Towards Integrated Management and Sustainable Development of Kenya's Coast: Initial Findings and Recommendations for an Action Strategy in the Nyali-Bamburi-Shanzu Area. National Workshop Draft Document November, 1995.

Item Type Report

Publisher Coast Development Authority

Download date 27/09/2021 18:48:37

Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/1834/7250 TOWARDS INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF KENYA'S COAST

INITIAL FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AN ACTION STRATEGY IN THE NYALI-BAMBURI-SHANZU AREA

NATIONAL WORKSHOP DRAFT rxx:UMENT NOVEMBER, 1995

PREPARED flY

Coast Development Authority (CUM

in cooperation with

Kenya Marine & Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI) Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) Fisheries Department (FD) Mombasa Municipal Council (MMC) Kenya Association of Hotelkeepers and Caters (KAlle) .

j Integrated Coastal Area Managemen~tor Nyali-Bamburi-Shanzu Area prepared within the Framework of the Action Plan for the Protection and Management of Marine and Coastal Areas

Funding and Technical Assistance Provided by

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)

u.s. Agency for International Development (USAID) Regional Economic Development Services Office for East and Southern Africa Center for the Environment.

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Ocean and Coastal areas Programme Activity Centre (OCA/PAC) Priority Actions Programme/Regional Activity Centre (PAPRAC)

Coastal Resources Center (CRC) The University of Rhode Island

Working Group Members:

NAME TITLE INSTITUTION

Dr. B.A.J. Mwandotto Research Planning and Development Manager CDA Mr. Felix P. Kaloki Coordinator, Peoples Participatory Programme . CDA Mr. Saeed M. Mwaguni Environmental Officer CDA Mr. Mnago N. Mwanyuni Acquacultural officer CDA Mr. Renison K. Ruwa Chief Research Officer KMFRI Mr. Daniel Munga Senior Research Officer KMFRI Mr. Harrison Onganda Research Officer I KMFRI Mr. Sam Weru Research Officer KWS Mr. John L. Kagwi Senior Wildlife Officer KWS Mrs. Martha W. Mukira District Fisheries Officer MSA. FD Mr. James Gitau Chief Public Health Officer MMC Ms. Julie Okello Resou rce Person KAHC

11

~ -_."- _._------_._~-- ._-_ .... TABLE OF CONTENTS TOPIC PIt9'8 LIST OF ACROKYHS .•...... i v PREFACE ...... v-vi CHAPTER 1 COASTAL MANAGEMENT IN KENYA...... 1 1.1 IMPORTANCE OF THE KENYAM COAST ...... 1 Natural and Historical Coastal Resources 1 Coastal Uses ...... 4

1.2 THE NEED FOR INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT IN KENYA 6 Coastal Hanagelllent Issues ...... 6 Inatitutional Fr work for Integrated Coastal HsnageBent , 7 1.3 THE STUDY SITE OF NYALI-BAHBURI-SMANZU 8 The Site •...... 8 Site Specific Integrated CoaBtal Hanagement IBBues ,. 9 The Planning Process ...... 10 CHAPTER 2 FIHDINGS AND RECOKHENOATIONS FOR THE NYALI-BAHBURI - SHANZU STUDY SITE . 13 2.1 HANAGING LAND USE AMD PROVISIONS OF PUBLIC SERVICES AMD INFRASTRUCTURE 13 FindingB of Fact ...... 13 Current Land Uae ...... 13 Public ServiceB and InfraBtructure 18 Recollllllendations ...... 19 2.2 HANAGING WATER QUALITY ...... 21 Findings of Fact ...... 21 Ths Importance of Haintaining & ProtBctinq Water Quality...... 21 StatuB of Water Quality in the Area ...... 21 Types of Pollution ...... 22 Consequences of Degraded Water Quality... 24 Current Hanagelllent Framework 25 Recollllllendations ...... 25

