Income Generating Activities in Public Primary Schools and Their Contribution to School Funds in Tanzania: the Case of Busega District Council

The University of Dodoma University of Dodoma Institutional Repository http://repository.udom.ac.tz

Education Master Dissertations

2019 Income generating activities in public primary schools and their contribution to school funds in Tanzania: The case of Busega district council

Lasway, Magno Mtorobo

The University of Dodoma

Lasway, M. M. (2019). Income generating activities in public primary schools and their contribution to school funds in Tanzania: the case of Busega district council (Master’s dissertation). The University of Dodoma, Dodoma http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12661/2110 Downloaded from UDOM Institutional Repository at The University of Dodoma, an open access institutional repository. INCOME GENERATING ACTIVITIES IN PUBLIC

PRIMARY SCHOOLS AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION

TO SCHOOL FUNDS IN TANZANIA: THE CASE OF

BUSEGA DISTRICT COUNCIL

LASWAY, MAGNO MTOROBO

MASTER OF ARTS IN EDUCATION

THE UNIVERSITY OF DODOMA

OCTOBER, 2019

INCOME GENERATING ACTIVITIES IN PUBLIC PRIMARY

SCHOOLS AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION TO SCHOOL FUNDS

IN TANZANIA: THE CASE OF BUSEGA DISTRICT COUNCIL

LASWAY, MAGNO MTOROBO

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED AS PARTIAL FULFILMENT

OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF

ARTS IN EDUCATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF DODOMA

THE UNIVERSITY OF DODOMA

OCTOBER, 2019

DECLARATION AND COPYRIGHT

I LASWAY, MAGNO MTOROBO, declare that this dissertation is my original work and that it has not been presented and will not be presented in any other

University for a similar or any other degree award.

Signature of the candidate ………………...... Date…………………………

No part of this dissertation may be produced, stored in any retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior written permission of the author or the University of Dodoma, if transformed for publication in other format shall be acknowledged that this work has been submitted for the degree award at the

University of Dodoma.

CERTIFICATION

The undersigned certifies that she has read and hereby recommends for acceptance by the University of Dodoma a dissertation entitled “Income Generating Activities in Public Primary Schools and their Contribution to School Funds in Tanzania:

The Case of Busega District Council” in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Education of the University of Dodoma

Dr. Rose Matete (PhD)

(Supervisor)

Signature...... Date......

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The completion of this dissertation is a result of the contributions and cooperation of different individuals. First, I would like to thank the Almighty God for his protection and blessings that I have been able to accomplish this dissertation.

Second, special thanks should go to my lecturer and supervisor Dr. Rose Matete for the constant cooperation, encouragement and guidance from the beginning of this dissertation up to the end. Her constructive comments on each stage of the research work have made this work to be in this form.

More thanks are also directed to all my lecturers of the University of Dodoma, particularly Prof. Willy Komba, Dr. Francis William, Dr. Joyce Nemes, Dr. Ignasia

Mligo Dr. Baraka Kondo, Dr. Daniel Mngarah, Dr. Narayan Behera, Dr. Abdon

Ephrem, Dr. Juma Mwinjuma and Dr. Enedy Mlaki. My thanks are also directed to

Dr. Renatus Patrick the post graduate coordinator at the College of Education.

I wish to extend my sincere gratitude to my classmates of MAED for the academic year 2017/2019. Special word of thanks should go to the District Primary Education

Officer, Head teachers and all teachers‟ coordinators of income generating activities in public primary schools for their constant support during the data collection for this work. Just to mention a few: Mr. Gidion Bunto, Masululi Mapalala, Jonathan

Karago, Mohamed Nassoro, Redempta Missanga and Judith Buberwa.

My special thanks should also go to my lovely wife Juliana Mkenda and my children

Carlin and Divine for their prayers, support and willingness to allow me to be far away from their sight during my study.

iii

DEDICATION

I dedicate this work to my beloved wife Juliana Mkenda and my lovely daughters

Carlin and Divine who have been very patient for all the time I have been away for studies. God bless you.

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to examine the income generating activities in public primary schools and their contribution to school funds. The study was guided by

Resource Dependency Theory (RDT). Mixed research approach was used. The study employed close-ended questionnaire, structured and semi-structured interview, observation and documentary review as the data collection methods. The sample included 61 informants comprising of District Primary Education Officer, 30 head- teachers and 30 teachers who are the IGA coordinator. The findings of this study indicated that; sheep keeping, chicken keeping, crop cultivation, horticulture and burning brick were the key IGAs in public primary schools. The findings indicated that IGAs played a significant role for the provision of additional funds to schools for buying the teaching and learning materials and for provision of pupils‟ meals.

However, lack of education on the type of IGA that were established and poor climatic condition were the main challenges that affected the growth and development of IGAs in the visited schools in Busega. The study recommends that for a success of any income generating activities in public primary school in Busega, there is a need of frequent training on the IGAs to the educational stakeholders at the school level.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION AND COPYRIGHTmk ...... i CERTIFICATION ...... ii ACKNOWLEDGMENT ...... iii DEDICATION ...... iv ABSTRACT ...... v LIST OF TABLES ...... xi LIST OF FIGURES ...... xii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...... xiii CHAPTER ONE ...... 1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.0 Background Information ...... 1 1.1 Statement of the Problem ...... 4 1.2 General Objective of the Study ...... 6 1.2.1 Specific Objectives of the Study ...... 6 1.2.2 Research Questions ...... 6 1.3 Significance of the Study ...... 6 1.4 The Scope of Study ...... 7 1.5 Organization of the Dissertation ...... 7 CHAPTER TWO ...... 8 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 8 2.0 Theoretical Framework ...... 8 2.1 Income Generating Activities (IGAs) ...... 8 2.2 Resource Dependency Theory (RDT) ...... 8 2.3 Types of Income Generating Activities ...... 10 2.3.1 Agricultural based IGAs ...... 10 2.3.2 Service based on IGAs ...... 11 2.3.3 Commercial based IGAs ...... 11 2.4 Rationale of IGAs in Public Primary Schools ...... 11 2.4.1. Generation of Additional School Revenue ...... 11 2.4.2 Developing Pupils‟ Life Skills in Business Environment ...... 12 2.4.3 Improving Pupils‟ Health ...... 13 2.4.4 Improving Pupils‟ Academic Performance ...... 14

2.4.5 IGAs for Economic and Social Development ...... 15 2.4.6 For Inventiveness and Innovation ...... 16 2.4.7 For Unemployment Reduction ...... 16 2.5 Challenges on the Management of IGAs in Primary Schools...... 17 2.5.1 Poor Planning ...... 17 2.5.2 Lack of Managerial Capacities ...... 18 2.5.3 Lack of Entrepreneurial Skills ...... 19 2.5.4 Poor Access to Finances...... 19 2.5.5 Presence of Crime ...... 20 2.5.6 Lack of Capable Human Resources ...... 21 2.5.7 Overloaded Head Teachers ...... 21 2.5.8 Lack of Cooperation from School Committee Members ...... 21 2.5.9 Bad Climatic Condition...... 22 2.6 Conceptual Framework ...... 23 2.6.1 IGA Inputs ...... 24 2.6.2 IGA Processes ...... 24 2.6.3 IGA Outputs ...... 25 2.6.3.1 Income from IGA ...... 25 2.6.3.2 Pupils‟ Meals ...... 25 2.6.3.3 Development of Entrepreneur and Employability Skills ...... 26 2.6.4 IGA Outcome ...... 26 2.6.4.1 Improved Learning Environment ...... 26 2.6.4.2 Improved Pupils‟ and Teachers‟ Health ...... 27 2.7 Synthesis of Literature and Knowledge Gap ...... 27 CHAPTER THREE ...... 29 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 29 3.0 Introduction ...... 29 3.1 Research Approach ...... 29 2.2 Research Design ...... 30 3.3 Location of the Study ...... 31 3.4 Target Population, Sampling Procedures and Sample size ...... 33 3.4.1 Target Population ...... 34 3.4.2.1 Purposive Sampling ...... 34

vii

3.4.2.2 Random Sampling ...... 35 3.5 Data Collection Methods and Instruments ...... 36 3.5.1 Questionnaires ...... 36 3.5.1.1 Close-ended Questions ...... 36 3.5.2 Interview ...... 37 3.5.2.1 Structured Interview ...... 37 3.5.2.2 Semi-Structured Interview ...... 38 3.5.3 Field Observation ...... 38 3.5.4 Documentary Review ...... 39 3.6 Validity and Reliability of the Instruments ...... 40 3.6.1 Validity of the Study ...... 40 3.7 Data Recording and Analysis ...... 41 3.8 Ethical Implications in Research ...... 42 3.9 Limitations of the Study ...... 42 CHAPTER FOUR ...... 43 DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION ...... 43 4.0 Introduction ...... 43 4.1 Response Rate ...... 43 4.2 Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents...... 44 4.2.1 Gender of the Respondents ...... 44 4.2.2 Age of the Respondents ...... 45 4.2.3 Educational level of the Respondents ...... 46 4.3 Income Generating Activities in Public Primary Schools in Busega ...... 46 4.3.1 Type of Income Generating Activities ...... 47 4.3.1.1 Sheep Keeping ...... 47 4.3.1.2 Crop Cultivation ...... 49 4.3.1.3 Chicken Farming ...... 51 4.3.2 The Existence of Income Generating Activities ...... 54 4.4 Contribution of IGAs to Public Primary Schools‟ Development ...... 55 4.4.1 Generation of Additional Funds to Finance Public Primary Education ...... 56 4.4.2 Development of Employability and Working skills to the Pupils...... 57 4.4.3 Provision of Mid-day Pupils‟ Meals ...... 58 4.4.4 Enhancing Pupils Academic Performance ...... 59

viii

4.4.5 Enhancing Economic and Social Development ...... 60 4.5 Challenges in the Management of IGAs in Public Primary Schools ...... 63 4.5.1 Lack of Education on IGA ...... 63 4.5.2 Bad Climate Condition ...... 65 4.5.3 Cost of Establishing IGAs ...... 66 4.5.4 Shortage of Human Resource...... 67 4.5.5 Lack of Proper Business Plan ...... 68 CHAPTER FIVE ...... 71 DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS ...... 71 5.0 Introduction ...... 71 5.1 Discussion of the Findings ...... 71 5.1.1 Issue Related to the Type of IGA in Public Primary Schools in Busega ...... 71 5.1.2 Importance of IGAs in Public Primary Schools ...... 72 5.1.3 Challenges Facing IGAs in Public Primary Schools ...... 76 5.1.3.1 Lack of Awareness of IGAs ...... 76 5.1.3.2 Lack of Cooperation from School Committee Members ...... 77 5.1.3.3 Issue Related to Financial Constraints ...... 77 5.1.3.4 Shortage of Human Resources ...... 78 5.1.3.5 Lack of Appropriate Business Plan ...... 79 5.1.3.6 Lack of Creativity and Entrepreneurial Skills ...... 81 5.1.3.7 Shortage of Rainfall ...... 82 CHAPTER SIX ...... 83 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 83 6.0 Introduction ...... 83 6.1 Summary of the Study ...... 83 6.1.1 Income Generating Activities in Public Primary Schools in Busega ...... 84 6.1.2 Contribution of IGAs in Public Primary Schools ...... 84 6.1.3 Challenges in the Management of School-based IGAs in Primary Schools ..... 85 6.2 Conclusions of the Findings ...... 86 6.3 Recommendations ...... 87 6.3.1 Recommendations for Practice ...... 87 6.3.2 Recommendations for Further Studies ...... 89 REFERENCES ...... 90

Appendices ...... 98 Appendix I: Interview questions for head teachers ...... 98 Appendix II. Interview questions for district education officer ...... 100 Appendix III: Questionnaires for School IGA Coordinator ...... 102 Appendix IV: Questionnaires for School Head Teachers ...... 105 Appendix V: Introduction Letter from the University of Dodoma ...... 108 Appendix VI: Introduction Letter from Busega District Council ...... 109

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1: Population, Sample and Sampling Techniques (N = 61) ...... 36 Table 4.1: Categories and Number of the Respondents ...... 44 Table 4.2: Distribution of Respondents by Gender ...... 45 Table 4.3: Distribution of Respondents by Age wise ...... 45 Table 4.4: Distribution of Respondents by Level of Education ...... 46 Table 4.5: Income Generating Activities ...... 47 Table 4.6: The Duration of the Existence of Income Generating Activities ...... 54 Table 4.7: Contribution of IGAs in Schools ...... 62 Table 4.8: Challenges Facing the Implementation of IGAs ...... 63

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework...... 23 Figure 3.1: Map of Busega District‟s Location within Simiyu Region ...... 33 Figure 4.1: Sheep Farming in School “E” ...... 49 Figure 4.2: The Pupils Harvesting Paddy in School “B”...... 50

Figure 4.3: The Farm of Watermelon Fruits in School “F”...... 51 Figure 4.4: Chicken Farming in School “C” ...... 52 Figure 4.5: Empty Chicken House in School "G"...... 53

Figure 4.6: Rice Harvest from the School Paddy Farm ...... 59 Figure 4.7: Chicken House ...... 67

xii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

BEMIS Basic Education Management Information System

BEST Basic Education Statistics of Tanzania

CIPP Context, Input, Process and Product

DED District Executive Director

DFID Department for International Development

DPEO District Primary Education Officer

EQUIP-T Education Quality Improvement Programme in Tanzania

ESR Education for Self-Reliance

ETP Education and Training Policy

IGA Income Generating Activity

MGECW Ministry of Gender Equality and Child Welfare

MoEST Ministry of Education Science and Technology

NGO Non-Governmental Organization

PEDP Primary Education Development Programme

PO-RALG President Office, Regional Administration and Local

Government

PSLE Primary Student Leaving Examination

SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences

UK United Kingdom

UNESCO United Nations, Education Social and Cultural Organization

URT United Republic of Tanzania

xiii

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Background Information

Income generating activity (IGA) in educational institutions particularly in public primary school is inevitable. This is due to the fact that, school budgets are coming under increasing pressure year after year (Jacobson, 2013, p. 6). Schools are unlikely to be able to rely wholly on government funding in order to attain the plans they have for growth, either in the short or long term (Jacobson, 2013, p. 6). The funds allocated to education sector by the government do not meet the requirement for improvement of quality education (ETP, 2014, p. 55). As the gap between funding allocation and school expenses grows, those accountable for delivering education in the public sector need to think more innovatively and creatively about how they might bridge the gap to ensure that educational outcomes are not compromised

(Jacobson, 2013, p. 3). IGAs have come to be an opportunity for alternative source of extra funds in which the schools produce to fill the gap between funds allocation and school expenses (Odundo & Rambo, 2013, p. 378).

Funds generated through IGAs can be used to improve teaching and learning environment through provision of motivation to pupils and teachers, support pupils‟ activities, ensure availability of teaching and learning materials, improve pupils‟ health through provision of meals and help the schools to handle the external economic shocks without requesting help from parents (Amos & Koda, 2018, p. 51;

Ahmad, Soon & Ting, 2015, p.194; Lwakasana & Getange, 2017, p. 1; Kipkoech,

2018, p. 65).

Across the world, IGAs have succeeded to complement the government budget allocated to education with the aim of improving learning environment both in primary and secondary schools as well as in higher education institutions (Ahmad,

Soon & Ting, 2015, p. 194). For instance, in UK, IGA came to be practised as the result of the report from Institute of Fiscal Studies that shows the budget allocated in education was decreased by 3.5 percent between 2010/2011 and 2014/2015

(Jacobson, 2013, p. 6). In China, India and Malaysia, IGAs are the part of school curriculum both in primary and secondary schools (UNESCO, 1998, p. 14). In these countries, IGAs were adopted as the means to upkeep the government budget in running education institutions and to add an opportunity for schools to cultivate employability and entrepreneur skills needed to the economy in students (UNESCO,

1998, p. 14; Jacobson, 2013, p. 4).

In Africa, IGAs are implemented in different countries which include Namibia,

Kenya, Nigeria, Somalia, Rwanda and Tanzania. For instance, in Namibia, IGAs were established in the 2001 under the Ministry of Gender, Equality and Child

Welfare (MGECW) via adult education as a means of improving the quality of life of

Namibians. The government of Namibia subsidies the community projects (IGAs) and strengthens the earning capability of people from poorest communities by creating employment opportunities, helping in preservation of environment and increasing crop production for food (Kavetuna, 2013, p. 2).

Moreover, the idea of IGA in Kenya has been promoted in various forums, including annual conferences of secondary school heads (Odundo & Rambo, 2013, p. 377). As a result of the forums, some Kenya‟s schools have introduced IGA ventures and others are still planning to initiate it. In Nigeria, IGAs are implemented as the innovative financial measure for primary education due to economic crises.

According to Amogechukwu and Unoma (2017, p. 42) IGAs in Nigeria came to be practised as asserts that provide support to education declining, and aid to basic education which fell by 20 percent from 2009 to 2012.

The idea of IGA in Tanzania is not a new concept in education system. IGA is a result of Education for Self-Reliance (ESR) established in 1967 by the first president of Tanzania, Julius Kambarage Nyerere. During ESR, the education system was reorganized so as to allow manual work to become part of education in primary and secondary schools (Galabawa, 1990, p. 11). Each school had established farm in which students were engaged in production activities such as crop production and livestock keeping. The major aims of IGA in Tanzania‟s schools are not different from that of ESR which were to raise school income, to help the schools produce their own food and enable students to be self-reliant after finalizing each level of education (Galabawa, 1990, p. 18).

