A scoping review of mental health Paper A scoping review of mental health coaching Lauren Bishop

Coaching psychology has been used successfully in various health and wellbeing contexts, but there are conflicting views as to whether coaching is an appropriate form of mental health support. Since mental health is a relatively new area for the application of coaching, a scoping review has been conducted to delineate the current state of research in the field. This article reports on two aspects of that scoping review: first, it describes how the fledgling scoping review method was adapted for this research study, offering recommendations for future scoping reviewers. Second, implications of the findings are discussed, with an exploration of how the potential of mental health coaching could be leveraged in future practice and research. Keywords: mental health; coaching; mental health coaching; scoping review; research methods; critical appraisal. NE OF THE MOST striking features A scan through the pages of this publica- of coaching psychology is its appli- tion (and other coaching journals) reveals Ocability within a diverse range of that mental wellbeing is becoming increas- areas. Traditionally, coaching psychology ingly of interest to coaching psychologists. has been used to enhance performance However, the focus has tended to be either in the realms of sports (Merian & Snyder, on psychological wellbeing as an add-on 2015), academia (Prevatt & Yelland, 2015) or by-product of executive coaching (e.g. and employment (Ladyshewsky, 2017). Timson, 2015; Weinberg, 2016), or more Alongside the widely applicable interven- commonly on the boundary between tion of performance-oriented coaching is coaching and mental health (e.g. Buckley, lifestyle-oriented coaching, in which coach 2007; Szymanska, 2006, 2007, 2009). The and client work collaboratively towards tendency to view coaching and mental the client’s personal goals, sometimes with health as entities to be kept separate was a specific focus on health (Bora et al., at odds with the idea that coaching might 2010; Olsen, 2014). Coaching has been be applied specifically to supporting people shown to be effective in supporting a with mental health difficulties; a conun- variety of health improvement outcomes drum the present author was interested in such as weight-loss, and learning more about. increased physical activity (Liu, Irwin & An informal preliminary literature search Morrow, 2015). The present author’s own was conducted using an online search engine. foray into the field of coaching occurred In keeping with the themes noted above, it somewhat by chance, by unexpectedly transpired that the topic is surrounded by acquiring a post as a Wellness Coach debate and contention. It is apparent that in a local health improvement service. there are some organisations using coaching Combined with a passion for innovative for mental health support and strongly and non-medical approaches to mental endorsing the approach (e.g. Mahari, 2016; health support, this naturally led to an Bora, 2012), whilst others argue fervently interest in how coaching psychology might against it and suggest that it is inappropriate, be applied to supporting people with their even dangerous (Jenner, 2014; Olsen, 2014). mental health difficulties. However, advocates on both sides of the

The Coaching Psychologist, Vol. 14, No. 1, June 2017 5 Lauren Bishop debate have failed to back up their claims synthesise evidence that meets particular with evidence. This prompted the author quality criteria (Grant & Booth, 2009). to conduct a robust literature review to find Table 1 denotes some respective features out more about what, if any, research had of systematic and scoping reviews to clarify been completed in this field (which can be their distinct functions. Given the fledg- termed ‘mental health coaching’). Scoping ling nature of mental health coaching review methods were employed to answer and apparent sparsity of evidence, the research question ‘What is the current scoping review was deemed the appro- state of research literature on mental health priate method for the research question coaching?’. in hand. The remainder of this article reports The original methodological guidelines on two key aspects of the review: First, it for scoping reviews were produced by Arksey explores how the scoping review method and O’Malley (2005), who set out a six-stage was adapted to the review in hand, offering framework as follows: thoughts on how future reviewers might best leverage this method. Second, it discusses Stage 1: identifying the research question implications arising from this novel applica- This includes defining key concepts within tion of coaching psychology, by exploring the question. the potential of mental health coaching and ideas for future research. The full research Stage 2: identifying relevant studies paper and supplementary documents can be This involves developing a search strategy, read in Bishop, Hemingway and Ashencaen usually drawing on multiple sources and Crabtree (2018). approaches to searching the literature.

