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AUTHOR Martorella, Peter H. TITLE Interactive Video and Instruction. What Research Says to the Teacher. INSTITUTION National Education Association, Washington, D.C. REPORT NO ISBN-0-8106-1083-3 PUB DATE Jul 89 NOTE 34p. AVAILABLE FROMNational Education Association Professional Library, P.O. Box 509, West Haven, CT 06516 (Stock No. 1083-3-00, $3.95). PUB TYPE Guides - Non-Classroom Use (055) -- Information Analyses (070) -- Reports - Descriptive (141)
EDRS PRICE MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS. DESCRIPTORS Classroom Techniques; *Computer Assisted Instruction; Computer Simulation; Computer Software; Elementary Secondary Education; Futures (of Society); Instructional Effectiveness; Instructional Systems; *Interactive Video; Microcomputers; Systems Development; Videodisks; Videotape Recordings
ABSTRACT This state-of-the-art report on interactive video and instruction begins with a brief review of the current status of technology and technology transfer in schools. The nature of interactive video is then considered, including instructional applications of the technology and the components of an interactive video instructional system. Discussion of interactive video systems in the clas8room provides a holistic view of computersand imagery in instruction together with a summary of implementation issuesrelated to six components of such a system, i.e., viOso monitors, computers, software, interface devices or cables, videodisc or videotapedata, and videodisc or videotape players. Five examples of classroom applications are then described:(1) Laser Learning Reading Program for teaching middle grade students reading comprehension;(2) Target Interactive Project (TIP), alcohol and drug education;(3) Project CENT, consumer education;(4) the National Gallery of Art Program; anl (5) Project Interact, which is designed to help teacherstransfer interactive technology into classrooms across all subjects and grades. The effectiveness of interactive video systems is then explored in the context of research on computer-based instructionand research on interactive video, and an agenda for futureinteractive video research is proposed. A look at some current andfuture developments in videodisc and interactive video tachnologiesand their role in the school of the future concludes the report.(74 references)(DB)
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A A4s.2.)cHtTon PHHIcAtion 1144111111MI What Research Says to the Teacher
InteractiveVideo and Instruction
by Peter H. Martorella
nea gi!RiinTr National Education Association Washington, D.C. Copyright © 1989 National Education Associationof the United States
Printing History First Printing: July 1989
Note
The opinions expressedin this publication should notbe construed as representing the policy orposition of the NationalEducation Association. Materials published by theNEA Professional Library areintended to be discussion documents foreducators who are concernedwith specialized interests of the profession.
Library of CongressCataloging-in-Publication Data
Martorella, Peter H. Interactive video and instruction/ by Peter H. Martorella. p.cm. (What research says to theteacher) Bibliography: p. ISBN 0-8106-1083-3 1. Interactive videoUnitedStates. I. Title. II. Series. LB1028.75.M371989 371.3'34dc20 89-33869 CIP
8463?)CAN
i1 CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 5
TECHNOLOGY TRANSFERS INSCHOOLS 5
THE NATURE OF INTERACTIVEVIDEO 6 Applications of Interactive Video 7 Components of an Interactive Video Instructional System 8
INTERACTIVE VIDEO SYSTEMSIN THE CLASSROOM 9 A Holististic View ofComputers and Imagery in Instruction 9 Creating Interactive Video Systems 10 Video Monitors 10 Computers 10 Software 10 Interface Devices or Cables 14 Videodisc or Videotape Data 17 Videodisc or Videotape Players 19
CLASSROOM APPLICATIONS 19 Lasrff Learning ReadingProgram 19 Target Interactive Project (TIP): Alcohol and Drug Education 20 Project CENT: ConsumerEducation 20 National Gallery of Art Program 21 Project Interact 22
EFFECTIVENESS OF INTERACTIVEVIDEO SYSTEMS 22 Research on Computer-BasedInstruction 23 Research on Interactive Video 23 An Agenda for FutureInteractive Video Research . 25
FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS 26 Technologies of the Future 26
CONCLUSION 28
BIBLIOGRAPHY 29 The Author and Instruction, Peter H. Martorellais Professorof Curriculum Raleigh. He haswritten several North CarolinaState University, afrequent contributor to other educationalpublications and is professional journals.
The AdvisoryPanel
West OttawaSchools, Frances R. Baron,Kindergarten Teacher, Holland, Michigan School,Englewood, DorisH.Cruze, Teacher,Flood Middle Colorado Department, WindhamHigh John Moffitt,Chair, Mathematics School, Maine Public Schools,Minnesota Lee Richards,Teacher, Dilworth Instructional Systems, John J.Tzeng, Professorof Media and University of theDistrict of Columbia IllinoisState David L.Tucker,Professor, ReadingEducation, University, Normal Program Coordinator, SallyJ.York, LEARepresentative!Gifted Anniston CitySchools, Alabama
6 INTRODUCTION
Among the many challengesthat face American publicschools as they approach thetwenty-first century ishow to effectively and creatively harness moderntechnology to significantinstructional ends. The averagecitizen now takes forgranted on-line searches of gigantic informationbases, instantaneous videoand facsimile trans- missions over hundredsof thousands of miles,and personal comput- ers of allstripes. To be sure,microcomputersthe nation's most'Osible symbol of high technology at workin daily lifeare a permanentfixture in U.S. schools, muchlike television sets.With exceptions, however, their full potential impact onthe array of required subjectsand topics in the curriculum has yetto be realized.Beyond programming, word processing, data base management,and calculationapplications, significant instrument of newertechnologies have yet to emerge as a curricular change inclassrooms. Further, the schools are nowin danger of experiencing acultural lag with respectto thetechnologies that they doemploy and demonstrate. As microelectronicinnovation swiftly outpacesin- software for creases ininstructional resources,both the hardware and microcomputers that schoolsoffer students continue tofall behind what is available inthe commercial andgovernmental sectors.