The roles of IGA in schools are also emphasized in Education and Training Policy

(ETP) of (1995, p. 2) which states that: “Education and training institutions shall be encouraged to engage in income generating activities including consultancies. Goods and services produced by education and training institutions shall be commercially sold”. This means that the goods and services produced from IGA should be sold so as to allow the school to increase revenue.

Although IGAs were insisted in the ESR Policy of 1967, ETP of 1995 and 2014 as the government efforts to ensure their existence in public primary schools, still these

IGAs were not doing well in almost all public primary schools. Weaver (2011, p. 55) and Ahmad (2014, p. 6) state that, IGAs failed to meet their goal due to lack of financial resource and technology, lack of balance between academic and manual

work and macro to micro decision-making process to introduce IGAs. Another challenge was the failure to change the attitudes of students and parents who associate education with white colour job.

Due to the failure of ESR, the government of Tanzania with support from the government of United Kingdom (UK) via Department For International

Development (DFID) in the 2014 took several measures to upgrade IGAs in public primary schools; first, provision of IGAs grants of Tanzanian shillings 1.5 million to half of public primary schools found in seven regions namely Dodoma, Kigoma,

Lindi, Mara, Shinyanga, Simiyu, and Tabora, (EQUIP-T, 2016, p. 2). The second measure was the provision of training on IGAs management to the head teachers and other educational stakeholders at the school level. The third measure was the provision of guideline on the time required by the pupils to work in academic and in production activities (EQUIP-T, 2016, p. 9). The effective utilization of IGA grants with the training provided is expected to support the growth and development of

IGAs in public primary schools.

Although there are a lot of benefits from IGAs which include production of agricultural goods that can be used to provide pupils‟ meals as well as generation of extra funds, there are still very few schools that provide pupils‟ meals in Busega district (Ngussa & Mbifile, 2016, p. 28).Therefore, this study aimed to find out the contribution of IGAs in public primary schools in Busega District.

1.1 Statement of the Problem

IGAs in public primary schools aim at increasing financial capacity in the schools.

Through IGAs, the schools are expected to address micro economic challenges related to shortage of funds (Rambo & Odundo, 2013, p. 378). As the government

efforts, ETP (1995, p. 2; 2014, p. 52) insists every school needs to have IGA. Other efforts done by the government with support from EQUIP-T was the provision of financial support of Tanzanian shillings 1.5 million to schools that have received

IGA training (EQUIP-T, 2016, p. 2). Despite the efforts made by the government and

EQUIP-T to ensure the effectiveness of IGAs the products from IGAs are visible in very few schools (Rawle et al., 2017, p. 26).

The public primary schools in Tanzania are still facing many challenges associated with inadequate funds including shortages of teaching and learning materials. Pupils in primary schools share books on an average ratio of 1:10 and in some subjects,

1:20 (Matete, 2016, p. 182). Based on this situation, probably, public primary schools are still depending on capitation grants to address school financial challenges due to poor performance of IGA.

Several studies have been carried out on IGAs in schools such as Contribution of

School-based Income Generating Activities in Quality Education Provision in

Secondary Schools Managed by the Catholic Diocese of Moshi in Tanzania (Amos

& Koda, 2018), Determinants of Implementation Of Income Generating Projects In

Public Secondary Schools In Konoin District, Bomet County, Kenya (Kipkoech,

2018), Income Generating Activities Grants: Perception of Beneficiaries in the

Kavango Region in Namibia (Kavetuna, 2013), Income Generation Activities

Among Academic Staffs at Malaysian Public Universities (Ahmad, Soon & Ting,

2015) and the Effects of School-based Income Generating Activities on the Financial

Performance of Public Secondary School in Kenya (Odundo & Rambo, 2013).

However, studies on how Income Generating Activities contribute funds to public primary schools in Tanzania especially in Busega district have not been carried out.

This research therefore, intended to fill that knowledge gap.

1.2 General Objective of the Study

This study intended to assess the Income Generating Activities and their contribution to school funds in public primary schools in Busega District Council.

1.2.1 Specific Objectives of the Study

The study was guided by the following specific objectives:

i. To identify the IGAs that have been established in public primary schools

in Busega district.

ii. To examine the contribution of IGAs in public primary schools in Busega

district.

iii. To explore the challenges that contributes to poor performance of IGAs in

public primary schools in Busega district.

1.2.2 Research Questions

i. What are the Income Generating Activities that have been established in

public primary schools in Busega district?

ii. How do IGAs contribute to the increase of income of the public primary

schools in Busega district?

iii. What are the challenges that contribute to poor performance of IGAs in

public primary schools in Busega district?

1.3 Significance of the Study

The findings of this study are expected to enhance the knowledge that would help educators in improving income generating activities in primary schools. The study is also expected to provide insights to the Government, Non-Governmental

Organizations (NGOs), District Education Officers, school committee members, head teachers and teachers on better planning and implementation of IGAs in public

primary schools. Furthermore, the study findings are expected to inform the policymakers and educational planners on the rationales of having IGAs in public primary schools. Furthermore, IGAs information will help head teachers in managing school financial resources and control IGAs grants. Moreover, the study is expected to contribute to the existing literature on contribution of IGAs in public primary schools. On top of that the study is also expected to be used in the further studies.

1.4 The Scope of Study

The study was conducted in Busega District Council and it involved forty-three (43) public primary schools that had received IGA grants. The study did not involve private primary schools, secondary schools and other levels of education. Since the study was conducted in only one district and mainly qualitative approach employed, then the findings may not be convenient for generalization to other areas.

1.5 Organization of the Dissertation

The dissertation has six chapters. Following the introductory chapter, Chapter Two deals with literature review and the theoretical thinking related to Income Generating

Activities. Chapter three provides the study methodology employed in the study.

Research findings are presented and analyzed in chapter four while Chapter Five discusses the findings of the study. Chapter Six presents the summary of the study, conclusion and implications of the study.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Theoretical Framework

This study on income generating activities and their contribution to school fund in public primary school in Tanzania employed the ideas from Resource Dependency

Theory developed by Pfeffer and Salancik in the year 1978.

2.1 Income Generating Activities (IGAs)

Income generating activities are defined as the activities that act as a means for gaining or increasing income (Kipkoech, 2018, p. 65). Other scholars defined IGAs as the small businesses established and managed by school with the aim of educating the students in an entrepreneurial environment. Through IGAs technical knowledge is combined with the business practices as well as business management that will make pupils successful upon graduating from the school (Acosta et al., 2008, p. 6).

Also, income generating activities are those activities which can be undertaken by an organization so as to raise revenue to enhance the project or enhance school finances

(Nyamwega, 2016, p. 3). Therefore, in this study, IGAs is any kind of activities established in school aimed at generating income as well as developing necessary entrepreneur skills for the pupils to employ themselves after finalizing each level of education. In many public primary schools, there is a need to have additional activities which generate revenue to the school and which can supplement the capitation grants paid by government which is inadequate to run all school activities.

2.2 Resource Dependency Theory (RDT)

The theory was developed by the American business theorist Jeffrey Pfeffer and the

American organizational theorist Gerald R. Salancik in the year 1978. The theory

aimed at understanding how internal and external resources affect the effectiveness and efficiency of an organization. According to Pfeffer and Salancik (1978, p. 2) the theory analyzed some of the key assumptions as follows:

 Organizational survival depends on the ability to acquire and maintain

resources.

 Internal resources are not enough; organizations need external resources to

support their actions and ambitions.

 Too much dependence on external resources may restrict the achievement of

organizational objectives.

The implication of this theory is that most of the public primary schools have internal resources that cannot fulfil the schools needs and expenses. Deficiency of internal resources is perceived as the key force to the organizations to initiate small businesses like IGAs to reduce uncertainty and risks of bankruptcy (Amos & Koda,

2018, p. 52). This idea is also supported by Gulati and Sytch (2017) as cited in

Odundo and Rambo (2013, p. 379) who state that though all organizations have internal resources, most of them are not self-sufficient. Organization must depend on external resources to support their actions and ambitions. Schools have piece of land and human resources, thus may use them for extra income generating.

It is important that schools do not depend too much on external resources. They should have their own internal resources. Amos and Koda (2018), state that too much dependence on external resources creates uncertainty of the organization. Rambo and

Odundo (2013) have the view that inadequate control of the external environment may restrict the achievement of organizational goals and threaten the existence of

such organizations. The establishment of IGAs in connection to the available internal resources of land and human resources equips the schools with their own source of income. As stated by Pfeiffer and Salancik (1978, p. 2) schools are at the risk of survival if they fail to acquire and maintain resources. Based on the theory, the survival of the schools depends on the ability of the head teacher to balance the use of internal resource and external resources. It is the role of head teachers to ensure that the incomes generated from IGAs are safeguarded for the teaching and learning materials as well as meals to the pupils. The head teachers have to ensure that external resources support the internal resource for better achievement of the school goals.

2.3 Types of Income Generating Activities

Different schools had different Income Generating Activities in place. According to

Omukoba, Simatwa and Ayodo (2011, p. 887), IGAs in schools can be categorized in three categories as follows:

2.3.1 Agricultural based IGAs

These types of IGAs involve poultry keeping such as chicken, animal keeping such as dairy cows, sheep and goat keeping. It is also includes crop farming such as maize, paddy, and beans as well as horticulture farming such as cultivation of vegetables and fruits. Amos and Koda (2018, p. 57) and Lwakasama and Getange

(2017, p. 7) state that most of the schools are engaging in crop and vegetable farming projects as their activities to generate income rather than other activities, followed by cattle rearing and piggery.

2.3.2 Service based on IGAs

Service based IGAs are practised in the schools where there are facilities and infrastructure that can be hired. These include buses, furniture, fields, halls and tents.

This idea is also supported by Nyangaresi, Onderi and Mwebi (2016, p. 58) who have the idea that schools have to engage in agricultural based activities to increase their incomes such as hiring of buses, field for recreational activities industry, school halls and tents.

2.3.3 Commercial based IGAs

These types of IGAs involve the process of selling and buying products in cash. It involves school canteen, posho mills and school shops. UNESCO (1998, p. 11) gives the example of schools in China that are engaged in running restaurant in which the students are trained on how to cook and where the food are sold to students and teachers at discount rate. Amos and Koda (2018, p. 63) comment that although some schools are engaged in agricultural based IGAs, some of them have school shops that sell products to the students and teachers.

2.4 Rationale of IGAs in Public Primary Schools

The rationale of IGA in public primary schools include provision of additional funds to finance education, develop employability and entrepreneurship skills to pupils, improve pupils‟ health, improve pupils‟ academic performance, for economic and social development, for unemployment reduction and for inventiveness as well as innovation.

2.4.1. Generation of Additional School Revenue

From the year 2013, education has been amongst the mostly highly budget allocated sector. According to Policy Forum (2018, p. 2) in the budget of 2017/18, education

sector has been ordered as the second most prioritized sector in terms of budgeting after the infrastructure sector. The education sector was allocated Tanzanian shillings

4.7 trillion which is equivalent to 15 percent of the total National Budget which is

31.7 trillion. Although the budget allocated in education is high but it depends on donors. For instance in the development budget of 2017/18, the total budget allocated was Tanzanian shillings 916.8 billion in which Tanzanian shillings 606.79 billion come from our own internal source while Tanzanian shillings 310.07 billion come from International Development Partners (MoEST, 2018, p. 142).

Despite the efforts made by the government to increase budget in education sector the budget is still not enough to meet demands, challenges and commitments that facing education sector (Policy Forum, 2018, p. 2). There is no money for school expenses such as electricity and water which are important resource in the provision of education charges (HakiElimu, 2017, p. 16). Probably all of these shortages of resources have made primary schools fail to provide quality education. The incomes from IGAs are necessary to help schools reduce shortage of resources. The study done by Odundo and Rambo (2013) indicated that the schools with IGAs had more asserts than those schools with no IGAs. This means that the schools that implement

IGAs have more resources to use for improving teaching and learning.

2.4.2 Developing Pupils’ Life Skills in Business Environment

Galabawa (1990, p.18) states that the major aim of any school in any level of education is to offer necessary skills and knowledge required for somebody to be capable to live, work and earn his or her living. Sanga (2016, p. 2) comments that education should aim at helping learners get knowledge, skills and attitudes for dealing with the difficulties that exist in the society as well as to prepare the youth

for work in agricultural sector such as crop cultivation and livestock keeping. This kind of education can be better achieved through learning by doing (Acosta et al.,

2008, p. 5).When pupils interact in doing income generating activities; it is where they can learn and develop entrepreneurship and employability skills. Jacobson

(2013, p. 6) argues that students in primary and secondary schools can be developed into employability and entrepreneurial skills by being actively involved in entrepreneurial and enterprising opportunities from school-based IGAs.

For instance, in Tanzania, pupils who have completed primary education and were not selected for secondary education cannot employ themselves in agricultural sector or in other small enterprises as most of them lack entrepreneurial and employability skills. In 2015 pupils who completed primary education in private and government schools were about 814,784 but only 538,826 were selected to join in secondary education both in private and public secondary schools (BEST, 2016, p. 20). About

275,958 pupils were rejected to the community after not being selected in secondary education (BEST, 2016, p. 20). In that context, the existence of IGAs especially in public primary schools could be important to enable them earn a living. Kaventuna,

(2013) states that IGAs are very important school projects as they focus on preparing the pupils who may not be selected for the next level of education. IGAs can help them employ themselves by engaging in small business and enterprises.

2.4.3 Improving Pupils’ Health

Amos and Koda (2018) indicated that IGAs yield additional funds that contribute to the improvement of pupils‟ health through the provision of balanced diet. On the other side, pupils are engaged in agricultural activities of crop farming and livestock keeping. They produce agricultural products some of which are used directly by the schools to provide pupils‟ meals so as to improve their health while other products

are sold to generate school incomes. As indicated by Aila (2012, p. 62), Ramadhan

(2014, p. 48) and Sanya (2015, p. 58), provision of school meals is a positive reinforcement for pupils to go to school; it promotes concentration in learning process as well as improving performance of pupil as an individual and the school as a whole

Although the provision of school meals is important to ensure pupils‟ attendance and performance, a huge number of parents are not able to contribute for their children‟s school meals simply because they live under poverty and as a result, they cannot pay for their children‟s school meals. (Ramadhan, 2014, p. 49). Given this fact, the establishment of IGA in public primary schools becomes an important project to support the contributions from few parents in provision of pupil‟s meals (Sanya,

2015, p. 47).

2.4.4 Improving Pupils’ Academic Performance

The study done by Getange and Lwakasana (2017, p. 6) indicated that IGAs improved academic performance through provision of motivation both to the teachers and pupils. According to Vero and Puka (2017, p. 58) motivation is the important feature to improve teaching and learning. Lack of motivation in education can destroy teaching and learning of pupils and hence poor academic performance.

The income from IGAs is used to motivate teachers and pupils by ensuring availability of teaching and learning materials; provision of rewards and meals for teachers and pupils as well as improvement of school infrastructure (Vero and Puka,

2017, p. 58).

Moreover, as the pupils get opportunity to learn by doing, they are more likely to comprehend the subject matter than only concentrating in theory part. According to

Said (2014, p. 4847), learning by doing is an effective way of teaching and learning as it enhances students‟ motivation and spreads their knowledge in understanding theories and ideas about the world. In that regard, IGAs play a major role of providing the pupils with the opportunities of learning by doing and hence improving their academic performance.

2.4.5 IGAs for Economic and Social Development

The pupils who are engaged in school-based income generating activities are likely to graduate their studies with knowledge and necessary skills that will facilitate them in the exploitation of nature in their society. Effective and efficient exploitation of the resources in the society result in to the reduction of unemployment rates and increase of production, hence leading to social and economic development. The study carried out by Kaventuna (2013, p. 81) on the use of IGA grants revealed that some IGAs were contributing to social and economic development through employment creation, natural conservation and food production. These findings are similar with those of Ayandibu and Houghton (2017, p. 135) who indicate that IGA as a small business is important for the promotion of economic growth, job creation and the mitigation of poverty.

Galabawa (1990, p. 13) states that IGAs have reduced the financial burden of government in running schools and also have made contribution to the economy of country. Stan (2014, p.165) adds that IGAs provide catalytic benefits to the economy as they contribute to national output and to the society as a whole, beyond the spending and profit they generate.

2.4.6 For Inventiveness and Innovation

IGAs like any other small businesses are well positioned to introduce and develop new ideas. As pupils engage in production activities, it is where they can face challenges and develop new solutions in solving them and hence increase the production. According to Herr and Nettekoven (2017, p. 4) the innovation from IGA can increase the power of country in production and hence upgrading the economy.

Through innovation, the people involved in the production are more likely to increase the value of the products. Ayandibu and Houghton (2017, p. 135) indicate that many of the innovative products, new delivery models and general innovations are often driven by the small business sector including IGA. The innovation may drive the economy to a more efficient and productive as well as developing the living standards of people around schools.

2.4.7 For Unemployment Reduction

According to Katua (2014, p. 465) IGAs established in schools have provided employment opportunities for the people living around schools. The new established

IGAs need to hire employees to work on them. IGAs create jobs, uplift and support communities through increasing the quality of life and overall standards of living. It is important to realize that IGAs play a major role in the people who live around the schools by providing to them employment, goods and services. Akugril, Bagah, and

Wulifan (2015, p. 264) indicate that IGAs like other small businesses are the driving force behind a large number of innovations and contribute to the growth of the national economy through employment creation, investments and sometimes exports of goods. Moreover, Alone (2013, p. 1) adds that Income Generation interventions attempt to address poverty, unemployment, and lack of economic opportunities to increase participants‟ ability to generate income and secure livelihoods.

