, in whose centre the lingga is placed, is the Bali” was also worshipped as the deity female symbol. Together they represent the Durga. In the story of Calonarang, unity of all phenomena” (Gottowick, 2005: 162, 173, 184). she was related to the goddess Durga (Gottowick, 2005: 160). Goddess Durga This can be understood since is a consort of Shiwa. Similarly, Durga Shiwa is believed to be the highest is considered as the partner of Shiwa God in Bali. It is also important to in Balinese Hinduism. Sculptures of note that after the , more Dewa Durga are located at Hindu Balinese people believed in the Hindu Pura Dalem sites of Bali. In certain religion, especially Shaiwa Siddhanta local traditions in Kediri, East Java as is shown by the presence of many and also in Bali, it is mentioned that Lingga Yoni, particularly in Gianyar, Mahendradatta is related to the story which was the centre of the Balinese of Calonarang, who is well-known by kingdom in the Classical Balinese modern Balinese. In contrast, the story historical period. It can be added that of Calonarang is not well-known in the people believed in respecting the East Java (Ardhana, 2015). Gottowick ancestors combined with the Hindu- mentions that this Calonarang is Buddhist values as a result of the related to the story of and infiuence of religious leaders brought in the context of the Balinese to the local society by Mpu Kuturan dance. Gottowick quotes from Bandem and Mpu Bharadah. Mpu Kuturan also (1981, 1995) states that “the Rangda built traditional Balinese villages, called is the heroine of the performance and Desa Pakraman (Pakraman Village) represents the protection of the village in the period of Udayana. This had the against sorcerers” (Gottowick, 2005: function of organizing and maintaining 78). In addition to this, he mentions that social harmony (Geriya, 2013: 43). It is the Rangda is related to the Goddess important to note that in the period of Durga who was the wife of the Shiwa Classical Balinese history, particularly (Gottowick, 2005: 78). There is also the in the period between the 10th and performance of the Barong Landung in 11th century, there was a new epoch which the wife of the Barong Landung in the context of Balinese history. This

50 I Ketut Ardhana period focused particularly on the new in the past. However, besides the local foundation of the Balinese civilization rituals, religious rituals and ceremonies and culture in the reign of the king in accordance with the Goddesses Udayana. Since the 11th century, King Saraswathi, Sri or Danu or Laksmi, Udayana has been known to be the and Durga are still practiced in Bali in king of Bali, being the man who laid the modern and postmodern times as the foundations of Balinese culture, explained below. especially in terms of politics, law, and government of ancient Bali. The Worship of Female Deities in The worship of female deities can Present Day Bali also be found in Central Java. After As with other places in Asia in the spread of Hinduism from Central general, and in Southeast Asia in Java to East Java, followed by a particular, the Hindu adherents believed Hinduisation or Indianisation from East in Tri (Brahma, Wisnu and Java to Central Java during the fall of Shiwa) or the Hindu triad meaning God Majapahit kingdom, the biggest Hindu as creator, preserver, and dissolver or kingdom in East Java. Evidences of recycler of life. Temples are dedicated these infiuences can be seen in certain for them, namely, the Pura Desa for Hindu temples, such as the and Brahma, the Pura Puseh for Wisnu, and Cetho temples that were built around the Pura Dalem for Shiwa (Eiseman, the 15th century. In these temples 2000: 351). Each of the three gods there are many linggas and yonis, the has his partner, such as Saraswathi for symbols of prosperity. These temples Brahma; Laksmi or Sri for Wisnu, and become places of interest for tourists Uma or Durga for Shiwa. The section who wish to understand the meaning below discusses how the Balinese of the temple, and the signi›cance worship their female deities. In addition of the lingga and yoni. According to to this, the most important shrines is the local tradition, if there was uncertainty Sanggah Kemulan. Each family who in various situations due to harvest is a Hindu adherent has the Sanggah failure, then there would be a ceremony Kemulan, a shrine containing three performed in which water would be compartments dedicated to the Hindu splashed on the yoni, the symbol of the of Brahma, , and Shiwa. female deities. Afterwards, holy water The Sanggah Kemulan is a simple, would be sprinkled among the rice house-like, wooden structure raised on ›elds in the regions in order to obtain pillars and standing on a column made peace and prosperity. This, in fact, was of brick or sandstone. The Sanggah the way that local people in Central Kemulan is naturally located on the Java and Bali worshipped female deities most sacred corner of the family shrine