TECHNOLOGYTRANSFER IN SCHOOLS
issue of technologytransfer in schools becomes moreurgent when we consider how manyaspects of our dailylives and of those of people all overthe world alreadyhave been dramatically Apart from the transformed bymicroprocessor-based technologies. have social,economic, and evenpoliticalchanges such tools spawned, they haveshown the capacity tospark and aid learning in a this capability with all variety of situations.They have demonstrated ages and typesof students,while simulating patience,humor, immediate feedback excellent memories,personalized assistance, and on demand. criticized Their meritsnotwithstanding,microcomputers have been students with arcane, from an instructionalperspective as providing superficial, or trivialsubject matter, and asbeing dull. Whatever the
5 validity of the criticisms, theyreflect the state of softwaredevelop- ment rather thanthe limitations of themedium. They also underscore an urgentneed for software that can moreadequately address significant curricular objectives acrossrequired subjects (13, 14, 17, 46).* More traditionalimagery-generating technologies,such as televi- sion and film, havelong been vehicles forclassroom instruction, and a wealth ofinstructional data exists inthese formats. Marrying these traditional media forms to newermicroprocessor technologieshas resulted in videocassetteand videodisc recorders/playerswith in- creasing levels of sophisticationfor learning applications(17, 33, 50, 51, 52). Both thequality of the visual imageand the capacities of such media for allowing usersto manipulatethe ways in which the visual messages areanalyzed continue toimprove. Their presence in homes and schools alsois increasing.
THE NATUREOF INTERACTIVEVIDEO
Picture a tenth gradeclass studying worldhistory. A small group of students is huddledin front of a videodiscplayer, a computer, and a color monitor.In the player is a disccalled deltalia, which contains 15,000 frames of text,20,000 sti11 photographs, and500 computer graphic maps, charts, anddiagrams. These are organizedinto 53 chapters presentinginformation on Italy from itsorigins to today. On the computer screen areinstructions for students and a menuof topics relating to Italy,including Seas, coasts andislands History from World WarI to the present Music Fashion Present-day industry As students select atopic from the menu, clear,crisp, videodisc images appear on the colormonitor within three seconds,providing visual data on the topic.The data includes aerialphotos, maps, and pictures; each image iskeyed to a printed textthat students can the reference.After viewing the data,students are queried on Depending upon computer screenconcerning what they have seen.
*Numbers in parenthesesappearing in the text refer tothe Bibliography beginning on page 29.
6 their answers, they maybe given a review, moved to a new,related set of videodiscimages, or returned to the menu tomake a new selection. Consider also a fifth gradeclass with the same equipment.This time it is placed infront of an entire class using avideodisc entitled "Mastering Fractions." Inaddition to traditional mathematicalprob- lems and writteninstructions appearing on the computer screen, students and teacher can accessinstructionalmateriols on the videodisc. They includeimages of fractions dancing and ,..enfalling in place in the form of anequation. These visual referrentshelp concretize otherwise highlyabstract processes for students.
Applications of InteractiveVideo
These materials alreadyexist, and are helping toenliven a growing number ofclassrooms across the UnitedStates. The new medium that they represent,interactive video, hasincreasingly gained acceptance in many sectorsof society (18, 34, 35, 52,56, 63). When the instructional assetsof visual media such asvideotapes and videodiscs arecombined with those of personal computers,an opportunity exists for creating a newhybrid medium in which the whole is greater than the sumof the parts (33, 35, 41,43, 44, 57). Video data can be accessedand analyzed in the samefashion as symbolic data. Computersoftware can be used to accessvideo materialinthe same way thatcomputer-generated graphics or expository textsare usedincomputer-assisted-instruction.Both computer data andvideo data can be mixed ininstructional programs such as reviews,branching, questioning, tutorials,and simulations. It also is possible toorganize and access video datain nonlinear ways forinstruction. In interactivevideo systems hardware and software allow searching to any'spot on a tape or discbefore playing begins. In the illustrationfrom de /ta/ia given earlier,for example, the system searchesfor and plays onlyfrom the segment of the videodisc that relates to"Fashion," if students select that category from the menu. Messagesalso may be placed overthe video material to pose aquestion or call attention to aspecial aspect. These "graphic overlays" allowthe instructor tostimulate thinking or emphasize a point. Interactive video alreadyiswidely used by the militaryand industry for individualemployee training (63). It also maybe used effectively for presentinginformation to large groups ofpeople (48).
7 9 For example, incommercial applications a store mayinstall an interactive video systemwith a touch screen near anentrance to inform customers aboutproducts. Interactive video has beenused less exteasively inelementary, secondary, and postsecondaryeducation, but suchapplications are growing. They includesocial studies, specialeducation, science, mathematics, art, reading,guidance, vocationaleducation, and teach- er education(7, 12, 39, 45, 46, 52,56, 63, 64, 66). TheEducational Testing Service has made amajor commitment to useinteractive video systems as partof the national standardizedtesting program for teachers. One dimensionof the test will includesimulated classroom vignettes, which testeeswill view and thenbe queried about.
