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A Review of Nature-Based Solutions for Nitrogen Removal and Recovery

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A Review of Nature-Based Solutions for Nitrogen Removal and Recovery water Review Diffuse Water Pollution from Agriculture: A Review of Nature-Based Solutions for Nitrogen Removal and Recovery Giuseppe Mancuso 1,2,* , Grazia Federica Bencresciuto 1, Stevo Lavrni´c 1 and Attilio Toscano 1 1 Department of Agricultural and Food Sciences, Alma Mater Studiorum-University of Bologna, Viale Giuseppe Fanin 50, 40127 Bologna, Italy; [email protected] (G.F.B.); [email protected] (S.L.); [email protected] (A.T.) 2 CIRI FRAME-Interdepartmental Centre for Industrial Research in Renewable Resources, Environment, Sea and Energy, Alma Mater Studiorum-University of Bologna, Via Selmi 2, 40126 Bologna, Italy * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +39-051-20-9-6182 Abstract: The implementation of nature-based solutions (NBSs) can be a suitable and sustainable approach to coping with environmental issues related to diffuse water pollution from agriculture. NBSs exploit natural mitigation processes that can promote the removal of different contaminants from agricultural wastewater, and they can also enable the recovery of otherwise lost resources (i.e., nutrients). Among these, nitrogen impacts different ecosystems, resulting in serious environmental and human health issues. Recent research activities have investigated the capability of NBS to remove nitrogen from polluted water. However, the regulating mechanisms for nitrogen removal can be complex, since a wide range of decontamination pathways, such as plant uptake, microbial degradation, substrate adsorption and filtration, precipitation, sedimentation, and volatilization, can be involved. Investigating these processes is beneficial for the enhancement of the performance of Citation: Mancuso, G.; Bencresciuto, NBSs. The present study provides a comprehensive review of factors that can influence nitrogen G.F.; Lavrni´c,S.; Toscano, A. Diffuse removal in different types of NBSs, and the possible strategies for nitrogen recovery that have been Water Pollution from Agriculture: A reported in the literature. Review of Nature-Based Solutions for Nitrogen Removal and Recovery. Keywords: nitrogen; constructed wetlands; buffer strips; vegetated channels; water sediment control Water 2021, 13, 1893. https:// basins; water pollution doi.org/10.3390/w13141893 Academic Editors: Alexandros Stefanakis and Nicolas Kalogerakis 1. Introduction Fertilizers have the potential to provide essential plant macro- and micro-nutrients, Received: 4 June 2021 ensuring crop growth and yield [1]. However, their inappropriate management and Accepted: 7 July 2021 Published: 8 July 2021 excessive application in agriculture have had detrimental environmental impacts, such as the loss of nutrients to surface waters [2] and groundwater [3], decreasing water quality [4], Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral the promotion of eutrophication [5], soil and water acidification [6,7], and alterations in with regard to jurisdictional claims in biodiversity [8]. In 2019, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United 6 published maps and institutional affil- Nations released the FAOSTAT fertilizer statistics [9], reporting that 192 × 10 tons of iations. chemical and mineral fertilizers were administered to agricultural soils in 2017, specifically, 109 × 106 tons of nitrogen (N), 45 × 106 tons of phosphorus (P), and 38 × 106 tons of potassium (expressed as K2O). N is therefore the most used fertilizer, and thus the main cause of surface and groundwater contamination [10]. N is conveyed from agricultural soil to freshwater ecosystems during precipitation events, which control the water flow Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. and regulate the N content in run-off and tile drainage waters. Figure1 shows the global Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article trend of N fertilizers used in agriculture from 2002 to 2017 [11]. From the graph, it can distributed under the terms and be observed that the use of N has increased by about 30% in the last two decades and conditions of the Creative Commons therefore it is of extreme importance to address the problems related to N pollution from Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// agriculture. N, if present in soil and water above a certain threshold, mainly in the form of − − creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ nitrate (NO3 ) and nitrite (NO2 ), can be the cause of pollution of different environmental 4.0/). Water 2021, 13, 1893. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13141893 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/water Water 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 23 Water 2021, 13, 1893 2 of 22 fore it is of extreme importance to address the problems related to N pollution from agri- culture. N, if present in soil and water above a certain threshold, mainly in the form of nitrate (NO3−) and nitrite (NO2−), can be the cause of polluti−on of different environmental matrices. In particular, the progressive increase of NO3 in soils, and its runoff and leaching matrices. In particular, the progressive increase of NO3− in soils, and its runoff and leach- intoing into freshwaters, freshwaters, has has been been caused caused mainly mainly by agricultural agricultural activities. activities. 1.2 1.1 ) 8 1.1 1.0 1.0 N (tonnes x 10 (tonnes N 0.9 0.9 0.8 Year FigureFigure 1. GlobalGlobal trend trend of ofnitrogen nitrogen used used as fertilizer—average as fertilizer—average 2002–2017 2002–2017 [11]. [11]. An additional additional problem problem is related is related to the to fact the that fact agricultural that agricultural producers producers usually usuallyapply apply moremore NN thanthan crops actually actually need need for for their their gr growthowth [12]. [12 The]. The remaining remaining N surplus N surplus [12] [is12 ] is not not assimilated by crops but released as surplus into freshwater systems. Major interna- assimilated by crops but released as surplus into freshwater systems. Major international tional efforts are being made to quantify the amount of N lost since it is useful for the efforts are being made to quantify the amount of N lost since it is useful for the definition of definition of the agricultural pressure on ecosystems. At the European level, for instance, thethe agriculturalEuropean Union pressure has defined on ecosystems. an agri-environmental At the European indicator level, know for as instance,gross N balance the European Union[13], which has definedprovides an indication agri-environmental of the N surplus indicator on agricultural know as land gross (kg N N balance ha−1 year [−131).], which −1 −1 providesBasically, anit was indication observed of thethat N agricultural surplus on practices agricultural commonly land (kg exhibit N ha lowyear N-use-effi-). Basically, it wasciency, observed especially that under agricultural increasing practices N inputs commonly [13]. exhibit low N-use-efficiency, especially underThe increasing relevant national N inputs institutions [13]. have therefore tried to define more restrictive leg- islationThe inrelevant order to cope national with this institutions issue worldwide. have therefore For example, tried the to European define more community restrictive leg- islationrecognized in orderthis problem to cope in with 1991 this and issue it introduced worldwide. a specific For example, piece of the legislation European com- munity(91/676/EEC) recognized [14], also this known problem as the in“Nitrates 1991 and Directive”, it introduced which aims a specific to protect piece the ofqual- legislation − (91/676/EEC)ity of surface and [14 ],groundwater, also known pr aseventing the “Nitrates pollution Directive”, caused by NO which3 of aimsagricultural to protect the qualityorigin and of surfacepromoting and the groundwater, use of sustainable preventing agricultural pollution practices. caused by NO − of agricultural Unfortunately, management practices, generally supported by agricultural3 policies origin and promoting the use of sustainable agricultural practices. and actions, have not been able to mitigate the negative impact of agriculture and N losses haveUnfortunately, not been reduced management to desired levels practices, [15]. Furthermore, generallysupported the expansion by agriculturaland develop- policies andment actions, of agriculture have not has beenresulted able in to the mitigate conversion the negativeof natural impactlandscapes of agriculture into agricultural and N losses havefields, not thereby been causing reduced the to disruption desired levels of the [ 15hydrological]. Furthermore, regime the and expansion altering the and capacity development ofof agricultureecosystems to has reduce resulted N loads in the from conversion agricultural of fields natural affectin landscapesg freshwater into systems. agricultural fields, therebyFor causingthis reason, the the disruption construction of theor restor hydrologicalation of natural regime systems, and altering such as thenature- capacity of ecosystemsbased solutions to reduce (NBSs), N have loads been from recently agricultural endorsed, fields aiming affecting to re-establish freshwater ecosystem systems. servicesFor that this would reason, prevent the constructionsignificant losses or of restoration N of agricultural of natural origin. systems, NBSs are suchdefined as nature- basedby the solutionsInternational (NBSs), Union havefor the been Conservation recently of endorsed, Nature (IUCN) aiming as to“actions re-establish to protect, ecosystem servicessustainably that manage, would and prevent restore significant natural or losses modified of N ecosystems, of agricultural which origin. address NBSs societal
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