Scoping review: An evolving method Stage 3: study selection Scoping review is a relatively new research This centres on generating and employing method, designed for exploring the state eligibility criteria for sources to be included of a research field and highlighting direc- in the review. tions for further research (Arksey & O’Malley, 2005). It differs from system- Stage 4: charting the data atic review in that it aims to understand This involves extracting relevant details from the nature and extent of research on a included studies, usually using data charting topic, whereas a systematic review seeks to tables.

Table 1: Comparison of systematic and scoping reviews

Systematic review Scoping review Used to answer a specific research question Used to answer a broad research question, which within strict, well-defined parameters may have an element of fluidity Well-suited to developing specific knowledge in Well-suited to developing general knowledge in fields about which much is already known fields about which little is yet known Limited to specific methods or methodologies Open to a range of methods and methodologies Quality appraisal often determines inclusion or Quality appraisal not essential and unlikely to exclusion from review determine inclusion in review Aims to synthesise evidence and make Aims to delineate the state of a field of research recommendations for practice

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Stage 5: collating, summarising and of coaching to mental health, but it was reporting the results unknown whether any such research existed. This includes synthesising the data, Therefore, there could have been a need to conducting analysis if appropriate, and expand the scope (for instance, to include writing findings up (generally in tabular mental health outcomes of other types of form). coaching) in order to glean some relevant insights. Although it transpired that this was Stage 6: consultation not the case, it was necessary to refine the This consists of sharing knowledge gleaned ‘mental health coaching’ concept as the from the review with stakeholders, and evidence emerged. This is contrary to the may include gathering further insight from ideas of Levac et al. (2010), who claimed that experts in the field. key concepts must be clarified at the outset. In this case that was simply not possible: Our scoping review followed this framework, rather, as the literature emerged it became with some adaptations based on enhance- clear how the concepts and eligibility criteria ments proposed by later methodologists should be shaped in order to enable a robust (Levac, Colquhoun & O’Brien, 2010; Joanna literature search. Briggs Institute (JBI) (2015)). Even with Another example is that the initial eligi- these enhancements, there remain some bility criteria included a distinction between limitations to the method which needed to performance-oriented and lifestyle-oriented be addressed to complete the review to the coaching, the latter being of interest. It was desired standard. Adjustments included the not possible to predict that some studies development of a suitable critical appraisal retrieved would be about coaching deliv- tool and adaptations to the way in which ered to a therapist or carer of someone with some of the stages were conducted. mental health difficulties. As this transpired, The nature of scoping review – and the eligibility criteria were refined to reflect its application to new fields of research – the interest in coaching delivered to the means that the method allows for a measure person experiencing mental health difficul- of fluidity; for instance, the stages can be ties. Another uncertainty at the outset was completed iteratively (although at first the nature of coaching interventions that glance they appear as a linear process). The would be reported on. This turned out to flexible and agile nature of the method was be variable, with some very clearly described very important in this review. For example, interventions and others simply labelled the consultation stage became a key part of ‘coaching’ without any further explana- the literature search: authors of included tion. Since there were enough studies in the studies were consulted in hope of uncov- former category, it was possible for the eligi- ering relevant sources that had otherwise bility criteria to include specifics about what been missed. This was useful in highlighting constituted a coaching intervention. This additional journals to be screened, and it is was preferable in answering the research recommended that future scoping reviewers question effectively, but had such studies not consider incorporating a consultation been available it may have been necessary to element into their search strategies. broaden the scope to include any interven- The agility of the method was of further tion labelled ‘coaching’. value in that, since little was known about Due to these important adjustments, the the topic at the outset, the research question concept definition and eligibility criteria and eligibility criteria inevitably required were not crystallised until the actual litera- tweaking as an understanding of the liter- ture search was almost complete. This was ature was established. For instance, the not a problem because all possibly relevant initial focus was on the direct application studies were being stored using reference