2.3 FISHERIES HANAG!H!NT 27 FindingB of Fact ...... 27 FisherieB Contribution to the Bamburi EconolllY '" 27 Trends in Fishery Catch and Effort 27 Socio-economic Trends in Fisheries 29 Current HanageRient Fr_ework ...... 30 Recollllllendations ...... 31 2.4 HANAGING CRITICAL HABITATS ...... 33 Findings of Fact ...... 33 Hangroves ...... 33 Coral Reefs: 37 Beaches and Sea Turtles ...... 40 Seagrasses 42 RecollllllendationB ...... 42 2.5 HANAGIHG AH ERODIHG SHORELINE ...... 45 Findings of Fact ...... 45 Extent and Location of the Proble. 45 Causes of Erosion 45 I.pacts of Erosion ...... 46 CUrrent Hanagement Fra.ework 46 Recollllllendations ...... 47 2.6 HANAGING USE COHFLICTS ...... 49 Findings of Fact ...•.••...... 49 Traditional Versus Hon-traditional Use 49 Conflicts Between Recreational Activities 51 CUrrent Hanage.ant Fr work 52 Recollllllendationa ...... •...... 52 CHAPTER 3 TOWARDS AH IHPLEHENTATIOH FRAHJnIORIt FOR INTEGRATED HANAG!HEHT AHD SUSTAIHABLE DEVELOPHENT OF KEHYA'S COAST...... 55 3.1 Rationale for Integrated Coastal Area Hanagement 55 3.2 I.ple..ntation Fr_ework for the StUdy Site 56 3.3 Action Agenda for Implementation Hanagement .. 57 REFJDUDfCBS CIrED •...... •...... •...... •..... 59

111

. _.~~. -~----~-~ LIST OF ACRONYMS USED IN THE TEXT

CBS Central Bureau of Statistics DDC District Development Committee DEC District Executive Committee FD Fisheries Department KMFRI Kenya Marine, Fisheries and Research Institute CDA Coast Development Authority CRe Coastal Resources Centre URI University of Rhode Island USAID United States Agency for International Development UNEP United Nations Environment Programme KWS Kenya Wildlife Service KPA Kenya Ports Authority NOSRC National Oil Spill Response Committee NES National Environmental Secretariat EEZ Exclusive Economic ZOne EIA Environment Impact Assessment GDP Gross Domestic Product GNP Gross National Product ICZM Integrated Coastal ZOne Management MCTA Mombasa Coast Tourism Association MEP Monitoring and Evaluation Programme MOLRR&WD Ministry of Land Reclamation, Regional and Water Development MOENR Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources MOT&W Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife MOC&SS Ministry of Culture and Social Services MORTT&T Ministry of Research, Technical Training and Technology NEAP National Environment Action Plan SA Statistical Abstract UNCED United Nations Convention for Environment and Development.

iv PREFACE

The Nyali-Bamburi-Shanzu area has undergone a rapid transition over the last several decades from traditional rural coastal communities where fishing and farming were major economic activities to an urbanizing area with expanding tourism, residential and industrial development. The area is a significant contributor to the local economy of Mombasa and nationallY. Tourism is Kenya's leading foreign exchange earner with coastal tourism representing60 to 70 percentof the national contribution. National gross receipts by the Tourism Industry was 5.5 billion Shillings in 1993. Tourism in this north coast strip represents approximately 24 percent of total earnings in the Coast region. The formal tourism sector and related activities in the study area employs approximately 12,700 people. Sustained economic development of the area therefore depends heavily on maintaining a high level of environmental quality.

Urbanization and tourism development in the area has led to a number of social, economic and environmental problems, threatening the sustainable economic development and imposing constraints to further growth. Coordinated action among many government agencies in cooperation with the private sector is urgently needed to solve these problems.

This document summarizes important information about the identified issues and recommends objectives for first steps towards Integrated Coastal Management. Chapter One describes the need for Integrated Coastal Management in Kenya and outlines the specific issues and' planning process employed to address those issues in Nyali-Bamburi­ Shanzu study site: Chapter Two describes six coastal issues that are critical to the study site as identified by the local stakeholders. For each issue, findings of fact are presented which provide background information about the current situation and why the issue is important. Then; for each issue, the document recommends objectives, and management strategies to guide decision makers on how individual agencies and private sector associations can contribute to the resolution of problems for the issue. The final Chapter of the document suggests an overall management framework to achieve the objectives and implement the recommendations for the area described in Chapter Two. It also proposes mechanisms for initiating integrated coastal management at the national level.

These findings and strategies have been formulated by a multi-disciplinary team using a participatory process involving various in the area: stakeholders, administrators, pertinent government ministries, private sector groups, regional observers, local and foreign universities and international support agencies. Constant administrative and technical checks within and among groups led to the refining of the issues and the proposed management strategies that are highlighted in this document. It is envisaged

v that the start of Integrated Coastal Management activities at the small study site in Mombasa will yield action at the site and help make progress on Integrated Coastal Management in Kenya.