51 The Feminim Deities in the Balinese Society: Local Genious, Indian Infiuences, and Its Worship compound, the kaja-kangin corner. The this case, it is important to understand God Brahma is also associated with the symbolic signi›cance of Goddess male ancestors of the household, while Saraswathi, who is depicted as a Vishnu is with female ancestors. When beautiful woman. In the context of a Balinese man marries, he should build philosophy are some reasons how one of these shrines. This Sanggah the Goddess Saraswathi is depicted Kemulan is commonly refered to the as a beautiful woman. However, the , as a Mother Temple point to be understood here is that the for the Belinese Hinduism (Ramstedt, Goddess is a symbol of knowledge. 1999: 408). Hence, everybody who wants to gain knowledge should try to reach her, The Worship of Goddess though in actual fact, she can not Saraswathi be touched, since the characteristic Brahma, believed to be a creator, of knowledge is not to be owned. has Saraswathi, the goddess of Everybody has to learn and continue to knowledge, as his wife. The Balinese learn. In each household the celebration worship the Goddess Saraswathi of the Saraswathi day begins by every six months on Saraswathi Day. collecting all of the books, including The date devoted to her worship is school books, and putting them together the last day of the Pawukon cycle, on a table. The parents will give the Saniscara Watugunung. Saraswathi is offerings, named canang, that will be depicted playing a musical instrument placed on the books. The canang is and astride a swan (Eiseman, 2000: a common, small, everyday offering 354). So signi›cant is Saraswathi that in the shape of a shallow square tray some folklores abound that students containing a porosan, fruit, fiowers, and are not permitted to read their books a sampian. The sampian is a decorative before giving the Saraswathi part of some offerings, consisting of (offerings) to the goddess. The purpose intricately cut young leaves is to make the students aware of the “sewn” together with skewers. importance of education for people to The size and degree of elaboration vary develop good emotions and morals. Not greatly (Eiseman, 2000: 352 and 364). only is Saraswathi Day celebrated in the The celebration of Saraswathi family temple, it is also celebrated in the Day is commonly of›ciated by a community and even the government pemangku (priest of lower rank) temples. or priest. Before the celebration of There are some values that need Saraswathi, named also as the Deity of to be elaborated to make the students the Book, knowledge and learning, a understand about this meaning. In celebration is held in each household

52 I Ketut Ardhana and also together at the public square 210 days. This calendar governs most, with many people such as students, but not all, anniversaries, auspicious lecturers, governments of›ces, etc. days, and religious events(Eiseman, This celebration is commonly held in 2000: 360). In Balinese Hinduism, Dewi the Jagatnatha temple, which is built in Sri symbolises an extremely exceptional certain villages in each city or regency, god. The reason of this is that particularly in the period of the New is considered to be exclusive to Bali. To Order regime in Indonesia (1967-1998). put it differently, Dewi Sri is considered as a Balinese Hindu body which the The Worship of Goddess Sri or Balinese traditionally didn’t derived Laksmi, Danu, and Uma from a different tradition. Dewi Sri is According to Balinese oral the Goddess of Rice. tradition, the God Wisnu made Dewi The Balinese are really dependent Pertiwi (the Goddess of Earth) pregnant to the Goddess Sri or Laksmi, since and give birth rice. Therefore, the most the nature of Bali is dependent Goddess Sri is the favourite among on agriculture. In other words, the all in the Balinese society. It can be irrigation system, called the understood on how the Balinese respect system has a signi›cant role. The the Goddess Sri as the goddess of rice, Balinese archeological evidence from since for the Balinese by eating rice the 9th century CE mentions several they can live and go on to develop terms related to the irrigation system. religious rituals and ceremonies for The term of Subak or already appeared rice plants. The daughter of Goddess in Balinese incriptions in the 11th Sri, named Dewi Melanting (Goddess century CE. The Subak as the traditional Melanting), is also popular within the Balinese irrigation system is based on Balinese society in accordance with the philosophy of Tri Hita Karana. the Goddess of Market (Covarrubias The concept of Tri Hita Karana, in the in Adrian Vickers, 2012: 288). The context of Balinese rituals. It means worship for the Goddess Sri or Laksmi three things that cause happiness in every ceremony named or prosperity including Palemahan is related to the God Wisnu who is (environment), Pawongan (human believed to be a protector. The Odalan beings/people) and Parhyangan (God). is the anniversary festival of a temple. It The Palemahan is related with the falls once every 210 days according to areas and environment of the Subak. the Pawukon calendar, or occurs once The Pawongan is related to the Subak every lunar year according to the Saka members and the Parhyangan is related calendar. The Pawukon calendar is the to the Subak Temple or Pura . Balinese’ calendar consisting of only Tri Hita Karana is a concept of balance

