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FEDERAL ENERGY REGULATORY COMMISSION Washington, D.C. 20426 October 27, 2016
OFFICE OF ENERGY PROJECTS
Project No.12965-002-Oregon Wickiup Dam Hydroelectric Project Wickiup Hydro Group LLC
Overnight Mail
Bridget Moran, Field Supervisor U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 63095 Deschutes Market Road Bend, Oregon 97701
Reference: Request for Formal Consultation under the Endangered Species Act
Dear Ms. Moran:
As required by section 7 of the Endangered Species Act, I'm requesting formal consultation with your office on the licensing of the proposed Wickiup Dam Hydroelectric Project (project).
The project would be located at the existing Bureau of Reclamation Wickiup Dam on the Deschutes River near the city of La Pine in Deschutes County, Oregon. We address the project's effects on the Oregon spotted frog (Rana pretiosa) and its critical habitat in our supplemental biological assessment (Attachment A).
We conclude that licensing the project with our recommended measures and the mandatory conditions, would be likely to adversely affect the Oregon spotted frog and its designated critical habitat.
Please give us your biological opinion on our findings no later than 135 days from receipt of this request, as required by 50 CFR § 402.14(e). If we don't hear from you within 30 days, we will assume that you have sufficient information to initiate consultation and will provide us with your biological opinion by Monday, March 13, 2017. Any requests for extensions of time should be submitted to the Commission and the applicant in a timely manner that allows for sufficient time for a mutual agreement to extend the 90-day formal consultation period as per section 402.14(e) of your regulations.
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Should you need to informally discuss concerns before making your determination, please contact Karen Sughrue at (202) 502-8556 to indicate your interest in initiating a teleconference with all parties on this issue.
The Commission strongly encourages electronic filing. Please file your response using the Commission’s eFiling system at http://www.ferc.gov/docs-filing/efiling.asp. For assistance, please contact FERC Online Support at [email protected], (866) 208-3676 (toll free), or (202) 502-8659 (TTY). In lieu of electronic filing, please send a paper copy to: Secretary, Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, 888 First Street NE, Washington, D.C. 20426. The first page of any filing should include docket number P-12965-002.
If you have any questions, please contact Karen Sughrue at (202) 502-8556 or at [email protected].
Sincerely,
David Turner, Chief Northwest Branch Division of Hydropower Licensing
Attachment A - Supplemental Biological Assessment
cc: Public Files Service List 20161027-3010 FERC PDF (Unofficial) 10/27/2016
ATTACHMENT A
SUPPLEMENTAL BIOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
Wickiup Dam Hydroelectric Project P-12965-002
Oregon
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission Office of Energy Projects Division of Hydropower Licensing Washington, DC
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P-12965-002 Attachment A 1.0 BACKGROUND
On March 25, 2011, Wickiup Hydro Group, LLC (Wickiup Hydro) filed an application for an original license with the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (Commission) to construct, operate, and maintain the proposed 7.15-megawatt (MW) Wickiup Dam Hydroelectric Project (project). The project would be located at the existing U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Reclamation’s (Reclamation) Wickiup Dam on the Deschutes River near the city of La Pine in Deschutes County, Oregon. The proposed project would occupy 1.02 acres of federal lands within the Deschutes National Forest managed jointly by Reclamation and the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service (Forest Service). The downstream portion of the proposed project boundary would be located about 330 feet upstream of the Upper Deschutes Wild and Scenic River (WSR) boundary, which begins 740 feet downstream of Wickiup Dam and continues for 54 miles.
The proposed project has the potential to affect the Endangered Species Act (ESA)-listed Oregon spotted frog (OSF) (Rana pretiosa) and its habitat, which is known to occur in the project area.
On April 25, 2012, we requested the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s (FWS) concurrence with our findings in the draft environmental assessment (EA) that constructing, operating, and maintaining the proposed project, with our recommended measures and all mandatory conditions, would have no effect on the bull trout, bull trout critical habitat, or northern spotted owl critical habitat, and that the project is not likely to adversely affect the northern spotted owl. In our November 2, 2012 final EA,1 we addressed the project’s potential effects on two threatened species: bull trout and northern spotted owl; and five candidate species: whitebark pine, North American wolverine, greater sage-grouse, yellow-billed cuckoo, and OSF. On August 29, 2013, FWS proposed to change the status of the OSF from a candidate for listing to threatened status. On October 30, 2013, in response to the change in status of the OSF, the Commission sent a letter to the FWS concluding that licensing the project, with the staff-recommended measures and mandatory conditions, is "not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Oregon spotted frog”. On December 5, 2013, the FWS responded stating that it concurred with our determination for the northern spotted owl.2 However, FWS stated that it disagreed with our conclusions
1 The final EA is available at: http://elibrary.ferc.gov/idmws/common/opennat.asp?fileID=13101876
2 For the bull trout, bull trout critical habitat, and northern spotted owl critical habitat, the FWS stated that it does not concur with “no effect” determinations but it
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regarding the proposed project’s effects on the OSF, and recommended that the Commission work with the FWS to do additional analysis of the proposed project’s effects. FWS also indicated that its analysis of the project’s effects on the OSF could be affected by the applicant’s resolution of the issues raised in the Forest Service’s preliminary WSR Act section 7(a) determination for the project;3 therefore, FWS indicated that it could not make a final determination regarding the proposed project’s effects on the OSF until after the applicant and the Forest Service resolved the WSR issues.
On August 29, 2014, the OSF was listed as a threatened species (FWS, 2014a). On April 26, 2016, the Forest Service filed its final WSR Act section 7(a) determination for the project that resolved the issues raised in the preliminary determination.4 On May 11, 2016, the FWS designated critical habitat for the OSF (FWS, 2016), and on August 1, 2016, we participated in a teleconference with the FWS to discuss its requested additional analysis of the proposed project’s effects on the OSF.
This supplemental Biological Assessment (BA) evaluates the effects of the proposed action on the threatened OSF and its designated critical habitat, updating the analysis provided in the EA.
2.0 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROPOSED ACTION & ACTION AREA
Project Description
The proposed project would be located at Reclamation’s Wickiup Dam on the Deschutes River near the city of La Pine, Oregon, as shown in figure 1.
does not have information that would differ from the Commission’s conclusions regarding these species and critical habitat.
3 On November 7, 2011, the Forest Service issued a preliminary determination under section 7(a) of the WSR Act that the project would unreasonably diminish the fishery and recreation resources of the Upper Deschutes Wild and Scenic River and should not be licensed as proposed.
4 The final section 7(a) determination concluded that the project as designed would not invade or unreasonably diminish the values of the WSR provided that the Forest Service’s final section 4(e) conditions filed on February 16, 2016, are included in the license. The Forest Service conditions are described in this BA as part of the proposed action.
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Figure 1. Location of Wickiup Dam Hydroelectric Project (Source: Symbiotics, 2008, as modified by staff).
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Wickiup Dam5 is operated as a water storage facility to provide irrigation releases to the Deschutes River for downstream diversion by the North Unit Irrigation District (North Unit). The project would use the dam’s existing reservoir intake structure and portions of the two existing 96-inch-diameter pipes that convey flows from the intake to the valve house. The two existing 96-inch-diameter pipes would be bifurcated upstream of the valve house and two new 75-foot-long, 96-inch-diameter penstocks, each with its own isolation valve, would be attached at each of the bifurcations. The two new penstocks would combine through a wye into a single 120- inch-diameter, 68-foot-long steel penstock to provide flows to the Kaplan-type turbine, installed in a new 50-foot by 50-foot concrete powerhouse located at the base of the dam on the northwest side of the concrete stilling basin. The proposed project would also consist of a concrete tailrace, an adjacent parking area, a transformer, a buried 135-foot-long, 29.4-kilovolt transmission line, and appurtenant facilities. The project would generate about 22,210 megawatt-hours per year.
Proposed Project Operation
The proposed project would operate in a run-of-release mode, using flows released from Wickiup Dam by Reclamation for North Unit’s irrigation deliveries and other downstream purposes. Therefore, it would not alter the timing or quantity of water released by Reclamation at the dam. A detailed description of Reclamation’s existing dam operations and a description of proposed project operation are included in the EA section 2.2.3, Project Operations.6 Below, we summarize the existing dam operations and Wickiup Hydro’s proposed project operation.
Under current conditions, all flow releases up to 4,000 cfs are made through the dam’s existing outlet works. Releases in excess of 4,000 cfs are made through the dam’s emergency spillway. Typical flow releases for irrigation begin in April and last into October. During the non-irrigation season, Reclamation releases minimum flows to provide for aquatic habitat in the Deschutes River. Table 1 provides a summary of
5 The existing Wickiup Dam includes the 100-foot-high, 13,860-foot-long dam, a deep intake structure, two 96-inch-diameter pipes conveying flows from the intake structure to a valve house, and outlet works consisting of two 90-inch-diameter tube valves and a concrete stilling basin with a total discharge capacity of 4,000 cubic feet per second (cfs). Two additional dikes, the South Dike and the East Dike, enclose the reservoir. The emergency spillway is located on the left end of the East Dike. The spillway is an open, unlined rock-cut chute with a 400-foot-wide concrete inlet structure and a capacity of 5,000 cfs.
6 Final EA at 16-17.
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historical flows in the Deschutes River below Wickiup Dam from October 1996 to September 2011.
The project would have a minimum and maximum hydraulic capacity of 280 and 1,400 cfs, respectively. When flow releases fall below 280 cfs, the project would not operate and all flow releases would be made through Reclamation’s existing outlet works. At flows less than 1,400 cfs, Reclamation’s existing outlet works would be closed and all flow would be released through the project’s turbine. If required flow releases exceed the turbine capacity of 1,400 cfs, the additional releases would be made through Reclamation’s outlet works, up to a combined total release of 4,000 cfs through the project powerhouse and Reclamation’s outlet works. Releases in excess of 4,000 cfs would continue to be made through the 5,000-cfs capacity emergency spillway. The spillway is used only in extremely rare circumstances and would only operate if reservoir inflows exceed 4,000 cfs and the reservoir level exceeds elevation 4,377 feet. If the powerhouse goes offline, flows would bypass the turbine and would be released through Reclamation’s existing outlet works until the powerhouse is brought back online.
Based on the historical median flows provided in table 1, there would be sufficient flow for the proposed project to operate during the months of April through October during most years. According to the Deschutes Basin Board of Control (2016a), the irrigation districts that utilize water stored at Crescent Lake, Crane Prairie and Wickiup Reservoirs have voluntarily modified dam operations as of February 5, 2016, to benefit the OSF in the reservoirs and in the upper Deschutes River downstream of Wickiup Dam. The modified operations pertaining to Wickiup Dam include:
(1) Minimum Instream Flow: maintain a minimum instream flow of 600 cfs from March 31 through September 15 on the Deschutes River immediately downstream of Wickiup Dam.
(2) Spring Ramp-Up: increase releases as needed to reach 600 cfs by March 31, provided the depth of water immediately downstream of Wickiup Dam increases no more than 0.1 foot in any 4-hour period and no more than 0.5 foot in any 24-hour period.
(3) Fall Ramp-Down: decrease releases at the end of the irrigation season over a period of no less than 7 days.
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Table 1. Monthly discharge statistics (cfs) for the Deschutes River below Wickiup Dam from October 1996 to September 2011 (Source: Reclamation, 2016).
Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep
Mean 442 161 185 220 263 260 534 1,066 1,225 1,505 1,484 1,193
Median 292 39 91 105 124 158 561 1,059 1,250 1,510 1,484 1,222
Max. 1,352 717 711 1,214 1,107 1,106 1,256 1,608 1,788 1,955 1,790 1,606
Min. 13 20 20 21 21 24 30 344 425 1,003 1,054 704
10% 971 524 525 499 631 610 820 1,438 1,550 1,748 1,655 1,436 Exceed.
90% 24 22 22 24 24 30 39 675 883 1,234 1,314 887 Exceed.
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The historic minimum flow for April is 30 cfs while the mean and median flows are 534 cfs and 561 cfs, respectively. However, the 90 percent exceedance flow for April is only 39 cfs, which suggests that flows are typically much lower than average or median flows, and thus existing flow levels would be substantially enhanced by the modified minimum flow release of 600 cfs during April.