Components of anInteractive Video Instructional System
Interactive video systems maybe either tape- ordisc-based (8, 34, 36, 57, 61). Apartfrom an emphasis on usercontrol of the sequencing of videodata (interactivity),there appears to be no cenventionally agreed-upondefirition of interactivevideo (63). Since the spotlight of ourdiscussion is classroomapplications, where the focus is upon materialsdesigned by an instructor toachieve certain curricular objectives, wewill consider a basicinteractive video system to havethe following components: One or more videomonitors A computer that cancommunicate with thevideodisc or videotape player Software that enables aninstructor or students toprovide directions to the computerand the player An interface device or acable that enables the computerand the video player tocommunicate with eachother Videodisc or videotapedata A videodisc orvideotape player. These six componentscomprise an interactivevideo system that provides the opportunityfor user interactionwith a videodisc or videotape player. Theyalso include the necessaryelements for toclassroom systematicallydesigninginstructioncorrelated objectives. INTERACTIVE VIDEOSYSTEMS IN THECLASSROOM
How do interactivevideo systems operate inclassroom settings? increasing numbers As individual schoolsand school systems acquire of computers andvideotape and videodiscplayers, the opportunity exists for developinginteractive video applications acrossall subjects and grade levels (7,43, 51, 62, 69). Thissection explores the rationale and mechanicsof implementing systems,and points to some illustrative applications.
A HolisticView of Computers and Imagery inInstruction
Apart from thecriticisms of existing computersoftware discussed earlier, a seriousproblem with much of the currentgeneration of computer-based instructionis the limited quality and scopeof the imagery it can represent(46, 72). As a corollary,it lacks the involvingconcrete capacitytosimulaterealisticenvironments referrents. The powerful effectsof imagery onlearning have long been recognized by both educatorsand lay audiences (10,74). White (46) has asserted that"Imagery is the languageof the information age" (p. 2). Amongothers, Bruner (10),for example, has pointed to children's dependence onimagery representations ofinformation for that they pass learning during certaindevelopmental stages. He notes from a -,tage ofdependence upon enactive(hands-on) modes of symbol- learning, to dependence onimagery modes, to reliance upon ic forms. In contrast toconventional computer-basedinstruction, interactive video systems, withtheir high levels ofimagery and their opportuni- ties for realisticsimulations, permit aholistic type of computer-based instruction. More fullyexploiting the potential powerof both the computer and thelaser videodisc player,they offer a far richer instruction (2. 43, 70). In learning environmentthan conventional addition, througn the useof videodiscs andvideotapes with simula- tion software, interactivevideo systems can createin the class- of room anapproximation of a realhands-on experience, a sense enacting an event. 9 it Creating InteractiveVideo Systems
Full discussions of themechanics of creating aninteractive video The system are availablefrom several sources(24, 36, 60, 61, 67). following pages brieflysummarize some of thesalient implementa- tion issues related tothe six components of aninteractive video system that wereoutlined earlier.
Video Mrnitors Systems may use asingle monitor andalternate between screens are systems of computer instructionsand video data. More common (60). Typically, this that use a separate monitorfor each type of data and a color involves a monochromemonitor for computer output monitor for video playeroutput.
Computers While videotape orvideodisc players can bemanually controlled provide the full to sequenceinstruction, a computeris necessary to potential of interactivity.The computer allowsboth learner and instructor to control thedirection of instruction,raise and respond to it permits questions, and alternate amongvarious media. Moreover, individualized instruction. Several computers canbe adapted for usein an interactive video IBM, Apple Ile, and 1. The mostfrequently used, however, are syst. allow the Macintosh (60). Muchof the software thatis available to developed computer and thevideo player tocommunicate has been for these three systems.
Software software that enableQ Interactive videoinstruction requires the instructor or students toprovide directions tothe computer and author lessons that player. Such softwareallows the instructor to and the videop:ayer. draw on the capabilitieLlof both the computPr trade-off of ease-of-use An earlier generationof software required a applications. That is,generally the easier apiece for sophistication in its of software was tolearn touse,the more limited were instructional options. branching, In turn, softwarethat permitted suchthings as multiple and various touch screens, graphics,scoring of student responses, often requiring forms of feedbacktypically was complicatedto learn,
10 special training. Softwarealso was specific to aparticular type or model of computer, andprices varied according tothe sophistication levels of the software.Examples at both extremes areLaser Write for the Apple Ile computersystem, whichrequires no programming experience and sells forunder $100, and LearningSystem/1 for the IBM, which requiresspecial training, andsells for over $5,000 (1, 60). Macintosh's newest softwareinnovation, HyperCard andrelated revolutionizing the process Hyper Stack software,shows promise of of authoringinstruction for interactivevideo (1, 26). These new types of authoringtools are free (publicdomain availability through Apple Inc. or user groups) orrelatively inexpensive(approximately $100). They alter computerprogramming and greatlysimplify it. Commands are easilymastered and sets ofinstructions, images, and drawings from one programare easilycopied into another. For example, a set of commandsto operate avideo player can be copied from one instructionalmodule to another. Allthis is accomplished without sacrificingsophisticated instructionalapplications. advantages for devel- The HyperCardenvironment offers several general philosophy oping interactive videoinstruction based upon the outlined above. It iscelatively easy tocomprehend with little or no environ- computer orprogramming training.Unlike most computer simulates the wayin which an individual'scognitive ments,it It also structure operateswhen questioning orproblem solving. allows for easycopying of sets ofinformation from one place to another, and the easy useand comparison ofmultimedia. Not insignificant isthe fact that HyperCardsoftware applications Macintosh areinexpensive. HyperCarditself is bundled with new sales, and stacks thatmake interactivevideo applications possible are provided by Applewithout charge or aremarketed commercially for price3 ot $10 and up.User groups oftenmake HyperCard stacks video software also is available at cost.HyperCard-based interactive available at moderate costs(approximately $100)through companies such as the VoyagerCompany (1331 PacificCoast Highway, Santa Monica, CA 90401), orthrough user groups. While instructors need notconstruct !heir own programsfrom scratch, since they may usethe "skeletons" offormer programs or "scripts," mastery of afew basic commandsis necessary to use the in Figure 1, along HyperCard VideodiscToolkit. The three shown with a sample programin Hyper Talk, thelanguage of HyperCard, basic cover thefundamentalsthatare needed tooperatea interactive video system.