IGAs create short-term temporary jobs and reduce the number of people who are not employed around school (Akugril, Bagah, & Wulifan, 2015, p. 264). The presence of

IGAs in schools has solved some problems of unemployment. Thus IGAs growth in schools is better suited to deal with both sustainable temporary employment generations especially to the people around schools. Moreover, as the IGA creates employment opportunities, on the other side, it reduces poverty. Ibrahim and Ludan

(2014, p. 201) indicate that small business including IGA have contributed to increased economic activity, job opportunities and poverty reduction especially to the people living in rural areas.

2.5 Challenges on the Management of IGAs in Primary Schools

The challenges that hinder the growth and development of IGAs in public primary schools include: poor planning, lack of managerial capacities, lack of entrepreneurial skills, poor access to finances, presence of crime, lack of capable human resource, overloaded head teachers, poor cooperation from school committee members and bad climate condition.

2.5.1 Poor Planning

Many head teachers do not realize the importance of planning to their IGAs‟ success.

Often the head teachers neglect the process of planning because they think that it is something that benefits only large businesses (Kazimoto, 2014, p. 310). Kazimoto further adds that failure to have a good plan on how to establish and implement IGA will result into the devastating effect on the IGAs existence. This often manifests itself due to lack of strategic plans that guide the overall direction of the business and identify the ways of maximizing its strengths and overcoming its weaknesses. On the other hand, poor planning also can lead to improper selection of the type of IGA and

location to start it which is very important to its growth and development (Kazimoto,

2014, p. 310).

2.5.2 Lack of Managerial Capacities

Several studies have considered the management capacities of the top management team as key factors for the growth and development of IGA in schools. According to

Bouazza, Ardjouman and Abada (2015, p. 4) management skills are a crucial factor for the growth of IGA and lack of management skills is a barrier to growth and is one of the factors that can lead to its failure. One can note that a shortage of competence and skills to the management team is one of the main challenges faced by school based IGA. Furthermore, the literature review indicates that availability of managerial experience affects IGA in a positive way and lack of it leads to the failure of IGA in schools (Kamunge, Njeru & Tirimba, 2014, p. 17). For the IGA to perform well, management team must undergo training on managerial skills.

On the other hand, the head teachers seem to lack education and training on the uses of school funds. Based on the study done by Mapolisa (2014, p. 3) on the challenges facing school heads in management of school finances, the findings revealed that most of the head teachers lacked the accounting literacy required for effective management of school finance. Ogalo (2011, p. 30) also found lack of knowledge among head teachers on how to handle financial matters especially on how to operate procurement in schools was well known. Most school head teachers and teachers have low understandings on procurement process hence cannot operate it effectively.

This idea is also supported by Rambo and Odundo (2013, p. 392) who contend that most of the head teachers and bursars lacked finance management skills. Ndiang‟ui,

(2012, p. 49) suggests that, the government needs to come up with appropriate

training programmes on financial management for school head teachers so as to improve skills in managing school funds.

2.5.3 Lack of Entrepreneurial Skills

The presence of entrepreneurial skills among head teachers is very important to ensure the success of IGAs in public primary schools. According to Kusil, Opata and

Wayo (2015, p. 719), lack of entrepreneurial skills to the head teachers is a significant hindrance on IGA growth and development. In addition to that, the scarcity of management talent has a magnified impact on the sustainability of IGA in schools. In fact, the effectiveness and efficiency of IGA in schools depends on the level of entrepreneur skills the school management team possesses including the head teacher. Kyenze (2016, p. 44) suggests that when one increases entrepreneurial skills, the growth and development of IGA may be increased.

2.5.4 Poor Access to Finances

The performance of the IGA depends on the availability of capital for investment and running cost. Lack of capital or inadequate capital hinders the effective implementation of IGA in schools. According to Adan and Keiyoro (2017, p. 569) states that running cost of IGA is at times too high for schools to afford and that IGA have failed due to lack of capital. This observation is also echoed by Ndege (2015, p.

92) who states that, access to enough finance is necessary to reduce the impact of cash flow problems for implementation of IGA. For the IGA to be effective there must be availability of enough capital that caters for investment and running cost.

Kyenze (2016, p. 44) suggests that when financial resources are increased, they influence the performance of IGA in schools.

Kamunge, Njeru and Tirimba (2014, p. 17) state that access to finance exposes IGA in better opportunities to a great extent while it also leads to improved IGA performance. The study also found out that access to capital for activities that generate income is very challenging. Overall, access to finance affects the performance of IGA (Kamunge, Njeru & Tirimba, 2014, p. 17). It has been noted that IGAs start financing their activities primarily through their own savings because of limited access to start-up capital from financial institution (Kazimoto, 2014, p.

310).

On the other hand, the funds sent to school as the IGA grants delay as the requirement is to pass through three authorities before it reaches the school

(Petterson et al., 2015, p. 71). The disbursement of grants involves the Ministry of

Finance, President‟s Office-Regional Administration and Local Government (PO-

RALG) and the District Executive Officer before it reaches the school (Petterson et al., 2015, p. 71). The act of grants reaching the schools late affects the ability of schools to raise funds through IGAs. For instance, the IGAs grants may reach the school while seasonal opportunities for agricultural activities are timed out (Petterson et al., 2015, p. 71). Khamati and Nyongesa (2013, p. 43) add that the delay in providing school funds was found to have negative effects on the development and growth of IGA in schools.

2.5.5 Presence of Crime

Crime is among the factors that result into risking the growth and development of

IGAs in schools as identified by different scholars. According to Ladzani and

Mbonyane (2011, p. 556) crime hampers the development of IGA through leakages of IGAs including the cost of improving security or repairing and compensating affected school properties. From the literature review, it seems that crime is a serious

threat to many IGAs established in schools. The problem is big due to lack of security in almost all public primary schools in rural areas.

2.5.6 Lack of Capable Human Resources

Human resource capacities are one of the most important attributes for the development of IGAs in schools. IGAs with a skilled and well-trained labour are probably the most effective and efficient. Bouazza, Ardjouman and Abada (2015, p.

7) indicate that human resource capacities have a positive effect on the growth of

IGA, as it increases employee skills and motivation, and eventually results in improving the productivity and long term sustainability of the established IGA. The study carried out by Nyamwega (2016) revealed that there are shortages of qualified staff to run income generating activities as most of them are run by head teachers and teachers who are IGA coordinator who may not be necessarily the best to be entrusted with such activities (Nyamwega, 2016).

2.5.7 Overloaded Head Teachers

The heads teachers are overworked by other duties such as administration duties and class work including teaching and marking of the students‟ works. All these responsibilities hinder the ability of head teachers to perform effectively all issues concerning with management of financial resources as they are already tired with other responsibilities (Sigilai & Bett, 2013, p. 209). Many responsibilities allocated to the head teachers are obstacles to them in effectively performing some school responsibilities including IGA.

2.5.8 Lack of Cooperation from School Committee Members

Poor attendance of school committee members in the school meeting is among the major challenges that face head teachers in managing school financial resources.

This is due to the fact that, annual financial budget in their schools and any procurement made in school is always approved by school committee. The effective teachers are those who involve the school committee who are representatives of the local community in determining the budget estimates of their schools (Sigilai & Bett,

2013, p. 209).

Sometimes, the school committee members fail to attend the meeting but even when they come most of them have very low understanding concerned with financial matters. Khamati and Nyongesa (2013, p. 44) comment that the school committee members had low understanding on financial management which made them fail to give positive contribution to the use of school financial resources.

Based on the study carried out by Mbise (2015, p. 39) it was noted that attendance to meetings by the school committee members was poor. School committee members during the year 2012/2013 in school “X” attended only two meetings out of the four

(4) that are required per year (Mbise, 2015, p. 40). He also adds that the main reason that was given for poor attendance to meetings was time and distance from where the committee members stayed. Thus, getting committee members to attend meetings was usually a problem during the rainy season and during harvesting time.

Poor attendance, low understanding on financial matters and poor leadership skills among school committee members are the constraints that undermine the implementation of different responsibilities in primary schools including the implementation of IGAs.

2.5.9 Bad Climatic Condition

Agriculture based IGA to a large extent depends on the availability of enough rainfall to support crop growing and pastures for livestock. Thukur and Kark (2018, p. 110)

state that climatic change has been observed to affect plants and breeding behaviour of animals which in turn affect production and productivity of agriculture and livestock. This finding is also reciprocated by Haile and Waschkeit (2011, p. 9) who say that the change in rainfall can affect soil erosion rates and soil moisture which are both important for crop yields. Moreover, rainfall uncertainty remains a critical challenge controlling small holder farmers in Tanzania in which the practice of irrigation is still minimal due to inadequate or absence of irrigation facilities

(Ndamani & Watanale, 2015, p. 371). In fact, rainfall is the crucial climatic factor that influences the growth of crops. Inadequate rainfall supply has adverse effects on the efficient crop growth, resulting in low productivity (Ndamani & Watanale, 2015, p. 371)

2.6 Conceptual Framework

This study employed input-output model modified from Aziz, Mahmood and

Rehman (2018, p. 195).

Input Process Output Outcome

-Financial Development -Income from -Improved resource (IGA of business IGAs learning Grants) plan environment -Pupils‟ -Improved -Physical -Record meals Pupils‟ and resource (land) management -Entrepreneur teachers‟ health -Human resource -Mentorship, and (Teachers & monitoring & employability Reduction of pupils) evaluation skills unemploym ent rate

Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework

2.6.1 IGA Inputs

Availability of resources like land, IGA grants as well as teachers and pupils are the important resources in the establishment of IGA in public primary schools in Busega district. IGAs grants refer to the funds provided to schools for the purpose of establishing or upgrading IGAs (EQUIP-T, 2016, p. 2). The grants are considered an important financial resource in establishment or upgrading of IGAs in public primary schools. The idea is in line with UNESCO (1998, p. 56) which views the provision of incentives as an important aspect to ensure IGAs in schools. Nkonoki (2010, p. 37);

Ndege (2015, p. 92); Sitharam and Hogue (2016, p. 278) add that access to financial resources and bureaucratic process of disbursing fund may affect positively and negatively the growth and development of IGA.

From this perspective, the combination of IGAs and other resources such as human

(teachers and pupils), physical (land) and time are expected to be converted into output. Income from IGA and pupils‟ meals are expected to be the output of effective utilization of IGA grants.

2.6.2 IGA Processes

This focused on the implementation of IGA. For the IGA to be successfully implemented there must be proper business plan and proper record management

(Sitharam & Hogue, 2016, p. 35). Moreover, the growth and development of IGA depend on proper entrepreneurial skills, mentorship, monitoring and evaluation as a means of supporting and promoting IGA (Ndege, 2015, p. 92). Failure to have proper business plan, good record management and lack of frequent monitoring and evaluation may result to the poor performance of IGA in public primary schools.

2.6.3 IGA Outputs

IGA outputs refer to the products obtained from the established or upgraded IGA in schools. Income from IGA, pupils‟ meals and the development of entrepreneur and employability skills are subject to the products from effective implementation of IGA in schools.

2.6.3.1 Income from IGA

The outputs from IGA are expected to improve teaching and learning environment.

This idea is supported by Rambo and Odundo (2013, p. 392) who state that, the most benefit school gained from IGA is financial resource that enabled schools to manage their actions and invest in assets. Through the income generated from IGA, the schools are in good position to ensure the availability of teaching and learning materials, motivation to both pupils and teachers, improved school infrastructure and improved pupils‟ health due to provision of mid-day meals (Amos & Koda, 2018, p.60; Lwakasana & Getange, 2017, p. 6).

2.6.3.2 Pupils’ Meals

The schools that engage in agricultural based IGA are in a high possibility to ensure availability of pupils‟ meals in school especially for the mid-day pupils. This idea is in line with Amos and Koda (2018, p. 63) who state that crop farming such as maize, and cattle rearing enable the school to produce food for their students and teachers.

For instance, the schools that are engaged in cultivation of maize, beans, paddy and vegetables are in good position to use the yields to feed the students. The same applies with the schools that engage in dairy keeping, the milk obtained can be mixed with porridge that is provided to the students as meals and hence create a suitable

environment for learning and teaching process. This idea is also supported by

Omukoba, Simatwe and Ayodo (2011, p. 892) who add that, milk from the cows are used largely for the students and staffs to improve their health.

2.6.3.3 Development of Entrepreneur and Employability Skills

The pupils with the guidance of teachers are at the centre to operate IGA in a school place. Pupils have opportunity to develop entrepreneurship and employability skills as they engage in income generating activities. According to Kipkoech (2017, p. 65)

IGAs in schools are used to educate the students in an entrepreneurial environment.

Through IGAs the technical knowledge is combined with the business practices as well as business management that will make pupils be successfully employed upon graduating from school. Jacobson (2013, p. 6) adds that IGA is used as an opportunity for schools to develop employability skills in their students by actively including them in entrepreneurial and enterprising chances. On top of that; these activities enable the students to learn entrepreneurship skills which are of great help in their future as far as Tanzania 2025 vision of industrial middle class economy is concerned (Koda & Amos, 2018, p. 63).

2.6.4 IGA Outcome

Improved learning environment in public primary schools, improved pupils‟ health and reduction of unemployment rate in the community are expected as outcomes from effective implementation of IGA.

2.6.4.1 Improved Learning Environment

The income generated from IGA is expected to improve learning environment in the aspects of physical facilities as well as to ensure availability of teaching and learning materials. Through IGA, funds for financing education provision in public primary

schools can be obtained. According to Amos and Koda (2018, p. 63) the incomes generated from IGA are used to enable schools solve financial problems necessary for catering immediate needs in schools like teaching and learning materials instead of too much depending on external resources such as capitation grants. Rambo and

Odundo (2013, p. 382) add that returns from IGA investments enable schools to expand their physical facilities and manage their responsibilities of providing quality education without too much depending on parents as well as from government aid.

2.6.4.2 Improved Pupils’ and Teachers’ Health

Agricultural based IGA such as crop farming, horticulture and animal keeping are there to ensure availability of students‟ meals in a school. The provision of mid-day meals to students is aimed to keep them healthy so as enhance teaching and learning process. Amos and Koda (2018, p. 60) state that IGA helps students to get health and peace of mind by getting quality food from crop cultivation, horticulture and cattle rearing. This is possible as most of schools own enough piece of land and an average climatic condition that allow agricultural based IGA. Kavetuna (2013, p. 69) adds that IGAs have made the pupils and teachers improve their health as they are now planting vegetables and even getting some food from IGAs to eat at school.

2.7 Synthesis of Literature and Knowledge Gap

Most of the literature reviewed shows that IGA has positive impacts in schools.

Amos and Koda (2018) did a study to find out the contribution of school-based income generating activities (IGAs) in quality education provision in secondary schools managed by the Catholic Diocese of Moshi. The findings of their study revealed that School-based IGAs are very useful alternative ways of producing additional funds as they enable secondary schools managed by the CDM to solve

financial problems. Lwakasana and Getange (2017) did a study on effects of income generating activities in public secondary schools. The results of the study revealed that income from IGA eased burden on parents, increased enrolment in schools, improved academic performance and was used to motivate both students and teachers.

Other study was that of Kipkoech (2018) who investigated whether financial and physical resources affect the implementation of income generating project in public secondary schools. The study found that engagement in Income Generating Projects in public secondary schools was determined by the adequacy of resources both financial and physical. Moreover, Adan and Keiyoro (2017) did a study on factors influencing the implementation of income generating projects in public secondary schools. The study concluded that supervision influences implementation of income generating projects. The study also found that training staff fairly promotes the implementation of Income generating projects.

However, most of the literature reviewed placed low attention on the contribution of income generating activities to the school funds in public primary schools in

Tanzania. Therefore, this study aimed to fill up this knowledge gap.

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

This section presents the research methodology that was employed in the study. The chapter shows research design, research approach, study area, the target population, the sample and sampling techniques, and methods of data collection. Moreover, this chapter shows validity, methods of data analysis and ethical considerations.

3.1 Research Approach

This study was conducted by using mixed research approach. This approach was employed as it helped the researcher to collect diverse types of data that involved numbers and expressions and therefore provided a more full understanding of the research problem than either quantitative or qualitative data alone (Greswell, 2014, p.

48).

Furthermore, this approach provides counterbalance of the weaknesses of both quantitative and qualitative research (Fraenkel, Wallen & Hyun, 2009, p. 556). For instance, quantitative research is weak in understanding the natural setting in which people behave, something that qualitative research approach makes up for. Mixed approach helps the researcher to get deeper and clear understanding of respondents‟ knowledge, experience and attitudes concerning IGAs. Furthermore, mixed approach helped to offset biased interpretations made by the researcher and therefore enhancing generalizing of findings to a large group (Kothari, 2004, p. 3). Thus, using of qualitative and some few elements of quantitative enhances the generation of the intended information as it allows triangulation of data collection methods.

Likewise, the provides a more complete and comprehensive understanding of the research problem than either quantitative or qualitative approaches alone. For instance, the use of this approach allowed the researchers to use different data collection instruments such as questionnaire, interview, observation and documentation to gather information about the contribution of Income Generating

Activities to the school funds.

However, the shortcomings of using qualitative and some few elements of quantitative are that it consumes time during the data collection and data analysis as it relies on both qualitative and quantitative data collection methods.