The Coaching Psychologist, Vol. 14, No. 1, June 2017 7 Lauren Bishop management software (Thomson Reuters, vast range of methods (and indeed it did); 2013). In keeping with the nature of scoping therefore a CAT for consistently appraising review, the study selection process was itera- studies from various methods was required. tive and involved several cycles of screening. Whilst some authors have claimed to present This experience with defining the ‘mental such a tool, this was found not to be the case: health coaching’ concept gives rise to some the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (Pluye recommendations for effective application et al., 2011) has been hailed for offering a of scoping review. First, contrary to Levac single checklist for reviewing studies from a et al. (2010), it is unnecessary fully define range of methodologies (Taylor & Hignett, concepts at the beginning of the process. 2014). However, in reality the tool is simply Conversely, such an approach would have two generic screening questions followed by been obstructive to the scoping nature of separate checklists for quantitative, qualita- the review: Allowing organic concept devel- tive and mixed methods. This did not fulfil opment enabled freer exploration of the the desired approach of appraising each literature and helped ensure that the final study in the same way regardless of meth- eligibility criteria were robust and effective. odology. Second, it is important to ensure that the More promisingly, Hawker et al. (2002) search process allows for such fluidity: If produced a tool for appraising data from the review is on a topic about which little is disparate sources in systematic reviews. known, it is prudent to start with a broader Theirs was a three-stage process comprising scope which can be refined later. This allows relevance assessment, data extraction and all potentially relevant studies to be iden- scoring of methodological rigour. Of the tified and further filtered once the scope CATs available, this bore the greatest rele- is finalised. Starting with a narrow scope vance to scoping review, but was still not which later has to be broadened (because wholly appropriate. Therefore, a novel, fit- no eligible studies are available) would lead for-purpose tool was developed, using that to abortive work, because the search would of Hawker et al. (ibid.) as its basis. The have to be repeated using the new criteria. following paragraphs outline how the orig- Finally, it is advisable that the search strategy inal tool was enhanced and modified for use includes a mechanism for organising rele- in this review. vant and potentially relevant studies: This The first adaptation was to combine the will allow for an iterative process, ensuring assessments of relevance and rigour into relevant studies are not lost. a unified appraisal process. The relevance A key issue in previous accounts of the assessment had been designed to evaluate a scoping review method is the notion that crit- study’s applicability to the research question, ical appraisal is unnecessary (e.g. JBI, 2015). which is highly pertinent to scoping review The present author, conversely, holds that whereby the aim is to better understand a appraisal is paramount in scoping review: field of research. A focus on methodological attempting to delineate the state of a field of strength alone is not sufficient in under- research without having a sense of its quality standing the value a study contributes to a seems nonsensical. Given that scoping review field, yet the vast majority of CATs are pre- is a relatively young method, and its lack of occupied with such issues. In this case, a study insistence on quality appraisal, the method lacking the methodological rigour required currently has no standard critical appraisal for inclusion in a systematic review could tool (CAT). have been valuable in shedding light on Consideration was given to using already how coaching psychology had been applied existing appraisal tools, but none were in the realm of mental health. Conversely, appropriate for this review. The search a meticulously conducted study would had the potential to return studies using a offer limited insight if its authors failed to

8 The Coaching Psychologist, Vol. 14, No. 1, June 2017 A scoping review of mental health coaching adequately describe the coaching interven- scoring was adopted for two reasons: first, tion. Therefore, quality in the context of a to eliminate the subjectivity of the lexical scoping review might best be seen to include scoring system; second, so that an overall relevance and rigour. score could be awarded to each study by As such, the new CAT included two items totalling the scores for each item. on relevance to the research question (one The reason behind giving total scores on description of participants’ mental health was to offer some measure by which quality status and on one description of interven- could be compared across studies. However, tion). Guided by Hawker et al. (ibid.), these it transpired that some studies were not comprised checklists of details that should be eligible for the full score: over 40 per cent of included so that the reader can understand studies had not yet been completed and thus those aspects of the research, points being were not liable to be scrutinised on their awarded based on how many details were results. Therefore, scores were converted to present. These items could be adapted for a percentage of the maximum points avail- other scoping reviews by replacing ‘mental able for that particular study, in order to health status’ and ‘coaching intervention’ allow some sort of fair comparison. A final with alterative key concepts. step was to place each study in a quartile, The remaining items in the tool followed based on its final percentage score. This sat the approach of Hawker et al. (ibid.) in well with the four-level scoring system for assessing the rigour of method, analysis, individual items and enabled a picture to be results and so on. Crucially, this included an developed of the overall quality of the body item on ‘ethics and bias’, an element often of evidence (most studies fell into the upper deemed important in qualitative research quartiles, suggesting a medium-to-high level but omitted from quantitative appraisals of overall value in answering the research (see the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme question). (CASP) checklists for qualitative studies and It is recognised that these measures for RCTs (CASP, 2013a, 2013b)). Since it is comparing studies and defining overall possible for quantitative as well as qualita- quality of the body of evidence are fairly tive researchers to instil bias (Turner, 2013), crude. It might be argued that this does it was deemed vital to assess the potential not matter too much for the purposes of for bias in all studies. Additionally, a ‘read- scoping review, particularly for a new field of ability’ item was added to assess general research where the aim is to gain an initial clarity and accessibility; which it was thought and general understanding of the literature. was important in assessing the value a study Indeed, in this case it was certainly more brings to the field. valuable than the previously non-existent As with the relevance questions, the quality assessment method for scoping items assessing methodological strength review. Equally, as the scoping review were scored based on how many of a list of method continues to develop, there is an features were present. In the original tool, opportunity to consider how the appraisal the style of the items was inconsistent: some process could be further refined. For now, it used the checklist-based approach; others is hoped that the CAT presented here might used subjective language such as ‘could offer a valuable resource to be adapted for be better’. It was thought best to use the future scoping reviews. Any feedback about checklist system for all items, to enhance the the usefulness of the tool and how it might consistency and objectivity of the appraisal. be enhanced would welcome. The complete Each item in the new CAT offered a score tool can be found in the Appendix. between zero and three. The original tool Whilst there was a need to address some applied somewhat arbitrary linguistic scores pitfalls in the method, scoping review served of ‘good/fair/poor/very poor’. Numerical its purpose well and was effective in under-

