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I. Central and : 1530-1770

Columbian Exchange: 1530-1770 -Exchange of , animals, diseases, and technologies between the and the rest of the following Columbus’s voyages. diseases: (deadliest of the early epidemics), , , , , , , pulmonary plague Result: Major decline of the native populations in Spanish and Portuguese colonies

Syphilis – spread from Americas to Europeans

British Empire also had similar patterns of spread of diseases, but during this time, the British did not use disease as a tool of building an empire

Plants and Animals: European, Asian, African food came to the Americas American crops that traveled to the Old World = , beans, potatoes, manioc, Result: led to rapid growth in after 1700 Europeans introduced , , , Horses had the most major impact on the Amerindians Affected environment and cultures of native populations

Old World destroyed Amerindian crops and Other Amerindians benefited from cattle, sheep, horses

Spanish America: Spanish wanted direct control over American colonies -Council of the Indies Difficulties of communication between and Old World Result: Viceroys of New and – substantial power

Portuguese also appointed Viceroy in Brazil (1720) Reasons: neglect and mismanagement

Spanish and Portuguese developed high level government institutions -Costly -Hurt local economies and local governments

Catholic Church had huge role in transferring European language, culture, and Christianity Many Amerindians were converted Some secretly held on to native beliefs

Catholic Church tried to help Amerindians from European abuses Example: Priest Bartolome de Las Casas – denounces Spanish policy and forced legal reforms (New Laws of 1542) -Church was richest organization in Spanish colonies Many Amerindians blended Christian beliefs with native beliefs Result: Church founded universities and secondary schools in towns and cities -Major role in intellectual and cultural life of colonies

Colonial Economies:

Latin American colonies: silver mines of Peru and sugar plantations of Brazil

Dependence on mineral and agricultural exports

Spanish colonies: silver mines in Bolivia and Peru until 1680, then silver mines in Mexico --Large labor force needed and environmental effects = deforestation and mercury poisoning

Spanish agricultural economy – up to 1540s Spanish – forced labor ‘encomienda’ – Amerindian labor when development of silver mines – new labor Mexico – free-wage labor Peru – mita (1/7 of adult male Amerindians – forced labor – less than subsistence wage – 2-4 months/year Mita undermined traditional agricultural economy Weakened Amerindian village life Promoted assimilation of Amerindians into Spanish colonial society

Portuguese: African slave labor on sugar plantations in Atlantic , then similar system in Brazil

First used Amerindians in Brazil and then used the more experienced and disease- resistant African-American slaves

Sugar and slaves in American colonies – huge role in world trade

Spanish and Portuguese – tried to control trade in American colonies – monopolies and convoy systems - collection of taxes – restricted European flow of goods in colonies -Established illegal commercial activities with English, French, and Dutch Result: slowed flow of goods and kept prices high

Spanish America – elite – small number of Spanish immigrants and large number of creoles (American-born descendants)

Immigrants – highest levels of government, church, business positions Reason: economic crisis in Spain led to rulers selling appointments Creoles – agricultural and mining

Colonial rule - cultural diversity of Amerindian and class differentiation eroded

African descendents – major role in Spanish colonies

Slaves and free blacks from – helped conquest and settlement of Spanish America Later: direct slave trade with – Increase in blacks and lower status of legal status of blacks

Originally people from Africa – retained cultural identity. Later – assimilation with European and American cultures

Slave rebellions always brought under control Sometimes run-away slaves formed groups and protected themselves

Most slaves – agricultural labor: harsh discipline and punishment Much more males than females Result: family life was not preserved or adopted from Africa or

Brazil – Portuguese immigrants – politics and economy By early 17th Century – African and American born-descendents – slaves and free -largest ethnic group

Many people with mixed cultures -European-Amerindian decent – ‘mestizos’ -European-African decent – ‘mulattos’

-African-Amerindian decent – ‘castas’ -dominated small-scale retailing and construction = cities -small and farms = rural -wage laborers Some gained wealth and status Adopted Spanish and Portuguese culture