53 The Feminim Deities in the Balinese Society: Local Genious, Indian Infiuences, and Its Worship and harmony between humans and God, water that fiows from the mountain between human being and human being will irrigate the rice ›eld as long as the and in harmony with the environment. subak (traditional irrigation system in Therefore, it is important to look Bali) in the . It means at how the Balinese worship the female that there are many subaks with the deities and how they relate to the water coming from Batur Lake. Because goddesses as protectors. The Balinese the Balinese are proud that God has believe in the mandala system in which awarded them these fertile lands, it is there is a God in every compass. For not surprising also that they accord instance in the middle is the God Wisnu. some important ceremonies and rituals In other words, since the Batur lake is related to the worship of female deities located in the middle of Bali island, such as the Goddess Sri or Laksmi in it is believed that the God Wisnu and Bali. his partner the Goddess Laksmi is Subak or Kasuwakan is an worshipped in the Batur temple, which irrigation system that links with a is located vey closely to the Batur Lake temple, Pura Uluncarik, or Pura and Batur mountain. It addition to this, Bedugul, which was built by farmer it is interesting to look at a myth that communities who worship the God of relates between the Batur temple and prosperity, called Goddess Sri, wife the Besakih temple as noted in a myth of the God Wisnu. The Subak system of Sang Kulputih, in Usana Bali. The can be described as a complex of rice Batur temple represents left, woman, daughter, lake or water, and ; the Besakih temple represents right, son, mountain, subak village (Stuart-Fox, 2010: 74). The great pura like the Besakih temple, Dewi Danu or Ulun Danu picture 1. Overlapping the border between Beratan, and Batur temple are located village and subak in Bali (Windia, 2015b: 69) in the high elevation of the forest. The God Wisnu and the Goddess of water are positioned in the upstream area. The Balinese believe in Dewi Danu (Goddess of the Lake) who is worshipped in Batur temple. The Batur Lake has a signi›cant role in watering many subaks in the northern parts as picture 2. Subak and its management well as the southern part of Bali. The (Windia, 2015b: 71)

54 I Ketut Ardhana

Table 3. Subak system and its relationship between religion and ritual in the context of Tri Hita Karana

Man - God Man - Man Man - Nature mapag toya krama subak water distribution ngendagin tanah nguun seka land management nandur nguun seka rice planting kekambuhan nguun seka cleaning the rice›eld biyukukung farmer, duck breeder maintenance Source: Kaler Surata, in Wiguna and Suprio Guntoro, 2003: 84, cf. Windia, 2015a: 75

›elds in Bali that obtain water from one canals and included timed water rights conduit or from one branch of a conduit. and water reuse (Falyey, 2015: 21). The The owners of the rice ›elds that make Balinese worship the female deities up such a complex constitute a Subak such as the Goddess Sri, called Tumpek Association called Sekeha Subak. The Wariga, Tumpek Bubuh, Tumpek Uduh Subak leaders open the meetings, see or Tumpek Pengatag. In the Balinese that the decisions and rules are carried calendar, tumpek occurs 35 days of the out, impose ›nes and penalties and ›ve day week, that falls on Saturday act as treasurers of the organization or Saniscara. There are certain tumpek (Covarrubias 1937: 72). As Geertz namely Tumpek Landep, Tumpek Uduh, (1972: 30, in Staab, 1997: 26) mentions Tumpek Kuningan, Tumpek Krulut, as follows: Tumpek Kandang, and Tumpek Wayang —The focus of this ritual system is a rice- and others go by other names (Eiseman, goddess cult…, and it is conducted at every 2000: 367). The worship in the Tumpek level of the subak from the individual terrace, through the subsections of the Uduh regarding the vegetation and subak, to the subak as a whole. At the plants is addressed to the God Sangkara higher levels there are speci›c temples, with assigned priests, special ceremonies (Pink, 1993). Through this ceremony, at special times, and speci›c altars, gods, the Balinese demonstrate how much offerings, and . These various ceremonies are symbolically linked to they love nature by pouring bubur cultivation in a way which locks the pace of (porridge) to the plants that symbolize that cultivation into a ›rm, explicit rhythm. Even more interestingly, however, the prosperity. The dependency of the ritual system not only does this internally Balinese is not only related to nature, within the subak, but also reaches beyond the individual subak to insure intersubak but also to the spiritual aspects as coordination within a given drainage mentioned by Bandem: region…” Falyey pinpoints that in all regions “In the early stagesof Balinese society of Southeast Asia, the sophisticated (…) also known as pre-Hindu Society) the people not only depended on nature, they water system integrates rivers and also dedicated themselves to a spiritual life.

