!1 'Like a man trying to knit'? : Women's Cricket in Britain, 1945-2000 Rafaelle Nicholson Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy July 2015 !2 Statement of originality I, Rafaelle Nicholson, confirm that the research included within this thesis is my own work or that where it has been carried out in collaboration with, or supported by others, that this is duly acknowledged below and my contribution indicated. Previously published material is also acknowledged below. I attest that I have exercised reasonable care to ensure that the work is original, and does not to the best of my knowledge break any UK law, infringe any third party’s copyright or other Intellectual Property Right, or contain any confidential material. I accept that the College has the right to use plagiarism detection software to check the electronic version of the thesis. I confirm that this thesis has not been previously submitted for the award of a degree by this or any other university. The copyright of this thesis rests with the author and no quotation from it or information derived from it may be published without the prior written consent of the author. Signature: Rafaelle Nicholson Date: 15th July 2015 Details of publications: Nicholson, R. (2012), 'Who killed schoolgirl cricket? The Women's Cricket Association and the death of an opportunity, 1945-1960', History of Education 41:6. Nicholson, R. (2015), '“Our own paper”: Evaluating the impact of Women's Cricket magazine, 1930-1967', Women's History Review. !3 Abstract This thesis focuses on a much neglected area of women's history, female leisure. It examines the processes of change since the Second World War in British society as experienced by British women, through the lens of women's cricket, a sport previously completely overlooked by historians. A combination of archival material and oral history interviews with female cricketers past and present is used to examine the constraints faced by women in postwar Britain in gaining access to spaces of leisure such as sport, and the ways in which they exercised agency in overcoming such barriers. The thesis makes a key contribution to the historiography of the women's movement in twentieth- century Britain, demonstrating that female cricketers always espoused so-called ‘second-wave feminist’ ideals such as the freedom to control their own bodies, the need for a women-only space, and a rejection of traditional ideas of domesticity in favour of exercising their own right to leisure. Thus, despite the fact that the ‘feminist’ label is rejected by cricketers in oral history interviews, women’s cricket can still be conceived of as a site of feminism. By documenting the problems women had with gaining access to cricketing resources, coverage of female cricketers in the media, and the attitudes of British governments and British society more broadly to women’s cricket, the thesis highlights how sport remains an arena in which traditional attitudes to gender roles have until recently undergone very little significant change. !4 Acknowledgements There are many people who have helped me in the course of researching, writing and completing this thesis. Dr Helen McCarthy has combined academic stringency with supportive guidance in her supervision of the project, and the final result is very much the better for her efforts. Dr Peter Catterall as my initial supervisor was always a source of ideas and inspiration, and continues to be a great support to me. I am also grateful to the community of scholars who regularly attend the Sport and Leisure History seminar at the Institute of Historical Research in London. I have greatly benefitted from their advice and company over the course of the PhD. I am indebted to all those within the women’s cricket community who welcomed me into their confidence, and whose voices have thoroughly enriched this research. Their honesty and openness was greatly appreciated, as was the time they spent digging around in their spare rooms, attics and sheds to unearth some of the archival material which form the basis of the following pages. In particular I must thank Carole Cornthwaite, who was the custodian of the Women’s Cricket Association archive at the time of my research, and had to put up with me living in a shed in her garden almost solidly for several weeks! I am also thankful for the wisdom and support of the Women’s Cricket Bloggers, who continue to enrich my summers, both in the press box and on the boundary edge. Researching a PhD thesis is (one hopes!) temporary, but friendship is for life. PhD theses sometimes have long roots; this one began in a Surrey classroom many years ago under the guidance of Angela Mayne, who taught me to love history. While she may not have initially approved of the chosen topic - ‘sports history?’ - I hope she will appreciate the final result. Last but not least I thank my parents. Not only did Dad instil in me from an early age his own love of cricket, but both he and Mum provided the financial and emotional support to allow me to complete the PhD (not to mention countless cups of tea along the way). Without them it would not have been possible; it is to them that this thesis is dedicated. !5 Contents List of figures 6 List of illustrations 7 List of abbreviations 8 Introduction 9 Chapter 1. 1945 to 1955: 'Brighter Cricket'? 44 Chapter 2. 1956 to 1970: 'Modern life militates against women's cricket' 90 Chapter 3. The 1970s: Women's Cricket and Women's Liberation 142 Chapter 4. 1980 to 1992: 'Limping along' 182 Chapter 5. 1993 to 2000: To a merger and beyond 221 Conclusion 281 Appendixes 306 Bibliography 323 !6 List of figures Figure 1: WCA affiliation figures, 1945-55 45 Figure 2: WCA affiliation figures, 1955-70 91 !7 List of illustrations Illustration 1. Molly Hide batting in a divided skirt, 1950s 56 Illustration 2. England touring team in ‘mini-skirts’, 1968/9 105 Illustration 3. Advert for Gray-Nicolls’ bats, featuring England captain Rachael Heyhoe 116 Illustration 4. Uni-Vite’s sponsorship of the 1986 Indian tour 198 Illustration 5. The Sun in the wake of England’s World Cup victory, 1993 250 Illustration 6. Isa Guha in the new, slim-fit Adidas England kit 288 !8 Abbreviations ACO - Association of Cricket Officials ACU - Association of Cricket Umpires AENA - All England Netball Association AEWHA - All England Women’s Hockey Association AGM - Annual General Meeting ASA - Amateur Swimming Association AWCC - Australian Women’s Cricket Council CCPR - Central Council of Physical Recreation CPE - College of Physical Education ECB - England and Wales Cricket Board EGM - Extraordinary General Meeting FA - Football Association GPDST - Girls Public Day School Trust IWCC - International Women’s Cricket Council LCC - Ladies Cricket Club LCCA - London Community Cricket Association LEA - Local Education Authority MCC - Marylebone Cricket Club NCA - National Cricket Association NZC - New Zealand Cricket ODI - One Day International PE - Physical Education SDO - Sports Development Officer TCCB - Test and County Cricket Board WAAA - Women’s Amateur Athletics Association WAAF - Women’s Auxiliary Air Force WCA - Women’s Cricket Association WCAG - Women’s Cricket Advisory Group WCC - Women’s Cricket Club WI - Women’s Institutes WLM - Women’s Liberation Movement YWCA - Young Women’s Christian Association !9 Introduction In the summer of 1963, at Chislehurst in Kent, a charity match took place between an England Women's XI and a side made up of famous male England cricketers and cricket journalists. It was captained by Colin Cowdrey. Brian Johnston, the much-loved BBC cricket commentator, was keeping wicket, and Len Hutton (England captain 1952-55) was fielding at slip. 'I asked him what he thought of women playing cricket,' Johnston later recalled. 'He gave me a funny look and answered: “It's just like a man trying to knit, isn't it?”'1 The women's side went on to win the match. One can well imagine Hutton uttering those words. Throughout the twentieth century, female involvement in cricket was subject to intense scrutiny regarding its suitability as a 'feminine- appropriate' sport; the England cricketer Walter Hammond wrote in 1952 that: 'There are some games women can play, in general, actually better than men, but the muscular differences of the sexes prohibits cricket from being one of them'.2 Hutton's quote is telling: it suggests that cricket was felt to be a masculine activity, unsuitable for female participants. His idea that women playing cricket was the equivalent of men knitting also signifies the existence of broader societal expectations about the gendered nature of leisure in modern Britain. Women's place was at home, knitting; men's was outside the home, playing sport. Even when Rachael Heyhoe-Flint, England captain, scored a century three years after Hutton's remark, during the 1966 Scarborough Test against New Zealand, the Daily Telegraph reported it with the headline 'Housewife enlivens day's play'.3 1 B. Johnston, A Delicious Slice of Johnners (2001; reprinted London, 2007), pp.276-7. 2 W. Hammond, Cricket's Secret History (London, 1952), p.155. 3 Daily Telegraph, 20 June 1966. !10 Hutton's comment was made in 1963, before the onset of the second-wave feminist movement and the resulting shift in women's societal position. Indeed, historians agree that gender roles in Britain underwent significant change in the period between the 1960s and the start of the twenty-first century; Ina Zweiniger-Bargielowska concludes that 'gender differences have declined, male and female roles have become increasingly fluid and ambiguous, and women have acquired greater status and power'.4 Yet there are limits to this new fluidity of gender roles.