This projectis being conducted within the framework of the "Protection and Management of the Marine and Coastal Areas of the Eastern African Region" (EAF/5) Action Plan under the auspices of UNEP's Regional Seas Programme. Funding for this project has been provided by FAO, UNEP, and the USAID Regional Economic Development Services Office for East and Southern Africa (REDSO/ESA) and the USAID Global Environment Center (G/ENV/CTR).

vi CHAPTER 1

COASTAL MANAGEMENT IN KENYA

1.1 IMPORTANCE OF THE KENYAN COAST

Kenya's coastal environment and its resources are increasingly under pressure from human settlements and related socio-economicdevelopment activities. Important economic activities that depend on a good environmental quality range from tourism and trading to food produc~ion. Only a healthy environment will be able to sustain these economic uses into the future. To ensure the sustainable use and economic health of coastal areas, an integrated approach to manage the coast and its resources is needed.

Natural and Historical Resources

The Kenyan coast has played an important role for over 2,000 years in East Africa (Map 1.1) when merchants sailed from Arabia in searchof gold, spices, ivory and other goods. Dating back to the seventh century, Arabs settled in the coast, and built trading centers and settlements along it. The Portuguese had established trading posts along the coast since 1498 but were driven out in 1790 by the Arabs. Although many settlements have retained prominent facets of Arab culture, it has progressively integrated the distinct races of African, Asian, European and Arab people in a blend of colourful harmony. The coastal culture has pro;ided the country with its national language - Kiswahili. Many of the earlier trading posts established by the Arabs and Europeans have become important urban centers. T~ese include Mombasa, Lamu, and Malindi among others (Martin, 1973).

The coastal resourcesofimportance in Kenya include coral reefs, mangroves, Kaya forests, marine and inland reserves and historic sites. They provide the foundation for today's Kenyan coastal economy.

Coral Reefs: A fringing reef system spans the length of the coast from the Kenya/Tanzania border to Malindi, with scatteredfringing reefs northward to Somalia. This extensive reef system is critical to activities such as fishing and tourism. Kenya took the lead in Africa by establishing protected marine areas and today there are four marine parks and six marine reserves, encompassing 5% Kenya's reef areas (Map 1.2).

Mangrove Forests: Kenya's coastline has about 53,000 ha of mangroves occurring mostly in creeks, bays and estuaries (Doute. Ochanda and Epp 1981). The mangroves are most significantly used for their wood both commercially and at the subsistence level. There are many proposals for the establishment of shrimp farms in the mangrove area (FAO, 1991), however, their sustainability remains in doubt. Map 1.1:. The Kenyan Coast within the East Mrican Region.

o

." ~ _.".' ,.-' -._...... -" .' . '.....,' ... ."" \ "---" / \. i

'.1 ,l ,.' KENYA "'_.-._. _.....i ,. , '" <...... , ~ ". C SEYCHELLES

I·

" TANZANIA \ \ 'o. co " .. ... ' .. '-. 1 • COMOROS '.,.- .... ,.-.....-.- ..,,;" I • c' \ '. MOZAMBIQUE ". "'".~ , • .... - . j / i l rL._. ,.,,' -'\( ....j ,.~ ",.\'·"'I~":':; , U/') I.... -..1."\1 ...... _ i -v i ;.:~!.:r--.:!e'" ,oJ t' '\ I.

2 Map. 1.2 - Kenya's Marine Parks and Reserves

\. "'.

o:f t.u Morine Park & Reserve <..; o Watamu Marine Park & Reserve

Kijangwani - Vipingo Kanamai - Key ~ Marine Parks [ill Marine Reserve

Refuge

o 20 40 Km L-- I Marine Park

J Kaya Forests: The Kaya Forests of the Kenyan Coast are relic patches of the once very extensive lowland forest of Eastern Africa. Today these forests are protected as sacred places and are still historically used by Mijikenda elders for prayer purposes and other ceremonies (S pear, 1978).

These forests are being protected by the National Museums of Kenya as Forest Reserves especially in Kwale and Kilifi districts. However, many of these Kayas have thinned out and are in danger of being lost completely.

Terrestrial: The coastal areas contain important coastal lowland forests which support a high diversity of flora and fauna. These resources are important parts of the coastal ecosystem and also provide additional tourist destinations.