During the remainder of the irrigation season, the modified minimum flows would not substantially change flow conditions when compared to historic flows as the mean and median monthly flows for May through September are all greater than 1,000 cfs, while the 90 percent exceedance flows for the same period are all greater than 600 cfs.
The modified minimum flows would make it much more likely that the proposed project would operate during the entire month of April in any given year when compared to historic flow releases at the dam.
Environmental Measures
For the purposes of consultation under section 7 of the ESA, the proposed action evaluated in this BA includes constructing, operating, and maintaining the project as proposed by Wickiup Hydro with some staff recommended modifications and additional measures (staff alternative) supported in the EA, as well as all section 4(e) conditions submitted by Reclamation and the Forest Service (i.e., staff alternative with mandatory conditions).
The staff alternative with mandatory conditions includes a comprehensive set of environmental measures to protect environmental resources during construction, operation, and maintenance of the project. A complete list of these measures is included in the EA sections 2.2.4, Environmental Measures, and 2.3, Staff Alternative.7 Below, we summarize those measures that are included in the staff alternative with mandatory conditions that could influence aquatic or terrestrial habitats downstream.
Wickiup Hydro’s Proposed Measures
Implement the Channel Monitoring and Protection Plan filed with the license application to determine if initial project operation is causing any adverse effects on the streambanks downstream of the dam, and prepare reports on the results that include any mitigation measures to address adverse effects.
7 Final EA at 17-23.
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Implement the Soil Erosion Control Plan filed with the license application and the Revegetation Management Plan filed on August 19, 2011, to minimize erosion and sedimentation from project construction and promptly revegetate disturbed areas.
Implement the Ramping Prevention Plan filed with the license application to ensure full integration of the project powerhouse and flow control features with Reclamation’s existing operations and facilities.
Implement the Hazardous Substances Spill Prevention and Cleanup Plan filed with the license application to manage and clean up hazardous substances during project construction and operation.
Implement the Adaptive Water Quality Monitoring and Reporting Plan filed on August 19, 2011, that includes provisions for: monitoring turbidity below the dam during project construction; notifying the Oregon Department of Environmental Quality (Oregon DEQ) whenever project-related deviations from state standards for turbidity occur and providing quarterly monitoring reports to Oregon DEQ; and monitoring dissolved oxygen and total dissolved gas levels during project operation.
Install and operate a turbine aeration system to enhance dissolved oxygen levels in the project tailrace during project operation.
Implement the Noxious Weed Management Plan filed with the license application to control and prevent the spread of noxious weeds during project construction and operation.
Staff-recommended Modifications and Additional Measures
Modify the Channel Monitoring and Protection Plan to include an additional provision to file the proposed monitoring reports with the Commission, and to exclude construction of any potential streambank protection measures within the federal wild and scenic river segment.
Modify the proposed Adaptive Water Quality Monitoring and Reporting Plan to expand the proposed dissolved oxygen monitoring program to include continuous monitoring year-round, include additional provisions to notify the Commission and agencies and file incident reports in the event the project
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contributes to deviations from state water quality criteria, and file annual reports on the results of the water quality monitoring program.
Limit in-water construction activities to the period of July 1 to October 15 to protect aquatic resources in the upper Deschutes River.
Modify the Ramping Prevention Plan to monitor ramping rates using the existing Reclamation gage rather than installing a new pressure transducer in the federal wild and scenic river segment.
Modify the Revegetation Management Plan to include monitoring of revegetated areas, performance criteria to measure the success of revegetation efforts, and reporting requirements.
Modify the Noxious Weed Management Plan to include provisions for preparing and filing annual reports with the Commission.
Modify the Hazardous Substances Spill Prevention and Cleanup Plan to include filing the progress reports annually with the Commission.
Notify the resource agencies and the Commission within 24 hours if unanticipated or emergency situations occur that harm fish and wildlife or their habitats.
In addition, the staff alternative with mandatory conditions includes the following mandatory conditions submitted by Reclamation8 and the Forest Service9 that could influence aquatic and terrestrial habitats downstream.
Reclamation condition 6 specifies that the timing, quantity, and location of water releases and release changes from Wickiup Dam will be at the sole discretion of Reclamation.
8 A complete list of Reclamation’s conditions is provided in section 2.2.5 of the EA at 19-20.
9 On February 16, 2016, the Forest Service filed its final section 4(e) terms and conditions, which includes one condition. This condition was not evaluated in the EA because it was filed after the EA was issued. Nevertheless, we have included it in the proposed action for the purposes of this BA and evaluate it herein because it is mandatory and thus would be included in any license issued for the project.
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Reclamation condition 10 specifies that Wickiup Hydro revegetate all newly disturbed land areas with plant species indigenous to the area, as approved by Reclamation, within six months of project construction unless otherwise specified by Reclamation.
Reclamation condition 11 specifies that Wickiup Hydro ensure that all equipment entering the project area is free of aquatic and terrestrial invasive species and their propagules that aid in dispersal of the species.
Forest Service condition 1 specifies that Wickiup Hydro develop an entrainment monitoring plan that includes: (1) a study to examine species composition and survival rates of entrained fish species during the first and fifth year of project operation; (2) a study to examine the interaction and potential adverse effects of increased entrainment survival of non-native fish species during project operation on brown and redband trout in the upper Deschutes River by comparing the size of trout fry and juveniles before and after the start of project operation; and (3) if adverse effects on the trout are detected,10 implement measures or modify project operations or facilities to meet an entrainment survival rate that is equal to the same level that occurred prior to project operation.
Action Area
The action area for the purposes of this analysis includes the upper Deschutes River from Wickiup Dam at river mile 227.0 downstream to the lower-most documented OSF occupied site in the Old Mill District at river mile 167.5 in the city of Bend. The action area encompasses all of the OSF occupied sites along this segment of the Deschutes River that are adjacent to the river, including the site at Dilman Meadow and the sites within the Crosswater Resort area near the confluence of the Deschutes and Little Deschutes Rivers at about river mile 197.5.
3.0 LISTED SPECIES & CRITICAL HABITAT IN THE ACTION AREA
General Description of the Project Area
10 As described in the Forest Service condition, a finding of adverse effect would mean there is a statistically significant post-operational difference in the average size of age zero to 1-year old trout fry compared to the average size of this age-class of fish collected prior to project operation.
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Wickiup Dam and Reservoir are located in the Deschutes River basin in central Oregon. The Deschutes River basin drains about 4,500 square miles in central Oregon. Wickiup Dam and Reservoir are located in the upper portion of the Deschutes River basin (i.e., upper Deschutes River sub-basin), which drains the east slope of the Cascade Mountains. The Deschutes River originates at Little Lava Lake at about RM 255.0 in the Deschutes National Forest. The upper Deschutes River sub- basin is characterized by large flatland areas and periodic volcanic buttes. The crest of the Cascades to the west of the project area has elevations generally in the 6,000 foot range, but isolated volcanic peaks reach elevations of more than 10,000 feet. The upper Deschutes River sub-basin has a typical climate for the high desert region east of the Cascades. The climate is controlled primarily by weather patterns moving eastward from the Pacific Ocean into central Oregon. The climate is moderate with cool, wet winters and warm, dry summers. As compared to the west side of the Cascades, annual precipitation in the project area is much lower with a large portion falling as snow in the winter. Temperatures vary across the region and are generally dependent on elevation, with warmer temperatures at lower elevations. Records from the Oregon Climate Service show mean daily minimum and maximum temperatures at Santiam Pass in the Cascade Range, located about 500 feet higher than the project area, ranging from 21 degrees Fahrenheit (°F) to 34°F in January, and from 43°F to 73°F in July.
Sixty-six percent of the 4,500-square-mile upper Deschutes River sub-basin is publicly owned. About 2,230 square miles are under the jurisdiction of the Forest Service, 730 square miles are under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM), and about 20 square miles are under the jurisdiction of state or county agencies. The remaining 1,520 square miles are privately owned. The general character of the basin ranges from timber lands at the headwaters to agriculture and pasture lands throughout much of its length. Uncultivated land tends to be dominated by grasslands, sagebrush, and juniper. About 50 miles downstream of Wickiup Dam, the Deschutes River flows through the city of Bend beginning near RM 175.
A number of dams and diversion structures are located within the upper Deschutes River sub-basin. Crane Prairie Dam located 12 river miles upstream of Wickiup Dam is an irrigation storage reservoir that is also part of Reclamation’s Deschutes irrigation project. Downstream of Wickiup Dam, multiple dams and canals on the Deschutes River are used to divert water for irrigation purposes or hydroelectric generation, including: the Arnold Diversion Dam and Canal (RM 174.5); the Central Oregon Canal (RM 171.0); the Colorado Dam (RM 167.5); the Bend Pacific Power and Light Dam (RM 166.3); Steidl Dam (RM 165.9); and the North Canal Dam (RM 164.9). The Deschutes River then flows into Lake Billy Chinook, an impoundment created by Round Butte Dam (RM 109.9), where two large tributaries, the Metolius River and the Crooked River, join the Deschutes River.
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OSF Life History, Range, and Habitat Requirements
The OSF is a medium sized frog ranging from about 1.7 to 4.1 inches in body length. It is covered by characteristic black spots over its head, back, sides, and legs with the spots having ragged edges and light centers, usually associated with a tubercle or raised area of skin. Tadpoles have rough tooth rows for grazing and scraping, with their diet consisting of items such as plant tissue, algae, and detritus (McAllister and Leonard, 1997). Adult OSF can feed on other frog or toad species (e.g., Pacific tree frogs, red-legged frogs, juvenile western toads), but primarily forage on insects that are in or near the water (e.g., beetles, flies, ants, spiders, water striders, spittlebugs, leafhoppers, aphids, dragonflies, damselflies, and yellow jackets) (Pearl et al., 2005; FWS, 2014a). OSF eggs, tadpoles, and adults have a number of documented and potential natural predators, including aquatic invertebrates (e.g., dytiscid beetles, dragonfly nymphs), reptiles and amphibians (e.g., garter snakes, bullfrogs), fish (e.g., various trout species), birds (e.g., great blue herons, sandhill cranes), and mammals (e.g., mink, river otters) (McAllister and Leonard, 1997; Chelgren et al., 2008; FWS, 2014a).
The OSF range is currently known to occur from extreme southwestern British Columbia, south through the eastern side of the Puget/Willamette Valley Trough and the Columbia River Gorge in south-central Washington, to the Cascades Range, and the Klamath Valley in Oregon. Its historic range extended farther south to the Pit River drainage in northeastern California but it is now believed to have been extirpated from the state. In Oregon, the species is found generally at high elevations east of the Cascades in eight sub-basins: Lower Deschutes River, Upper Deschutes River, Little Deschutes River, McKenzie River, Middle Fork Willamette, Upper Klamath, Upper Klamath Lake, and the Williamson River (FWS, 2014a). To the west of the Cascades, few populations are thought to exist and it is believed to be extirpated from Willamette Valley, although survey efforts on private lands or areas that are difficult to access are lacking (Rosenberg, 2013).
The OSF inhabits bodies of fresh water such as natural or manmade ponds, springs, lakes, slow-moving streams, or oxbows adjacent to streams, canals, and ditches (FWS, 2016). They are almost always found in or near a perennial body of water that includes zones of shallow water and abundant emergent or floating aquatic plants, which the frogs use for basking and cover. Although earlier research has indicated that the species is generally associated with large marshes greater than nine acres in size, they can occupy much smaller sites (Pearl and Hayes, 2004). All life stages are strongly aquatic, and frogs exhibit fidelity to seasonal pools (Watson et al., 2003). Habitat-use patterns vary with three main seasonal activity patterns: spring breeding, summer surface activity, and overwintering (Pearl et al., 2010). In the
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upper Deschutes area, the breeding season can last from two to four weeks with egg masses deposited generally between mid-March to mid-April (Chelgren et al., 2008; Pearl et al., 2010; Phillipsen et al., 2009). Breeding occurs in warm, vegetated shallows of open, freshwater marshes and lake margins with little flow. Frogs deposit egg masses in aggregations in shallow water sites (generally 14 inches or less deep) near shorelines with a gradual sloping substrate that lacks significant vertical structure which could shade the eggs (Pearl and Hayes, 2004). Eggs usually hatch within three weeks after oviposition although this is dependent on water temperatures, with development and hatching occurring more quickly in warmer water (McAllister and Leonard, 1997; Pearl et al., 2010). Tadpoles will grow and develop for about three to five months before metamorphosis (Cushman and Pearl, 2007); in Oregon, the transition to this juvenile stage is generally completed by mid-August (Pearl et al. 2010). After breeding and rearing, post-metamorphic juveniles and adult frogs disperse over a broader range to deeper pools or creeks. They spend this summer period basking and foraging near moderate to dense vegetation. For overwintering, adults use flowing systems such as seeps, springs, and channels that provide a sufficient supply of dissolved oxygen as well as protection from predators and freezing. Frogs can remain active under ice cover but they may burrow into the surrounding substrate (e.g., mud, emergent vegetation, creek banks) during particularly harsh winter periods.