In order to achieve the expected goals through presiding out the weaknesses, small sample size was employed with triangulation of few data collection methods including questionnaire, interview, and observation. To overcome the challenge of time in data analysis, quantitative data were analyzed by using software of Statistical

Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). On the side of qualitative data, they were analyzed and themes emerging were developed early based on specific objectives.

2.2 Research Design

The study employed descriptive research design to examine the contribution of IGAs to school funds in public primary schools. It was worth using this study since it is the research design that can utilize elements of both quantitative and qualitative research approach. Descriptive research design allowed the data to be collected in numerical form as well as in description form. Furthermore, it used aid such as graphs and charts to aid reader in understanding the data distribution. On this regard, Creswell

(2014, p. 96) states that descriptive research involves gathering data that describe events and then organizes, tabulates, depicts, and describes the data collected.

However, in descriptive design, biasness may be influenced by the researcher in many ways including the choice and wording of questions for the questionnaire

(Bernard, 2012, p. 52). The researcher may also make subjective choice about which information to record and emphasize in the findings. Furthermore, participants or subjects may not be truthful or may not behave naturally when they know they are being observed. To overcome these weaknesses, this study used more than one method of data collection in which one method complemented the weakness of other so as to reduce biasness.

3.3 Location of the Study

The study was carried out in Busega district, which is one of the six districts in

Simiyu region of Tanzania, East Africa. Its administrative centre is the town of

Nyashimo. Busega district is bordered to the north by Lake Victoria and Bunda district, to the South by Bariadi district, to the East by Serengeti National Park, and to the West by Magu district. As of 2012 census, the population of Busega was

203,597 (National Bureau of Statistics, 2016). Among the economic activities carried out by the people of Busega include like fishing, crop cultivation, and livestock keeping and small businesses. Busega district has fifteen15 administrative wards and ninety one (91) primary schools in which five (5) are private primary schools and eighty six (86) are public primary schools with 72,610 pupils (BEMIS, 2018).

It was worth to carry out study in this educational context since public primary schools in Busega district have been participating in various programmes concerned with resource management. In the year, 2016 for instance, the training courses were conducted to the head teachers at Nyashimo centre concerning Income Generating

Activities as the alternative way to generate school income. The training was focused

on how to develop business plan. The training was funded by the government of

Tanzania and the Government of United Kingdom (EQUIP-T, 2016, p. 2).

Furthermore, forty three public primary schools out of eighty six were provided with

IGA grants of Tanzanian shillings 1.5 million to invest in IGA. Not only that but also many schools in Busega district own enough land for agriculture and some of land is along Lake Victoria in which irrigation agriculture can take place. Despite having all these resources, the implementation of IGAs has not been done as expected to be and it is still not clear if the expected products from IGAs were realized. It is therefore that because of the inconsistency in the implementation of IGAs, the present study aimed at examining the contribution of Income Generating Activities to School Fund in Public Primary Schools in Busega District.

Figure 3.1: Map of Busega District‟s Location within Simiyu Region Source: URT (2012:16).

3.4 Target Population, Sampling Procedures and Sample size

This subsection presents the target population, sampling procedures and the sample size employed in this study.

3.4.1 Target Population

The target population of this study was all the public primary school head teachers,

Schools with IGA projects, teachers who are the IGA Coordinators and District

Education Officer. The study was conducted in Busega district in which only public primary schools that were receiving IGA grants were researched. Currently, Busega district has forty three (43) primary schools receiving IGAs grant.

3.4.2 Sample Size and Sampling Procedures

The sample size was used by the researcher for the purpose of minimizing the time and cost as well as to simplify accessibility (Singh, 2006, p.81). In this study, the research sample size involved sixty one (61) respondents; one (1) district primary education officer, thirty (30) teachers who school IGA coordinators and thirty (30) head teachers. The sample was used as the researcher believed that, participants were aware about the established and implemented IGAs in their school setting. The sampling procedures used in the study were purposive and simple random sampling.

Table 3.1: Population, Sample and Sampling Techniques (N = 61)

Sample Group Participants Sampling Techniques District Primary Education Officer 1 Purposive Sampling Head Teachers 30 Random Sampling School IGAs Coordinator 30 Random Sampling Total 61 Sources: Researchers‟ sample design (2019).

3.4.2.1 Purposive Sampling

In this study, purposive sampling was used to obtain one (1) district primary education officer (DPEO). Purposive sampling was employed to provide the researcher with an opportunity to identify research participants who were likely to

provide information relevant to the research objectives. Purposive sampling was used to identify research respondents based on their strengths that included experience, position, qualification, skills as well as their willingness to provide information

(Etican, Musa & Alkasim 2016, p. 2). The DPEO was selected due to his position.

Purposive sampling as a non-probability sampling procedure does not allow random selection of participants and those selected have a minimal chance of representing others due to low chance of inclusion (Kothari, 2004, p. 34). In order to overcome this weakness, the researcher also decided to use simple random sampling procedure so as to allow participants to have maximum chance of representing others as participants had equal chance of inclusion.

3.4.2.2 Random Sampling

In this study, simple random sampling was employed to obtain thirty (30) from forty- three (43) schools. From the selected schools, the head teachers and the teachers who are school IGA Coordinators were automatically involved in the study. Simple random sampling was employed due to its objectivity as well as its ability of reducing cost in term of money and energy in doing research (Singh, 2006, p. 84).

Also in simple random sampling procedure, the participants have equal chance to be included in the study and therefore have maximum chance of representing others.

However, simple random procedure sometimes may lead to subjectivity due to the presence of different ways used in simple random sampling. In order to avoid subjectivity, the researcher employed the paper fold method in which the name of each school from the list of forty three (43) schools was written on a piece of paper and then folded. The researcher picked thirty pieces of paper randomly after mixing

and throwing them down. The picked schools‟ names were used as the sample in this study.

3.5 Data Collection Methods and Instruments

In this study, interview, questionnaire, documentation and non-participatory observation were used by the researcher as the data collection methods. The researcher opted to use these combinations of methods due to their crucial importance of ensuring the appropriate balance of information from participants thus resulting to valid investigation of the Income Generating Activities and their contributions to school funds in public primary schools in Tanzania. The data collection instruments included questionnaires, check list, interview guides, observation checklist together with monthly quarterly financial school reports, PEDP report and school bank statements as documentary reviews.

3.5.1 Questionnaires

Questionnaires are the research instruments consisting of a series of questions that are used to collect information from respondents (Abawi, 2013, p. 3). The questions can be open-ended or close-ended depending on the type of information required. In this study, close-ended questionnaires were employed to collect information concerning contributions of IGAs to school fund in public primary schools.

3.5.1.1 Close-ended Questions

The closed-ended questionnaires were employed to collect data from thirty (30) teachers who are school IGAs coordinators and twenty-three (23) head teachers because they had opinions, attitudes and experience concerning the study. Regarding these, Fraenkel, Wallen and Hyun (2012, p. 399) indicate that, closed-ended questions may be used to measure opinions, attitudes or knowledge. The questions

were prepared in the form that needed a respondent to put a tick to the bracket provided along the provided alternatives (Appendix iv). The researcher opted for these questions as they provided the answers which were expected from the alternatives and also due to their ability to simplify data analysis process.

However, the weakness of this method is that, it may result to low response rate in returning filled in questionnaires. Also, some of the questions might be difficult to answer thus resulting into non response to some items. Furthermore, close-ended questionnaire do not allow the respondents to add remarks and explanations to the given alternatives and this may hinder the researcher from getting some necessary information (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007, p. 321).To address these weaknesses, the questions were prepared in short, simple and clear language to allow the respondents to understand them well. Also, semi-structured interview was used to seven head teachers and one District Primary Education Officer to supplement the missed information from close-ended questionnaire.

3.5.2 Interview

Interview is the method of collecting data by asking questions to the respondents.

The data generated by this method are collected by listening and recording the individuals (Abawi, 2013, p. 11). Based on Abawi, there are four types of interview namely: structured, semi-structured, in-depth interview and focused group discussions. This study employed structured and semi-structured interview to collect information from seven head teachers and one DPEO.

3.5.2.1 Structured Interview

In this study, the structured interview was applied to seven (7) head teachers and one

DPEO on the first and second specific objective. The interview guides (questions)

which were prepared by the researchers were administered directly to the head teachers through face to face sessions. This method was used as it is the most shared and efficient means of obtaining detailed information (Creswell, 2012, p. 20).

Despite its importance, the method has it its weakness as it leaves a little freedom for the participants to clarify the information and therefore unclear information may be collected. Semi-structured interview that allows flexibility and freedom to the respondents to express their opinions was also employed so as supplement the missed information from structured interview.

3.5.2.2 Semi-Structured Interview

In this study, semi-structured interview was employed to collect data from seven (7) head teachers and DPEO on the third specific objective of the study. This method was employed due to its strengths of exploring attitudes, values and beliefs about the research problem from the participants. Moreover, the method allowed both the interviewer and interviewee to ask questions wherever it was necessary so as to get the required information (Edwin, 2014, p. 21).

However, semi-structured interview required much time to get the required information about IGA from participants. On the other hand, it requires the researcher‟s reflection on participants‟ responses. Therefore, in proper utilization of the method, the researcher listened carefully to the responses from the participants and made critical reflection on them.

3.5.3 Field Observation

Field observation is a method of data collection in which researchers observe within a specific field aimed to find out what is going on (Nery, 2016). In this study, non- participatory observation was used. This method was employed as it is the method

that employs sensorial organ and situational experience to provide concrete evidence of what is going on in the field through eyes.

The researchers opted to use this method due to it is advantage of having less risk than participatory observation and therefore allowed the researcher to record detailed information. Furthermore, it is an unobtrusive way of obtaining information about groups and their behaviour. Esiri et al (2017, p. 86) state that, non-participatory method of observation fosters an in-depth and rich understanding of a phenomenon, situation and/or setting and the behaviour of the participants in a natural setting.

By using this method, the research succeeded to observe and record the type of IGAs established in public primary schools. However, the weakness of this method is that the researcher may rely on his perception which is detached from the situation something which may be inaccurate. Also, when the research participants know that they are being observed, the results obtained may be distorted as they may not reflect their actual behavioural patterns. To overcome those shortcomings, the researcher made careful critical reflections of the behaviour of the participants.

3.5.4 Documentary Review

In this study, monthly and quarterly financial reports and school bank statements were used for the purpose of getting information concerned with the contribution of

IGA in school funds. PEDP quarterly reports from district education officer also were employed for information concerned with school financial matters.

Documentary review was employed to complement the information not obtained directly through interview, observation and questionnaire.

Despite its advantages of providing missing information from other methods of data collection, documentary review has its weaknesses such as some of documents may

be outdated and thus provide irrelevant information about the study. To address this weakness, the researcher cross checked the presented documents to know the publishing date so as to avoid the use of materials which were out dated on income generating activities and their contribution to school fund in public primary schools.

3.6 Validity and Reliability of the Instruments

Validity is the ability of the research instrument to measure what was intended to measure and how well it does so. On the other side, reliability if concerned with the trust that one can have in the information achieved from the use of an instrument, that is, the degree to which any measuring tool controls accidental mistake (Mohajan,

2017, p. 2). Validity and Reliability are the most important and fundamental features in the evaluation of any measurement instrument for a worthy research (Mohajan,

2017, p. 3)

3.6.1 Validity of the Study

The validity in this study was ensured for the purpose of helping the researcher to determine the appropriateness, correctness, meaningfulness and usefulness of the collected data (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2009, p. 154). Different strategies were employed to ensure the strengths of the findings. First, the questions were prepared using simple and clear language based on the research objectives. Second, the researcher provided detailed explanations of the focus of the study, that is, the researcher‟s’ role, the informer‟s position and basis for selection and the setting from which data would be collected. Third, data were collected through multiple data collection methods such as questionnaires, observation and interview to support triangulation as the strategy to form credibility. The combination of different instruments in collection of data from different people was expected to make the data collected

more objective, valid and reliable. According to Creswell (2009, p. 72) triangulation includes the researchers‟ attempts to verify individual results using different data collection methods and cross checking the data.

Fourth, pilot study was done in Nyashimo and Yitwimila schools to test the strengths of the data collection instrument after the researcher‟s colleague tested them. The instruments were validated by the head teacher and school IGA coordinator in both schools. The instruments were tested so as to make sure they increased the ability to measure what was intended. Finally, data collection and analysis strategies were reported in detail in order to provide a clear and accurate picture of the methods used in this study.

3.7 Data Recording and Analysis

The data collected from questionnaire were coded and entered in SPSS software package where analysis was done. Frequency Tables were used together with percentages to present the findings as per the research objectives upon which interpretations were made.

The data collected from interview were analyzed using thematic analysis. Detailed analysis started with a coding process. Coding is the process of organizing the material into chunks or segments of text and assigning a word or phrase to the segment in order to develop a general sense of it (Creswell, 2014, p. 290). While reading data, the researcher segmented sentences and paragraphs into categories and labelled those categories with terms based on the actual language of the respondents.

The coding process generated descriptions of categories and themes in which results were presented in quotations.

3.8 Ethical Implications in Research

Research ethics involve requirements on daily work, the protection of dignity of participants and the publication of the information in the research (Fouka &

Mantzorou, 2011, p. 2). In this study, the permission letter to carry out the study from the University of Dodoma was collected. Then such letter was sent to the

District Executive Director (DED) as the owner of the schools where the study was conducted. Anonymity, honesty, respect, privacy and confidentiality of all the respondents was maintained and ensured. The participant‟s rights of joining voluntarily in the study or withdrawing from it at any time, was also respected. The purpose of conducting research was clearly explained to all participants for the aim of promoting better understanding of the nature of the study. Plagiarism was strictly avoided in this study.

3.9 Limitations of the Study

Respondents‟ accessibility during interview was problematic especially to those schools that were located in rural areas. Some schools were difficult to reach due to poor transport infrastructure especially during the rainy season. Poor transport infrastructures were time and money consuming. The researcher also hired motorcycle which increased the cost as the researcher had to reach schools which were far from the main road.

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

4.0 Introduction

This chapter discusses the interpretation and presentation of the findings. The purpose of this study was to investigate the contribution of Income Generating

Activities in public primary schools in Busega District. In particular, the following were the objectives of the study: to identify the Income Generating Activities established in public primary schools, find out the contribution of IGAs in public primary schools and to explore the challenges that contribute to poor performance of

IGAs in public primary schools in Busega District. The data collected were coded and entered in SPSS package where analysis was done. Frequency Tables were used together with percentages and frequency to present the findings as per the research objectives.

4.1 Response Rate

The study sought to present data from 30 school IGAs coordinators and 23 head teachers with the use of questionnaire, and interview 1 District Primary Education

Officer (DPEO) and 7 head teachers as a representative sample. The cross-sectional scenery of the sample was intended to collect views regarding the subject from several perspectives. It was found that a total of 61 respondents participated in the study. Therefore, the return rate for the questionnaire and interview used for the data analysis was 100% which is a satisfactory standard (Table 4.1). These results further substantiate Mugenda and Mugenda (2003, p.19), who made a conclusion that once the returned questionnaires as well as the number of successful respondents exceeds

50 percent of the target, then the findings obtained are considered for analysis.

Table 4.1: Categories and Number of the Respondents

S/N Sample Group Sample Response Rate Percentage

1 District Education Officer 1 1 100% 2 Head Teachers 30 30 100% 3 School IGAs Coordinators 30 30 100% Total 61 61 Source: Field Data (2019)

4.2 Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents

This section presents the demographic characteristics of the selected primary schools including head teachers and school IGA coordinators. The demographic description of 23 head teachers and 30 school IGAs coordinators was based on gender, age and education level as presented below:

4.2.1 Gender of the Respondents

The respondents including the IGA coordinators and head teachers were requested to indicate their gender category in the questionnaire. A total of 26 male and 4 female

IGAs coordinators corresponding to 86.7% and 13.3% of the total respondents respectively, took part in the survey. In the same view, a total of 15 male head teachers and 8 female head teachers‟ equivalents to 65.2% and 34.8% of the total respondents respectively participated in this study (Table 4.2). These results show that there were more male coordinators and head teachers in primary schools in

Busega District compared to the female coordinators and head teachers. Thus, one can realize that there was gender imbalance in the appointment of the head teachers.

Table 4.2: Distribution of the Respondents by Gender

Gender IGA coordinators Head teachers

Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage

Male 26 86.7 15 65.2 Female 4 13.3 8 34.8 Total 30 100.0 23 100.0 Source: Field Data (2019)

4.2.2 Age of the Respondents

The findings of this study with regard to the age of the respondents revealed that a total of 8 (26.7%) of the coordinators and 8 (34.8%) of the head teachers were aged 30-34 years, 13 (43.3%) of the coordinators and 7 (30.4%) of the head teachers were aged 35-39 years, while 9 (30.0%) of the coordinators and 8 (34.8%) of the head teachers were aged between 40 and above years. It appears therefore that majority of the IGAs coordinators in primary schools were aged 35-39 years.

Similarly, majority of the head teachers were aged between 30-34 years and between

40 and above years (Table 4.3).

Table 4.3: Distribution of the Respondents Age wise

Age IGA coordinators Head teachers

Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage

Between 30-34 years 8 26.7 8 34.8

Between 35-39 years 13 43.3 7 30.4

40 and above years 9 30.0 8 34.8

Total 30 100.0 23 100.0

Source: Field Data (2019)

4.2.3 Educational level of the Respondents

The IGAs coordinators and head teachers were asked to indicate their highest educational level where the findings revealed that a total of 27 (90.0%) of the IGA coordinators and 11(47.8%) of the head teachers had certificate qualifications.