1 1
- 13 blankVideo stepViieo command Turns off the picture on the video monitorfor the next playVideo, searchVideo, or on mouseUp blankVideoturn off the video image whilegoing to the start frame playVideo 1000, 1500play the videodiscfrom frame 1000 to frame 1500 end mounUp controlVideo
modemPort Use the modem port to mmmunicatewith the player. Use the primer port to communicatewith the player. printerPort DCEVS, INITs and other software whichinitialize the printer port at NOTE:Loco:Talk networks, E-Mail packages, the startup disk and rebooting the boot time will not always give up controlof it without removing the software from player and sendinga controlVideo printer- computer. Therefore simplyplugging in cables to control the videodisc player through that port. It is usually easiest to usethe modem port. Portcommand may not allow control of the Use port number n-1 is the modem port,2 is the printer port. port < n> be 600, 1200, 1800, 2400, 3600,4800, 7200, 9600, 19,200, or baud
playVideo
Plays the videodisc from the first framespecified to the last frame specified. issued (i.e., no search is done first) untilthe If first is left off or is "here," play beginswherever the player is when command is specified last frame. by "last." If the second argumentis left off, "last" is assumed. If lastis less than first The last frame of the disc can be specified play (forward or backward)through the videodisc is the sequence is played in reverse. Iflast is 0, I or "last frame," continuous assumed. be turned off the last play Video, searchVideo, orstepVideo command, the picture will If a blankVideo command was issued since since the last play Video command, thespeed while searching to the first frame. If nvidtoFramesPerSecond command was issued specified in the videoFramesPerSecondcommand will be used. on openCard playVideo 1500, 2500when the user arrives atthis card (when the openCard message is sent)play the videodisc starting at frame 1500 and stopplay at frame 2500 end openCard Figure 1 Sample Videodisc Controllerin HyperCard VideodiscToolkit © Apple Computer, Inc. Used withpermission. 15 is a The VoyagerVideo Stack, sold bythe Voyager Company, simplifies piece of softwarethat is similar to theToolkit. It further video lessons some aspectsof the process ofconstructing interactive information related to avideo by asking theinstructor to provide instructor "makes anevent," segment. Forexample, in Figure 2 an play a video segment,by indicating choices.In this case a script to (b) the choices are to(a) have a motionrather than a still sequence; but not 2; begin at frame 440and end at 850; (c)play audio track 1 and (d) enter thebeginning and endingpoints of the video segment manually, rather thanplaying the disc to locatethe desired start/stop. the list of commands, as Event Makerautomatically summarizes he/she can shown in Figure 2.Once the instructor createsan event, that click on the rectanglein Figure 2 thatreads "Make a button creation of a buttonthat does this command."This permits the invisibly for represents directions, or aprogram thathas been written Maker card. the instructor, to carryout theoperations on the Event The button then canbe shaped in avariety of ways, given any of instruction name, andmoved oi. copiedanywhere in a program prescribed on EventMaker. that incorporatesthe video segment provides a number ofpredesigned buttons, such as Video Stack also cards. When those shown inFigure 3, that maybe copied onto buttons will carry outthe operationsspecified; for copied, these copied in a example, the button"Play Fwd,"whereveritis playing forward program, willsend directions tothe player to begin anytime the buttonis clicked. to be inserted onthe Video Stack alsopermits overlay messages In addition, video monitor screenwith the use ofcenain disc players. feature that allowsthe instructor to sequence it has a "slide-tray" back still frames into alist with descript!onsand then play them annotated slidepresentation. manually orautomatically, much like an Interface Devices orCables computer and avideo player is The simplestconnection between a units. This carriesthe a singlecable that attaches tothe rear of both designated video- and comput- necessarycommunications to alternate that carry thevideo and audio er-generatedinformation. Cables the video playeralso are required.If the computer output from for system does notcontain a built-inmonitor, cabling is necessary monitor. the computer video system, A relativelysimple installationof an interactive monitors, is shown inFigure 4. using a Macintoshcomputer and two built-in monitor.)More (Note: TheMacintosh computerhas a Explain this card Event # 1 I \. 1 \ 1 A R 0 Printer Event Pori: Modem Description @ Motion Sequence 0 Still Frame 0 Play 0 Slow Frame Rate: 32 1131 lOr 440 Er 850 Get Still Fume # In Out Command List Length of Sequence: video sound, @ Audio 1 0 Stereo video search 440 0 Audio 2 0 Mute 850 El Enter Frame irs Manually Maio a button thatI rir Calculate Length of Motion Sequence Do this cortunand does this conunand rir Put Commands Into Conwnand Litt
1 ScanFastSlowStepPlayFrame*OffPlayStepSlowFastScan Delete EventInsert EventNew EventAdd to Event List Event List IndexClear All EntriesFrame Seamh Button Card
Figure 2 Event Maker Card (Voyager V ideostack)
© Voyager Company. Used withpermission. FileEd ItGo ToolsObjects These Buttons Playcr lb lain this card Control a Videodisc 0 Show Scripts
Reset Player Play Fwd Slow Fwd
1'1 Slow R.c.v E'WSW Disc Play Rev trpittilmillltionnutinnutinunruil unman itommununntoumnam Frame * Off Slower Fwd Pictunt Off KEE= 1,111111,111M1111111M1111111[1111111t1111111111 limmillimemmE 0 Audio 1 It Step Fwd Slowest Fwd Chapter Seazch 0 Audio 2 Stereo On Step Rev Slowest Rev Frame Search Mute anamittunimminowil Video Stop Slow Time Search I .. 1411 0111 Slow Rev Till... INDEX Moss Buttons... it 0)141illaMflamiNI9II
Figure 3 Predssigned Buttons Card s @ Voyager Company. Used withpermission. 7777= ......