Studies reporting movement and dispersal distances have shown frogs covering distances ranging from several feet to over one mile between sites (FWS, 2014a; FWS, 2016) but averaging about 20 feet per day (Cushman and Pearl, 2007). For a study site in Washington, frogs had an average home range of 5.4 acres (Watson et al., 2003). Redistribution is generally through wetted corridors, although sub-adult and adult frogs may be able to make short terrestrial movements. Within seasons, movement distances are shorter, with frogs using about half their range area during the breeding season and displaying the smallest distance range during the summer season (Watson et al., 2003).
Abundance and Distribution in the Project Area
Below Wickiup Dam
In 2009, Wickiup Hydro conducted pre-filing surveys for the OSF and its habitat within 1 kilometer (0.62 mile) of the proposed project boundary downstream of Wickiup Dam. No frogs or suitable habitat were detected within the survey area. However, Wickiup Hydro also surveyed and detected frogs at Dilman Meadow, a series of ponds located along a small tributary that converges with the Deschutes
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River about 2.6 miles downstream of Wickiup Dam (see Wickiup Hydro’s license application section 10.1.2, Wildlife).11,12 In addition to Dilman Meadow, other sites along the upper Deschutes River between Wickiup Dam and Bend are known to support existing populations of OSF (FWS, 2014a; FWS, 2014b). Except at sites being actively managed for OSF, the populations are small and disjunct, generally containing 50 or fewer breeding females (CBD, 2016). The occupied sites downstream of Wickiup Dam are described below.
Dilman Meadow – As discussed in the license application, a small OSF population consisting of less than 100 individuals was located at Wickiup Dam, but was relocated to Dilman Meadow in 2001 when construction work to repair seepage at the dam eliminated the frog habitat. Historically, Dilman Meadow consisted of a natural spring and narrow stream channel that conveyed steady groundwater flow 0.3 mile to the Deschutes River (Chelgren et al., 2007). As part of the relocation effort, six open-water ponds were constructed at Dilman meadow, ranging in size from 0.02 to 0.2 acres in surface area and all hydrologically connected by the stream channel. Nine egg masses and 48 frogs (i.e., 9 adult females, 11 adult males, and 28 post- metamorphic sub-adults) were captured at Wickiup Dam and relocated to this site (Chelgren et al., 2007). Due to successional vegetation encroachment reducing the depth and amount of open water habitat in the original ponds, three additional ponds were excavated in 2004. Additional habitat maintenance work at the site, including re-excavating and re-contouring the ponds, was completed in 2008 and is likely to be necessary in the future (FWS, 2011). Breeding has been confirmed in eight of the ponds, juvenile recruitment documented in six of the ponds, and adults have been detected in all nine ponds (FWS, 2011). In 2007, the estimated number of adult frogs was 227 and egg mass counts from years 2006 to 2010 range from 33 to 57 (FWS, 2011).
Bull Bend – This site is located about 6 miles downstream from Wickiup Dam. Juvenile OSF have been found at Bull Bend, indicating a likely breeding site; however, in 2014 the site had too little water for successful breeding (CBD, 2016).
11 Wickiup Hydro’s final license application is available at: http://elibrary.ferc.gov/idmws/common/opennat.asp?fileID=12599496
12 Final license application at 159-163.
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La Pine State Park – This area contains slow-moving water areas or sloughs and is located about 17 miles downstream from Wickiup Dam. Two egg masses were located in 2013 (FWS, 2014b).
Dead Slough – This slough is about 18 miles downstream from Wickiup Dam. Nineteen egg masses were counted in 2013 ( FWS, 2014b)
Sunriver – This site is a managed complex of wetland habitat (wet meadows, vernal pools, marshes, and oxbows) within the private residential and resort community of Sunriver, located just north of the confluence of the Little Deschutes River and the Deschutes River about 40 miles downstream from Wickiup Dam. Common areas within the Sunriver community, including wetlands, ponds, and meadows, are managed under the Sunriver Great Meadow Management Plan under the authority of the Sunriver Owners Association. Through the Sunriver Owners Association, the Sunriver Nature Center and Observatory has been managing a system of weirs within the waterways and ponds along an old riverine oxbow to improve breeding, rearing, and overwintering habitat conditions for the OSF (FWS, 2016). Sunriver hosts the largest known population of OSF in the upper Deschutes River sub-basin downstream of Wickiup Dam (FWS, 2016). From 1999 to 2005 during the fall movement period, adult counts ranged from 45 to 796 and from 49 to 340 for juveniles (FWS, 2011). Egg mass counts ranged from 357 to 1,182 from years 2000 to 2009 (FWS, 2011). The current population estimate is at least 1,454 breeding adults based on 2012 egg mass surveys (FWS, 2014a), with more than 700 breeding females (CBD, 2016).
Slough Camp - This site consists of two wetland complexes (habitat includes vernal pools, sloughs, oxbows) on opposite sides of a large bend in the Deschutes River surrounded by a mature stand of ponderosa pines and quaking aspen (FWS, 2011; CBD, 2016). It is located about 48 miles downstream from Wickiup Dam. Southwest Slough, a wetland complex on the west side of the river is 14 acres and retains water year-round, and therefore, is likely used as an overwintering location for OSF (FWS, 2014b). East Slough, a wetland complex on the east side of the river, is 64 acres and is seasonally inundated. Water levels fluctuate seasonally with Deschutes River flows that are dictated by storage and release operations of Crane Prairie and Wickiup Reservoirs (FWS, 2011). Water elevation drops in mid-October with the onset of the irrigation water storage season (FWS, 2014b). The fluctuating water levels have caused noted incidents of stranded frogs or egg masses. In 2010, after water elevation dropped for the water storage season, juveniles were stranded in a ditch that had held water the week prior (FWS, 2011). In 2014, egg mass
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stranding was observed for a period of two weeks at East Slough (CBD, 2016). In 2015, water levels at East Slough were too low for breeding during most of the season (CBD, 2016). Twenty-one adults and 21 juveniles were observed in 2010 (FWS, 2011). From 2011 to 2013, egg mass counts were 38, 14, and 41, respectively (FWS, 2014b).
Old Mill District – The Old Mill District is a mixed-use development complex located about 59.5 miles downstream from Wickiup Dam in the city of Bend. The OSF habitat within this complex includes: a 0.5-acre stormwater detention pond (also known as the Casting Pond) surrounded by a vegetated buffer, the Les Schwab Amphitheater Marsh, the riparian habitat on the banks of the Deschutes River, and other existing ponds and bioswales. The Casting Pond is located within 20 feet of the Deschutes River and receives rain and snowmelt runoff from adjoining lots and streets as well as groundwater infiltrate pumped in from a buried tank. The Les Schwab Amphitheater Marsh is located on the west bank of the Deschutes River and surface water levels within the marsh are generally more stable than upper reaches of the Deschutes River closer to Wickiup Dam, with only about a 4-inch water elevation change associated with flow fluctuations from dam releases (FWS, 2014b). In 2012, surveys indicated that about 30-50 breeding adults and 200 juvenile OSF were using the habitat within the Les Schwab Amphitheater Marsh and the Casting Pond, but surveys since that time have indicated higher numbers with over 100 breeding adults and 945 juveniles counted (FWS, 2014b). In 2013, breeding surveys were conducted along about 8 miles of the Deschutes River in the city of Bend between the Old Mill District and Tumalo State Park. No OSFs were detected, potentially indicating that the Old Mill District is the downstream extent of OSF distribution in the upper Deschutes sub-basin (FWS, 2014b). A Candidate Conservation Agreement with Assurances (CCAA)13 was issued September 18, 2014, between FWS and various business entities of the Old Mill District for a term of 20 years, and covers activities primarily associated with water and vegetation management, potential predator control, and riparian use. The covered lands in the agreement include 170 acres including 6,906 linear feet along both banks of the Deschutes River (FWS, 2014b).
Above Wickiup Dam
13 Candidate Conservation Agreements with Assurances are voluntary agreements between FWS and one or more public or private parties and are designed to conserve candidate species on non-federal land.
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Upstream of Wickiup Dam, there are several breeding sites in the Deschutes National Forest in lakes, ponds, and riverine wetlands that drain to Crane Prairie and Wickiup Reservoirs; and in the wetlands along both reservoirs’ shoreline (Adams et al., 2014; FWS, 2014a; Pearl et al., 2009). At Crane Prairie Reservoir, located about 2 miles upstream of Wickiup Reservoir, breeding was confirmed in 2006 along the western, northern, and eastern shorelines and again in the northern area in 2009-2010 (FWS, 2011). Currently, at least four areas in Crane Prairie Reservoir are used by OSF for breeding, rearing, and overwintering, with two sites containing more than 100 breeding females (CBD, 2016). A few egg masses have been found along the Deschutes River between Crane Prairie and Wickiup Reservoir. There is less suitable habitat around Wickiup Reservoir, and fewer frogs have been detected within the reservoir (CBD, 2016). At the northeastern portion of the reservoir, limited breeding was detected in 2002-2003 with less than 10 egg masses found (FWS, 2011). More recently, only six egg masses were observed (CBD, 2016).
Little Deschutes River
The Little Deschutes River converges with the Deschutes River about 30 miles downstream from Wickiup Dam. Most OSF sites are on or near the floodplain of the river in areas that are characterized as oxbow scars, with sedges or willow comprising the vegetation at aquatic areas and lodgepole pine in nearby upland areas (FWS, 2011). Other sites include golf course ponds, small anthropogenic impoundments, and locations altered by beaver activities (FWS, 2011).
The Crosswater Resort is a 617-acre private golf and residential community located at the confluence of the Deschutes and Little Deschutes Rivers. Wetlands and ponds on the property provide OSF habitat and are managed under the Crosswater Environmental Plan. The Crosswater Environmental Plan contains conservation measures that are specific to OSF, such as the removal of invasive bullfrogs from wetlands and ponds and maintaining buffers for herbicide application between golf courses and wetlands. Also, a conservation easement protects wetland and riparian areas along the Deschutes and Little Deschutes Rivers. Few adult or juvenile frogs were noted along the Little Deschutes River in prior years (FWS, 2011), but eighty- six egg masses were detected from five ponds at Crosswater in 2006 (FWS, 2011).
South of Crosswater Resort, OSF populations are generally small, consisting of less than 10 egg masses or adults/ juveniles per occupied site (FWS, 2011). However, at the 837-acre Casey Tract, located about 12 miles upstream from the confluence with the Deschutes River, there were up to 200 juvenile frogs recorded in 1999 and over 293 egg masses recorded in 2001 (FWS, 2011).
Recovery Plans
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The FWS has not prepared any recovery plans for the OSF pursuant to section 4(f) of the ESA. Washington State published a draft OSF Recovery Plan in May 2013 for OSF populations in Washington, while Canada published a recovery strategy in 2015 for OSF populations in Canada. Neither of these plans apply to OSF populations in the upper Deschutes River.
The Forest Service and BLM published a conservation assessment for the OSF in 2007 (Cushman and Pearl, 2007). The geographic scope for the assessment included the historic, known, and suspected range of the OSF within the U.S. The assessment provides general management recommendations for agencies or personnel tasked with conserving habitats occupied by OSF or sites under consideration for restoration or re-establishment of OSF populations. These management recommendations include: (1) restore or maintain hydrological regimes where OSF may be detrimentally affected, (2) protect and restore ephemeral and permanent wetlands near existing OSF sites, (3) restore or maintain open water and early seral vegetation communities, (4) evaluate or discontinue local fish-stocking practices, (5) limit the spread and effects of American bullfrogs in areas occupied or potentially suitable for reintroduction of OSFs, (6) develop comprehensive grazing strategies or adaptive management plans where livestock will occur in OSF habitat, and (7) work locally and cooperatively to maintain or restore conditions beneficial to OSF reproduction and viability.