Likewise, 3 (10.0%) of the coordinators and 9 (39.1%) of head teachers had diploma, while only 3 (13.0%) of the head teachers had bachelor degree. Thus, one can come out with the notion that majority of the IGAs coordinators and head teachers in primary schools had the minimum qualifications that allowed them to enter into the teaching profession as well as head teachers respectively. However, there were no head teachers with Master or PhD degree (Table 4.4)

Table 4.4: Distribution of the Respondents by Level of Education

Highest Education Level IGA coordinators Head teachers

Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage

Certificate 27 90.0 11 47.8 Diploma 3 10.0 9 39.1 Degree - - 3 13.0 Total 30 100.0 23 100.0 Source: Field Data (2019)

4.3 Income Generating Activities in Public Primary Schools in Busega

The study sought to determine income generating activities in public primary school in Busega district. To achieve this objective, 30 school IGA coordinators and 23 head teachers were asked through questionnaire. 7 head teachers and 1 DPEO were interviewed. Furthermore, non-participatory observation method also was employed to observe the type of the established IGAs. The findings regarding this are presented in a manner that the type of IGAs established comes first followed by the

duration of IGA. Thus, the findings of sub-themes within this objective are presented as follows:

4.3.1 Type of Income Generating Activities

The first research objective was to identify the income generating activities established in public primary school in Tanzania. The research question which guided the researcher in generating data was “what are the income generating activities that have been established in public primary schools in Busega?” As a response to this objective, the findings are presented in Table 4.5 below:

Table 4.5: Income Generating Activities

Type of IGA IGA coordinators Head of school Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Sheep keeping 12 40.0 8 34.8 Crop farming 12 40.0 9 39.1 Chicken keeping 6 20.0 6 26.1 Total 30 100.0 23 100.0 Source: Field Data (2019)

4.3.1.1 Sheep Keeping

It was found out that 12 (40.0%) and 8 (34.8%) of the IGA coordinators and head teachers respectively reported that they were keeping sheep (Table 4.5). The findings of this study showed that most of respondents‟ responses indicated satisfaction with sheep farming as most of the schools had enough piece of land for grazing. Not only that but also sheep keeping was revealed to be highly productive in comparison to goats and cattle. For this reason, many schools opted to keep sheep as it enabled public primary schools in Busega district to get money.

The findings that came out during the interview from DPEO and seven head teachers revealed that public primary schools in Busega were engaged in sheep keeping, chicken keeping and crop farming such as maize, paddy, chickpeas and beans; vegetable and fruits farming such as tomato, cabbages and watermelon projects. Relating to these, The DPEO said:

...My schools engage in different IGAs, but most of them engage in sheep keeping, crop farming and chicken keeping as activities to generate school income. Very few schools engage in brick-making and cultivation of fruits and vegetables. Some schools engage more in sheep keeping, chicken keeping and crop farming due to geographical location of the district which favours livestock keeping and crop cultivation...

He continued narrating:

...Vegetables and fruits farming as an IGA is an activity which fits the geographical location. Such an activity is done by schools that are along Lake Victoria... The statement above indicates that sheep keeping is among the income generating activities established in public primary schools in Busega district.

The findings also came out during the interview with 7 head teachers, where 2 out 7 sampled, the head teachers of school “E” revealed that their school were engaging in sheep keeping. Regarding this, the head teacher said:

...The decision on what type of IGA to be established in my school is done by staff, school committee member and few famous people from community. We have decided to establish sheep keeping due to the fact that, our school has enough pastures to feed them. Furthermore, many people around my school engage in sheep keeping and therefore it is easy for us to draw experience from them...

Regarding this the head teacher from school “A” asserted:

…We have established sheep keeping in our school as sheep are easier to handle than goats and cattle. Sheep are highly resistance to disease and in this area they are more marketable than goats…

The statement above indicates that the schools decided to establish sheep keeping due to availability of enough pasture within school as well as that sheep were not much affected by disease like goats. During the visit in schools it was observed that in school “E” had 53 sheep (See figure 4.1)

Figure 4.1: Sheep Farming in School “E” Source: Field Data (2019) The above photo shows that, school “E” had sheep farming as its activity to generate extra revenue.

4.3.1.2 Crop Cultivation

Similarly, a total of 12 (40.0%) of the IGAs coordinators and 9 head teachers with

(39.1%) reported that their schools were dealing with crop cultivation (4.5). The findings of this study show that both IGAs coordinators and head teachers indicated satisfactory rate with crop cultivation in Busega district. Maize, paddy, chickpeas, and green gram were the most prominent crops cultivated in many schools. On the other hand, other schools were engaged in fruits and vegetable farming such as water melons, tomatoes and cabbages. Through observation, it was revealed that agricultural based activities might be the main income generating activities in almost

all the primary schools in Busega district as many schools were found along Lake

Victoria and therefore irrigation agriculture was possible. Moreover, as it was observed, most of the schools had enough land and a favourable climatic condition that encouraged this important activity.

The findings also came out during the interview with 7 head teachers where 2 out of

7 sampled revealed that their schools were engaged in crop farming. During interview the head teacher of school „B” remarked:

...The large part of land in this village is low land that favours cultivation of paddy. In my school, we have decided to establish paddy farming. We have rent a farm from one of the villagers and we have succeeded to establish paddy farming to increase school income...

Furthermore, the findings from observation indicate that school “B” was engaging in paddy farming as the activity to generate school revenue (See figure 4.2)

Figure 4.2: Pupils Harvesting Paddy from School “B” Source: Field Data (2019) While school “B” was engaged in paddy farming, school “F” was engaged in cultivation of watermelons (See figure 4.3)

Figure 4.3: Watermelons Farm in School “F”.

Source: Field Data (2019). The findings in figure 4.3 indicate that schools were engaged in crop farming and horticulture as their main activities to generate school income. The crops cultivated included paddy cultivation while horticulture included watermelon farming.

4.3.1.3 Chicken Farming

The findings regarding chicken farming revealed that 6 (20.0%) of the coordinators and 6 (26.1%) of head teachers were dealing with chicken farming. The findings of this study indicated that the respondents indicated satisfaction in this income generating activity (Table 4.5). This income generating activity as it was revealed enabled schools to supply important commodities such as eggs, meat and manure for the staffs and the community members which in turn helped the schools to ensure

constant income from such trade activity. The most common chicken breed kept in schools was the indigenous breed for meat and eggs. Other breeds were the broilers that originated from Malawi and were being kept purposively for meat (See figure

4.4). It was observed chicken keeping in Busega district was possible in many schools due to the availability of chicken feeds found in Lake Victoria such as small fish and snails‟ shells which are very important nutrients for the chicken to grow faster.

Figure 4.4: Chicken Farming in School “C” Source: Field Data (2019)

From the interview, 2 head teachers out of 7 indicated that their schools were engaged in chicken keeping. The head teacher from school “C” said:

…I have decided to engage in chicken keeping in my school due to the fact that my school is located along Lake Victoria where there

are lot of chicken feeds. For instance, there are a lot of small fish with cheap price. We use those fish to feed chicken….

In the same point of view, the head teacher from school “G” during the interview has the following to say:

…Our school is surrounded with people who are engaged in chicken farming. As a school we have decided to engage in the same farming with the hope of draw experience of chicken keeping from the people around schools. Not only that but also chicken are very marketable in this area…. However, the findings revealed school “C” to have succeeded to keep chickens the situation in other school was different. The findings from observation indicated the presence of chicken house with no chicken in school “G” (See figure 4.5)

Figure 4.5: An Empty Chicken House in School C Source: Field Data (2019) The head teacher from school “G” stated during the interview:

...We opted to engage in chicken keeping and we started with 64 chickens. Four months later 33 chicken died from diseases. We remained with 31 only chickens which we have sold them and that is why you see an empty chicken house. Now we are planning to engage ourselves in sheep keeping as they are more resistant to disease than chickens... The above quotation indicates that school “G” had failed to effectively establish chicken keeping due to poultry disease and as a result the head teacher decided to start sheep keeping

4.3.2 The Existence of Income Generating Activities

The study sought to assess the duration which the school-based income generating activities had been in existence since they were started. This was achieved by asking the IGA coordinators and head teachers when they have started IGA in their school. Table 4.6 below gives the information regarding the existence and duration of those income generating activities.

Table 4.6: The Duration of the Existence of Income Generating Activities

The existence of IGAs IGA coordinators Heads of school

Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage

Less than a year 18 60.0 16 69.6 Two years 11 36.7 7 30.4 More than two years 1 3.3 - - Total 30 100.0 23 100.0 Source: Field Data (2019)

It was revealed that 18 (60.0%) of the coordinators and 16 (69.6%) of the head teachers had the duration of their income generating activities of less than a year.

Besides that, 11 (36.7%) and 7 (30.4%) of the coordinators and head teachers respectively had IGAs with existence of two years (Table 4.6). The results indicate

that IGAs were in existence in those primary schools under the study although many of them had a very short time of their existence.

With regard to the grants given to the school based IGAs in primary schools, DPEO revealed that all primary schools were provided with IGA grants two years ago. He revealed that some of the schools had spent the grants on time especially those who were engaged in sheep keeping. However, as he was quoted, others failed to spend the money on time especially those who had planned to engage in chicken farming and crop farming due to poor climate condition.

…IGA grant from District Executive Director (DED) was distributed to all schools that qualified to receive IGA grants two years ago. Some of schools managed to establish their IGAs on time especially those which opted to engage in sheep keeping. Other schools especially those which opted to engage in crop farming failed to establish their IGAs on time due to climate variations…

From documentary review of school financial quarterly report of January to April

2017 in school “B” it was indicated that the IGA grants were received in March

2017. The same finding was revealed in the school bank statement that showed

Tanzanian shillings 1.5 million was deposited in the school account as an IGA grant in March 2017. Despite the money being deposited in March 2017 the uses of such money was seen in the school financial report of October to December 2017. This implies that there was a delay on the uses of IGA grants provided in some schools as noted by the DPEO.

4.4 Contribution of IGAs to Public Primary Schools’ Development

The second research objective of this study aimed at establishing the contribution of

IGAs grants in public primary schools‟ economic achievement or development. A self-administered questionnaire, observation and interview were conducted with IGA

coordinators and head teachers and the responses from the participants are presented as follows.

4.4.1 Generation of Additional Funds to Finance Public Primary Education

The finding regarding the above achievement shows that IGAs were providing additional funds to finance primary education where 15 (50.0%) and 13 (43.3%) of the IGAs coordinators respectively agreed and strongly agreed to this proposition that IGAs were providing additional funds to finance primary education. On the other hand, 8 (34.8%) and 15 (65.2%) of the head teachers strongly affirmed that the IGAs grants were providing additional funds to finance primary education (Table 4.7). On the other view, 2 head teachers on interview commented that, the crops being cultivated particularly cotton and paddy were being sold hence making schools buy the necessary materials for teaching and learning process. In relation to this, the head teacher from school “B” said the following during the interview:

...Last year in our school, we cultivated three hectares of cotton with the expectation of harvesting one thousand kilogrammes but we harvested only three hundred sixty kilogrammes of cotton due to low rainfall. For each kilogramme we sold at one thousand Tanzanian shillings. The money generated was used by the school to buy teaching aids such as manila cards and flip charts. The remaining money was used to buy sports and games facilities such as balls and volleyball net...

He further explained:

...We also cultivated 2 hectares of paddy with the expectation of harvesting 30 bags of rice but we ended up harvesting only 11 bags due to low rainfall. Some of the rice bags were sold to obtain money for other school activities and the rest were used as food to teachers and pupils...

The above statement indicates that some of the schools were engaged in paddy and cotton cultivation for domestic and commercial purpose. That means the harvested cotton and some of the rice harvested were sold and the school got money which was

used to improve learning environment through buying of teaching and learning materials as well as sports and games facilities.

4.4.2 Development of Employability and Working skills to the Pupils

It was revealed that IGA grants were used for developing employability and working skills to pupils where 24 (80.0%) and 5 (16.7%) of the IGAs coordinators respectively strongly agreed to this. On the other hand, 16 (69.6%) and 4 (17.4%) of the head teachers strongly affirmed that IGA was the most important strategy in developing employability and working skills to pupils (Table 4.7). These findings suggest that students and teaching staff were highly needed and participated in decision making pertaining to the establishment and consolidation of income generating activities.

The findings from interview indicated that IGAs made pupils learn practically how to take care of livestock as well as how to cultivate crops and vegetables in their school farms. The practical activities are essential in developing the necessary skills to the pupils for livestock keeping and crop farming. In relation to this the DPEO in Busega commented the following during the interview:

...The pupils in school “F” were actively involved in the cultivation of watermelons which are so marketable in our area. It is my hope that the skills developed by the learners during the cultivation of watermelons will help them to employ themselves after graduating standard seven especially when it happens that some or many of them are not selected for secondary education. This is possible due to the fact that many pupils in my district are found along Lake Victoria where watermelons are highly cultivated through irrigation... The quotation above indicates that as the pupils were actively involved in the preparation of farm, planting, weeding, controlling of pesticides and diseases, harvesting and selling of the harvested products they could develop the necessary

skills that would enable them employ themselves after completing Primary School

Leaving Examination (PSLE).

4.4.3 Provision of Mid-day Pupils’ Meals

School-based income generating activities were revealed to also provide meals for pupils where 16 (53.3%) of IGAs coordinators revealed this by very strongly supporting the idea followed by 9 (30.0%) of them who strongly confirmed.

However, a small number of the respondents with 1 (3.3%) coordinators disagreed with the IGAs provide meals for pupils (Table 4.7) Regarding the same, through interview, the head teacher from school “A” said:

...In my school, I provide porridge to the pupils made from maize and sorghum that we cultivated from our school farm. Porridge is provided only for standard one and two. We offer porridge to only two classes due low agriculture yields obtained from our school farm. The main reason for low yields from agriculture is poor climate condition. But most of the yields harvested in our school farm are used as meals to our pupils and none of them are sold... The head teacher from school “B” said the following during interview: ...As you see my school is in a lowland area in which paddy farming is highly cultivated. As I told you in this year we harvested only eleven bags of rice from the expectation of thirty bags due to low rainfall. We are planning to sell 5 of them and the remaining 6 bags will be used as food for teachers and pupils... From observation, it was found that school “B” was engaged in cultivation of paddy and eleven bags of paddy were obtained for the teachers and pupils‟ meals and other schools‟ requirements.

Figure 4.6: Rice harvested from the school paddy farm Source: Field Data (2019) The above quotations and photo indicate that some of schools in Busega were engaged in cultivating of maize and sorghum as the IGAs for the main purpose of providing porridge to the pupils.

4.4.4 Enhancing Pupils Academic Performance

It was also found that 20 (66.7%) and 6 (20.0%) of coordinators strongly acknowledged the presence of the IGAs‟ role in improving pupils‟ academic performance. This result is similar to that of head teachers who strongly emphasized the presence of IGAs grants in improving pupils‟ academic performance (Table 4.7).

Income generating activities such as animal keeping; crop farming and vegetables farming were not liked much by pupils, but they were a tool for improving their academic performance. Besides that, the least numbers of IGAs coordinators 2

(6.7%) disagreed and strongly disagreed respectively on the school-based income generating activities with regard to their role in improving pupils‟ academic success.

Likewise, only 3(13.0%) of the head teachers strongly opined like the IGAs coordinators did (Table 4.7). These results suggest that school-based IGAs are very functional substitute ways of producing additional funds, solving financial problems, as they improve pupils‟ academic performance.

Commenting on the same issue during interview, the head teacher from school “F” said:

...There are a lot of orphans and vulnerable children in my school. The cultivation of watermelons has helped me to get money to offer these orphans and vulnerable children exercise books, pens and uniforms. Also, after selling watermelons, we got money to buy the necessary sanitary materials to support our girls during menstruation period. By doing so, the pupils become comfortable in learning and hence improving our school academic performance....

The above statement indicates that sometimes pupils perform poorly in their examination because of failure to get the necessary school requirements especially for the pupils who come from poor families. Therefore, IGAs have become handy aids to ensure the availability of exercise books, pens and uniform for the pupils hailing from poor families. Furthermore, the income from IGAs has been supporting girl‟ pupils to get necessary sanitary facilities during their menstruation period.

4.4.5 Enhancing Economic and Social Development

The results revealed that IGAs were being used as a tool for economic and social development where 6 (20.0%) of IGAs coordinators strongly opined and opined respectively. More importantly, 15 (65.2%) and 5 (21.7%) of the head teachers respectively strongly confirmed that the schools were using IGAs for economic and social development. Besides, 15 (50.0%) and 3 (10.0%) of the IGAs coordinators as well as head teachers totalling 2 (8.7%) and 1 (4.3%) respondent strongly underrated

the role of IGAs as economic and social development tools (Table 4.7). Generally speaking, IGAs were being used by school leaders as a tool for improving their economic conditions.

Furthermore, during interview with the DPEO it was found that, IGA in schools had created employment opportunity to the people living around the schools. Despite the fact that the numbers of employment opportunities generated through IGAs were few, to some extent, these activities were playing some part in reducing the unemployment rate and hence developing people economically. Reacting to this, the

DPEO noted:

....Most of schools that engage in sheep keeping have employed one person who cooperates with pupils and teachers to take care of the livestock. Likewise, the schools that are engaged in crop cultivation they employ people with oxen to plough the school farms. Pupils, with support from teachers, are involved in planting, weeding, spraying and harvesting. All these activities have provided temporary employment opportunities to the people living around schools and hence improving their living standards... The above statement indicates that IGAs in schools have played some role by providing temporary employment to the people from the community around schools.