Historical Sites: Because of its long history of human activity, Kenyan's coast has many significant historical sites. It is estimated that there are a total of 70 historical sites and monuments. Out of these 58 have been gazetted as National Monument and Reserves. These historicalsitesand monuments include isolated ruins of houses, mosques, tombs, townships e.g., Gede Ruins and fortified areas e.g., Fort Jesus. They also include monuments such as Vasco da Gama pillar at Malindi and urban areas of historical and architectural importance such as Mombasa Old Town.

Coastal Uses

The Coast Province supports about nine percent of the national population (Table 1.1). This population continues to increase, rising from 1.34 million to 1.83 million between 1979 and 1989 representing 32 percent increase. This increase has placed significant pressure on the coastal environment, its resources and supporting infrastructure. Population pressure is particularly great in urban centers such as Mombasa whose population has doubled in the last fifteen years.

Table 1.1: Coastal Population in Kenya

DISTRICT NO. OF PEOPLE Kilifi 591,903 Kwale 383,053 Lamu 56,783 Mombasa 461,753 Taita/Taveta 207,273 Tana River 128,426 rotal 1,829,191 National Total 21,443,636

Source: central Bureau of Statistics, Kenya population Census, 1989 Vol. 1

4 The coast is vital to the overall economic health of the country. Mombasa alone represents 16% of the total wage earnings for the country. The key sectors in the coastal economy include:

Tourism: This sector is currently the main foreign exchange earner having surpassed the coffee and tea exports (Sinclair 1990). Coastal tourism accounts for 60 to 70 percent of the national tourism industry. Tourism and related sub-sectors generate nine percent of the total employmentin the country (Visser and Schoorl, 1991). Malindi, for example, is heavily dependent on tourism with about 90% of the population estimated to work directly or indirectly in the tourism industry. Earnings from Tourism Industry in the pilot study area and the Total national receipts from 1989 - 1993 are depicted on Figure. 1.1

Fishing: The marine fisheries is an important source of protein for coastal populations. The main fishery along the Kenyon coast is still artisanal supporting approximately 6,500 fishermen. They use canoes and outrigger boats which may be driven by sails or oars. Some use engine propelled boats. Most of the fishing is done in creeks, reefs and the shallow inshore waters. The fishing gears used are mostly beach seines, traps (malema, tata) fishing lines and cast nets. During the past decade the total annual marine fish landing have varied from 5000 to 8000 tonnes in an increasing trend (Sanders, Gichere and Nzioka 1990). Approximately 80 percent of the total fish landings come from reef and shallow coastal waters and 18 percent of the annual landings come from offshore trawlers. Nearshore fisheries are at or near maximum sustainable yields while off shore area are considered under exploited.

Agriculture, Aquaculture and Forestry: The coastal region is important in horticultural production particularly vegetables and tropical fruits such as citrus, mangoes, bananas, and water melons. The Coast region is also a producer of other coastal crops e.g., Coconuts, Cashewnuts, and Bixa. There is also substantial livestock production such as poultry, beef, dairying, goat and sheep in the region. Two large scale aquaculture farms­ Mamba Village Crocodile farm, and Baobab Farm Ltd., have also been developed along the coast. Mangrove forest provides poles, timber and building materials for the construction trade.

Trade: Kenya's coast continues to be a magnet for trade. In fact, the Port of Mombasa is the primary landing for land locked Eastern and Central African countries such as Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and parts of Eastern Zaire. Table 1.2 shows the total imports and exports of bulk commodities such as crude oil, agriculture and dry cargo such as cars and equipment has steadily increased during the last seven years.

5 Table 1.2: Mombasa Port Throughput 1986-94 (Million tons)

DRY CARGO OIL & BULK LIQUIDS YEAR TRANSHIP­ TOTAL IMl'UKTI:) ....,,"V',,11:) ...... V'HI ~ ...... V'", 1::; MENT

l~Hb 2.U1 l.bU ;l.H4 U.J~ U.UJ b.~J 1987 2.13 1.66 2.75 0.33 0.03 6.90 1988 1.98 1.49 2.89 0.27 0.02 6.65 1989 2.10 1.47 3.10 0.45 0.04 7.16 1990 2.19 1.91 3.00 0.36 0.04 7.50 1991 2.08 1.48 3.23 0.29 0.04 7.12 1992 2.83 1.69 2.98 0.36 0.10 7.96 1993 2.77 2.09 2.37 0.67 0.07 7.97 1994 3.93 1.46 2.68 0.20 0.06 8.33

Source: Kenya Ports Authority, Annual Bulletin of Port Statistics.