Critical Habitat and Primary Constituent Elements
The critical habitat designation for the OSF includes about 65,038 acres and 20.3 river miles as critical habitat in Washington and Oregon (FWS, 2016). As part of the process for designating critical habitat, FWS identified the physical or biological features that are needed by OSFs to provide: space for their individual and population growth and for normal behavior; nutritional and physiological requirements; cover and shelter requirements; sites for breeding, reproduction, and rearing of offspring; and habitats protected from disturbance and representative of the historical, geographic, and ecological distribution. FWS determined that the physical or biological features’ Primary Constituent Elements (PCEs)14 are the following:
PCE 1—Nonbreeding (N), Breeding (B), Rearing (R), and Overwintering Habitat (O). Ephemeral or permanent bodies of fresh water, including but not limited
14 As defined by the ESA, PCEs are those specific elements of the physical or biological features that provide for a species’ life-history processes and are essential to the conservation of the species.
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to natural or manmade ponds, springs, lakes, slow-moving streams, or oxbows adjacent to streams, canals, and ditches, that have one or more of the following characteristics:
inundated for a minimum of 4 months per year (B, R) (timing varies by elevation but may begin as early as February and last as long as September);
inundated from October through March (O);
if ephemeral, areas are hydrologically connected by surface water flow to a permanent water body (e.g., pools, springs, ponds, lakes, streams, canals, or ditches) (B, R);
shallow-water areas (less than or equal to 30 centimeters (12 inches)), or water of this depth over vegetation in deeper water (B, R);
total surface area with less than 50 percent vegetative cover (N);
gradual topographic gradient (less than 3 percent slope) from shallow water toward deeper, permanent water (B, R);
herbaceous wetland vegetation (i.e., emergent, submergent, and floating-leaved aquatic plants), or vegetation that can structurally mimic emergent wetland vegetation through manipulation (B, R);
shallow-water areas with high solar exposure or low (short) canopy cover (B, R);
an absence or low density of non-native predators (B, R, N).
PCE 2—Aquatic movement corridors. Ephemeral or permanent bodies of fresh water that have one or more of the following characteristics:
less than or equal to 3.1 mile (5 km) linear distance from breeding areas;
impediment free (including, but not limited to, hard barriers such as dams, impassable culverts, lack of water, or biological barriers such as abundant predators, or lack of refugia from predators).
PCE 3—Refugia habitat. Nonbreeding, breeding, rearing, or overwintering habitat or aquatic movement corridors with habitat characteristics (e.g., dense
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vegetation, woody debris) that provide refugia from predators (e.g., non-native fish or bullfrogs).
Critical Habitat in the Project Area
OSF designated critical habitat within the project vicinity includes areas within and upstream of Wickiup Reservoir that would be unaffected by the proposed action, as well as areas along the upper Deschutes River and lower segment of the Little Deschutes River that are included in the action area. OSF critical habitat in the project vicinity is divided into the following habitat units: Unit 8 (Upper Deschutes River) and Unit 9 (Little Deschutes River) (FWS, 2016). OSF designated critical habitat in the project vicinity is shown in figure 2.
Unit 8 is divided into two subunits: subunit 8A (below Wickiup Dam) and subunit 8B (above Wickiup Dam).
Subunit 8A includes the upper Deschutes River and associated wetlands from about 2.6 miles downstream of Wickiup Dam (beginning at the outlet of the tributary stream draining Dilman Meadow) to the city of Bend.
Subunit 8B includes Wickiup Reservoir and the following riverine waterbodies and associated wetlands upstream of the reservoir: Deschutes River from Lava Lake to Wickiup Reservoir, Cultus Creek downstream of Cultus Lake, Deer Creek downstream of Little Cultus Lake, and Odell Creek from an occupied unnamed tributary to the outlet in Davis Lake. It also includes the following lakes and associated wetlands: Hosmer Lake, Lava Lake, Little Lava Lake, Winopee Lake, Muskrat Lake, Cultus Lake, Little Cultus Lake, Davis Lake, and Crane Prairie Reservoir (FWS, 2016).
Unit 9 includes the extent of the Little Deschutes River and associated wetlands from the headwaters to the confluence with the Deschutes River. This unit includes the following tributaries, including adjacent wetlands: Big Marsh Creek, Crescent Creek, and Long Prairie Creek (FWS, 2016).
According to the FWS (2016), some lands within critical habitat subunit 8A and Unit 9 were excluded from the critical habitat designation because the plans or agreements covering those lands adequately provide for the long-term conservation of the OSF, their exclusion is likely beneficial for continuing or encouraging conservation partnerships, and the benefits of excluding such areas outweigh the benefits of including them in critical habitat. These excluded areas include 223 acres of private land owned by the Sunriver Owners Association and covered under the Sunriver Great Meadow Management Plan, 207 acres of private land within the
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Crane Prairie Reservoir
Proposed Project Location
Wickiup Reservoir
N Designated Critical Habitat
Figure 2. Oregon spotted frog designated critical habitat in the vicinity of the proposed Wickiup Dam Hydroelectric Project.
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Crosswater Resort and managed by the Crosswater Environmental Plan, and 26 acres of private land covered under the Old Mill District CCAA (FWS, 2016).
All of the essential physical or biological features are found within Units 8 and 9; however, subunit 8A and Unit 9 are negatively affected by hydrologic modification of river flows, reed canarygrass, non-native predaceous fish, and bullfrogs, while subunit 8B is negatively affected by vegetation succession and non-native predaceous fish (FWS, 2016).
4.0 DIRECT AND INDIRECT EFFECTS OF PROPOSED ACTION
The following discussion addresses environmental effects on the OSF and its designated critical habitat that may result from licensing the Wickiup Dam Hydroelectric Project under the staff alternative with mandatory conditions.
Effects on Oregon Spotted Frog
In the EA at section 3.3.2, Aquatic Resources15 and section 3.3.3, Terrestrial Resources,16 we evaluated the effects of Wickiup Hydro’s proposed and the agencies’ recommended and stipulated environmental measures on aquatic (e.g., water quantity and quality, fisheries) and terrestrial resources. Wickiup Hydro’s pre-filing OSF surveys did not detect the OSF or suitable habitat for this species within 1 kilometer (0.6 mile) of the proposed project boundary downstream of the dam, and the closest OSF occupied sites are at Dilman Meadow, located on an off-channel tributary that flows to the Deschutes River 2.6 miles downstream of the proposed project, and at Bull Bend, located about 6 miles downstream along the Deschutes River.
During proposed project construction, there would be a temporary increase in turbidity during installation and removal of the cofferdam to isolate in-water work areas, and during initial project operation when the powerhouse starts up, causing a minor adverse effect on water quality in the project tailrace and for a short distance downstream. However, these effects would be temporary and localized, and with Wickiup Hydro’s proposal to complete in-water work during the July 1 to October 15 period, any turbidity effects would be dampened by the high flows occurring at this time and the 6-mile distance between the construction activities and the closest OSF occupied site. Similarly, the proposed Soil Erosion Control Plan and Revegetation Management Plan would limit potential sediment runoff from the construction site
15 Final EA at 50-76.
16 Final EA at 89-98.
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into the river. Staff’s recommended revegetation performance criteria would ensure the revegetation measures are successful. With these protective measures, we do not expect any turbidity increases to extend downstream into the OSF occupied sites beginning 6 miles downstream.
Vegetation removal and soil disturbance from construction activities often create suitable conditions for the establishment of noxious weeds and invasive plants. Seeds dispersed during construction activities or from newly established plants could enter the Deschutes River and be further distributed to habitats downstream. Establishment of noxious and invasive weeds at OSF breeding sites could modify the existing vegetation composition/structure and reduce the canopy cover, thereby affecting oviposition site selection and egg development. However, Wickiup Hydro’s proposed Noxious Weed Management Plan would minimize ground disturbance, quickly revegetate exposed soils with native plants following construction, and treat noxious weed infestations. These measures would prevent the spread of undesirable plants to OSF habitats downstream.
During project construction and operation, hazardous substances such as gasoline or diesel fuel, motor oil, and hydraulic fluid would be present or stored on site, and there is a potential for accidental spills of these materials. Wickiup Hydro’s proposed Hazardous Substances Spill Prevention and Cleanup Plan includes specific procedures for handling and storing hazardous substances and containing and responding to unintentional spills, thereby minimizing the potential for any hazardous substances to enter the Deschutes River where they could spread to OSF sites downstream.
During initial project operation, some adjustments of the channel form might occur below the tailrace for a short period while the channel adapts to the new discharge location and flow dynamics. This would cause an initial influx of bank material into the Deschutes River affecting water quality downstream. Similar to the turbidity effects mentioned above, adverse effects would be localized and would not extend 6 miles downstream to the nearest OSF site. Implementing the proposed Channel Monitoring and Protection Plan would ensure that no significant changes to the channel or erosion potential below the dam occur as a result of project operation.
The project would not affect water availability at downstream OSF sites as it would operate in a run-of-release mode and Wickiup Hydro’s proposed Ramping Prevention Plan would ensure the project is operating in compliance with flow releases and ramping rates that are dictated by Reclamation.
During project operation, water that passes through the turbine would not be subject to the plunging effect and turbulence that occurs when water is released
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through the existing tube valves, thereby reducing aeration and potentially lowering dissolved oxygen levels downstream of the dam. However, Wickiup Hydro’s proposals to install and operate a turbine aeration system to elevate dissolved oxygen levels, and to monitor water quality in the project tailrace and implement additional measures if adverse effects are detected, would ensure the protection of water quality. Therefore, we do not expect any adverse effects on water quality at downstream OSF sites.
In addition, the project would not modify any habitat within Wickiup Reservoir, and therefore, would not affect any OSF populations in the reservoir. For these reasons, there would be no direct effects of project construction and operation on the OSF or its habitat within the reservoir or Deschutes River downstream of the dam.
However, routing flow releases from the dam through a Kaplan turbine instead of Reclamation’s existing outlet works during proposed project operation could increase passage survival of entrained reservoir fish into the upper Deschutes River, which FWS states could cause an indirect effect of increasing the abundance of non- native predaceous fish in the river that may prey on the OSF, and in turn could adversely affect the OSF populations downstream.
The analysis below supplements the analysis in the EA section 3.3.2, Aquatic Resources,17 of the project’s potential effects under the staff alternative with mandatory conditions on passage survival of entrained reservoir fish. The analysis also supplements the analysis in the EA section 3.3.4, Threatened and Endangered Species,18 of the project’s potential effects under the staff alternative with mandatory conditions of increased passage survival of entrained reservoir fish on upper Deschutes River fish populations, the OSF, and its critical habitat, as requested by the FWS in its letter filed on December 5, 2013.
Unless otherwise noted, the information was obtained from Wickiup Hydro’s Revised Initial Study Report filed on April 9, 2010,19 Final License Application filed on March 11, 2011, or the Commission’s final EA issued on November 2, 2012.
17 Final EA at 62-71.
18 Final EA at 102-103.
19 Wickiup Hydro’s Initial Study Report is available at: http://elibrary.ferc.gov/idmws/common/OpenNat.asp?fileID=12312644
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Fish Entrainment Survival
During pre-filing, Wickiup Hydro conducted a study to evaluate the species composition and mortality rates of entrained fish at the dam under existing conditions. Wickiup Hydro’s study utilized one or two rotating screw traps deployed immediately downstream of the dam during the months of April through October in 2009. Each monthly sampling event generally occurred over a one-week period for 5 days and 4 nights.20 The study was primarily designed to estimate mortality rates at the dam and was not designed to estimate total fish entrainment. A total of 9,081 fish were collected, including: 8,904 kokanee, 162 three-spine stickleback, 13 brown bullhead, 1 brown trout, and 1 mountain whitefish. Observed mortality rates were 86 percent for kokanee (i.e., 81 percent direct and 5 percent delayed), 78 percent for sticklebacks (direct mortality only), and zero percent (direct and delayed mortality combined) for brown bullheads. No mortality estimate was provided for brown trout or mountain whitefish.