Table 4.7: Contribution of IGAs in Schools

Group IGAs Coordinator Head teachers

SA A D SD SA A D SD

Provision of additional funds to finance 13(43.3%) 15(50.0%) 1(3.3%) 1(3.3%) 8(34.8%) 15(65.2%) - - primary education

Developing employability and 5(16.7%) 24(80.0%) 1(3.3%) - 16(69.6%) 4(17.4%) 3(13.0%) - entrepreneur skills to pupils

Provision of pupils’ meals 9(30.0%) 16(53.3%) 1(3.3%) 1(3.3%) 10(43.5%) 13(56.5%) - -

Improvement of pupils’ academic 6(20.0%) 20(66.7%) 2(6.7%) 2(6.7%) 7(30.4%) 13(56.5%) - 3(13.0%) performance

Economic and social development 6(20.0%) 6(20.0%) 3(10.0%) 15(50.0%) 2(8.7%) 1(4.3%) 5(21.7%) 15(65.2%)

Source: Field Data (2019)

4.5 Challenges in the Management of IGAs in Public Primary Schools

The third research objective of this study sought to find out challenges facing IGAs coordinators and head teachers in managing IGAs in public primary schools. Thus, the study administered questionnaire to thirty IGA coordinators and twenty-three head teachers. Interview was also administered to seven head teachers and one district primary education officer. From the questionnaires and interviews conducted to the respondents, the following challenges as presented in Table 4.8 were identified:

Table 4.8: Challenges Facing the Implementation of IGAs

Factors to poor performance IGAs coordinator Head of school of IGA Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Cost of establishing IGAs 5 16.7 4 17.4 Lack of proper business 3 10.0 1 4.3 plan Lack of education on IGAs 12 40.0 10 43.5 Shortage of human 4 13.4 1 4.3 resources Bad climate condition 6 20.0 7 30.4 Total 30 100.0 23 100.0 Source: Field Data (2019

4.5.1 Lack of Education on IGA

The findings from IGAs coordinators and head teachers‟ questionnaires responses on the challenges facing the implementation of income generating activities in primary school show that; 12 (40.0%) and 10 (43.5%) of them respectively affirmed that the key challenge among the different challenges facing the implementation of such projects was lack of awareness by the stakeholders of the type of IGA which was needed (Table 4.8). This challenge was listed by a big number of the respondents such as the IGAs stakeholders lacked education and priority setting in

running and implementing the type of IGA established. This challenge was large especially for those who opted to keep chicken.

As shown in the study findings, of the 7 sampled head teachers that were interviewed, 2 head teachers said that lack of enough knowledge, experience and skills on the established IGA was the key challenge facing head teachers. During the interview, the head teacher of school “C” noted:

...I received training on how to prepare a business plan before using of IGA grants. After successful development of the business plan I used the grant given by keeping chicken with the hope that training would be provided to me on how to raise chicken. But up to this moment no education has been provided...

The statement above indicates that most of the head teachers had received training only on how to develop a business plan. It was through the business plan that every head teacher identified the type of IGA to be established in his or her school.

However, training specific to the type of IGA opted to be implemented in the school was not yet given. For instance, education and training on how to fight against poultry disease including treatment, vaccination and preparation of chicken feeds was not yet provided. Therefore, many chickens died due to lack of treatment and vaccination knowledge to the head teachers. During the interview with the head teachers, 5 out of

7 head teachers indicated that lack of cooperation from the ward agriculture extension officers was contributing to poor performance of IGAs in schools. With regard to this, the head teacher of school “C” revealed the following regarding the allegations they had made:

…I have Several times consulted the Ward Agricultural Extension Officer to help me to cure my chicken but all the times I received no cooperation simply because I had no money to pay him. My chickens died of disease as I lacked assistance from agricultural specialists. For instance, I started with eighty chickens and two months later thirty-two of them died due to poultry diseases...

The quotation above indicates that most of the schools lacked funds to pay for the ward agricultural extension officer and that is why they lacked immediate assistance from him at the time their chickens were struck with diseases which needed intervention of a specialist.

4.5.2 Bad Climate Condition

The results also found that 6 (20.0%) and 10 (30.4%) of the IGAs coordinators and head teachers respectively, listed climatic challenges such as shortage of rains and presence of crop and animal diseases as things that were affecting the performance of

IGAs as a school-based projects (Table 4.8). Due to bad climatic conditions, the head teachers were not in the position to ensure effective implementation of income generating activities especially those in schools which were engaged in crop farming and horticulture such as vegetable and fruit cultivation.

The findings above correlate with the responses obtained from the DPEO during the interview who reported that for the head teachers who had established crop farming, they were being faced with bad climate condition as most of them were depending on rainfall to plant their crops. In relation to this, during interview, the DPEO stated:

... After starting the IGAs and getting the grant, many schools in my district opted to engage in crop farming. However, for two years since these activities were started, the amount of rainfall in some areas in my district was not good. Therefore, some school that had received IGA grants two years ago failed to use it due to poor climatic condition. I hope that if the situation changes, the rest of the school will use the given grants effectively.... Moreover, one of the head teachers from school “D” commented the following during the interview:

...In my school, I had planned to use IGA grants in cultivation of maize in the early of October. But I have failed to plant due to lack of enough

rainfall that would allow seeds to germinate. Therefore, due to bad climatic condition, I totally failed to use the grants in cultivation of maize. However, I have planned to use the grants this year if the situation allows... The statement above indicates that, poor climatic condition in some schools was an obstacle towards utilization of IGA grants.

4.5.3 Cost of Establishing IGAs

Yet, the finding realized that 5 (16.7%) of IGAs coordinators and 4(17.4%) of head teachers found high cost of establishing IGA as a huge burden to the coordinators and head teachers in implementing IGAs as school based projects (Table 4.8). The results manifested themselves with the shortage of financial capital and expertise to run different income generating activities. This suggests that the IGAs as school based projects require money for investment of infrastructures especially for those dealing with livestock keeping as well as money in order to get professional expertise and reliable sources of markets for their products. More importantly, others who had started crop, sheep and chicken keeping were being faced with low capital. It was noted that many schools were using big amounts of money to invest in permanent structures such as building chicken and sheep shelters and to rent farms for agriculture. However, at the end, the schools remained with low amount of money that could not cater for the running cost of the projects. Generally, as it was noted, the launching of the IGAs in primary school requires enough funds for investment as well as running cost. During interview, the head teacher from school “E” noted the following with regard to launching of these projects:

... Launching of IGA in schools is a good idea and we accepted it since it focused on solving financial crises in our school. However, the idea came with no enough preparation of infrastructures for example for those who opted to keep sheep like me. The amount of money provided as IGA grants is not enough to construct infrastructure and to run the project...

From observation, it was found that although school “C” which had opted to keep chicken had succeeded to build a chicken shelter with the use of IGA grants, the school had remained with little money to buy chicken as it is shown in the photo below.

Figure 4.7: Chicken House Source: Field Data (2019) The above comments indicate that, IGA grants provided were not enough to manage infrastructure costs as well as the running expenses of the established IGAs.

4.5.4 Shortage of Human Resource

Furthermore, the study revealed that most of the challenges affecting head teachers in the management of IGAs were related to shortage of human resources. This was revealed through 4 (13.4%) and 1(4.3%) of the IGAs coordinators and head teachers respectively who cited the issue of low human resource as a big factor for implementing IGAs (Table 4.8). These results suggest that there was no trained

teacher or coordinators on IGAs to run the school project effectively, hence leading to negative attitudes of students and staff members towards IGAs because the IGA coordinators were usually being accused by the head teachers due to poor performance of the projects.

On the other hand, 2 head teachers of school “A” and “G” cited that parents discouraged their children to participate in IGAs. On the same view, 3 head teachers indicated that interference from school class timetable was also one of the challenges facing heads teachers in managing IGAs. During interview one of the head teachers stated:

...The guidelines provided by EQUIP-T on how to implement IGAs require the pupils to work on IGA for a single hour in a week. This condition has created a shortage of workers to work on IGA and for that necessitating the school to employ other people from community to work on it. But as a school we met and decided to employ only one person from community due to inadequacy of fund allocated on IGA...

This implies that most of the IGAs launched in public primary schools were operating under shortage of labour due to lack of funds to pay for labour. On the other side, the pupils were being assigned very little time to work on IGA as the school management wanted to avoid the interference of the school timetable as well as to fulfil the conditions set by the donors of IGA grants.

4.5.5 Lack of Proper Business Plan

The study also found that lack of proper business plan was a key challenge towards managing the IGAs as school-based projects. In regard to the study findings, 3

(10.0%) of the IGAs coordinators and 1(4.3%) of the head teachers asserted that the management of school-based IGAs was facing a shortage of proper plan (Table 4.8).

It was noted that poor plans were caused by lack of clear policy guidelines to ease

the progress of the initiation of primary school projects, management accounting reviewing and financial reporting of IGAs.

On the other hand, DPEO reported that poor business plan to a large extent had affected the performance of IGA. Some of schools‟ present business plan which was not practicable in their areas. For instance, the schools had prepared a business plan concerned with chicken keeping, but in real situation they knew nothing about poultry keeping especially on treatment, vaccination and feeding procedures. During the interview, the DPEO said:

...Some of the schools in my district were affected by improper business plan. The types of IGA established in some schools did not fit with the available resources around the school compounds. After the first business plan failed, the head teachers opted to change them and at the time they changed them, some costs had already been incurred in the first IGA and this affected the performance of the new IGA established in the second option... The quotation above indicates that there was poor planning of IGA in some schools which in one way or another contributed to poor performance of IGAs in some schools.

Further findings from the interview from the head teachers revealed that many public primary schools were faced with problem of lacking security guides and this resulted to lack of security of school assets as well as the established IGAs. The findings show that people were free to enter and graze their livestock in school compound as long as there was no security. Regarding this, the head teacher of school “B” asserted:

...I did not get support from community especially on the issue of security of the school property when I introduced the natter to them. My school has no security guards and this has made the people around the school be free to enter the school compound especially on the weekends and in the holidays and graze their animals. Sometimes, animals enter our farms and destroy the planted crops. This has been

done several times and when we needed support from the village leaders nothing was done. For me, this is one of the obstacles against the development of IGA in my school.... The above statement indicates that lack of hired security guards was affecting the growth and development of IGAs in schools. As the projects started were exposed to thieves as well the grazing cattle ate the crops. Therefore, hiring guards was very important to ensure the survival and sustainability of the established IGA.

Commenting on the school property including the IGAs being at stake, the head teacher from school “D” said:

…Some people from our community tend to steal the school property due to lack of security. Some people view the school property as the one with no owner and this kind of mentality has made the school property be unsafe. For instance, in January, one of my teachers who were living in the school house chased someone who had jumped onto the sheep cage probably for the aim of stealing sheep... The above statement indicates that, some of schools were facing some incidents of crime due to poor security in their schools. Lack of funds to employ security guards was seen to be a major problem facing many primary schools especially those in rural areas.

CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS

5.0 Introduction

This chapter discusses the findings of the study as analyzed and presented in chapter four. This chapter sums up the findings of the study based on its three specific objectives. That is: to identify income generating activities established in public primary schools in Busega, to assess IGAs and their contribution to school funds in public primary schools and the third objective is to explore the challenges in the management of IGAs in Public Primary Schools.

5.1 Discussion of the Findings

5.1.1 Issue Related to the Type of IGA in Public Primary Schools in Busega

The results of this study show that majority of the respondents were of the view that the income generating activities were in existence in primary schools. However, the

IGAs varied from one school to another. This indicates that many primary schools had IGAs for more than two years since their commencement. This is because of the prioritization of the use of IGA grants. This agrees with conceptual framework which considers IGA grants are as an important financial resource in establishment or upgrading of IGAs in public primary schools. The findings concur with Chapter

Two, UNESCO (1998) and Kavetuna (2013) indicated that provision of incentives as an important aspect to ensure IGAs in schools.

Likely, the findings indicate that many primary schools recognized the sheep keeping, chicken keeping, and crop farming such as maize, paddy, green gram and chickpeas as income generating activities. The findings also extended the presence of burnt bricks projects and horticulture farming which included fruits and vegetable

cultivation such as tomato, cabbage and watermelons as one of the IGAs which some schools opted for.

The effective utilization of IGAs grants and other resources as an input led to the establishment of IGAs in public primary schools. These findings concur with the study by Lwakasana and Getange (2017); Amos and Koda (2018) as indicated in

Chapter Two who observed that most IGAs established in schools were poultry keeping, crop cultivation, dairy farming, school shop, fruits and vegetable farming and rental houses for teachers. Furthermore, as indicated in Chapter Two, the findings of the current study are also supported by the study of Omukoba, Simatwa and Ayodo (2011) states that the types of Income Generating Activities that schools were engaged in largely depended on the type of the school and its status. It was established that high-status schools engaged in dairy farming, maize and wheat growing, piggery, and vegetable farming (Omukoba, Simatwa & Ayodo, 2011).

It would be anticipated that majority of the primary schools in Busega district made efforts in the establishment of income generating activities such as chicken farming, sheep keeping and crop cultivation. However, the variation from one school to the other was not a serious matter due to climatic condition, geographical location of the school and awareness as well as readiness of the stakeholders.

5.1.2 Importance of IGAs in Public Primary Schools

A study on the contribution of IGAs grants in public primary schools in Busega

District noted that IGAs were playing an important role in providing additional funds to finance primary education thus making the management of schools easier. The findings concur with that of Rambo and Odundo (2013) as indicated in Chapter Two who stated that the benefits school gained from IGAs were financial resources that

enabled schools to manage their actions and invest in assets. On their study on the effects of school-based income generating activities on the financial performance in public secondary schools, Odundo and Rambo (2013) revealed that the schools with

IGAs owned many assets than the school with no IGAs. One can say that schools that implement IGAs own many teaching and learning resources than the schools that do not engage in IGAs.

The study also realized that IGAs were useful in Developing Employability and

Entrepreneur Skills to Pupils. This finding reflects the study by Jacobson (2013) as indicated in Chapter Two, who asserted that the pupils in primary schools can be developed in employability and entrepreneurial skills by actively including them in entrepreneurial and enterprising opportunities from school-based IGAs. On top of that in Chapter Two Sanga (2016) commented that IGA aimed to help learners to get knowledge, skills and attitudes for dealing with the difficulties that exist in the society as well as to prepare the youth for work in agriculture sector such as crop cultivation and livestock keeping.

Furthermore, it was revealed that IGAs had enabled public primary schools to improve the health of the pupils. This became possible as the IGAs focused on ensuring availability of meals in school especially for the mid-day pupils. Crop farming, sheep rearing, chicken keeping and vegetable farming enabled the school to produce food for their students and teachers which in turn helped them to improve their health. The findings of the current study are also in the line with those of Amos and Koda (2018) who indicated that school based IGAs yield additional funds that contribute in the improvement of health through the provision of balanced diet to the pupils as they engaged in livestock keeping, cultivation of crops, vegetables and fruits.

In contrast, Ramadhan (2014) and Sanya (2015) found that although the provision of school meals is crucial to ensure pupils attendance and performance, a large number of parents were not still able to contribute for their children‟s school meals simply because they were living under poverty and as a result they were not able to pay for their children‟s school meals. Therefore, the launching of school-based IGAs was an important project to support the contributions made by few parents in provision of school meals in public primary schools.

Moreover, the study established that the additional funds generated through IGAs were used to purchase teaching and learning materials, motivation and facilities maintenance and hence improving academic performance. The findings concur with that of Amos and Koda (2018); Lwakasana and Getange (2017), who noted that through the income generated from IGAs, the schools were in a good position to ensure the availability of teaching and learning materials, motivation to both pupils and teachers and improved school infrastructures. This is because IGAs enabled public schools to cope with financial burden, without necessarily passing down budgetary adjustments to parents, community, government and other education stakeholders.

On top of that in Chapter Two Getange and Lwakasana (2017) asserted that as the

IGAs facilitated the provision of motivation to pupils and teachers, improved academic performance of the school was noted. In line with this, Vero and Puka

(2017) realized that the income from IGAs were used to motivate teachers and pupils by ensuring availability of teaching and learning materials; provision of rewards and meals for both teachers and pupils as well as improving school infrastructures.

Moreover, as the pupils get opportunity to learn by doing, they are more likely to comprehend the subject matter than by only concentrating on theory part. The

findings are also supported by Jacobson (2013) and Said (2014) in Chapter Two who commented, it is known that IGAs play a major role of providing the pupils with the opportunities of learning by doing hence improving their academic performance.

Not only that but also, the study findings indicate that IGAs are used by school leaders as a means of improving their incomes especially on matters related to economic and social decision-making, mobility, access and control over public school resources. This agrees with the study done by Kavetuna (2013) as indicated on Chapter Two, who found that some income generating activities contributed to social and economic development through employment creation, nature conservation and food production.

Indeed, the school-based income generating activities are likely to help the learners to graduates from their studies with knowledge and necessary skills that will help them in the exploitation of nature in their society. As indicated in Chapter Two, the findings concur with that of Galabawa (1990) who noted that IGAs had reduced the financial burden of government in running schools and also made contribution to the economy of country as it helped the pupils graduate with the necessary skills for them to employ themselves.