To ModemPort VideoIner pudic;In C:30 01111110**S. 1110,SSIIIIIIS1111im 111 RS Videodisc Player Figure 4 An interactive VideoSystem
© Voyager Company.Used with permission.
complex installationsrequire some combinationof multiple cables, internal installations, separatecards that contain softwareinstructions and must be insertedin the computer, and"black boxes" that interface with both the computerand player (24, 25, 36,60, 61, 67). Cable and interface devicesnormally are specific to computermodels and even players, and canliotbe used interchangeablywith different systems. For certain types ofunit, it also may bepossible to overlay (place "What is over animage) on the videomonitor a message such as, the problem in thissituation?" Special interfacedevices, such as those designed byMicroKey System forinsertion in the IBM, permit overlays of graphics or texts onthe video monitor (60).
Videodisc or VideotapeData Both tape and discformats have relativeadvantages and disadvan- tages from theperspective of classroominstruction (11, 23, 24, 25, 56, 68). Videotapes inone-half-inch formats covering manysubjects addressed in the schoolcurriculum are readilyavailable. Since the software in tape-basedinteractive video systemsallows for nonlinear presentation of the tapematerial (i.e., skippingfrom place to place Further, tape on the tape),tedious editing ofmaterial is not required. may beeasily revised torefine or updateinformation. The disadvantages of tape,however, are significant forclassroom applications. Accessing tape canbe relatively slow,particularly
17 I 9 where a long sequenceof tape is used. Tapealso is subject to expansion and contraction,affecting frame access, andits visual quality is poorer thanthat of discs. In contrast, videodiscshave many advantages (18,37, 51, 54, 70, 73). Their data can be morequickly accessed. For example,typical search times to access a segmentare three toeight seconds (51). Also, disc pictures aresharper and freeze frame, reverse,and slow motion sequences areeasier to manipulate thanwith tape. For classroom applications,discs also have the practicaladvantage of being far more durablewith handling than tapes. Often called laserdiscsbecause the players uselasers to read them, discs come in two basicformats, each with differentinstructional implications. Those labeledCAV (Constant AngularVelocity) permit precise frame location forselecting and stepping stillframes, slow motion. This formatallows for 30 minutesof 54,000 frames of information per side. Eachframe is numbered and canbe addressed by that number. The second format,CLV (Constant LinearVelocity), allows for twice the amount of time perside, 60 minutes. As atrade-off for the increased amount oftime, this format dues notollow individual frames to be addressed.Searches are by time, andhence, are less precise, although they aresatisfactory for many instructionalapplica- tions. Many more laserdiscs arecurrently available in the CLVthan in the CAV forr The primary disadvantagesof videodiscs relate to the costsand difficulties associatedwith their production andthe fact that once mastered, they cannot bemodified. Where existingdisc materials can be used, however,the costs relative to tapeoften are comparable. Prices of commercialvideodiscs range from severalthousand dollars to no cost forpromotional or specialeducational discs (see, for example, de Italia,available from the GiovanniAgnelli Foundation [Via Giacosa 38, Turin,Ita ly]). Increasingly morediscs are being produced that havepotential educationalapplications (71). Such discs may be usedin an interactive video systemfor a different instruction- As an example, al or informational purposethan the author intended. also be a videodiscdesigned to demonstrateexercise techniques could used selectively and in anonlinear way to illustratecertain psycho- logical principles such asreinforcement. This processis referred to as"repurpos,ing" a disc. It also ipossible to create or master anoriginal instructional disc single master ranges for interactive videoapplications. The cost of a quality and quantity of diws from $300--$2,000,depending upon the
18 2 desired (60,63). As the quantityincreases, the per unit cost decreases. A masterdisc may be madefrom either a one-inch or a included on the disc three-quarter-inch videotape.All material to be must first betransferred to one ofthese tape formats.