In addition to evaluating mortality, Wickiup Hydro also examined a subset of the fish collected for visible injuries. Ninety two percent of the 848 kokanee examined and 87 percent of the 128 sticklebacks examined had some type of visible injury. The most common types of injuries on kokanee with visible injuries were: descaling (93 percent), lacerations (46 percent), head and eye damage (21 percent), split/bleeding fins (20 percent), and deep bruises (8 percent); while the injuries observed on three-spine stickleback with visible injuries were: head and eye damage (82 percent), fin damage (42 percent), deep bruises (11 percent), and gill damage (5 percent).
Based on the types of injuries observed, they were likely caused by decompression, shear stress, turbulence, or physical strike of a valve component. Injuries associated with shear stress, turbulence, and physical strike would be substantially reduced by passage through the proposed Kaplan turbine instead of through the outlet works at the dam. However, because the project would not modify the configuration or depth of the existing intake, any entrained fish that are acclimated to the depth of the reservoir near the intake would still be subject to rapid decompression that occurs when they exit the deep reservoir through the intake and are discharged through the turbine into the shallow tailrace. Under the normal full pool elevation of 4,337.7 feet, fish acclimated to the bottom of the reservoir at elevation 4,258 feet would be about 80 feet below the water surface where they would be exposed to a pressure equal to about 2.3 atmospheres (atm) greater than ambient
20 Over 98 percent of the fish sampled were collected at night.
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pressure conditions of about 0.85 atm at the water surface. During turbine passage, the depth-acclimated fish would undergo rapid decompression from about 3.15 atm to the atmospheric conditions of the shallow tailrace of about 0.85 atm. Such rapid decompression can lead to barotrauma injuries and mortality much like those fish passing through the existing outlet works currently experience.
Decompression injuries are caused by the expansion of bubbles existing in or on the fish and the formation of new bubbles when pressure decreases. This can result in the expansion of air-containing structures like the swim bladder, and increase blood pressure and volume, leading to organ failure. Common barotrauma injuries include blood vessel rupture, bruising, severe organ damage, swim bladder rupture, and circulatory system occlusion (Brown et al. 2009). In simulated turbine passage decompression tests, more than half of sub-yearling Chinook salmon acclimated to a depth of 40 feet had bubbles present in the gills, ruptured swim bladders, and died within 48 hours of simulations (Brown et al. 2009). Small fish may be more susceptible to decompression due to the relative size of air bubbles in the body (Beyer et al. 1976). Wickiup Hydro found that over 42 percent of kokanee salmon less than 40 millimeters long suffered bulging or popped eyes, which are common symptoms of decompression injuries, compared to only 18 percent over 40 millimeters. Wickiup Hydro also noted that three-spine sticklebacks were particularly vulnerable to eye damage, with bulging or popped eyes often observed.
To determine the effects of proposed project operation on fish entrainment survival, Wickiup Hydro completed a literature review of survival studies conducted at projects with similar Kaplan turbines as the proposed project’s as well as similar fish size distributions as those entrained at Wickiup Dam. Based on the literature review results, Wickiup Hydro estimated that the survival rate of fish passing through the proposed Kaplan turbine would exceed 90 percent for age 0 and age 1+ fish, and a lower overall survival of potentially less than 75 percent for larger age 2+ fish. However, the level of mortality associated with rapid pressure change may be greater at Wickiup Dam than was observed in the turbine mortality studies included in Wickiup Hydro’s review. This is because most of the studies reviewed by Wickiup Hydro involved either migratory salmonids that tend to migrate high in the water column before they move to a greater depth to enter the turbine intake, or surface- acclimated marked fish that were injected into the turbine intake. In either of these cases, the fish are not likely to be acclimated to high pressures and would not be very susceptible to injuries associated with decompression. Some fish that enter the intake from Wickiup Reservoir, however, may have been residing deep in the reservoir and be acclimated to higher pressures, making them more vulnerable to this type of injury. Because the proposed project would not affect the existing pressure conditions of the reservoir, the rapid decompression would likely continue to cause injury and mortality to some entrained fish, especially in small fish less than 40 mm in length.
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If the results of the studies stipulated by Forest Service condition 1 indicate that project operation is causing an adverse effect on the brown or redband trout populations below the dam, then Wickiup Hydro would be required to implement additional measures or modify project operations or facilities to achieve an entrainment survival rate that is equal to survival rates under Reclamation’s existing dam operations. If the project were to have to meet such a survival standard, then survival rates would be about the same as those reported by Wickiup Hydro’s entrainment study results (i.e., 14 percent for kokanee, 22 percent for sticklebacks, 100 percent for bullheads), and the project would have no effect on the existing survival of any reservoir fish passing through the dam and thus no effect on OSF.
In the EA, we evaluated the environmental benefits of all potential measures proposed by the applicant or recommended by the agencies to either exclude fish from entering the dam intake or to achieve an entrainment survival rate that is equal to existing survival rates at the dam.21 We concluded that all potential measures would either be ineffective or would not provide benefits that would justify their costs.22
Below we discuss the effects of increased entrainment survival of reservoir fish on the OSF in the Deschutes River below Wickiup Dam if the results of the studies stipulated by Forest Service condition 1 indicate there are no adverse effects of project operation on brown or redband trout.
As shown in table 7 of the EA23 and in Fies et al. (1996), there are 23 species of fish known to occur in waters of the upper Deschutes sub-basin. The analysis below focuses on the non-native fish that may be potential predators of the OSF and that are characterized as either being moderately abundant, abundant, or very abundant in waters of the upper Deschutes River sub-basin (i.e., trout, largemouth bass, bluegill, brown bullhead, three-spine stickleback, tui chub). It also includes all other fish species that were captured in Wickiup Hydro’s entrainment study (i.e., kokanee salmon, mountain whitefish), as well as smallmouth bass which are considered to be low in abundance but are a non-native predatory fish.
Kokanee Salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka)
21 Final EA at 62-71.
22 Final EA at 145-148.
23 Final EA at 47.
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Description and Abundance in the Project Area
By a large margin, the majority of fish collected (i.e., 98 percent of total) during Wickiup Hydro’s entrainment study were kokanee salmon fry. Kokanee salmon are not indigenous to the upper Deschutes River but were introduced to Wickiup Reservoir through stocking efforts between 1958 and 1986. They are also present in other lakes and reservoirs in the Little Deschutes River basin including Paulina and Crescent Lakes. They prefer water temperatures close to 50 °F (Wydoski and Whitney, 2003). Adult kokanee can vary in size depending on lake productivity, but are typically 8 to 15 inches (203 to 381 mm) in length (Wydoski and Whitney, 2003). They spawn in the fall, generally preferring cold spring-fed tributaries (Fies et al., 1996). Kokanee are unique relative to other Pacific salmon in that they rely on lake habitats for juvenile rearing. Shortly after emerging from gravel spawning areas in mid-winter, kokanee fry are oriented toward open-water lake habitats where they rear and grow into the adult life stage. Open-water lake habitats that are necessary for juvenile kokanee survival do not occur in a riverine environment, and therefore, any kokanee encountered in the Deschutes River likely originated from the reservoirs in the basin and are passing downstream until they find a suitable lake habitat to enable them to grow to the adult life stage. The closest suitable kokanee habitat downstream of Wickiup Dam is located 107 river miles downstream at Lake Billy Chinook.
Information in the project record indicates that kokanee are entrained in the late spring and summer and pass downstream during the period of high flow conditions, but do not appear to be present immediately downstream of Wickiup Dam during the winter low-flow period. From Wickiup Hydro's entrainment study, the months with the highest collections were June (5,971), and August (2,102). Collection numbers started to decline in September and were at their lowest in early October. Although Wickiup Hydro's entrainment study was not conducted over the winter months, the number of kokanee collected in early spring was also low - only 24 and 31 kokanee were collected in April and May, respectively. Observations and surveys conducted by Oregon DFW in 1990 and 1991 indicate that there are thousands of juvenile and adult kokanee that migrate downstream from Wickiup Reservoir during the summer, especially in years with extensive reservoir drawdowns, but by spring of the next year the entrained kokanee are absent from the upper Deschutes River. The lack of kokanee during the following spring sampling season indicates that they either did not survive the riverine environment or migrated downstream out of the reach (Fies et al., 1996).
Effects of Increased Survival of Entrained Kokanee due to Project Operation on Oregon Spotted Frog
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Kokanee fry primarily prey on zooplankton and there is no evidence to suggest that they prey on OSF. Therefore, they would not be a predation threat to OSF and any increased survival of this species due to proposed project operation would not cause any additional predation on the OSF.
In its letter filed on December 5, 2013, FWS requested additional analysis of the potential for increased survival of emigrating kokanee from Wickiup Reservoir to provide an additional food source for the populations of predatory fish in the upper Deschutes River, which in turn could increase the populations of these predatory fish and increase their predation on the OSF. We discuss the potential for increased survival of kokanee salmon fry to contribute to increased populations of predatory fish species in each of the sections below.
Three-spine Stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus)
Description and Abundance in the Project Area
Three-spine sticklebacks are one of the most widespread fishes in the world, occurring in North America, Europe, and Asia (Wydoski and Whitney, 2003). They are small fish with adults reaching 2 to 3 inches (51 to 76 mm) in length, and distinguished by three prominent spines in the dorsal fin. Their food consists largely of zooplankton such as water-fleas and copepods; aquatic insect larvae such as stoneflies, midges, and caddisflies; and other food sources such as algae, small crustaceans, terrestrial insects, worms, fry, and fish eggs (Smith, 1985; Wydoski and Whitney, 2003; Fies et al., 1996). Fresh-water populations are usually found close to the bottom in streams and lakes, often in large schools that are closely associated with aquatic vegetation (Fies et al., 1996). As small, weak swimmers, they are easily displaced by high streamflows; during flood conditions, they can take refuge in the slower-moving water in floodplains (Wydoski and Whitney, 2003). Given their small size, they are easily preyed on by piscivorous fishes (e.g., trout, largemouth bass) and birds (e.g., mergansers, loons, grebes, cormorants, kingfishers, and herons), as well as carnivorous mammals (e.g., mink, otter) (Wydoski and Whitney, 2003).
Although three-spine sticklebacks are indigenous to Oregon coastal streams and estuaries, they are not native to the upper Deschutes River. They were first discovered in Spring River in the 1980's and have since spread upstream and downstream in the Deschutes and Little Deschutes Rivers (Fies et al., 1996). Bowerman (2016) stated that they are present in wetlands and ponds at the Sunriver site that are also occupied by OSFs. Sticklebacks were the second most prevalent fish species captured in Wickiup Hydro’s entrainment study and are considered to be very abundant in the upper Deschutes River. Wickiup Hydro’s entrainment study collected 162 three-spine sticklebacks ranging in size from 15 to 65 millimeters (0.6 to 1.6
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inches) and averaging 33 millimeters (1.3 inches). Nearly all sticklebacks were captured in August and September (i.e., 156), and only four were captured in April and May, while two were captured in October and none were captured in June or July. These data suggest that stickleback entrainment at the dam is generally low overall, but the highest entrainment rates occurred in the late summer.
Effects of Increased Survival of Entrained Three-spine Stickleback due to Project Operation on Oregon Spotted Frog
Three-spine sticklebacks are strongly gape-limited predators which constrain their diet to relatively small prey items (up to about 9 mm) (Burko, 1975; Hart and Ison, 1997). OSF hatchling tadpoles are about 4 to 6 mm snout-vent length (SVL) and larval tadpoles range from about 6 to 40 mm SVL (Corkran and Thoms, 2006). Given the small size of entrained sticklebacks (33 mm average length), they could forage on and consume OSF egg masses as well as hatchling and early-stage larval tadpoles, but all other life stages would be too large for entire consumption. However, sticklebacks could also engage in predatory attempts on later-stage larval OSF tadpoles, causing abnormities such as missing or partial feet or toes. Bowerman et al. (2010) found that sticklebacks contributed to these types of abnormalities in mid-larval stage western toad tadpoles in a study conducted at Lake Aspen at the Sunriver OSF site. Anecdotal evidence suggests that sticklebacks may be causing similar types of abnormalities in OSFs tadpoles at the Sunriver site (Bowerman, 2016).
Pearl et al. (2009) did not include this species in their list of potential non- native fish predators of OSF because they had no information on their predation of amphibians, and predation would likely be limited due to fish size, diet, or habitat preferences.