The Coaching Psychologist, Vol. 14, No. 1, June 2017 9 Lauren Bishop standing the current landscape of mental and a client with dissociative identity health coaching research. Some valuable disorder (DID). The researcher sought to learning took place in developing the meth- explore the coaching process, development odology for this study, and it is hoped that of boundaries and whether/how coaching others will find this learning helpful when was helpful for the client. Given the depth conducting future scoping reviews. of insight provided by this study, if offers a useful starting point from which to explore Mental health coaching: Prospects and the potential for mental health coaching. possibilities Campone (ibid.) studied the coach-client The scoping review method was designed dyad for six months, at the start of which the for gleaning knowledge about the state of a client had already been seeing the life coach body of literature, particularly in new areas of weekly for three years. Coaching sat along- research. In this case it has not disappointed side medical treatment and , in delivering such an aim, bringing rich and the type of work she did in her coaching insight into the application of coaching as a was very different to that conducted in form of mental health support. The review therapy: the latter was about dealing with findings (see Bishop et al., 2018) show that trauma; the former focussed on progressing this field is still in its infancy (just 12 studies towards life goals. It is quite striking to were included, with the earliest from 2010) read about the achievement of the client, and is rapidly developing (over 40 per cent ‘Jennifer’, in terms of social and professional of studies were reported a year or less before goals (such as developing friendships, taking the review was conducted, with several still in up public speaking and starting to write a progress). The existing evidence base and its book). Jennifer felt that each of her three rapidly expanding nature bring some exciting facets of mental health support (medica- insights and opportunities for the future. tion, psychotherapy and coaching) brought In those studies for which results had been unique benefits, and that coaching very published, mental health coaching showed much offered value beyond those brought a range of positive outcomes, including about in therapy. symptom reduction, improved self-manage- This illustrates what is perhaps the ment, better social functioning and attain- crux of the value of coaching: its client- ment of life goals relating to education and centred, empowering nature, which has employment (Campone, 2014; Fried & Irwin, previously been highlighted as key to its 2016; Hsieh, 2010; Naik & Cully, 2014; Seal, success in supporting vulnerable popula- 2017). Only one study (Härter et al., 2016) tions (Ammentorp et al., 2013). Corrob- did not find any significant positive effects orating this notion, earlier studies have of coaching for mental health difficulties, pinpointed mechanisms that are instru- and here no negative effects were seen. This mental in coachees’ subsequent health suggests that coaching is a viable form of improvement, such as increased sense of mental health support – certainly not harmful autonomy, coach-client collaboration and as suggested by adversaries of the approach enhanced self-efficacy (Cinar & Schou 2014; (Jenner, 2014) – and warrants further explo- Dufour et al., 2015; McGloin et al., 2015). ration in practice and research. It is here that The notion is further reinforced by some attention will now be turned, since the pros- of the studies in our review, which explored pects and possibilities for the advancement of the ways in which coaching is valuable to mental health coaching are many. clients. Such studies have found that the One of the most noteworthy studies person-centred and skills-building nature of included in the review came from Campone coaching are key to its effectiveness, and (2014), who presented an in-depth case that because of this it is enjoyable for clients study of the dynamic between a life coach to engage with (Campone 2014; Fried &