Videodisc or VideotapePlayers In addition toidentification of laserdiscsby formats, laserdisc players themselves havebeen classified intofour categoriesLevels I-IV (52). Each typeof player may beclassified according to its Level III players, the different capabilities andlevel of interactivity. have been type requiredfor the interactivevideo applications we discussing, range inprice from $700-$4.,500.Major manufacturers include Sony, Pioneer,and Hitachi. material on the Some videodisc playerspermit overlays of text interface device. Such video monitor withoutthe use of any special playersfor example, thePioneer LD-V4200Laserdisc playerhave number of lines of text tobe a built-indevice that permits a superimposed over avideo segment or onthe video monitor screen. High-quality, industrial-type,and thereforeexpensive, videotape for accessing players are required toprovide the necessary accuracy from $900 for a the targeted tape segments.They range in price simple play-only unit toseveral thousanddollars for high-quality Sony and Panasonic. professional units.Major manufacturers are
CLASSROOMAPPLICATIONS applications and Perhaps the easiest way tovisualize both potential different types ofinteractive video systemsisto provide some summaries or snap- examples. This sectionbriefly considers some elementary shots or both tape anddisc systems atvarious age levels, and for stu- through postsecondary, acrossdifferent subject areas, involve both dents of differingabilitylevels. The illustrations materials. commercial "off-the-shelf' and instructor-designed
Laser LearningReading Program Educational Systems Laser Learning,developed by Hoffman (1720 Flower Avent e,Duarte, CA 91010),isacommercially students reading compre- designed product forteaching middle grade
19 21 hension skills. It requires anApple Il computer system, aPioneer LD-V2000 disc unit, and aspecial interface cardsupplied by Hoffman. Included with the programare software,18 custom- designed laserdiscs thatcontain material related toreading instruc- tion, and teacher materials.In addition to readinginstruction, the system provideshomework assignments and reports onstudent progress andrelated letters to parents. Target InteractiveProject (TIP): Alcohol and DrugEducation
TIP is a commerciallydesigned system for highschool students. It is produced by Target(11724 Plaza Circle, KansasCity, MO 64195), a service organizationof the National Federationof State High School Associations.It uses an IBM System/2Model 30 computer with asophisticated touch-screen,intelligent monitor, an integrated hardware andsoftware system call InfoWindow, and two Pioneer LD-V6200Adisc players. TIP provides a frameworkfor students to developdecision-making skills related to handlingalcohol and other drugs. The systemallows students to identify with any oneof seven characters and tofollow their progress through anevening at a party with no parentspresent. As the evening evolves,characters face decisions and consequences, and the viewer canchoose among options.
Project CENT:Consumer Education
Tape-based interactive videosystems generallyemploy original video data.In some cases,however, developers haveobtained permission to usecommercially produced tapes.Project CENT (Consumer Education andNew Technology, LafayetteSchool Corpo- ration, Lafayette, IN)directed by Joanne Troutner(67), is built around the rich videodata base alreadydeveloped in the series entitled Trade-Offs, acollection of videotapes madeavailable by the Agency for InstructionalTelevision (Box A,1111 West 17th, Bloomington, IN 47401)for teaching juniorhigh school students basic economic principlesrelated to consumer education.Trade-Offs consists of a series of20-minute tapes that cover suchbasic economic principles as increasingproductivity and personaldecision making. Using this videotape database, the project constructed aseries of lessons that transformedthe material into aninteractive video system.'
20 22 This allows students tointeract with the materialthrough a series of focused questkons andbranches to relevant segmentsof the tape. Troutner and herassociates developedtheir system around an Apple authoring software provided He computer,interface components, and by BCD Associates,and a Panasonicvideotape player.
National Galleryof Art Program
One of the exceptionalapplications of videodisctechnology was the creation ofthe National Galleryof Art videodisc (Voyager Company, see p.11). The immensestorehouse of riches in the nation's gallery wascaptured in vivid colorsuitable for viewing and analysis in waysthat would be difficult orimpossible in person. Represented in CAVformat on laserdiscs,specimens of this out- inseparate frames, standingartcollection could bepresented examined in collectionsby artists, periods,styles, time period..., or whatever other unitof analysis aninstructor wished to organize. Interactive video affordsthe additional opportunityto guide the viewer through theanalysis with queries, prompts,and opportunities artists' works viewed. for in-depth annotationsrelated to th::: art and For example, a studentviewing both Picasso'scubist and representa- and tional works could optto have anexplanation of the context significance of theworks in the evolutionof the artist's career. in Similarly, the viewercould ask to have theartist's work arranged chronological order orby type. Company (see p. 11) Several organizations,including the Voyager Seattle, WA 98145-1878), and Videodiscovery(P.O. Box 85878, the have producedinteractive video componentsto complement National Gallery of Artlaserdisc. These aredesigned to be used with stack a Macintosh,HyperCard software,and a special HyperCard cable, the Macintosh can that each organizationsells. With a single series. be linkui to oneof several disc playersin the Pioneer or Sony The character of thestals developed variessomewhat, but essential- analyze, and ly they all allowinstructors and students to access, through control ofthe comment uponthe art in different ways laserdisc and its frames. scientific Similar specializedstacks have beencreated for use with Optical DataCorporation (30 TechnologyDrive, discs by the for Warren, NJ 07060).Discs and correlatedstacks are available science. such sample areas asearth science, lifescience, and physical
21 0 Project Interact
At North CarolinaState University, Departmentof Curriculum and Instruction, ProjectInteract is designed tohelp teachers transfer interactive video technologyinto classroom applications acrossall subject areas and gradelevels. It is based on thephilosophy that all technological took shouldfunction as extensions ofthe teacher, rather than vice versa;that these tools need to provetheir worth through enhancement of therequired curriculum ratherthan through enrichment; and that theeffective use of technologiesin instruction should require minimaltechnical and programmingexpertise. For many of the reasonsdiscussed earlier, ProjectInteract is based on disc applications.Teachers primarily repurpose commer- cially prepareddiscs.The reasonsforthisare economyand efficiency, and becausein many aspects the processof repurposing simulates the way inwhich creative teachershave for centuric-: repurposed other mediafor teaching. Whileteachers are introduced to several computersystems, interfacedevices, and authoring tools primarily for purposesof comparison andinsights into the strengths and limitations of differentinteractive video systemsthechief focus is on HyperCardapplications with aMacintosh. In Project Interactteachers are assisted inidentifying for repur- posing suitable videodiscmaterial fat importantcurricular objectives. No prior computer orlaserdisc experience isassumed. Apart from introducing HyperCardapplications, includingstacks, cards, and buttons, the only authoringtools presented are thespecial stacks in charge by Apple the HyperCard VideodiscToolKit provided without and the VoyagerVideo Stack sold bythe Voyager Company.
