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Home , Pax Romana

B.A. History (Hons.) Sem. II Social Formations and Cultural Patterns of the Ancient and Medieval World

Teacher: Dr. Richa Malhotra

Date: 3rd April 2020

Unit I: Crises of the - I

Important Terms –

Augustulus: ‘little ’. This title was given to who was a minor when he became an emperor. Antoinianus: A Roman silver coin which debased over the third century CE and became bronze Denarius: Roman silver currency Romana: The period of relative and minimal warfare in starting with the reign of Augustus : Arrangement of governance introduced by Diocletian whereby two Augustus and two Caesars ruled over the Roman Empire divided into four parts Important Readings on this topic – Campbell, Brian, The Romans and their World, Yale University Press, 2011. Farooqui, Amar, Early Social Formations, Manak Publications Pvt. Limited, 2001. Garnsey, Peter and Robert Saller (ed.), The Roman Empire: Economy, Society and Culture, (Second Edition), Bloomsbury Academic, 2014. Potter, David S., (ed.), A Companion to the Roman Empire, Blackwell Publishing, 2006. Web Links - http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/fallofrome_article_01.shtml http://www.roman-empire.net/

Time Line of Roman Emperors Period of Rule Augustus 27BCE – 14 CE 98-117 CE Hadrian 117-138 CE 161-180 CE Diocletian (E) 284-305 CE Maximian (W) 285-305 CE Constantine I 307-337 CE Constantius II (E) 337-340 CE Constantine II (W) 337-340 CE Constans (W) 337-340 CE Constantius II (E & W) 340-361 CE (E & W) 361-363 CE Valentinian (W) 364-375 CE Valens (E) 364-378 CE Theodosius (E& W) 394-395 CE Arcadius (E) 395-409 CE Honorius (W) 395-423 CE Majorian (W) 456-461 CE Zeno (E) 474-491 CE Romulus Augustulus (W) 475-476 CE Introduction The decline and fall of the grand Roman Empire constitutes an interesting arena of study and speculation even today. The reasons put forth as explanations for the fading of the Roman Empire are varied, though often interconnected with one another. Historians have variously argued that the fall of the Roman Empire may be attributed to the weakening of the political structure, inadequacy of the ruling class and the failure of the military apparatus to protect and preserve the vast territories of the mighty empire. On the other hand, economic reasons are highlighted as a major cause of the decline. These would include severe financial crisis arising from diminishing returns from the employment of slave labour, sharp decline in the supply of slaves accompanied by heavy burden of taxation upon the common gentry to meet the expenditures on administration and military preparedness among others. The other aspect which is cited for the fall of the Empire were the repeated invasions and massacre carried out by foreign invaders including the Germanic tribes and the Huns which had an adverse impact upon the stability of the Roman Empire and the fabric of the Roman society. While keeping these reasons in mind, it ought to be remembered that these were not the only reasons that have been blamed for the collapse of an Empire which remained invincible for almost five centuries until its fall in 476 CE. This chapter will be discussing some of the major reasons held responsible for the emergence of a crisis situation in Rome which led to its fall. It is important to point out that Rome was exhibiting signs of instability and fractures from much before the date specified for its eventual collapse. Therefore, this chapter will first review the political scenario in Rome from the late second century CE, before a detailed discussion of the possible reasons for Rome’s collapse. It should be pointed out that although the crisis situation plagued the entire Roman empire, the discussion of the decline and fall of the Roman empire essentially refers to the fall of the Roman metropolis along with the , because, the eastern Roman empire continued to thrive for many centuries as the , after the fall of west in late fifth century.

Political Trajectory of the Late Roman Empire The political culture of Rome since the pre- republic period gave an impression of flexibility and adaptability to new political, social and religious ideas and ideals. This malleable quality persisted well into the imperial period in , whereby, extensive territories with varied population, cultures and belief systems were well knit together into one formidable unit. This facilitated the deployment of effective military units which consolidated the strength and position of the Roman Empire. Simultaneously, the economy of Rome prospered with the incorporation of more and more land rich in agricultural and mineral resources. This was accompanied by the successful employment of slave labour to work on these lands, which helped the landed aristocrats to make substantial profits from their properties.

What needs to be emphasised is the parasitic nature of the city of Rome, Apart from the imperial court, the oligarchy, government officials, and praetorian guards, there was a large section of unproductive poor inhabitants who lived on free grain distribution. Rome was more of a centre of consumption than of production and the of Ostia was essentially a one way traffic. The declining political and administrative importance of the city was immediately reflected in the displacement of all economic activity centred on the city. By the third century AD the aristocracy was no longer interested in residing at Rome or in its vicinity and moved to estates in the countryside of , Gaul and Spain. This speeded up the decentralization of economic activity and made the country seats of the oligarchy self-sufficient economic units. Once Rome and Ostia lost their key position, Mediterranean long distance trade which for centuries had been geared to fulfil the requirements of the capital gradually slowed down. This resulted in the decay of long distance trade especially in the west.

