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The Deforming Bed Characteristics of a Stratified Till Assemblage in North

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The Deforming Bed Characteristics of a Stratified Till Assemblage in North ARTICLE IN PRESS Quaternary Science Reviews 24 (2005) 123–140 The deforming bed characteristics of a stratified till assemblage in north East Anglia, UK: investigating controls on sediment rheology and strain signatures David H. Robertsa,*, Jane K. Hartb a Department of Geography, Environmental Research Centre, University of Durham, Science Site, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, United Kingdom b Department of Geography, University of Southampton, Highfield, Southampton SO17 1BJ, United Kingdom Received 24 June 2003; accepted 18 March 2004 Abstract The glacial coastal exposures of north Norfolk are a type site for subglacial glaciotectonic deforming bed sediments. This investigation of the lower stratified diamict within the North Sea Drift at West Runton reveals two distinct lamina types. Type 1 laminae are the product of primary extensional glaciotectonism, with ductile, intergranular pervasive shear predominating over brittle shear. Type 2 laminae also exhibit structures that can be attributed to ductile, intergranular pervasive shear and brittle shear, but the lateral continuity of Type 2 laminae and the presence of dropstone—like structures supports a primary subaqueous origin with secondary subglacial deformation. When coupled with micromorphological analysis, these findings show that ductile, viscous creep mechanisms control sedimentary architecture, and that ‘shear stratification’ in particular, has the potential to affect the rheological properties of the sediment pile and the hydraulic routing of basal water, ultimately influencing critical effective pressure fluctuations and the thresholds controlling the subglacial drainage system. r 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction most field (Boulton and Jones, 1979; Boulton and Hindmarsh, 1987; Fischer and Clarke, 1994; Iverson 1.1. Properties of the deforming bed et al., 1994) and laboratory (Iverson et al., 1997, 1998) based investigations of till deformation subscribe to a The identification and understanding of glacial plastic rheological model. Other field and laboratory deforming bed processes has revolutionised glacial experiments have suggested a viscous and viscoplastic geological theory in the past 20 years, yet the exact rheological model for till behaviour however, and recent nature of deforming bed mechanisms remain only micromorphological studies point to the presence of a partially understood (Boulton and Jones, 1979; Alley range of plastic to viscous rheological states within the et al., 1987; Blakenship et al., 1987; Boulton and deforming bed at smaller, subcentimetre, scales (van der Hindmarsh, 1987; Hart et al., 1990; Clark, 1995; Meer, 1993, 1997; Iverson et al., 1995; Carr, 1999, 2001). Hindmarsh, 1997; Murray, 1997; Iverson et al., 1999). The scale at which different subglacial deformation Of particular interest is the ‘rheological state’ of the regimes operate is a critical consideration in under- deforming bed material. Many researchers have sug- standing the rheological state of deforming bed material. gested that subglacial sediment deformation occurs in a van der Meer (1993, 1997) has described both brittle plastic manner through discrete failure and does not (plastic) and ductile (viscous), microscale rotational deform in a viscous manner at smaller scales. Indeed, deformation features within subglacial tills and has related specific features to depth within the deforming *Corresponding author. Tel.: +44-191-334-1935; fax: +44-191-334- bed. This approach suggests that the lower parts of the 1801. deforming layer are characterised by drier, more brittle E-mail address: [email protected] (D.H. Roberts). conditions, while the upper part of the bed deforms via 0277-3791/$ - see front matter r 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2004.03.004 ARTICLE IN PRESS 124 D.H. Roberts, J.K. Hart / Quaternary Science Reviews 24 (2005) 123–140 intergranular, rotational, ductile shear induced by more It is the latter that forms the basis of the research saturated conditions. Others have also described micro- presented here. scale structures relating to brittle and ductile, inter- From a sedimentological standpoint, the North Sea granular shear conditions (Menzies and Maltman, 1992; Drift (NSD) has been interpreted as a glacioterrestrial Menzies and Woodward, 1994; Menzies and van der facies, with glaciotectonic (Banham, 1977, 1988; Hart, Meer, 1998), with Menzies et al. (1997), for example, 1990; Hart et al., 1990; Hart and Boulton, 1991a ,b; describing folds, boudins, shadows, rotations, and Kwatwa and Tulaczyk, 2001), glaciolacustrine and squeeze and diffusion structures as ductile in nature, glaciofluvial (Lunnka, 1988; Hart, 1992; Lunkka, 1994; while brittle deformation is characterised by faults and Lee, 2001) activity producing a structurally complex shear planes/zones. Clearly, there is widespread evidence sequence of glaciogenic deposits. Although Eyles et al. for both viscous and plastic deformation regimes (1989) re-interpreted the sediments as glaciomarine in occurring in close proximity over short distances within origin, Hart and Roberts (1994) clearly demonstrated the deforming bed. that the macroscale, sedimentary, architectural signa- Boulton et al.’s (2001) recent review of the controls on ture of the NSD, and in particular the Laminated till rheology highlights the importance of subglacial Diamict facies typical of West Runton, was that of a water pressure and till granulometry in till deformation. deforming bed environment. The effects of large clasts within the deforming bed and their ability to transmit strain through interlocking, 1.3. Research aims ploughing, and rotational movement deep in to the subglacial substrate (even at low effective pressures) This paper develops the subglacial model proposed by point to and support ductile/viscous sediment behaviour Hart and Roberts (1994) with specific reference to the (Tulaczyk, 1999). In contrast, the deforming layer is microscale signature found within the Laminated likely to be thinner within fine grained sediments, Diamict facies at West Runton and the mechanisms by whether it behaves plastically or viscously (Boulton which deformation and rheological contrasts have et al., 2001), as smaller grains cannot transmit strain as controlled sediment architecture. In particular, it far through the sediment medium. Thus, although there attempts to: (i) determine the mechanisms responsible is widespread evidence that till has plastic rheological for stratification within the Laminated Diamict facies, properties, it can also behave in a quasi-viscous fashion (ii) interpret the strain signature within the Laminated due to local lateral and vertical variations in its hydaulic Diamict facies, (iii) understand the influence of the regime (drainage, porewater pressure, effective pressure) subglacial substrate on the effective pressure system, (iv) and granulometry through time (Hindmarsh, 1997). investigate the nature of sediment entrainment along the lower deforming bed decollement! surface, and (v) understand the influence of shear stratification on the 1.2. Deforming bed environments during the Anglian rheological state of the till and the effective pressure Glaciation system. The glacial deposits of northeast Norfolk have traditionally been interpreted as Anglian in age (MIS 2. Field description 12) and were deposited by a number of ice sheet advances from both the North Sea basin and the British 2.1. Macroscale sedimentary characteristics mainland (West, 1980; Bowen et al., 1986; Hart and Peglar, 1990)(Fig. 1). Workers such as Hart and The NSD at West Runton is exposed along a three Boulton (1991a), Lunkka (1994), Fish et al. (2000) and kilometre coastal cliff section running approximately Fish and Whiteman (2001) support a two phase Anglian northwest to southeast (Fig. 2). Geologically, the age glaciation. More recently, Rose et al. (2000) and Lee sequence overlies Cretaceous chalk bedrock and a pre- et al. (2002) have proposed a much longer time scale, glacial sequence comprising Wroxham Crag, the Cro- four stage glacial history for north Norfolk based on mer Forest Bed and estuarine and glaciofluvial sands. lithostratigraphic analysis. This shows the area to be Overlying the pre-glacial sequence is the Laminated glaciated during MIS 16 (Happisburgh glaciation), MIS Diamicton facies of the NSD (Hart and Boulton, 12 (Anglian glaciation), MIS 10 (Oadby glaciation) and 1991a). It has a laterally and vertically deformed aspect, MIS 6 (Britons Lane glaciation). Hence, there is much and consists of a melange! of stratified diamict which debate as to the chronological context of the glacial envelopes large (ca 100  30 m2) chalk bedrock and sand deposits in the area. In broad lithostratigraphic terms, rafts and which in turn are overlain by deformed and three distinct glacial lithofacies have been recognised; undeformed sand basins (Fig. 2). The lower junction Lowestoft Till, the Marly Drift and the North Sea Drift between the Laminated Diamicton facies and the pre- (Reid, 1882; Banham, 1968; Ehlers and Gibbard, 1991). glacial sequence is abrupt. ARTICLE IN PRESS D.H. Roberts, J.K. Hart / Quaternary Science Reviews 24 (2005) 123–140 125 WWestest RRuntonunton CCromerromer TTrr i iminghammingham ˆˆ ˆ ˆˆˆˆˆ ˆˆ ˆˆˆˆˆ ˆˆ HHappisburghappisburgh Wens um NNorwichorwich Ya re Ice contact face Esker Conical mounds Hummocky topography ˆˆˆˆˆˆˆ Land over 50m 0 kilometres 200 Southern limit of Anglian glaciation Fig. 1. Location of the North Sea Drifts, West Runton, north Norfolk, UK (Modified
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