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Irwin 2016; Nsieh 2010; Robson-Kelly & van counts (Mukuria et al., 2013). This adds Nieuwerburgh, 2016). For Jennifer, she was weight to the notion that new approaches empowered by a transparent and trusting to mental health support are required. coach-client relationship: the coach drew on Drawing on the existing skills of coaches in the client’s rich expertise in her condition other fields may be an efficient way of doing to better understand how he could support this, by offering a ready-made workforce to her; they co-produced the agenda for each deliver mental health support. It has been session and focussed on Jennifer’s strengths, noted, both anecdotally and in IAPT guide- achievements and positive experiences. lines, that there is much overlap between The high acceptability of coaching for coaching techniques and the low-intensity clients is an important factor when consid- therapy delivered by psychological wellbeing ering its potential in the field of mental practitioners (PWPs) in IAPT (F. Durbridge, health. There is mounting evidence in the personal communication, 4 September 2016; realm of psychological therapy that it is IAPT, 2015). This suggests that coaches are not which intervention is delivered but the well-placed to apply their skills to supporting quality of the client-therapist relationship people with their mental health. It would be which most strongly predicts therapeutic beneficial to further explore how this could outcomes (cf. Ardito & Rabellino (2011)). be put into practice, perhaps including pilot In light of this, since coaching is centred programmes to investigate the feasibility of on communicative style and nurturing the such an approach. coach-client relationship, it is no surprise In exploring how coaches could be that it has so far proven to be of value utilised within mental health services, consid- in mental health support. There is real eration would need to be given to the level of potential to leverage the knowledge of mental health training required. Returning how vital the dyad relationship is in thera- to the case of Jennifer (Campone, 2014), her peutic success, by exploring how coaching coach had a background in psychotherapy, could be best utilised in the field of mental and she valued his solid understanding of health. how to support someone with mental health The case for further exploring the poten- difficulties. There is an impetus currently on tial of mental health coaching is multifac- rolling out Mental Health First Aid (MHFA) eted. There is great demand for innovative training in various settings at present (MHFA approaches to mental health support at England, 2017); which could be a useful first present (Mental Health Taskforce, 2016), port of call for coaches and help negate the calling for empowering and self-manage- need for more the intensive training under- ment-based interventions. Since these are gone by PWPs. Whilst there are those who core features of coaching, it seems reason- disparage mental health coaching for the able to consider how such an approach lack of clinical expertise of coaches (Jenner, could be utilised in the mental health 2014), it could otherwise be argued that it is arena. Further, concerns are being raised the tendency of coaching to see the person around the effectiveness of current interven- and not the ‘illness’ that is the basis of its tions of choice for mental health problems, appeal. For Jennifer, one powerful aspect of Improving Access to Psychological Thera- the coach-client relationship was her coach’s pies (IAPT, 2015) and medication (National self-directed learning in DID and, more Institute for Health and Care Excellence specifically, Jennifer’s personal experience (NICE), 2016a, 2016b). of it. It seemed that his deep understanding IAPT was instated with the aim of of Jennifer as an individual, not his mental reducing mental healthcare costs and health training alone, was paramount to improving outcomes (Layard et al., 2007), empowering Jennifer to progress towards but has been critiqued for failing on both her goals (Campone, 2014).