1.2 TIlE NEED FOR INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT IN KENYA

The national economic importance of the coast has not come without cost. Once pristine, the natural resources of the area are being degraded at an increasing rate. New economic activities create urbanization and change the way people use the resources. More people and activities result in intensifying use conflicts and pressure on the resource base, the public services and the infrastructure that supports the coastal population.

Coastal Management Issues

A number of significant coastal environment and resource use issues detrimental to the management of Kenya coast will intensify as population and development pressures increase. Broadly stated, the primary national coastal management issues include:

Inadequately planned and managed Growth: Development activity in the coastal zone has been done with only modest planning and organization. The result has been unsound planned changes in land use patterns affecting both environmental quality and economic stability for the local community.

Decline in the Importance of the Traditional Economic Sectors: Total fish catch rose slightly over the last decade to a reported 8,000 tons in 1990 (Sanders et aI1990). The total fish catch has stagnated. While inshore reef areas are generally considered overfished,

6 offshore waters offeropportunities for expansion. Other traditional coastal resourcessuch as mangroves have shown signs ofoverharvesting. Both of these traditional activities are now overshadowed by coastal tourism and related sub-sectors. This shift is having significant socio-economic impacts on local, traditionally based communities.

Declining Water Quality: Water supplies are inadequate and the supply is threatened by pollution. Surface waters face increasing degradation from coastal development and associated urban pollution including stormwater, sewage, solid waste and oil spills. Ground water in urban areas is contamfnated from extensive use of septic tank/soakage pit systems in high density settlements.

Erosion of the Shoreline: Kenya's coast is susceptible to the dynamic shoreline process resulting in accretion in some areas while in other areas erosion is prevalent. Attempts to stabilize coastalfeatures through shoreline protection works, alters the shoreline process often making the downstream or the long-term erosion problems worse.

Degradation of Coastal Ecosystems: In areas of the coast that serve a burgeoning tourism economy, coastal resources are threatened by unplanned development and pollution. Mangrove exploitation for fuel and construction material has resulted in many mangrove forests being overharvested beyond sustainablelimits. Coral reefs are over-exploitedand in decline, particularly areas outside the marine parks. Areas outside the influence of coastal development remain unspoiled but are under increasing threat from expanding development-.e.nd human settlement.

Use Conflicts:' There are increased uses of coastal resources throughout the country. In the Coast this intensive use of land and water space has led to conflicts e.g., blocked access to the sea, land and water use, cultural standards and values.

An integrated policy framework is therefore needed to address coastal management issues, minimize resource degradation and promote the sustainable development of the coastal environs. Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) provides a multi-sectoral approach to management and can provide the necessary framework to address national coastal management issues.

Institutional Framework for Integrated Coastal Management

Kenya does not have a national ICM program. Although many institutions playa role in managing coastal areas and uses, there is no overall framework which effectively integrates individual institution's actions and decisions. In many cases, this lack of coordination makes management problem worse.

7 As called for by The United Nations Conferenceon Environment and Development (UNCED), the Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro, June 1992- Kenya has taken some important steps towards coastal management through national efforts and international agreements. At the national level, Kenya has prepared a National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP). The NEAP is aimed at providing a broad framework for sound management of natural resources and the environment, including coastal environments, thus integrating environmental considerations into socio-economic planning and implementation at all levels. At the international level, Kenya is signatory to a number of treaties and conventions which provide the basis for the establishment of integrated coastal management. Kenya is a signatory to the Nairobi convention within the Regional Seas Programme of UNEP and has signed the Arusha Resolution (SAREC, 1994) which calls for sustainable development and integrated management of coastal areas for the primary benefit of coastal communities.

1.3 TIlE STUDY SITE OF NYALI-BAMBURI-SIIANZU

The Site

To build momentum towards a national integrated coastal management policy, a modest pilot coastal management initiative was started as an experiment which focuses on a small but important part of the Kenya coast. This coastal strip encompasses the Nyali-Bamburi­ Shanzu shorefront areas. The issues that exist in the area are representative of national coastalissues. Broadly, tourism has replaced traditional economic uses such as fishing and mangrove harve"§ting. There is increased degradation and over exploitation of coastal resources, and increased user conflicts. Addressing these issues in the area allows resource managers to gain critical experience in coastal management that can, with time, be applied more broadly to the entire national coast.