As explained below, there would be a low potential for project operation to substantially increase survival rates of entrained sticklebacks, and a very low potential for any such increased survival of this species to adversely affect OSF through increased predation. This is because: (1) injuries such as bulging or popped eyes, which are an indicator of barotrauma injury in fish, were a common occurrence in entrained sticklebacks; thus, some of the entrained sticklebacks are likely to continue to suffer the same high injury and mortality rates during project operation due to barotrauma from the rapid decompression; (2) few sticklebacks would be entrained during the period from mid-March through the end of July when OSF would be most vulnerable to predation (i.e., as egg masses, hatchling tadpoles, and larval tadpoles) because only 2 to 3 percent of the total stickleback entrainment occurred in April and May and none occurred in June or July; (3) tadpoles would be reaching full development or completing metamorphosis to the juvenile life stage at the time when
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most sticklebacks were entrained in August or September, thus they would be too large to be partially or entirely consumed as prey by sticklebacks; (4) sticklebacks are already self-sustaining and very abundant in the upper Deschutes River and likely already have access to or occupy OSF sites that provide suitable habitat and are hydrologically connected to the Deschutes River; therefore, a very small seasonal increase in the population size of sticklebacks during the early spring and late summer due to a potential increase in entrainment survival would likely be insignificant relative to the large size of the existing population in the upper Deschutes River downstream of Wickiup Dam; (5) there appears to be ample aquatic habitat24 and food for sticklebacks in the Deschutes River during the spring when flows are high due to irrigation releases; therefore, there is no reason to believe that any entrained sticklebacks would specifically target or seek out the comparatively very small numbers of OSF egg masses or tadpoles as a food source; (6) the closest OSF occupied site along the Deschutes River is about 6 miles downstream of the dam at Bull Bend, while the six other occupied sites are between 17 and 59.5 miles downstream of the dam; as we said, there is ample aquatic habitat closer to the dam for entrained sticklebacks to occupy without having to migrate such long distances to find suitable habitat; (7) although Reclamation’s existing storage and release operations would continue to cause severe low-flow conditions in the upper Deschutes River in the winter, which could continue to concentrate sticklebacks and potentially any OSF within the wetted areas of the river channel during the winter, sticklebacks would not cause mortality of the OSF post-metamoprhic juvenile or adult life stages that would be present in the winter because both of these life stages would be too large to be consumed as prey; and (8) many of the sticklebacks that survive passage through the project would likely be preyed upon by other birds and fish during the winter due to the severe low-flow conditions that would concentrate these fish within the limited available wetted habitats that persist when flows drop from an average median flow of 1,305 cfs from May through September to 39 cfs in November.
Effects of Increased Survival of Emigrating Kokanee on the Population Size of Three-spine Stickleback
The average size of entrained sticklebacks collected by Wickiup Hydro was 33 mm, while the average size of entrained kokanee increased from 33.4 mm in early
24 Three-spine sticklebacks are often associated with aquatic vegetation. Wickiup Hydro’s aquatic habitat surveys along a 4,000-meter stream segment immediately downstream of Wickiup Dam documented dense macrophyte beds at some locations and also indicated that aquatic macrophytes were present at 55 percent of the transect locations.
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spring to 91.7 mm by the fall. Thus, any increased survival of kokanee salmon emigrating from Wickiup Reservoir to the upper Deschutes River would not affect the population of three-spine sticklebacks because kokanee salmon fry emigrating from the dam would be too large for sticklebacks to consume as prey.
Brown Bullhead (Ameiurus nebulosus)
Description and Abundance in the Project Area
The brown bullhead is found throughout North America and Europe. In the United States, this species was originally native to eastern systems along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts and Mississippi and Great Lakes basins, and was likely introduced into western states during the mid-to-late 1800s (Jenkins and Burkhead, 1994; Wydoski and Whitney, 2003). The average adult size is about 8 to 14 inches (203 to 356 mm) (Smith, 1985) and seldom exceeds a weight of two pounds. They mature at three years of age and generally do not live beyond five years (Wydoski and Whitney, 2003).
Brown bullheads are warmwater fish that can occupy a variety of habitats, tolerating high temperatures and low dissolved oxygen that may be limiting to other fish (Jenkins and Burkhead, 1994; Wydoski and Whitney, 2003). They are found in small to large ponds, lakes, and reservoirs, and sluggish large creeks, streams, and rivers or backwaters (Jenkins and Burkhead, 1994; Wydoski and Whitney, 2003). In large lakes, they prefer shallow bays and sloughs, moving from deeper waters during the day to shallow areas at night for feeding and spawning (Wydoski and Whitney, 2003). Brown bullheads are omnivorous and known to prey on a large variety of organisms, including algae and other aquatic plants, terrestrial and aquatic insects, worms, crustaceans, mollusks, leeches, small fish, and fish eggs (Wydoski and Whitney, 2003).
Brown bullheads have established self-sustaining populations in the Little Deschutes and upper Deschutes Rivers, are already considered to be abundant in both rivers,25 and are currently known to occupy wetlands and ponds at the Sunriver site that are also occupied by OSF (Watershed Professionals Network, 2002; Fies et al., 1996; Bowerman, 2016). Brown bullhead distribution in other occupied OSF sites is unknown, but we assume that they could be present in any of the sites that are hydrologically connected to the Deschutes River and provide suitable habitat.
25 During the April 13, 2010, Initial Study Report meeting, Oregon DFW reported that thousands of bullhead were observed in the Wickiup Dam stilling basin during a fish salvage effort associated with Reclamation construction activities.
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Pearl et al. (2009) did not include this species in their list of potential non- native fish predators of OSF, and there is no evidence to suggest that they do. However, as we said in the EA, adult bullheads are large enough to opportunistically prey on all OSF life stages.
Effects of Increased Survival of Entrained Brown Bullheads due to Project Operation on Oregon Spotted Frog
Only thirteen brown bullheads, ranging in size from 142 to 243 mm, were captured during Wickiup Hydro’s entrainment study, indicating that only limited numbers of this species would migrate through the proposed project. Of the 13 that were collected during the study, all were still alive after 72 hours, although some suffered significant injuries and some level of delayed mortality likely occurred. However, because the existing survival rate for this species is already very high, there would be a negligible increase in survival due to project operation. We do not expect a negligible increase in passage survival of brown bullheads into the upper Deschutes River to result in any increased predation by this species on the OSF.
Effects of Increased Survival of Emigrating Kokanee on the Population Size of Predatory Brown Bullheads
Any increased survival of kokanee from Wickiup Reservoir to the upper Deschutes River would not likely affect the brown bullhead population. This is because there is no evidence to suggest that food availability is a limiting resource for bullheads in the Deschutes River in the summer when the kokanee would be passing through this segment of the river. Additionally, there is no information to suggest that bullheads would specifically seek out kokanee as prey over any other food source that is already readily available during the period of time (i.e., April to October) when flows are high in the Deschutes River and both species’ presence in the upper Deschutes River would overlap.
Trout (Oncorhynchus spp.)
Description and Abundance in the Project Area
The upper Deschutes River downstream of Wickiup Dam predominately supports populations of non-native brown trout and native redband trout, although non-native brook and rainbow trout are likely also present. Fies et al. (1996) characterizes redband trout as moderately abundant, while all other trout species are considered to be abundant in the upper Deschutes River. All of these trout species are currently self-sustaining in the Deschutes River.
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The Forest Service has designated the brown trout fishery in the 40.4-mile-long segment from Wickiup Dam to the north boundary of Sunriver as an outstandingly remarkable value that contributed to the designation of this reach as a Wild and Scenic River segment. The native redband trout population in the 15-mile-long segment between the northern boundary of Sunriver and the Central Oregon Irrigation District Canal in the city of Bend is also being treated as an outstandingly remarkable value (Forest Service, 1996).26 According to the Upper Deschutes Wild and Scenic River and State Scenic Waterway Comprehensive Management Plan, the upper Deschutes River is cooperatively managed by federal, state, and tribal governments to continue to protect and enhance habitat for self-sustaining populations of brown and native trout (Forest Service, 1996).
Although it was historically stocked with various species of trout, trout stocking has been discontinued in the main stem of the upper Deschutes River. However, Oregon DFW still stocks the Fall River which flows into the Deschutes River about 21 miles downstream of the dam with non-native hatchery rainbow trout. In 2016, the Fall River was scheduled to receive 6,000 8- to 10-inch-long legal sized and 320 16-inch-long trophy sized trout (Oregon DFW, 2016). The river is only about 11 miles long and flows into the Deschutes River about 2 and 3 miles downstream of the Dead Slough and La Pine State Park OSF sites, respectively.
Wickiup Hydro sampled fish populations in a reach of the Deschutes River extending about 1 mile downstream of Wickiup Dam via electrofishing in July 2009. It also conducted snorkel surveys in the fall of 2009 and spring of 2010 over an approximately 1,600-foot-segment of the upper Deschutes River downstream of the dam. In all surveys, the catch was dominated by small brown trout, although some larger brown trout were observed spawning in the fall.
Effects of Increased Survival of Entrained Trout due to Project Operation on Oregon Spotted Frog
Various trout species (e.g., brook, rainbow, brown, and cutthroat) are known or suspected predators of amphibians (Pilliod and Peterson, 2001; Pearl et al., 2009). Although trout do not typically survive in shallow, warm emergent wetland habitats that OSF prefer for breeding and rearing habitat, they may be present in areas that
26 The management plan for the upper Deschutes Wild and Scenic River states that a final determination on the value of the redband trout fishery has been deferred until a genetic study of the trout has been completed, but until that time the redband trout population is being treated as an outstandingly remarkable value.
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frogs migrate to in winter months. The altered flow regime of the Deschutes River likely exacerbates this overlap in habitat preference during winter when severe low– flow conditions lead to desiccation and freezing of a large portion of the stream channel, causing aquatic organisms to concentrate in the remaining wetted habitats.
However, only one brown trout was collected by Wickiup Hydro’s entrainment study; no other trout species were collected, indicating that very low numbers of trout are passing downstream through the dam. Wickiup Hydro’s study results are consistent with the findings of CH2M Hill (2007), which reviewed the results of several entrainment studies performed at hydropower projects throughout the Pacific Northwest to evaluate the potential for trout entrainment at projects predominately with large water-storage reservoirs. The literature review found that few, if any, trout were entrained especially in reservoirs with a deep intake. Among other reasons, this is likely because trout are often surface oriented in lakes and reservoirs and thus would not normally occur near the bottom of a reservoir near a deep intake.
Because trout entrainment is very low under existing conditions and trout are already abundant and self-sustaining in the upper Deschutes River, any very minor increase in their entrainment survival due to project operation would have a negligible effect on the trout population overall, and therefore, would not contribute to any increased trout predation on OSF.
Effects of Increased Survival of Emigrating Kokanee on the Population Size of Trout Species
Increased survival of kokanee salmon through Wickiup Dam during the high- flow period under project operation may allow these fish to disperse farther downstream and provide a forage resource for trout over a longer segment of the river than that which currently occurs because injured or dead fish likely settle to the riverbed a short distance downstream from the dam. Such increased survival of young-of-year kokanee would enhance foraging opportunities for the existing trout community of the upper Deschutes River downstream of the dam during the spring, summer, and early fall when these species’ presence would overlap. However, there is no evidence to suggest that food is a limiting factor for the existing trout population in the upper Deschutes River during the spring through early fall period when flows are high. Rather, as we said in the EA, the low flow and poor habitat conditions in the winter have been identified as the primary limiting factor for trout production in the upper Deschutes River below Wickiup Dam (Fies et al., 1996; Forest Service, 1996; Yake, 2003).
Low flows in the river during the winter storage-season concentrate trout where they are subject to high levels of predation, increase competition among trout,
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and limit useable spawning habitat and cover (Forest Service, 1996). The severely altered hydrograph and winter low-flow conditions also result in cold water temperatures and frequent freezing of the river. Freezing eliminates habitat for fish and aquatic invertebrates and can reduce the amount of aquatic invertebrate drift, which is the predominant food source for trout. Extreme low-flow conditions also dewater potential spawning habitats for brown trout because they spawn in the late fall and redds can be dewatered when flows are severely reduced in the winter. Thus, the poor winter-habitat conditions downstream of Wickiup Dam would likely continue to limit the size of the trout populations, regardless of whether additional kokanee survive dam passage and are available as a forage resource during the spring, summer, and early fall high-flow period. For these reasons, increased survival of entrained kokanee salmon under proposed project operation would not affect the existing trout population in the upper Deschutes River.