EFFECTIVENESS OFINTERACTIVE VIDEO SYSTEMS
Since interactive videois a relatively newinstructional tool and thereisnot a becauseitstraddles two differenttechnologies, definitive body ofempirically testedgeneralizations concerningits of research use (9, 19,27, 29, 62, 63). Norhas a definitive agenda questions concerning itsefficacy been established.There is, howev- er,a growingbody of research datathat undergirds computer applications in instruction.An increasing numberof recent individual
22 studies have claimed resultssupporting the effectiveness ofinterac- tive video instruction in some way(8, 12, 20, 21, 22, 28, 32,39, 42, 45, 47, 58, 59, 64).
Research onComputer-Based Instruction
Studies of computer-basedinstruction generally reportpositive findings with respect toachievement gains and attitudestoward the learning process (4, 13, 14,40). These findings show thatthis form of instruction typicallyreduces the amount of timerequired for learning (13). In comparisonwith younger learners, middlegrade and secondary students appearto benefit more fromcomputer-based education (4, 40). Further,disadvantaged high school studentsbenefit especially from thisinstruction, more so than dothose who are academically talented (4). Such effects are reported acrosssubjects, but mathematics and reading/language arts werethe dominant areas ofinstruction studied (4, 40). This suggests animportant qualification forsubjects such as science and social studies,which often employ a greatdeal of imagery in instruction.Computer-based software forthese subjects, even withexcellent graphics components,typicallyishighin symbolic content (46). The results derived fromstudies of computer-basedinstruction, however, cannot be generalized tointeractive video. As a relatedbut different medium ofinstruction,itpresentsits own agenda of research issues. Whetherfurther research into this areayields results that mimic those foundfor computer-basedinstruction remains to be seen (15, 17).
Research on InteractiveVideo
Two reviews of studiesinvolving interactive video wererecently completed. Bosco (6)examined 28 reports ofevaluations of the use of interactive videothat spanned the period1980-190. These involved both formative andsummative evaluations and bothdisc and tape systems. Samplesizes ranged from 5 to 700and the treatment duration generally was a fewdays. Bosco's analysisprovides a useful profile of each of the studiesbut draws no firm conclusionsabout the efficacy of interactivevideo as a medium ofinstruction. In his review of thestudies of interactive video,Smith (63) concluded that proceduresand guidelines for thedevelopment of
23 for the most part they interactive video instructiondo exist, but that about the were untested.Like Bosco, hedrew no firm conclusions medium's efficacy inpromoting learning. series of Using a differentapproach, Hannafin(27) extrapolated a and empirically basedfindings from areasof information processing relevant research presentation technologiesresearch. He exam:Jed z.ncoding, and re- related to orientation,presentation, sequencing, from trieval strategies. Hethen suggested this setof research findings instructional applications of related areas might begeneralized to the interactive video. the use of One 1;f the interestingresearch questions related to interactive video concernsthe issue of time.One question addresses thos,..1 of the relative effectsof access timesof videodisc compared to that faster access videotape systems.Conventional wisdom suggests times provide for moreeffective learning (27).In sum, faster is assumption, better. A recentstudy by Schaffer(58) challenges this however. Using five treatmentgroups andsimulating different access time rates fordifferent groups of users,he found no significant attitude scores for differences betweenlearning, acquisition rate, or different access times. instruction A second timeissue concernswhether interactive video takes more or lesstime than c ,mpetingforms to achieve common study objectives. Carlson andFalk (12) testedthis proposition in a pre-service teachers.They found that adeduc- involving elementary half the time tive videodisc treatmentgroupfinished in less than instructional required by studentsin the alternativeconditions. The students about treatments consistedof matIrialsdesigned to teach found that students cooperative goal structures.Carlson and Falk also significantly higher ininforma- who used videodisctreatments scored learning than did studentsin a tion acquisitionrelated to cooperative reading/lecture/discussion group. interactive However, Schafferand Hannafin (59)found that, while altzsnative video video instructionproduced greaterlearning than two time. Their studyinvolved instructional treatments,it also took more television high school students;the informationtaught dealt with graphic specialeffects. time, anotherimportant issuerelated to interactive In addition to affect video is the extent tosvhich variations inlevels of control and Colamaio(28) investigatedthe comparative learning. Hannafin control in a set effects of linearcontrol, learnercontrol, and designer assigned to teachbasic principles ofcardiopulmonary of materials traditional linear video resuscitation (CPR).The linear control was a
24 9 presentation: the other twotveatments wereinteractive video under the control of thedesigner or the student. In the instructorcontrol treatment, allbranching to video segments in response to waspredetermined by thedesigner and was done student answers. Incontrast, the learnercontrol treatment allowed the student todetermine all choices atthe same points that the designers had madetheir decisions in thealternate treatment. Both the learner anddesigner control groupsperformed better than the linear control group.No significant differences werefound between found the two interactivevideo treatments,however. The study also questions embedded in that factual, procedural,and problem-solving the three sets of treatmentshad a significant effect onlearning factual and problem-solvingmaterial. In a study thatcompared the effects of twodifferent interactive linear videotape unit video instructionalstrategies and a conventional principles, Dalton and on ninthgraders'learning of economic Hannafin (22) reportedmixed results. On a recallsubtest there were applica- nosignificant differences amongthe three treatments. On an tion subtest, however,students who receivedthe context strategy, an interactive video unit that usedapplication examples ratherthan mere than students in the other factual information,did significantly better two groups.