The Coaching Psychologist, Vol. 14, No. 1, June 2017 11 Lauren Bishop

The non-clinical basis of coaching is . Whilst smoking cessation inter- another reason for its potential in helping to ventions also involve medical or nicotine- overcome limitations in the current mental replacement therapy, the coaching element health support system. It has been suggested of such programmes has been noted to that the medicalisation of mental health prob- double one’s chances of success (SmokeFree, lems – a diagnose-and-treat approach – is in 2017). This brings to light another potential itself a failed system, and argued that a more area in which coaching psychology may be person-centred approach should be adopted beneficial in the mental health sphere: as (most notably Johnstone & Boyle, 2018). This a support mechanism for medication with- and other sources in the critical psychiatry drawal. None of the research thus far has literature bring an impetus for alternatives to considered the utilisation of coaching for medical treatment: an array of academic, auto- this purpose; thus there is an opportunity to biographical and journalistic accounts (Aslan, explore this possibility in the future. 2008; Cassani, 2017; Davies, 2013; Healy, 2016; Another finding from the review was that Whitaker, 2010) highlight the shortcomings mental health coaching has been delivered of psychiatric drugs, demonstrating that, long- in a variety of settings and styles: ongoing term, they tend to generate poorer outcomes life coaching (Campone, 2014); group in terms of social functioning, physical health, and one-to-one coaching in educational employment status and frequency/intensity settings (Fried & Irwin, 2016; Hsieh, 2010; of episodes of poor mental wellbeing. They Robson-Kelley & van Nieuwerburgh, 2016); also illustrate the oppression experienced by telephone-based interventions targeted mental health patients within the illness-medi- at improving health outcomes in specific cation approach, an issue that coaching could mental health conditions (Härter et al., help to overcome. 2016) or co-morbid diabetes and depres- Coaching offers significant opportunity to sion (Cully et al., 2014; Naik and Cully, diminish the power imbalances that exist in 2014). This highlights the diverse and wide- the patient-professional relationship. As seen reaching contribution of coaching, which in the case of Jennifer (Campone, 2014), suggests a high level of promise in its poten- coaching can truly empower people with tial application moving forward. severe mental health difficulties to thrive and It is especially noteworthy that coaching achieve life goals. For Jennifer, coaching was has shown potential in educational settings, an adjunct to drug treatment, but it should be given the current climate of crisis in young considered that for those who do not wish to people’s mental health. There is mounting take medication, or indeed be a recipient of tension around the expectation placed ‘treatment’, coaching could offer a valuable on teachers to support children with their alternative. This sits well with the PTM Frame- mental health, but not afforded the training work (Johnstone & Boyle, 2018), which puts they feel they need in order to do so effec- an emphasis on understanding individual tively (Rhodes, 2018). Coaching offers a experience and supporting people to make number of opportunities to help mitigate sense of this and move forward. this issue: first, training school staff in A particular area of concern in the realm coaching skills may offer some tools with of psychiatric medications is their addictive which to support pupils without the need for quality and the difficulty people experience in-depth specialist mental health knowledge. when withdrawing from them (Cassani, This could be particularly effective in that 2017; Whitaker, 2010). Coaching support the same skills can be applied to supporting has been shown to be invaluable in helping children in a multitude of other areas of people to give up smoking (Boccio et al., their lives too. It would be prudent to explore 2017; Mantler et al., 2014), suggesting that whether coaching skills increases school coaching can be instrumental in overcoming staff’s confidence in supporting pupils in

12 The Coaching Psychologist, Vol. 14, No. 1, June 2017 A scoping review of mental health coaching this way. Second, there might be benefit in Conclusion widening the use of school-based coaching Scoping review is a fledgling method which, and positive education programmes, such as with the adaptations noted in this article, Worth-It Projects (the programme on which was invaluable in gaining an understanding the research by Robson-Kelley & van Nieuw- of the research landscape on mental health erburgh (2016) was based). Using coaching coaching. This small but growing evidence to empower young people to develop the base reveals rich insight into how coaching skills needed to maintain their wellbeing psychology has been applied, bringing an could be one of the most powerful potential array of possibilities for future research. The applications of coaching psychology, and it prospects and possibilities of coaching for would be prudent to explore such possibili- mental health are vast, and may be a crucial ties in practice and research. piece in the puzzle of improving people’s In summary, this scoping review has mental wellbeing. The author looks forward offered a number of insights into mental to continuing to follow and support this health coaching and demonstrated some important field of work. positive outcomes. As this fledgling area of research and practice evolves, there are Correspondence many important opportunities for leveraging Lauren Bishop the potential of mental health coaching. Email: [email protected]

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14 The Coaching Psychologist, Vol. 14, No. 1, June 2017 A scoping review of mental health coaching

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