Largemouth Bass (Micropterus salmoides), Smallmouth Bass (Micropterus dolomieu), and Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus)
Description and Abundance in the Project Area
The largemouth bass originated in eastern North America but is now widely distributed throughout the U.S. and beyond. In Oregon, it was introduced in 1890 by the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries (Wydoski and Whitney, 2003). Adults can range in length from 9 to 26 inches (230 to 650 mm) (Jenkins and Burkhead, 1994) and weigh over ten pounds (Wydoski and Whitney, 2003). Largemouth bass prefer warm, generally clear water, with substrates of mud, sand, and organic material that provide rooted aquatic vegetation (Wydoski and Whitney, 2003). They are found in marshes, ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and creeks to large rivers, and they generally occupy shallow areas with cover such as brush, logs, submerged trees, reeds, and lily pads. They may remain under cover during daylight but move into open water to feed at night (Wydoski and Whitney, 2003). Largemouth bass fry mainly feed on plankton, small insects, and small fishes while juveniles and adults are opportunistic feeders and will prey on larger-sized insects and fish, crayfish, frogs, and salamanders (Wydoski and Whitney, 2003).
The smallmouth bass originated throughout the north-central part of the U.S. and southern Canada with its western range extending to Oklahoma. They were introduced to the west coast (California) in 1874 and Washington in 1924 (Wydoski and Whitney, 2003). They can reach 17 to 19 inches (432 to 483 mm) in total length by age 10 (Wydoski and Whitney, 2003). Maximum age is 15 years and record weights are between 8 and 11 pounds (Jenkins and Burkhead, 1994). It tolerates a wide range of habitats but generally occurs in cooler, clearer water than the largemouth bass (Smith, 1985). They inhabit large streams or rivers with substrates
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of rock, boulders, or gravel, and a succession of riffles, runs, and pools (Jenkins and Burkhead, 1994). In lakes, they are found around rocky reefs, littoral zone drop-offs, and gravel bars (Wydoski and Whitney, 2003). Smallmouth bass fry eat microcrustaceans and plankton and incorporate insects and larval fishes into their diet as they develop into fingerlings (Smith, 1985; Wydoski and Whitney, 2003). Juveniles and adults eat primarily insects, crayfish, and fishes but will opportunistically eat other aquatic organisms such as tadpoles and frogs (Smith, 1985; Jenkins and Burkhead, 1994).
Similar to the largemouth and smallmouth bass, the bluegill was introduced from eastern North America to the northwestern U.S. in 1890 (Wydoski and Whitney, 2003). It is distributed throughout the U.S. and beyond and is the most widely introduced species of Lepomis (Jenkins and Burkhead, 1994). The usual adult size is four to seven inches (102 to 178 mm) (Jenkins and Burkhead, 1994; Smith, 1985), and individuals weighing over one pound would be considered large (Wydoski and Whitney, 2003). Bluegill are generally found in warm, shallow lakes and in low to moderate-gradient creeks, streams, and rivers, preferring habitat with cover or structure. Young and juvenile bluegill are planktivores but adults feed on a variety of organisms including plant material, terrestrial and aquatic insects, mollusks, small crayfish, fish eggs, and fish larvae and juveniles (Wydoski and Whitney, 2003).
Effects of Increased Survival of Entrained Bass and Bluegill due to Project Operation on Oregon Spotted Frog
Pearl et al. (2009) included centrarchids (Micropterus and Lepomis species) in their list of non-native fish that may be potential predators of OSF. Hayes and Jennings (1986) suggest that tadpoles may be more at risk from introduced centrarchids because of their maneuverability skills and their foraging behaviors which include disturbing aquatic vegetation and benthic sediment. While sharing similar habitat requirements, OSF did not evolve with these introduced fish; thus, they may not have developed the evasive behavior mechanisms necessary to avoid being predated (FWS, 2014a).
Fies et al. (1996) characterized largemouth bass and bluegill as being very abundant, and smallmouth bass as being low in abundance, in the waters of the upper Deschutes River sub-basin; however, there is no information on the presence of any of these species in the OSF occupied sites downstream of Wickiup Dam. Bass and bluegill were not captured in Wickiup Hydro’s entrainment study. This is likely because these species prefer relatively warm (70°F) shallow water (less than 20 feet deep) and would therefore be unlikely to occur in the deep, cold waters of the reservoir at the 40- to 80-foot depth of the intake where they would be subject to entrainment. In addition, because bass and bluegill are warm-water fish, they prefer
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water temperatures of about 70°F or higher, and become lethargic and inactive at temperatures less than about 60°F (Wydoski and Whitney, 2003). These preferred water temperature conditions do not occur in the upper Deschutes River below Wickiup Dam with maximum water temperatures typically only exceeding 18°C (64.4°F) for short periods in the summer, and 7-day average maximum water temperatures nearly always less than 60°F.27 For these reasons, project operation would not cause an increase in the size of the bass or bluegill populations downstream of the dam and we do not expect any increased predation by these species on the OSF due to project operation.
Effects of Increased Survival of Emigrating Kokanee on the Population Size of Bass and Bluegill
Any bass and bluegill that may occur in waters that are hydrologically connected to the upper Deschutes River would not typically occupy the cold main- channel riverine habitats that kokanee would occupy while passing downstream. Therefore, these species’ presence would not typically overlap and any increased survival of entrained kokanee would not affect any bass or bluegill populations downstream of the dam.
Tui Chub (Gila bicolor)
Description and Abundance in the Project Area
Tui chub is native to the Columbia River drainage in central Washington, the Klamath and upper Pit River in southeastern Oregon and northern California, and the interior drainages of Nevada and California to Mohave River, southern California. They were likely introduced to the Deschutes basin from the Klamath basin, probably by anglers using them as live bait for large trout (Fies et al. 1996). Lengths for large adult fish are about eight inches (203 mm) or greater (Wydoski and Whitney, 2003). Tui chubs are found in a variety of habitats, including slow-moving streams to large lakes and reservoirs, but do not appear adaptable to riverine systems (Fies et al. 1996). Young tui chubs forage on zooplankton and microscopic food such as diatoms while adults feed on a variety of food such as plankton, insects, benthic organisms, crustaceans, and fish larvae and fry (Wydoski and Whitney, 2003). They can compete with young trout for food (Wydoski and Whitney, 2003). They are prey for piscivorous fish such as rainbow and brown trout and largemouth bass, as well as fish-eating birds, mink, and otter. Although large adult tui chub consume a wide variety of food sources, there is no evidence that tui chub prey on OSF.
27 Final EA figures 10 and 11 at 39-40.
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Fies et al. (1996) characterized tui chub in waters of the upper Deschutes sub- basin as very abundant. As with brown bullheads and three-spine sticklebacks, they have been documented in the OSF sites at Sunriver (Bowerman, 2016). However, there is no information on their presence or abundance in the other OSF occupied sites downstream of Wickiup Dam. Due to their habitat preferences, tui chub are unlikely to occupy habitats in the main channel of the Deschutes River but could occupy wetlands, ponds, and other off-channel habitats utilized by OSF.
Effects of Increased Survival of Entrained Tui Chub due to Project Operation on Oregon Spotted Frog
Tui chub were not captured in Wickiup Hydro’s entrainment study and there is no information in the project record to suggest that substantial numbers of this species are passing downstream through the dam under existing conditions. Therefore, any potential increase in entrainment survival due to project operation would not cause an increase in the size of the tui chub populations downstream of the dam, and we do not expect project operation to cause any increased predation on the OSF by tui chub.
Effects of Increased Survival of Emigrating Kokanee on the Population Size of Tui Chub
Tui chub occur in wetlands, ponds, or other off-channel habitats and do not occupy main-channel riverine habitats that kokanee would occupy while passing downstream. Therefore, these species’ presence in the Deschutes River would not typically overlap and any increased survival of entrained kokanee would not affect any tui chub populations downstream of the dam.
Mountain Whitefish (Prosopium williamsoni)
Description and Abundance in the Project Area
The mountain whitefish is found in western North America. In the U.S., its range extends to the western part of Montana and southeastward to the Rocky Mountain range in Colorado. It also occurs along the east slope of the Sierra Nevada Mountains in California (Wydoski and Whitney, 2003). They can grow to over 22 inches (559 mm) in length and weigh over five pounds, although a more typical size would be about a foot long and a weight of about 12 ounces (Wydoski and Whitney, 2003); in the Upper Deschutes, few are greater than 10 inches (254 mm) (Fies et al., 1996). They are found in lakes and in large streams with average temperatures of 48 to 52 °F; in streams, they are found primarily in the riffle areas in the summer and the slow-moving runs during the winter (Wydoski and Whitney, 2003). Mountain
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whitefish are bottom feeders, stirring up the substrate with pectoral and tail fins to expose insect larvae and other invertebrates, but they will also eat plant material, terrestrial insects, mollusks, crayfish, freshwater shrimp, leeches, worms, fish and fish eggs (Wydoski and Whitney, 2003).
Mountain whitefish are native to the upper Deschutes River and are very abundant in the Deschutes River below Wickiup Dam (Fies et al., 1996). Although they are subject to the same poor-quality habitat conditions as the other fish species due to the regulated flow regime, they make up a large amount of the fish biomass in this segment of the Deschutes River.
Effects of Increased Survival of Entrained Mountain Whitefish due to Project Operation on Oregon Spotted Frog
One mountain whitefish was captured during Wickiup Hydro’s entrainment study; therefore, mountain whitefish entrainment is very low under existing conditions. In addition, there is no information in the project record or the scientific literature indicating that the native mountain whitefish is a predator of the OSF. For these reasons, any very minor increase in entrainment survival due to project operation would have a negligible effect on the mountain whitefish population overall, and would not contribute to any increased predation on OSF.
Consistency with Recovery Plans
Licensing the project under the staff alternative with mandatory conditions would be consistent with the general management recommendations included in the Forest Service and BLM conservation assessment for the OSF (Cushman and Pearl, 2007). Specifically, the following measures would align with the general management recommendations in the conservation assessment: (1) restore or maintain hydrological regimes where OSF may be detrimentally affected (i.e., the project will maintain existing flow conditions by operating as run-of-release and implementing a ramping rate prevention plan); and (2) protect and restore ephemeral and permanent wetlands near existing OSF sites (i.e., downstream wetlands would be protected by implementing plans to prevent or minimize soil erosion, spread of noxious weeds, chemical spills, and streambank instability).
Oregon Spotted Frog Critical Habitat
Below we summarize the effects of the staff alternative with mandatory conditions on the PCEs for OSF critical habitat.
Subunit 8B (above Wickiup Dam)
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Project construction and operation would not alter the storage or release operations at Wickiup Dam, nor would it alter habitat conditions in Wickiup Reservoir. Therefore, the project would not affect any of the characteristics of the PCEs for OSF critical habitat within Wickiup Reservoir.
Subunit 8A (below Wickiup Dam)
Deschutes River
Designated critical habitat along the upper Deschutes River begins 2.6 miles below Wickiup Dam at the confluence of the unnamed tributary that drains Dilman Meadow and continues downstream to the city of Bend. The project would not affect any physical features of PCEs 1, 2, and 3 within this subunit (e.g., water depths, timing of inundation, vegetation coverage), as it would not alter the storage or release operations at Wickiup Dam, and the direct effects of project construction and operation would be confined to the immediate construction area and a short distance downstream, thus direct effects would not extend into the OSF critical habitat.
However, similar to our analysis of the indirect effects of the project on the OSF, proposed project operation could increase the survival of non-native, predatory fish species that could indirectly affect the characteristics of PCE 1: an absence or low density of non-native predators in breeding, nonbreeding, and overwintering habitat; and PCE 2: biological barriers such as abundant predators within aquatic movement corridors.