Therefore, the researcher calls for the school leaders, managers and IGAs coordinators to realize that there is a need for schools to make efficient use of all available opportunities such as land, water bodies, climatic conditions, human and capital resources to raise additional finances for funding their programmes through

IGAs.

5.1.3 Challenges Facing IGAs in Public Primary Schools

5.1.3.1 Lack of Awareness of IGAs

The findings of this study established that lack of awareness of IGAs was a major leaning factor for poor implementation of income generating activities in primary schools. This is when the large number of the IGAs stakeholders and school committee members lacked education and priority in running and implementing the type of IGAs established in their school place. Lack of education and management skills on IGAs by the head teachers can be termed as one of the factors that contribute to poor performance of IGA in public primary schools. These findings concur with that of Kamunge, Njeru and Tirimba (2014) as indicated in Chapter Two who asserted that availability of managerial experience affect IGAs in a positive way and lack of it led to the failure of IGAs in schools. Furthermore, the findings are also similar with those of Mapolisa (2014)) on the challenges faced by school heads in management of school finances whose finding revealed that most of the head teachers lacked the accounting literacy required for effective management of school finance.

On top of that in Chapter Two, Khamati and Nyongesa (2013) revealed that the school committee members had low understanding on financial management that made them fail to give positive contribution to the use of school financial resources especially on the use of IGA grants. Low understanding of school committee members on financial matters made them fail to attend in the meeting but even when they came most of them failed to provide the constructive ideas towards the better uses of school funds. Therefore, one can say that the head teachers failed to effectively utilize of the IGA grants provided in their schools due to lack of skills in accounting and management of school funds.

Thus, by recognizing their challenges, the head teachers and school committee members should be subjected to training on financial management so as to improve financial management at school (Ndiang‟ui, 2012).

5.1.3.2 Lack of Cooperation from School Committee Members

The findings extended that not only the matter of recognition but also poor attendance of school committee members in the school meeting was among the major challenges facing head teachers in managing school financial resources including income generated from IGA and IGA grants. This is similar with the findings of Sigilai and Bett (2013) as indicated in Chapter Two, who opined that the annual financial budget in their schools and any procurement made in school was always approved by school committee. The head teachers were effective in involving the school committee who were representatives of the local community in determining the budget estimates of their schools.

5.1.3.3 Issue Related to Financial Constraints

The findings in this study established that the respondents were of the idea that high cost of establishing IGAs was a huge burden to the coordinators and head teachers in implementing IGAs as school based projects. These findings concur with the findings of Adan and Keiyoro (2017) as indicated in Chapter Two, who revealed that the performance of IGA depends on the availability of capital for investment and running costs. Lack of capital or inadequate capital for investment hindered the effective implementation of IGA in schools. Adan and Keiyoro add that, running cost of IGA is at times too high for schools to afford and that IGAs have failed due to lack of capital. On top of that, in Chapter Two, Ndege (2015) states that access to

enough finance are necessary to reduce the impact of cash flow problems for implementation of IGA.

These results also concur with those of Kavetuna (2013) who found that the amount of money sent to school as a grant was inadequate to cover IGAs costs and was insufficient to support large scale investment plan. All these challenges affected the head teachers as they made them fail to adhere to the financial regulation guidelines on public procurement as introduced by the government during the implementation of IGA.

Similar to this, Ogalo (2011) in Chapter Two indicates that due to low amount of funds sent to school by the government like IGA grants, the head teachers were not willing to use procurement guidelines including tendering. This made the head teachers be in a hard situation in planning the funds with the government procurement procedures and hence poor implementation of IGAs in their schools.

The results manifested themselves in the shortage of financial capital and expertise to run different school-based income generating projects. This suggests that the IGAs as school based projects require money to for realise knowledgeable and experienced expertise and reliable capital for invest in permanent infrastructure.

5.1.3.4 Shortage of Human Resources

The results of this study also show that IGAs were affected by the shortage of human resources. These results suggest that respondents were of the view that there were no trained teachers or coordinators to effectively run the IGAs as school projects. This situation created negative attitudes of students and staff members towards IGAs supervisors appointed by the head teachers for poor performance of the projects. As indicated in Chapter Two this finding concurs with that of Nyamwega (2016) on

Evaluation of Income Generating Projects in Public Secondary Schools in Nairobi, which revealed that there was shortage of qualified staff to run income generating activities as most of them were being run by the head teachers and the school IGA coordinator who may not be the best to be entrusted with such activities.

Furthermore, the findings from several scholars view human resources capacities as the one of the most important attributes for the development of IGAs in schools. It has been argued that IGAs with a skilled and well-trained labour are probably more effective and efficient than which are not. On this regard, Bouazza, Ardjouman and

Abada (2015, p.7) indicate that human resource capacities have a constructive impact on the development of IGA, which increase employee skills, knowledge, and motivation and ultimately result in improving the output and extend the sustainability of the established IGA.

On the other hand, the findings from the study done by Rambo and Odundo (2013, p.

392) on the effect of school-based income generating activities on the financial performance of schools revealed that most of the head teachers as the important human resource required to sustain IGA lacked finance management skills and knowledge. Therefore, this study recognizes that low human resource capabilities are one of the factors that hinder the growth and development of IGA in schools.

Therefore, the government should come up with appropriate training programmes on financial management for schools‟ head teachers so as to improve skills in managing school funds (Ndiang‟ui, 2012, p.49).

5.1.3.5 Lack of Appropriate Business Plan

The findings found that lack of proper business plan was a key challenge in managing the IGAs as school based projects. This implies that the respondents were

of the opinion that the management of school-based IGAs were facing shortage of proper plan and lack of a clear policy guideline to ease the progress of the initiations of primary school projects, management accounting reviewing and financial reporting of IGAs. It was revealed that many head teachers failed to have proper planning in keeping with the type of IGA they had started. This indicates that some of the head teachers had neglected the importance of planning while establishing

IGA in their schools.

This finding is also supported by the study done by Kazimoto (2014) as indicated in

Chapter Two, who revealed that the head teachers disregarded the process of planning since they thought that it was something that aided only large firms. He further added that failure to have a proper plan on how to start and implement IGA would result in the devastating impact on the IGAs‟ existence.

On the other side, the head teachers failed to prepare business plans as they were overworked in other duties such as administration duties and class works including teaching and marking of the students‟ works. This finding concurs with Sigilai &

Bett (2013) as indicated in Chapter Two, who revealed that head teachers‟ responsibilities hindered the ability of head teachers to perform effectively all issues concerning management of financial resources as they were already tired with other responsibilities. Thus, the study is of the view that many responsibilities allocated to the head teachers are obstacles to them in effectively performing some other school responsibilities. In fact, proper business plan is important in establishment of IGA as it focuses on providing strategic plans that guide the overall direction of IGAs by identifying the ways of maximizing their strengths and overcoming their weaknesses.

5.1.3.6 Lack of Creativity and Entrepreneurial Skills

As shown in the study findings, lack of enough knowledge, experience and skills were found as key challenges facing head teachers in Busega District. As from theoretical framework, the management competency and skills, access to finance, financial knowledge and business management training are very important factors in enhancing IGAs in public primary schools. This study therefore, implies that head teachers with managerial competency and skills have a positive influence on the performance of IGA while the head teachers with lack of managerial competency are catalysts for the failure of IGAs (Sitharam, & Hogue, 2016).

This finding is also supported by Ndege (2015) who states that, IGAs can be successfully grown and be developed by the head teacher with entrepreneurial skills that include initial experience or training on business management. The heard teachers with poor entrepreneurial skills cannot successfully run IGAs in their schools. The findings of this study on this particular aspect are similar with those by Kusil, Opata and Wayo (2015) who asserted that, the presence of entrepreneur skills among head teachers is very essential to guarantee the achievement of IGAs in public primary schools and lack of entrepreneurial skills to the head teachers is a significant constraint in the growth and development of IGAs. Furthermore, the shortage of management talent has an overstated effect on the survival of IGA in public primary schools. Therefore, the effectiveness and efficiency of IGA in schools depend on the level of entrepreneur skills the school management team possesses including the head teacher. On this, Kyenze (2016) suggests that when one increases entrepreneurial skills, the growth and development of IGA will be increased.

5.1.3.7 Shortage of Rainfall

The results also established that climatic condition such as shortage of rains and crop diseases was listed by a bigger number of respondents as affecting the performance of IGAs as school based projects. Because of t bad climatic condition, the head teachers were not in position of ensuring effective implementation of IGAs especially for those schools that were engaged in crop farming and livestock keeping.

This finding concurs with the study done by Chijioke, Haile and Waschkeit (2011) as indicated on Chapter Two, who asserted that climate change affects crop production because of average temperature increase and change in rainfall amount and patterns.

Furthermore, the findings of this study concur with that of Thakur and Karki (2018) as indicated in Chapter Two, who revealed that climate change affects production and productivity of agriculture and livestock from increased pest and disease infestation, and land floods, feed and fodders and biodiversity.

CHAPTER SIX

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.0 Introduction

This chapter sums up the findings of the study with giving the summary of the major findings, conclusion and recommendation of the study.

6.1 Summary of the Study

The study focused on investigating Income Generating Activities and their contribution to school fund in public primary schools in Tanzania a case of Busega

District Council. The study based on three objectives: to identify the Income

Generating Activities established in public primary schools, find out the contribution of IGA to school funds in public primary school and explore the challenges that contribute to poor performance of IGAs in public primary schools in Busega District.

A sample size of 61respondents was selected as representatives in the chosen case study area which included 30 heads teachers, 30 school IGA coordinators and 1

District Education Officer. Purposive sampling was one of the non-probability techniques used to select the District Education Officer, while simple random sampling was one of the probability sampling used to select head teachers and school

IGA Coordinators (Teachers) respectively. Data were collected using questionnaires from twenty three head teachers and thirty school IGA Coordinators, interview method and observation method were used to collect data from District Education

Officer and seven head teachers. The data collected were analyzed through SPSS package and thematic analysis.

6.1.1 Income Generating Activities in Public Primary Schools in Busega

It was found that the majority of the respondents recognized the presence of school based income generating activities. The study realized that income generating activities focused on the following; chicken farming, sheep keeping and crop farming. Other IGAs activities included laying and burning bricks, as well as horticulture which involved cultivation of vegetable and fruits such as tomatoes, cabbages and watermelons. Therefore, the primary schools had various IGAs but with majority of schools engaging in agricultural based activities.

Despite the fact that the government was providing capitation grants in primary schools, it was still evident that there were financial gaps that needed additional funding. This created attention to the head teachers, school committee members and

IGAs coordinators who were tasked with advising the schools to mobilize available school resources to launch IGAs. Thus, there was a need for schools to make efficient use of all available opportunities such as land, water bodies, favourable climatic conditions and human resources available in primary school to generate additional finances for funding their school based activities.

6.1.2 Contribution of IGAs in Public Primary Schools

In regard to the study findings, it was found that the incomes generated from IGAs were necessary as they helped schools to reduce shortage of school material and financial resources. Also, the study noted that the IGAs were crucial in improving pupils‟ academic performance. This means that the schools implementing IGAs owned many teaching and learning resources than the school that did not implement

IGAs. Moreover, the schools that were implementing IGAs enabled their pupils to learn by both theory and practically hence improving the school academic performance.

It was revealed that IGAs as launched in public primary schools were supporting schools financially through generating extra money that could be used to improve teaching and learning environment. It should be borne in mind that the role of IGAs is not only to produce extra funds that will be used to cut down schools‟ expenses but also IGAs made the head of schools to improve their school-based fund and quality education in their schools.

Based on Resource Dependency Theory it is important that head teacher should not depend too much on external resources such as capitation grants from central government. They should have their internal resources like IGA (Pfefferd &

Salancik, 1978).

Moreover, the growth and development of IGAs depend on proper entrepreneurial skills, mentorship, monitoring and evaluation as means of supporting and promoting

IGA (Ndege, 2015). The study therefore emphasized that IGAs initiate a sense of cooperation, citizenship and work among the pupils which is equivalent to the implementation of self-reliance education to make pupils reliant and with self- employment skills.

6.1.3 Challenges in the Management of School-based IGAs in Primary Schools

It was found that majority of the respondents were of the view that primary schools with shortage of money should start IGAs. Although this would require very large amount of money to cater for the needs of the project, but finally the IGAs started would pay off. However, due to lack of adequate funds, many schools did not start

IGAs and this hindered the implementations of curricular and extra-curricular activities such as IGAs which are necessary for improving the quality of education as

they engage students in the practical skills about life related to income generating skills and activities.

It was revealed that lack of trained personnel in school to run IGAs was also reducing the efficiency of primary schools in supporting the growth of school projects. Therefore, majority of the respondents were of the view that there were no individualized programmes for income generating activities and low performance of

IGAs due to lack of trained teachers to run IGA.

The study also found that the most serious challenges affecting IGAs were poor climatic conditions which affecting crop faming and livestock keeping. Likewise, lack of proper project planning was hindering the realization of the IGAs in primary schools. The respondents were of the view that head teachers and IGAs coordinators were facing challenges such as low management capacity. Yet, there was unreliable parent support to the implementation of IGAs in primary schools.

6.2 Conclusions of the Findings

On the basis of the study results, it can be concluded that, public primary schools had adopted the Education and Training Policy of 1995 and 2014 which insists that all schools establish IGAs as the additional sources of funds in school. In the context of this study, it was revealed that most of the public primary schools were engaged in sheep keeping, crop farming, chicken keeping and vegetable and fruits farming as their main IGAs. Other IGAs included cattle rearing and laying and burning bricks.

All these IGAs enabled schools to produce food for their pupils and teachers as well as generate funds for financing teaching and learning materials as well as sports and games facilities. Furthermore, these activities enabled pupils to learn life skills which would be a great help in their future life.

However, the findings show that there was shortage of financial capital and expertise to run different school-based income generating activities. As a result, schools were known to rely on IGA grants for their income generating activities which were also not enough to manage all investment and running costs. In order for a success of any income generating activities in public primary school, there must be frequent training on IGA to the educational stakeholders at the school level as well as to the educational officers at the ward and district level. On top of that, the government and other educational stakeholders must cooperate to ensure availability of capital in all public primary schools to initiate IGA.

6.3 Recommendations

Based on the findings of the study and the conclusion given, two categories of recommendations are given below as follows:

6.3.1 Recommendations for Practice

i. IGAs that can generate supplementary income and food for mid-day

pupils in the school‟s areas such as sheep keeping, vegetable and crop

farming should be enhanced in order to ensure provision of food to the

pupils in public primary schools.

ii. The government, in cooperation with developmental stakeholders should

allocate adequate IGA grants to allow suitable investment in

infrastructures and running costs of the established activities.

iii. There is a need to formulate an appropriate policy to guide and

standardize IGAs, initiate capacity building programmes for school IGAs

coordinators as well as engage business development managers to advise

schools on IGAs matters.

iv. It is suggested that head teachers should undergo regular intensive

leadership training on all aspects of IGAs management and their

importance in quality education provision in primary schools.

v. Mass education is necessary to the teachers, parents, pupils and

community at large about the importance of IGAs in schools. Therefore,

there is a need for schools to make sufficient use of all available

opportunities such as the availability of piece of land and water bodies

like Lake Victoria for launching and improving IGAs.

vi. Head teachers especially for those schools that are located along water

bodies should use alternative ways of farming such as irrigation systems

and balancing of school timetable in order to accommodate IGAs in

school time table particularly in the extracurricular activities.

vii. The government with support from the community must employ security

guards to all public primary schools so as to ensure security to the school-

based IGAs as well as to all school properties. viii. The local government must provide support to the Ward Extension

Agriculture Officers to make them work closely with schools that have

established agricultural based IGA of crop farming and livestock keeping.

ix. Consistent IGAs supervision, monitoring, assessment, coordinating,

guidance and counselling programmes are very essential for the health of

IGAs in primary schools. Therefore, the DPEO must ensure frequent

monitoring and evaluation of IGAs. Indeed, the head teachers should use

alternative ways of fund-raising so as to have enough capital on IGA.

6.3.2 Recommendations for Further Studies

i. A similar study on contribution of income generating activities to school

funds to be carried out in public primary schools in other areas of

Tanzania so as to allow generalizations of the study findings.

ii. Another study to be carried out on the factors that influence the

implementation of income generating activities in public primary schools

in Tanzania.

REFERENCES

Abawi, K. (2013). Data collection instruments: Questionnaire and interview. Geneva: Geneva Foundation for Medical Education and Research.

Adan S., & Keiyoro, P. (2017). Factors influencing the implementation of income generating projects in public secondary schools in Isiolo North sub county, Kenya. International Academic Journal of Information Sciences and Project Management, 2 (1), 558-573.

Ahmad, A., Soon, N., & Ting, N. (2014). Income generation activities among academic staffs at Malaysian public universities. International Education Studies, 8(6), 194-203

Aila, O. (2012). The impact and challenges of school feeding programme in enhancing access to primary education in Kenya. Nairobi: Kenyatta University.

Akugril, M., Bagah, D., & Wulfan, J. (2015). The contributions of small and medium scale enterprises to economic growth: A cross-sectional study of Zebilla in the Bawku West District of Northern Ghana. European Journal of Business and Management, 7 (9), 262-274.

Amogechukwu, E., & Unoma, C. (2017). Extent of head teachers‟ utilization of innovative source of funding primary schools in Enugu state of Nigeria. Journal of Education and e-Learning Research, 4 (2), 41-45

Amos, O., & Koda, G. (2018). Contribution of school-based income generating activities in quality education provision in secondary schools managed by the catholic diocese of Moshi, Tanzania. British Journal of Education, l6 (4), 49- 69.