55 The Feminim Deities in the Balinese Society: Local Genious, Indian Infiuences, and Its Worship

Their dances also were spiritual and their Kalarau is a demon in the Balinese belief in animism and totemism gave their dances a magical quality. One Balinese mythology, who possesses only a dances which may be inherited from the head and not a body. It is told that the pre-Hindu society is the “ (Bandem: 45 in Gottowick, 2005: 141). Kalarau disguised himself as a god and took a mouthful of Tirtha Amertha, This is the local wisdom of the though the water is meant only for the Balinese to their nature (Eiseman, 2000: gods. The Goddess Ratih informed 181-182). Wisnu, who at once took up his magical discus-like Cakra and hurled it at The Worship of Goddess Durga or Kalarau, cutting off his head. However, Uma Kalarau had just reached his throat. The Balinese strongly preserve Once the head touched the holy water and maintain their local culture, prior in the Tirta Amertha, the Kalarau was to Hinduism cultural traditions. This revived and can live again. The Kalarau can be seen until now, for example, in was very angry with the goddess Ratih the concept of Bhatara and Bhatari as he had been deceived by her. The the Balinese terminologies for Gods Kalarau pursued her and successfully and the ancestor worship, called devoured her. Since the Kalarau had no Atmasiddhadewata or Dewa Pitra, held body, the goddess Ratih disappeared for in certain temples (family temples) a moment and reappeared again from such as sanggah, merajan, pura dadya his rear (Eiseman, 1: 66). However, the or paibon, pura panti and pedharman Kalarau wanted to attack the goddess (Rema, 2014: 3--5). The Balinese Ratih until in the . When the greatly respect their ancestors through Kalarau successfully catches the ancestor worship as they have written in goddess Ratih, the Gerhana Bulan or lontar or tal, or babad and inscriptions. lunar eclipse happens. argues that From this, it can be seen to what extent for the young generation of Balinese, the Indian or Indic culture infiuenced it is dif›cult to give an explanation to the Balinese culture until now. In this understand the lunar eclipses based on regard, it shows clearly the Balinese this myth (Nala, in Ramstedt, 2004: 79). worship for the woman or feminism As we already known the Balinese deities in Bali. gods have been changed from their The important role of the female native Indian names. In the lontar, deities in Bali can be seen, for instance, Andhabhuwana for instance, mentions in a famous myth during the lunar about the change from Goddess Uma eclipse that relates how the Goddess to become Goddess Durga. The God Ratih or Dewi Ratih (the symbol of Shiwa asked the Goddess Uma to ›nd the moon) was eaten by Kalarau. The milk. However, the Goddess Uma lied