Although our analysis suggests that entrainment of non-native predatory fish is low overall, project operation would likely increase survival of any entrained fish compared to existing conditions and could contribute to a very minor increase in their abundance in the upper Deschutes River. This would predominately be the case for three-spine sticklebacks which were the second-most prevalent non-native fish species captured in Wickiup Hydro’s entrainment study, and would likely occupy existing suitable riverine habitats within several miles downstream of the dam within OSF designated critical habitat. Such an increase in the abundance of three-spine sticklebacks could contribute to a minor increase in the density of non-native predators within OSF critical habitat along the Deschutes River, which would adversely affect the habitat characteristics of PCE 1 and PCE 2. This would primarily be the case in critical habitat areas closer to the dam during the spring through summer period when flows are high and there is ample aquatic habitat in the river. Many of the entrained sticklebacks would not likely survive the winter when flows are extremely low (i.e., median flows drop to about 39 cfs from summer high flows exceeding 1,000 cfs), aquatic habitat is very limited, and sticklebacks would likely be
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subject to density dependent factors and high predation rates by birds, mammals, and larger fish.
For the other entrained non-native reservoir fish (i.e., bass, bluegill, brown bullhead, trout, and tui chub), project operation would result in a negligible increase in their abundance in OSF critical habitat because: (1) bass, bluegill, and tui chub were not collected in Wickiup Hydro’s entrainment study, which suggests that they either do not pass downstream through dam or do so in very low numbers; (2) brown bullheads are already surviving passage at a rate approaching 100 percent, thus project operation would cause a negligible increase in their survival; and (3) trout entrainment is very low, with only one individual collected in Wickiup Hydro’s entrainment study; trout are already very abundant in the Deschutes River so a very minor increase in their abundance due to increased passage survival would have a negligible effect on the existing trout population overall; there appears to be ample food for trout in the Deschutes River during the irrigation season when flows are high and most kokanee are passing downstream and these species’ presence would overlap, thus increased survival of kokanee salmon would not affect the existing trout population.
Tables 2, 3, and 4 summarize the effects of the proposed action on the PCEs for OSF critical habitat in subunit 8A, upper Deschutes River below Wickiup Dam.
Table 2. Summary of effects of proposed Wickiup Dam Project on habitat characteristics of PCE 1 for OSF designated critical habitat in subunit 8A. Description of PCE or Habitat Characteristic Description of Project Effect PCE 1 – Nonbreeding (N), Breeding (B), Rearing Likely to adversely affect (see (R), and Overwintering Habitat (O). Ephemeral or below) permanent bodies of fresh water, including but not limited to natural or manmade ponds, springs, lakes, slow-moving streams, or oxbows adjacent to streams, canals, and ditches, that have one or more of the following characteristics: Inundated for a minimum of 4 months per year (B, No effect R) (timing varies by elevation but may begin as early as February and last as long as September) Inundated from October through March (O) No effect If ephemeral, areas are hydrologically connected by No effect surface water flow to a permanent water body (e.g., pools, springs, ponds, lakes, streams, canals, or ditches) (B, R)
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Shallow-water areas (less than or equal to 30 No effect centimeters (12 inches)), or water of this depth over vegetation in deeper water (B, R) Total surface area with less than 50 percent No effect vegetative cover (N) Gradual topographic gradient (less than 3 percent No effect slope) from shallow water toward deeper, permanent water (B, R) Herbaceous wetland vegetation (i.e., emergent, No effect submergent, and floating-leaved aquatic plants), or vegetation that can structurally mimic emergent wetland vegetation through manipulation (B, R) Shallow-water areas with high solar exposure or No effect low (short) canopy cover (B, R) An absence or low density of non-native predators Likely to adversely affect (B, R, N) through a minor increase in abundance of predaceous three-spine sticklebacks, predominately in upstream extent of critical habitat within main channel habitats in relatively close proximity to Wickiup Dam
Table 3. Summary of effects of proposed Wickiup Dam Project on habitat characteristics of PCE 2 for OSF designated critical habitat in subunit 8A. Description of PCE or Habitat Characteristic Description of Project Effect PCE 2 –Aquatic movement corridors. Ephemeral Likely to adversely affect (see or permanent bodies of fresh water that have one or below) more of the following characteristics: Less than or equal to 3.1 mile (5 km) linear distance No effect from breeding areas Impediment free (including, but not limited to, hard Likely to adversely affect barriers such as dams, impassable culverts, lack of through a minor increase in water, or biological barriers such as abundant abundance of predaceous predators, or lack of refugia from predators) three-spine sticklebacks, predominately in upstream extent of critical habitat within main channel habitats in relatively close proximity to
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Wickiup Dam
Table 4. Summary of effects of proposed Wickiup Dam Project on habitat characteristics of PCE 3 for OSF designated critical habitat in subunit 8A. Description of PCE or Habitat Characteristic Description of Project Effect PCE 3 – Refugia habitat. Nonbreeding, breeding, No effect, the project would rearing, or overwintering habitat or aquatic not affect physical movement corridors with habitat characteristics characteristics of habitat such (e.g., dense vegetation, woody debris) that provide as presence of vegetation or refugia from predators (e.g., non-native fish or woody debris bullfrogs)
Dilman Meadow
Available information suggests that non-native fish do not currently occur at the Dilman Meadow site (Chelgren et al., 2008; Cushman and Pearl, 2007). Although project operation would cause a minor increase in the abundance of predaceous non- native three-spine sticklebacks below Wickiup Dam, there is no reason to believe that entrained sticklebacks would specifically seek out habitats at Dilman Meadow. Sticklebacks are already very abundant in the upper Deschutes River and have not established a population at Dilman Meadow, possibly because they would have to travel about 0.3 mile upstream into a small tributary to access the sites or because the habitat is not suitable for this species. Regardless, there is no reason to believe that a minor increase in stickleback abundance in the upper Deschutes River would cause sticklebacks to populate OSF critical habitat at Dilman Meadow.
Unit 9 (Little Deschutes River)
The project would not affect any physical features of the PCEs 1, 2, and 3 (e.g., water depths, timing of inundation, vegetation coverage) within this critical habitat unit, as it would not alter the storage or release operations at Wickiup Dam, and the direct effects of project construction and operation would not extend into the OSF critical habitat in Unit 9 that begins about 30 miles downstream of the dam.
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As discussed elsewhere in this BA, the project would contribute to a minor seasonal increase in abundance of three-spine sticklebacks; however, the increase in abundance of this species would predominately occur in the main stem Deschutes River closer to the dam and there is no reason to believe that any entrained sticklebacks would specifically migrate such long distances to access critical habitats in the Little Deschutes River. Moreover, three-spine sticklebacks are already considered to be very abundant in the Deschutes River near the confluence with the Little Deschutes River and any suitable habitats that are accessible would already be occupied by sticklebacks.
Therefore, the project would cause a negligible, if any, increase in non-native fish abundance in the Little Deschutes River and not likely adversely affect any of the PCEs for OSF critical habitat in Unit 9.
5.0 INTERRELATED AND INTERDEPENDENT EFFECTS
Interrelated actions are those that are a part of a larger action and depend on the larger action for their justification. Interdependent actions are those that have no independent utility apart from the action under consideration. Both interdependent and interrelated activities are assessed by applying the “but for” test, which asks whether any action and its associated impacts would occur “but for” the proposed action.
We do not identify any interrelated or interdependent effects as a result of the proposed action.
6.0 CUMULATIVE EFFECTS
Cumulative effects, as defined under the ESA, include the effects of future state, tribal, local, and private actions, not involving a federal action,28 that are reasonably certain to occur within the action area considered in this BA.
28 FWS indicated in an August 1, 2016, telephone conversation with Commission staff, that Reclamation may implement future changes to its dam operations, potentially including higher winter flow releases, to improve OSF habitat downstream of Wickiup Dam. FWS also indicated that staff should consider such future potential winter flow releases in the analysis of the proposed project’s effects on the OSF and its critical habitat. However, Reclamation has initiated ESA section 7 consultation with FWS on the effects of Wickiup Dam operations on the OSF and its critical habitat (CBD, 2016), and any such changes in Wickiup Dam operations including higher winter minimum flows would be a federal action that would already
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Trout stocking in the Fall River in the vicinity of OSF occupied sites near the river’s confluence with the Deschutes River would likely continue in the future, thereby providing an additional source of predatory trout to supplement the existing trout populations. Continued urbanization near the cities of Bend and LaPine could affect habitat quality by increasing impervious surface density, potentially causing additional runoff of urban pollutants (e.g., fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides, hydrocarbons) into OSF habitats.
The proposed project would increase the survival of entrained reservoir fish during the April through October period when the project is operating, which would cause a minor increase in the abundance of non-native predaceous fish in the upper Deschutes River during this period. This would predominately be the case for three- spine sticklebacks which would likely occupy existing suitable riverine habitats extending several miles downstream of the dam within designated critical habitat for the OSF, and potentially including habitats farther downstream in the vicinity of the OSF occupied site at Bull Bend.
Since 2008, the Deschutes Basin Board of Control and its eight member irrigation districts together with the city of Prineville have been preparing a Deschutes Basin Multi-Species Habitat Conservation Plan. According to the Deschutes Basin Board of Control (2016b), the plan would include steps to improve OSF habitat in the Deschutes River and its tributaries. However, we are not aware of any specific information that describes the measures that would be included in the plan.
7.0 CONCLUSION
Although project construction and operation would not cause any direct adverse effects on the OSF or its habitat at occupied sites on the upper Deschutes River, it could cause a minor increase in the abundance of non-native predaceous fish, primarily three-spine sticklebacks, within available habitats in the Deschutes River close to the dam. Such an increase in stickleback abundance could potentially extend 6 miles downstream to the closest OSF occupied site at Bull Bend where OSF breeding may occur and some OSF early life stages (i.e., eggs and small tadpoles) that are vulnerable to stickleback predation may be present. Although the potential for a
be addressed by Reclamation’s section 7 consultation. In addition, we are not aware of any specific information on a proposed flow release schedule for new winter minimum flows; therefore, an evaluation of such future potential winter flow releases would be speculative. For these reasons, we do not evaluate any future potential changes in Wickiup Dam operations in this BA.
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detectable increase in three-spine stickleback abundance and any concomitant potential increase in predation on the OSF at the Bull Bend site is low, it cannot be entirely ruled out. Therefore, we conclude that licensing the project under the staff alternative with mandatory conditions would be likely to adversely affect the OSF. However, we do not expect that the additional survival of entrained sticklebacks would cause an increase in abundance of the existing stickleback populations at the other OSF sites that are located between 17 and 59.5 river miles downstream of the dam. This is because, as we said, it is unlikely that large numbers of entrained sticklebacks would migrate such long distances when there is ample aquatic habitat and food for sticklebacks throughout the upper Deschutes River closer to the dam. In addition, sticklebacks are already considered to be very abundant in the upper Deschutes River sub-basin; thus, any very minor incremental increase, if any, in stickleback abundance at these downstream sites would be insignificant relative to the existing population size of this species.
We also conclude that licensing the project under the staff alternative with mandatory conditions would be likely to adversely affect OSF designated critical habitat. This is because OSF critical habitat begins 2.6 miles downstream of the dam within the Deschutes River, and our analysis suggests that the project would increase three-spine stickleback abundance in habitats along the main channel of the Deschutes River relatively close to the dam. Such increased abundance of this predaceous non- native fish would adversely affect PCEs 1 and 2 for OSF critical habitat within this river segment.
8.0 LITERATURE CITED
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Burko, T. 1975. Size-selective predation by the threespine stickleback. M.S. Thesis, Vancouver, Canada: The University of British Columbia. 94 pp.
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Forest Service (U.S. Forest Service). 1996. Upper Deschutes wild and scenic river and state scenic waterway comprehensive management plan. July 1996.
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Hayes, M.P., and M.R. Jennings. 1986. Decline of ranid frog species in western North America: are bullfrogs (Rana catesbeiana) responsible? Journal of Herpetology 20: 490-509.
Jenkins, R.E., and N.M. Burkhead. 1994. The Freshwater Fishes of Virginia. Bethesda, MD: American Fisheries Society.
McAllister, K.R., and W.P. Leonard. 1997. Washington State status report for the Oregon Spotted Frog. Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, Olympia. 38 pp.
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Oregon DFW (Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife). 2016. Trout stocking schedule: 2016 High Desert Region Liberation Schedule, Deschutes Watershed District. Available at: http://www.dfw.state.or.us/resources/fishing/trout_stocking_schedules/2016/B end_District.pdf. Accessed on October 18, 2016.
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Pearl, C.A., and M.P. Hayes. 2004. Habitat associations of the Oregon spotted frog (Rana pretiosa): A literature review. Final Report. Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, Olympia, Washington, USA. 44pp. + Appendices.
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