Like the restof Kenya's coast, the Nyali-Bamburi-Shanzuarea was once primarily an idyllic coastal environment, with pristine beaches, coral reefs and mangrove forests sparsely populated with fishing villages. Today, new economic activities continue to replace traditional ways. In the demonstration site, this change has been dramatic. Mombasa which is the dispersal point for coastal tou rism is described in historicalaccounts as being a small center with only 23,000 people in 1896. In 1946, Nyali Beach hotel was built, marking the beginning of a great economic boom - a tourism based economy. Now, the economy of the area, commonly referred to as the north coast, is dominated by the tourism trade.

In 1993, the study area alone contributed 24 percent of the coastal tourism industry earnings. Nationally, tourism provides 9 %of the total employment opportunities in Kenya. Although exact figures are unavailable, it is estimated that tourism and related sectors are one of the largest employers for the more than 153,000 people who live in or near the area.

8 Estimates conservatively suggest that at least 12,700 people are employed in the north coast hotels. In addition to this direct employment, other tourist-dependent activities provide employment for 126 vetted curio sellers, 74 registered safari sellers, 52 massage operators and 163 boat operators, and many others within restaurants and other service sectors. As the tourism economy grew, important traditional sectors such as fishing, agriculture and mangrove harvesting have increasingly been marginalized. These new economic opportunities have attracted more and more people to the coastal strip, resulting in increased urbanization.

Site specific ICM Issues

Like in other parts of Kenya's coast, these changes have created a number of coastal management issues which threaten the economic sustainability of the area. The primary issues identified for the study site include:

Changes in Land Use and Inadequate Public Services and Infrastructure: During the last twenty years, the site has seen dramatic growth in the tourism industry and the development of residential buildings changing the way in which the land is used and managed. This growth, coupled with a growing resident population, has placed extreme pressure on existing public services and infrnstructure. Today tourism growth has slowed, creating the challenge of sustaining the industry by providing the necessary services and infrastructure to the area.

Decline in the Importance of Traditional Economic Sectors such as Fisheries: The number of fishermen has declined dramatically to only 30 individuals at present from about 100 in 1992 (McClanahlln et, al. in press). While catch per fishermen initially improved after the establishment of a park in the area, more recently catch rates have declined to levels prior to the creation of the park, indicating an overfishing problem. Fishermen remain poor and feel they have been displaced by the economic changes in the area.

Declining Water Quality: Groundwater - a significant major source of drinking water, is contaminated by faecal coliform and represents a significant public health risk. Surface water in the Tudor and Port Reitz Creeks are also indicative of water contamination by faecal coliform and industrial discharges representing a health risk from water contact from swimming and other recreationalactivities as well as a health threat from consumption of contaminated seafood harvested from the area.

Erosion of the Shoreline: Erosion of beach areas is estimated to be as high as two meters per year in some areas of Bamburi beach, resulting in the need for construction of expensiveseawalls to protect property (Aboudha, 1992). Seawall construction has affected

9 and reduced sandy beach space, an important recreational zone for sunbathers and for strolling. It is also aesthetically unappealing, reducing the scenic quality of the tourism experience.

Degradation of Coastal Ecosystems:

Mangroves - Mangroves in Tudor and Port Reitz Creeks, once a dependable source of income for mangrove cutters is now overexploited. Mangroves are now only used for selective harvesting. The communities that previously depended on mangrove systems must now depend on other economic sectors for their livelihood.

Coral Reefs - While the coral reef condition in the marine park has improved, localized damage in heavily utilized snorkelling spots is a problem. Coral condition in the marine reserve remains poor.

Beaches - Development and increased uses has also affected rare and endangered species of sea turtles which previously used the sandy beaches in the area for nesting.

Seagrasses - Although information is limited, seagrass beds may be threatened from pollution. The sea grass areas between public beach and Neptune beach Hotel have almost totally disappeared during the last 10 years, probably due to ground water pollution and beach erosion. .. Use Conflicts: User conflicts in the marine park and reserve are increasing with intensifying use including fishing, snorkelling, jet skiing, glass bottom boat operations, and wind surfing. In addition, local residents and fishermen are finding public access to the shoreline increasingly difficult as shorefront development continues.