An Agenda forFuture InteractiveVideo Research
As Hannafin (27)has noted, theabsence of clear, operational definitions of interactivevideo has probably retardedthe development of a cumulative bodyof research. The lackof a common, specific referrent in studiesoften makes comparisonsand syntheses difficult of levels of (9, 20, 55).Hannafin (27) hasobserved, that "a variety interactivity are available,ranging form learner-directedsequencing fully interactive re- of instruction, toessentially linear video, to sponse-dependent instructionfeaturing embedded questions, response (p. 236). feedback, conditionalbranching with the lesson" Thus, a starting pointfor a research agendais a call for more precision in specifyingthe variety anddegree of interactivity. framework for a serious Hannafin (27) hasalso provided a useful research agenda; he suggests12 propositions that lendthemselves to areissuessuchasthe empiricalinvestigation.Among these following:
25 1. How interactivevideo compares in effectiveness toalternate forms of instruction 2. Under whichconditions interactive video proves tobe most effective; e.g., whether theinclusion of embedded questions, advance organizers, andother orienting strategiesimproves comprehension or recall andwhich types of questions are most effective interac- 3.For which range oflearners, topics, and subject area tive video is mosteffective 4. How interactivevideo instructionaffectsstudent attitudes toward a variety of objectssuch as the subject matter being taught, learning, and thetechnology.
Seal-Wanner (62) has suggested someadditional related issues for the research agenda:How progressively moreinteractive video instruction and greater andricher interactive environmentsaffect learning yields, and whethermastering an interactive videoenviron- ment encouragesstudents to take a moreactive part in their own education.
FUTUREDEVELOPMENTS
We are entering an erain which the linesbetween elements of technology are becomingblurred. Integrated sound, stilland motion images of all types, andcomputer-generated graphics withtouch- screen andmouse-activated interfacedevicesall regulated by micro- computers ofincreasing capabilities andspeedloom on the horizon (65). Technologies of theFuture
Where computers with16k memories wereconsidered acceptable for many softwareapplications only a few years ago,one-megabyte machines are now recommendedfor many basic operations.Both the memory and storagecapacity of computerscontinues to grow, even relatively as theyshrink in size. Highcapacity hard drives now are inexpensive and readilyavailable for all major computers, even laptop versions. CD-ROM (CompactDisc-Read Only Memory)units that permit the storage of entirelibraries on a few discs are now areality; their
26 S applications are growing andfinding their way into schools. We are rapidly approaching the point wheresuch units will be standardized, will easily access and serve as storagedevices for a mixture of media and computer data (5).Several exciting applications of thistechnol- ogy to the storageof multimedia material and computer programsare already a reality. For example, nowavailable in CD-ROM are Grolier's Encyclopedia, Books inPrint,Dissertation Abstracts, ERIC, Reader's Guide to PeriodicLiterature. Phillips/Polygram (The Record Group) also hasdeveloped a program called The Time Machine that includes geopolitical mapsof the world over time. Similarly, XIPHAS hasdeveloped Time Table of History:Science and Invention, a collection ofkey events in the history of scienceand technology. Bookshelf by Microsoftprovides 10 major reference works on a single CD-ROMdisc. Videodisc units that can record, aswell as play video data, will increase in use as thetechnology develops and costs perunit drop (69). This new generationof player/recorder systems willalso store computer digital data,permitting computer functions andgraphics to be read from the videodisc.Once disc recording techniquesapproxi- mate the ease and costof current tape-based technologies,the advantages of discs cited earlier arelikely to make them the dominant medium for interactive video.Gradually, too, technological advances will be easierfor teachers to apply andincorporate into their instruction. The ubiquitoustelephone will become the standardof technological "user friendliness"that newer computer-based tools emulate. Interactive video that canincorporate all the developing technol- ogies will be increasinglyused in many sectors of ourlives, from shopping to job training topreparation of military personnel, andin classrooms. It is also likely tobe a major part of ourleisure-time activities. For example, arcade gamessuch as Dragon's Lair add interesting features to simulationsthat traditional linear activities lack. Plays and films, as well as games, canhave multiple options for endings or scenes. Along the lines of theEducation Testing Service's futureplans for using interactivevideototestprospectiveteachers,mentioned earlier, other organizations arealso likely to find it a useful toolfor screening employees.Interactive-video-based tests morerealistically simulate both the conditionsbeing tested and the testee's preferred response. Suchforms of testing also reduce therespondent's verbal burden in cases where it is moreimportant for an employee to be able to identify or model correctbehavior than to verbalize it.
27 CONCLUSION
What role will interactive videoplay in the schools of the twenty- first century? At the outset weunderscored the challenge that faced U.S. schools with respect totechnology transfer. The nub of the issue is to reduce ihe increasinglag that exists between technological innovations that are available inthe governmental and commercial sectors and theapplication of these cutting-edge tools toinstructional ends in schools. The generation of teachers nowentering our schools entered adolescence in the midst of thevideo explosion and emerged into the microcomputer revolution. Theseteachers have spanned the explo- sion of two technologies thathave transformed in significant and enduring ways the means bywhich information is constructed and shared throughout the world. Intheir worlds outside the schools they interact comfortably andfrequently with these twin technologies. To incorporate these tools,through interactive video, into their classroom activities as anextension of their lesson planningthey require both pre-service andin-service training programs, develop- mental support, successfulcurricular models, and equipment re- sources. All thesigns from research and other reportssuggest that these elements are increasinglyemerging in schools and educational centers across the country.
30
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