Ary, D., Jacobs, L., & Sorensen, C. (2010). Introduction to research in education. U.S.A: Wardsworth Cenage Learning

Ayandibu, A., & Houghton, J. (2017). The role of small and medium scale enterprise in local economic development (LED). Journal of Business and Retail Management Research (JBRMR), 11 (2), 133-139.

Azizi, S., Mahmood, M., & Rehman, Z. (2018). Implementation of CIPP model for quality evaluation at school level. Journal of Education and Educational Development, 5 (1), 189-204

Bernard, H. (2012). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. New York: Sage Publisher.

Bouazza, A., Ardjouman, A., & Abada, O. (2015). Establishing the factors affecting the growth of small and medium-sized enterprises in Algeria. American International Journal of Social Science, 4 (2)

Chijioke, O., Haile, M., & Waschkeit, C. (2011). Implication of climate change on crop yield and food accessibility in Sub-Saharan Africa. Bonn: Centre for Development of Research University of Bonn

Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Research methods in education (6thEd). Routledge: London

Creswell, W. (2009). Research design. (3rd Ed). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Creswell, W. (2014). Qualitative, quantitative and mixed method approaches.United State of America: SAGE Publications.

Edmund, S., & Lymtane, E. (2018). Effectiveness of the head of schools in managing financial resources in public secondary schools in Moshi municipality. International Journal of Scientific Research and Management, 6 (5), 305- 316.

Edwin, T. (2014). Semi-structured interviews: Bournemouth. Bournemouth University.

Esiri et al. (2017) Observation research: A methodological discourse communication research. Research on Humanities and Social Sciences, 7 (20), 84-89.

Etikan, I., Musa, S., & Alkassim, R. (2016). Comparison of convinience sampling and purposive sampling. America Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics, 5(1), 1-4.

Fouka, G., & Mantzorou, M. (2011). What are the major ethical issues in conducting research. Health Science Journal, 5(1), 3-14.

Fraenkel, J., Wallen, N., & Hyun, H. (2009). How to design and evaluate research in education (8th.ed). New York: McGrawHill Companies.

Fricker, R. (2006). Target population, sampling frames, and coverage error. Monterey-Calfonia: Naval Postgraduate School.

Galabawa, C. (1990). Implementing educational policies in Tanzania. Washington D.C: World Bank.

Gill, A., & Biger, N. (2012). Factors that affect small business performance in Canada. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Venturing, 4(2), 181-193.

HakiElimu. (2017). The impact of the implementation of fee-free education policy on basic education in Tanzania. Dar es Salaam: HakiElimu

Herr, H., & Nettekoven, Z. (2017). The role of small and medium-sized enterprises in development. Berlin: Friedrich-Ebert Stiftung (FES) Publisher

Ibrahim, S., & Ladan, Z. (2014). The role of small scale enterprises in poverty reduction in rural areas of Sokoto State. International Letters of Social and Humanistic Sciences. 32, 197-203

Jacobson, B. (2013). Exploring income generation in schools.UK: Education Adviser

Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania. (2014). Sera ya elimu na mafunzo ya ufundi. Dar es Salaam: Wizara ya Elimu na Mafunzo ya Ufundi

Joseph, C. (2014). Factors hindering parents’ participation in school activities in Tanzania: Dar es Salaam: Open University of Tanzania.

Kamunge, M., Njeru, A., & Tirimba, O. (2014). Factors affecting the performance of small and micro enterprises in Limuru Town Market of Kiambu County, Kenya. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 4 (12), 2250-3153.

Katua, N. (2014). The role of small and medium enterprises in employment creation and economic growth in selected countries. International Journal of Education and Research, 2 (12), 461-472

Kavetuna, F. (2013). The use of income-generating activities grant: Perceptions of Beneficiaries. Namibia: University of Namibia.

Kazimoto, P. (2014). Assessment of challenges facing small and medium enterprises towards international marketing standards: a case study of Arusha region Tanzania. International Journal of Academic Research in Accounting, Finance and Management Sciences, 4(2), 303–311.

Kipkoech, C. (2018). Determinants of implementation of income generating projects in public secondary schools in Konoin district, Bomet County, Kenya. Journal of Business and Management, 20(3), 64-68.

Khamati, M., & Nyongesa, W. (2013). Factors influencing the implementation of free secondary education in Mumias district, Kenya. Journal of Social Science for Policy Implications 1 (1), 32-47

Kothari, C. (2004). Research methodology: Methods and techniques. NewDelhi: New Age International Publishers.

Kusil, A., Opata, C., & Wayo, T. (2015). Exploring the factors that hinder the growth and survival of small businesses in Ghana: A case study of small businesses within Kumasi Metropolitan Area. American Journal of Industrial and Business Management, 5, 705-723

Ladzan, M., & Mbonyane, B. (2011). Factors that hinder the growth of small business in South Africa township. European Business Review, 23 (6), 550- 560.

Lwakasama, E., & Getange, K. (2017). Effects of income generating activities in public secondary schools in Transmara sub-county, Narokcounty, Kenya. International Journal of Novel Research in Interdisciplinary Studies, 4(6),1-8

Magak, E. (2013). Challenges facing head teachers in financial management in public secondary school. Nairobi: University of Nairobi.

Mapolisa, T. (2014). Challenges faced by school heads in management of school finances in Nkayi district secondary schools. Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 3(4), 1-5.

Matete, R. (2016). Challenges facing primary education under decentralization of primary school management in Tanzania. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 6(1), 175-184.

Mbise, E. (2015). Factors facing school committees in enhancing the quality of education in Tanzania: A case of Monduli District. Dar es Salaam: The Open University of Tanzania.

Mfilima, S. (2015). Assessing the utilization of capitation grants in public primary schools. Dodoma: University of Dodoma.

Ministry of Education and Culture, (1995). Education and training policy. Dar es Salaam: MOEC.

Mohajan, H. (2017). Two criteria for good measurement in research: Validity and Reliability. Chittagong-Bangladesh: Premier University.

Mohamed, M. (2017). Factors affecting financial performance of income generating units among universities in Puntland State Of Somalia. Journal of Economics, Commerce and Management United Kingdom, 5 (4), 279-287.

Ndamani, F., & Watanale, T. (2015). Influence of rainfall on crop production and suggestion for adaptation. International Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 5 (1), 367-374.

Ndege, M. (2015). Factors that affect the growth and development of small, micro and medium-sized business enterprises in the Vaal Triangle region of Gauteng province in South Africa. European Journal of Business, Economic and Accountancy, 3(3), 2056-6018.

Ngussa, B., & Mbijike, G. (2016). Effect of food provision on pupils’ participation in learning: A case study in Babati rural district, Tanzania: Saudi Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences. 1 (4), 127-136.

Nkonoki, E. (2010). What are the factors limiting the success and or growth of small business in Tanzania. An empirical study on small business growth. International. Helsinki: Arcada University of Applied Sciences

Nyamwega, H. (2016) An evaluation of income generating projects in public secondary schools in Nairobi County. International Journal of African and Asian Studies, 21

Nyangaresi, D., Onderi, H., & Mwebi, B. (2016). Influence of school- based income generating projects on students’ retention rate in secondary education in Kenya. Journal of Educational Policy and Entrepreneurial Research (JEPER) 3(1) 45-61.

Odundo, P., & Rambo, M. (2013). Effect of school-based income generating activities on the financial performance of public secondary schools in Kenya. Chinese Business Review, 12 (6), 375-394.

Ogalo, O. (2011). Effect of procurement methods on cost effectiveness of public secondary schools supplies in Nyatike District Kenya. Nairobi: University of Nairobi.

Omukoba, H., Simatwa, E., & Ayodo, T. (2011). Contribution of income generating activities to financing secondary school education in Kenya. International Research Journals. 2, (2) pp. 884-897.

Petterson, G. (2015). Impact evaluation of education quality improvement program in Tanzania: Final Baseline Technical Report, Volume 1. Dar es Salaam: EQUIP-T.

Policy Forum. (2018). Analysis of the 2017/18 budget on the education sector with a responsive and gender lens. Dar es Salaam: HakiElimu

Public Procurement Oversight Authority. (PPOA) (2009). Public procurement manual for schools and colleges. U.S.A: PPOA.

Ramadhan, J. (2014). An assessment of the effects of school feeding programme on school enrolment, attendance and academic performance in primary schools in Tanzania. Dar es Salaam: Open University of Dar es Salaam.

Rawle, G., et al (2017). Impact evaluation on education quality improvement programme in Tanzania: Midline Technical Report. Oxford: Oxford Policy Management.

Said, Z. (2014). The importance of Practical Activities in School: Perspective of Independent School Teachers. Barcelona: College of North Atlantic Qutari.

Sanga, I. (2016). Education for self-reliance: Nyerere‟s policy recommendations in the context of Tanzania. African Research Journal of Education and Social Sciences, 3 (2), 1-7

Sanya, H. (2015). Impact of school feeding on student attendance in secondary schools in Tanzania. Dar es Salaam: Open University of Dar es Salaam.

Sekyere, K. (2017). Non-formal education programme as a factor for improving income generating activities in the Ashanti Bekwai Municipality of Ghana. Ashanti: University for development studies.

Sigilai, R., & Bett, J. (2013). An assessment of head teachers effectiveness in managing public primary school finance in Bomet sub-county Kenya: Journal of Emerging Trends in Educational Research and Policy Studies (JETERAPS), 4 (2), 205-2009.

Singh, Y. (2006). Fundamental of research methodology and statistics. New Delhi: New Age International Publishers.

Sitharam, S. & Hoque, M. (2016). Factors affecting the performance of small and medium enterprises in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Problems and Perspectives in Management, 14(2), 277-288.

Stan, S. (2014). The role of small business in economic development of European economy. Vasite Alecsandri: University of Bacau

Stufflebeam, D. (1971) The Relevance of the CIPP evaluation model for educational accountability. Columbus: Ohio State University.

Thakur, S., & Karki, G. (2018). Climate change impact on agriculture and livestock in Nepal. The Journal of Agriculture and Environment, 19 (1).

United Nations, Education Social and Cultural Organization. (1998). School enterprises: Combining vocational learning with production. Berlin: UNESCO.

United Republic of Tanzania. (2016).Guidelines for school on how to create income generating activities (IGA). Dar es Salaam: EQUIP-T.

United Republic of Tanzania. (2016). National basic education statistics in Tanzania (BEST). Dar es Salaam: MOEST.

United Republic of Tanzania. (2018). Basic Education Information System. Dar es Salaam: MoEST

Vero, E., & Puka, E. (2017).The Importance of motivation in an educational environment. Tirana: European University of Tirana.

Weaver, N. (2011). Education policy in Tanzania from independence to the present: Continuity and transformation. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh

Zainal, Z. (2007). Case study as a research method. Malaysia: The University of Technology: Malaysia.

Appendices

Appendix I: Interview questions for head teachers

My name is Lasway, Magno Mtorobo, I am a student at the University of Dodoma

(UDOM) pursuing a Master of Arts and Education degree. As part of this qualification, students are required to conduct a research project. Therefore, to fulfil this requirement, I am conducting a study on the topic: Income Generating

Activities and their contribution to school funds in Public Primary Schools in

Tanzania: A case of Busega District Council. Therefore, I kindly request to interview you so as to obtain the relevant information for my study. Confidentiality of the information that you will provide will highly be observed and will be used solely for this study.

Part A: Socio-Economic Profile

Put (√) in the box where necessary

1. Sex of the respondent ( ) male ( ) female

2. Age of the respondent ( ) 25-29 ( ) 30-34 ( ) 35-39 ( ) 40-44

( ) above 44

3. Level of Education ( ) certificate ( ) Diploma ( ) Degree and above

Part B: Specific Information

Fill on the blanks from question 1- 9

4. What is the type of IGA established in your school? ......

5. For how long has the established IGA been in existence?

......

6. What was the previous IGA if any?

......

7. What are the uses of the money generated from IGA in your school?

(a) ......

(b) ......

8. Do you sell all products generated from IGA in your school? ( ) Yes ( )

No. If no, what are the uses of the products generated from IGA in your

school which are not sold?

(a) ......

(b) ......

9. What are the challenges do you face within your line of IGA that hinder its

growth and development?

(a) ......

(b) ......

(d) ......

Appendix II. Interview questions for district education officer

My name is Lasway, Magno Mtorobo, I am a student at the University of Dodoma

Activities and their contribution to school funds in Public Primary Schools in

Tanzania: A case of Busega District Council. I therefore kindly request to interview you so as to obtain the relevant information for my study. Confidentiality of the information that you will provide will highly be observed and will be used solely for this study.

Part A: Socio-Economic Profile

Put (√) in the box where necessary

1. Sex of the respondent ( ) male ( ) female

2. Age of the respondent ( ) 25-29 ( ) 30-34 ( ) 35-39 ( ) 40-44

( ) above 44

3. Level of Education ( ) certificate ( ) Diploma ( ) Degree and above

PartB: Specific Information

Fill on the blanks from question 4- 7

4. What are the types of IGA established in your schools?

(a) ......

(b) ......

(d) ......

100

5. What are the uses of the money and products generated from IGA in your

schools?

(a) ......

(b) ......

6. Do you sell all products generated from IGA in your school? ( ) Yes ( )

No. If no what are the uses of the products generated from IGA in your

school which are not sold?

(d) ......

7. What are the challenges do you face within your line of IGA that hinder its

growth and development?

(a) ......

(b) ......

(d) ......

(e) ......

101

Appendix III: Questionnaires for School IGA Coordinator

My name is Lasway, Magno Mtorobo, I am a student at the University of Dodoma

Activities and their contribution to school funds in Public Primary Schools in

Part A: Socio-Economic Profile

Put ( √ ) in the box where necessary

1. Sex of the respondent ( ) male ( ) female

2. Age of the respondent ( ) 25-29 ( ) 30-34 ( ) 35-39 ( ) 40-

44 ( ) above 44

3. Level of Education ( ) certificate ( ) Diploma ( ) Degree and

above

Part B: Specific Information

4. What type of IGA is established in your school?

( ) Poultry farming ( ) Animal keeping ( ) Crop farming ( ) any other

5. How long has the established IGA existed?

( ) Less than a year ( ) Two years ( ) More than two years

102

6. What was the previous IGA in your school?

( ) Crop farming ( ) Livestock keeping ( ) Poultry farming ( ) other

7. Put (√) in the appropriate contribution of IGA in your school

1= Strongly Agree 2. Agree 3. Strong disagree 4. Disagree

Statement 1 2 3 4

Provision of additional funds to finance primary education

Developing employability and entrepreneur skills to pupils

Improvement of pupils‟ health

Improvement of pupils‟ academic performance

Economic and social development

8. Tick the factors that contribute to poor performance of IGA.

a) Cost of establishing IGA ( )

b) Theft ( )

c) lack of proper business plan ( )

d) Lack of Education and training on IGA ( )

e) Shortage of human resource ( )

9. Put a tick (√) on the strategies to improve IGA in public primary schools?

Indicate whether you agree or disagree with the following statement.

103

Scale rating: 1= strongly disagree 2. Disagree 3. Not sure 4. Agree 5. Strongly agree

Na Statement 1 2 3 4 5

Provision of adequate A money on IGA

To ensure security B around the school compound

Provision of education C and training on IGA

Frequent mentoring, D monitoring and consultation

104

Appendix IV: Questionnaires for School Head Teachers

My name is Lasway, Magno Mtorobo, I am a student at the University of Dodoma

Activities and their contribution to school funds in Public Primary Schools in

Tanzania: A case of Busega District Council. I therefore, kindly request to interview you so as to obtain the relevant information for my study. Confidentiality of the information that you will provide will highly be observed and will be used solely for this study.

Part A. Socio-Economic Profile

Put ( √ ) in the box where necessary

1. Sex of the respondent ( ) male ( ) female

2. Age of the respondent ( ) 25-29 ( ) 30-34 ( ) 35-39 ( ) 40-

44 ( ) above 44

3. Level of Education ( ) certificate ( ) Diploma ( ) Degree and

above

Part B. Specific Information

4. What type of IGA is established in your school?

( ) Poultry farming ( ) Animal keeping ( ) Crop farming ( ) any

Other

105

5. How long has the established IGA been in existence?

( ) Less than a year ( ) Two years ( ) More than two years

6. What was the previous IGA in your school?

( ) Crop farming ( ) Livestock keeping ( ) Poultry farming ( ) other

7. Put (√) in the appropriate contribution of IGA in your school

1= Strongly Agree 2. Agree 3. Strong disagree 4. Disagree

Statement 1 2 3 4

Provision of additional funds to finance primary education

Developing employability and entrepreneurial skills to pupils

Improvement of pupils‟ health

Improvement of pupils‟ academic performance

Economic and social development

8. Tick the factors that contribute to poor performance of IGA.

(a) Cost of establishing IGA ( )

(b) Theft ( )

(d) Lack of Education and training on IGA ( )

(e) Shortage of human resource ( )

9. Put a tick (√) on the strategies to improve IGA in public primary schools?

Indicate whether you agree or disagree with the following statement.

106

Scale rating: 1= strongly disagree 2. Disagree 3. Not sure 4. Agree 5. Strongly agree

Na Statement 1 2 3 4 5 Provision of A adequate money on IGA To ensure security B around the school compound Provision of C education and training on IGA Frequent mentoring, D monitoring and consultation

107

Appendix V: Introduction Letter from the University of Dodoma

108

Appendix VI: Introduction Letter from Busega District Council

109