56 I Ketut Ardhana to God Shiwa, in which the Goddess dismembered head, and a body which Uma did not tell the truth where she has a necklace of skulls. In other words, had obtained the milk. According to in the Balinese Hinduism, it is also the tale, the Shiwa became angry with called as Rangda, which is believed to her. Hence, he changed the Goddess be among the avatars of Dewi Durga. Uma into the Goddess Durga. It can be In other words, the Rangda is literary said that the Balinese seldom merged “widow” and the Rangda is one of gods, into Balinese Hinduism, without the two central ›gures in the Barong changing their beliefs or the form play, representing the negative side of which surrounded them. Therefore man. The Rangda is related to Goddess it is consequently, even though most Durga, wife of Shiwa who represents of the Hindu Gods and Goddesses of his destructive role (Eiseman, 2000: Bali eventually descend from Indian 363). Additionally, the Rangda or a Hinduism, these days however there demon is similar to . However, are not many parallels between, while Kali, in Indian Hinduism, the Goddess Durga from Balinese symbolises an extremely gloomy as Hinduism and the Goddess Durga from well as revengeful aspect of Shiwa, in the Indian Hinduism. The reason is the Balinese Hinduism, the Rangda that the Goddess Durga, in the Indian symbolises an extremely gloomy and Hinduism, is believed to be one among revengeful aspect of Dewi Durga. The the female avatars from the God . Rangda is commonly portrayed, in the In the Balinese belief it is said that the Balinese Hinduism, as a body with ugly Goddess Durga is the god who protects physical qualities and an arch foe of the cemetery. It can be understood in Bali’s favourite defender(s), a cannibal, the Balinese Hindu beliefs, that the God bloodthirsty, a specialist in black magic, is not only in the temple, but also in the and as the Queen of Witches, (like cemetery, in which the cemetery is also inch lengthy nails, hairy knuckles, and considered as a sacred place, in which sagging bosoms) (Gottowick 2005, the Goddess Durga is worshipped. 120). Therefore, the Rangda is believed Therefore, the God Shiwa is to be a body which the Balinese described in the Indian Hindu traditionally got from the Javanese as that he might take the shape of Kali mentioned in the Javanese historical or Paravati and Uma. In addition to account. this, the Kali is commonly portrayed, in Indian Hinduism, as a vengeful Conclusion version of Shiva, a black body, a body Lessons from the Indian continent with several hands gripping a bloody have been adopted in Bali from the knife and the other hand holding a ›rst to the eighth centuries through the

57 The Feminim Deities in the Balinese Society: Local Genious, Indian Infiuences, and Its Worship trade route between India and China and on the Goddess Sri or Laksmi by the its infiuences can still be observed in Balinese, naturally, since agriculture present day Bali and Indonesian society. plays a dominant part in the life of Despite the existence of these Hindu Balinese. In fact, the irrigation system, infiuences, Though the infiuences of called subak, has a signi›cant role in the the Indian or Hindu lessons have been daily life of the Balinese. It is important in existence, the Balinese society has to look at how the Balinese worship the still its own local culture that can be women or feminine deities in relation to traced back to the present day Bali, for the goddesses as protectors. instance the story of Men Brayut, a Thirdly, it is the God Shiwa who is mother with many children. the consort of the Goddess Uma. Both At the present time, there are a Indian and Balinese accounts inform number of similarities between Indian that the Goddess Uma has changed her Hinduism and Balinese Hinduism. In name into the goddess Durga. Indian Hinduism many people adore Indeed, the Balinese seldom Brahman like a supreme God and in merge gods into Balinese Hinduism Balinese Hinduism many people adore without changing some beliefs or the Sanghyang Widhi Wasa like a supreme form surrounding them. Therefore, God. However, the Balinese term of even though most of the Hindu gods Sanghyang Widhi Wasa is just like and goddesses of Bali descend from Brahman, since Sanghyang Widhi Wasa Indian Hinduism, there are not many is believed to cover all global dualities parallels among the original gods of in Balinese terminology. Indian Hinduism to their Bali Hinduism In the context of women or versions. A clear example is the goddess feminine deities in Bali, one of the Durga of Balinese Hinduism and the signi›cant ones to consider is Saraswati, original goddess Durga of Indian the goddess of knowledge and also a Hinduism. In the original Indian Hindu partner of Brahma, who is believed to version, goddess Durga is believed to be the Creator. In relation to the goddess be among the female avatars of the god Saraswati, the Balinese have a ritual Shiva. every six months in which they worship As described in the Indian Hindu the goddess Saraswati and have a day faith, the god Shiva can take on the declared as Saraswati Day. shape of Kali, Paravati or Uma. In Secondly, regarding Goddess Sri addition, Kali is commonly portrayed (or goddess Laksmi): the worship of in Indian Hinduism as a vengeful Goddess Sri or Laksmi is related to the incarnation of Shiva, embalmed with God Wisnu, who is believed to be a a black body; a body with several protector. There is a strong dependence hands, one of which grips a blood-

58 I Ketut Ardhana stained knife while another hand holds developed in Bali most likely during the a dismembered head, on her neck 10th to 11th century within the context sits a necklace of skulls. In Balinese of the story of Calonarang in East Java. Hinduism, the Kali is a far departure According to the local tradition in Bali, from the native Kali as represented the Calonarang is Mahendradatta, a in the Indian Hindu belief. In Bali wife of the king Udayana. Until now, Hinduism, Kali is called as Rangda, the Balinese believe that the soul of who is believed to be among the avatars Mahendradatta is Durga, the consort of of Dewi Durga. The story of Durga Shiva.[]

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