The political culture in Rome matured during the reign of Augustus (27 BCE to 14 CE) who masterfully integrated the traditional ideals of the republican structure with elements of imperial rule under the banner of his own authority. He organised the military apparatus of the Roman Empire inspiring bonds of loyalty towards the emperor which strengthened as a tradition during the reigns of his successors. The Pax Romana established under Augustus was difficult to be emulated or maintained by his successors. Fractures began appearing in the Roman imperial structure from the close of the second century. Although a date is clearly specified for the fall of the Roman Empire in the west, the imperial structure became wobbly time and again during the rule of various Roman emperors. After a period of immense instability from 235 to 284 CE, when Rome witnessed the ascendance of several emperors in quick succession, Diocletian came to power and provided some semblance of order and stability.

Diocletian ruled over Rome from 284 to 305 CE and his achievement in re- establishing stability and peace was impressive after a long period of misrule and turmoil. He initiated an arrangement known as the Tetrarchy or the ‘rule of four’. In 293 CE he appointed Maximian, Galerius and Constantius as his co-rulers in different parts of the Empire. This arrangement was accompanied by matrimonial alliances to ensure the loyalty of each of the rulers. Both Diocletian and Maximian adopted royal titles to raise their imperial statuses in the eyes of the people. Together, the four rulers were able to establish effective rule and suppress dissent and revolts against the central authority. Diocletian through a series of reforms reorganised and expanded the strength of the army, revamped the provincial structure and the system of taxation leading to greater centralisation of power and control in the hands of the Emperor. Under the rule of the Tetrarchy, substantial progress was made in the eastern parts. A peace deal was struck with the Persians which continued for forty years after Persia was thoroughly defeated. In the west, Britain had been reacquired, Egypt had been subdued and the Rhine frontier was suitably pacified.

The division of the Roman Empire under the Tetrarchy Arrangement Diocletian abdicated the throne in 305 CE along with Maximian on account of ill health. Galerius and Constantius continued as the Augusti after this point. Constantine I was declared the Augustus of the west after the death of his father Constantius. Constantine had to assert his superior position by suppressing and defeating a series of rivals, tyrants and claimants of the title of Augustus. He is most well known as a significant figure in the history of the Christian Church, as the propagator of the tenets of Christianity. Emperor Constantine I founded the new city of in 324 CE in the site of ancient Byzantium. This was referred to as the ‘new Rome’ which comprised of grand buildings and imperial structures, sculptures and works of art. Most importantly Constantinople was located at a very strategic position, such that it became the key city in the east. It attracted important people, elites, bureaucrats and administrators in the east.

Constantine was an ardent follower of Christian ideals from 312 CE and he propagated the Christian faith by the establishment of churches across the Roman Empire. He is known to have converted to Christianity in his deathbed. Constantine through his principles and institutions left behind a legacy for the future rulers of Rome. After his rule, the legal position of the Church within the state and the dynamics between the two assumed an important factor of concern, which was to continue well into the future. A strong tendency of centralisation of power continued and expanded from the time of Diocletian to Constantine’s reign. The emperor became all powerful during their reigns and local initiative and voices were systematically stifled to a large extent. After the reign of Constantine, Constantinople became the most prominent centre of power in the Empire and continued to be so even in the Byzantine Empire which succeeded the Roman Empire in the east. Constantine’s reign was followed by civil wars among his three surviving sons which again destabilized the political environment. After the death of Constantine II and Constans in two unrelated conflicts, Constantius II assumed the responsibility of establishing his authority as the next from 340 CE. He strengthened his position in the east before marching westwards to assert himself. He died in 361 CE while he was facing rebellion from Julian, his cousin, who he had installed as in in 355 CE. Julian’s death in 363 was followed by quick successions by Jovian, Valentinian I and Valens. In 364, after Valentinian became the emperor, he declared his brother, Valens, to be his fellow Augustus to take charge of the eastern territories, while he tried to restore stability in the west. With the exception of rule under Theodosius between 394 and 395 CE, from this point onwards, the Roman Empire was divided into eastern and western parts under separate rulers, and the trajectory of these two parts began to diverge steadily. The Roman Empire did not show much stability from this point. The dynastic rivalries and attempts to ward off intruders and invaders kept the rulers too occupied to allow them to actually consolidate their positions or establish order and stability. The Sasanid Persians posed a threat in the east, while in the west, the territories were rapidly slipping out of Roman control with repeated invasions by the various Germanic tribes. Rome lost its influence over Britain and Roman control was severely undermined in the region of northern Africa and Spain. One of the landmark incidents in the history of fall of the Roman Empire was the sack of Rome in 410 CE by the Visigoths, a Germanic tribal group. This destabilized the entire political system in Rome and Roman territories were exposed to repeated invasions from outside forces including the Vandals, Huns, Visigoths and Ostrogoths. Rome was sacked once more by the Vandals in 455 CE. Within the next two decades, Spain and Gaul were taken over by the Visigoths. Romulus Augustulus, a child, was the final emperor of western Rome who served as the puppet ruler from 475-476 CE. After the disappearance of Roman rule in the west, Germanic rulers took over and Theodoric established the Ostrogothic kingdom in 489 CE. Unlike the western empire, the eastern Roman empire showed more resilience under able leadership and continued to flourish as the Byzantine Empire which finally collapsed with the as late as 1453 CE. Dr. Richa Malhotra, Associate Professor, Department of History, CVS [email protected] Ph: 9650645706 Date: 03.04.2020 …………………………………………………………………………………