The Planning Process

To make progress on Integrated Coastal Management in Kenya, a multi-sectoral team was created in October 1994 to develop strategies that address critical management issues with the Nyali-Bamburi-Shanzu area selected as a demonstration site. This team is operating under the leadership of the Coast Development Authority whose mandate include planning, coordinationand implementation of development projects in t he whole of the Coast Province and the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and for connected purposes. Team members include senior officers from other key institutions including the Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI), the Kenya Wildlife Services (KWS), the Fisheries Department (FD) and the Mombasa Municipal Council (MMC). The Hotel Keepers Association and Moi University have played an important role in the process, especially in the early stages of

10 issue identification. The team has also interacted closely with the Ministry of Land Reclamation, Regional and Water Development; Ministry of Research, TechnicalTraining and Technology, and the Ministry of Tourism. The Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, through its Department of NRtional Environment SecretariRt, was also involved, recognizing its focus on the National Environment Action Plan (NEAP) which includes the development of an Integrated Coastal Management Programme for Kenya as a priority.

Since the team's inception, it has been working closely with all (Figure 1.3) local stakeholders to clearly describe the coastal issues affecting the site and outline basic management strategies that can be employed to solve the identified issues. A first draft detailing the coastal issues was distributed in March, 1995. In June, 1995 a two day stakeholders workshop provided a forum for over eighty people to discuss the issues outlined in the draft document and their possible would be solutions. From this workshop, several groups were formed to implement demonstration activities that were identified for immediate implementation, moving the coastal management process forward.

This document incorporates outputs from the stakeholder workshops and reflects the comments made by the workshop's participants regarding issue definition and description. It presents management strategies that address the area's critical management issues and provides a framework for future action. The next step is for this document to be presented to government policy makers and key private sector representatives at a national workshop.

11 Figure 1.3 Organizations Participating in the Project's Planning Process

Institution "ain C~taI """Asellent Functlon(s)

GOVBRN..BNT AGBNCIBS Coast Developllent Authority Coastal plannin~ and coordlnRtion of developllent

lenya Marine Fisheries and Research Institute ReseRrch fisheries Rlld critical habitats. lenya Wildlife Service Conservlltlon of f10rll Rnd fRunR Fisheries Departllent Fisheries IIcenflinfl. lIonltorinfl and pollclnfl Municipal Council of 14011 basa Approval of structures and delivery of services such as WAste lIanaflellent lenya Navy "'iIItary surveillance In territorial waters Forest Departllent L1censln~, reforestation Ilnd pollcillfl of use of forest products lenyA Ports Authority Ports lIanaflellent and administration of lIaritille traffic National Museulls of lenya Conservation of national 1I0nullents and antiquaries National Environllent Secretariat National advisory and coordination of environllental pollclefl PhysiClll Plannlnfl Departllent Provides physical pillns but does not execute the plans Water Departllent National plllnnln~ for both surface Ilnd ~round ",ater Water Conservation and Pipeline Corporation Undertaking ","t~r (reticuilltion Illld servicln~) Tourism Department Tourlsll plllnning IIcen"ln~ and prollotion Kenya Police GenerAlllecurity Includlnfl beach security Government Chellists Departllent Quality control IlS a Ilervlce to ~overnmentand private sector Cooperative Department Facllitatin~ self-help and Income ~enerating social groupll District Develop lIent COlllllttee Clenrln~ houlle for developm~nt projects in the Ilistrlct

INCO..B GBNBRATION CO ....UNITY GROUPS Fishermen Association Comllon bAr~Illnin~ facilitation of lIembers and lobby forum

Safari Sellers A/;Iocilltion COllmon h"r~aining. fncilitntion of member!l nnd lobby forum

Mangrove Cutters· COllmon bar~"inin~

"'anflrove Licensees Owners of IIllngrove cuttin~ licenses HOTBL AND TOURIST INDUSTRY

lenya Association of Hotelkeepers and Hotel lIarketinfl. quality control and bargaining at Caterers national and regional level

African Safari Club Mlljor chllin of hotels in study area but not a member of ex\l;tinl! Associations

Mom basa Boat operators Association COli lion bargaining fllcilltation of members and lobhy forum "'011 bBBa and Coast Tourist Association Coast hotel and tour operators lIarketinfl and forull NGOs Wildlife Clubs of lenya Youth conservation educlltion affiliation Society for Protection of Envlronllent lenya Conservation lobby group Baobab Trust Envlronllental ConserVAtion Ilnd Education. OTHBR8 National 011 Spill Responlle COllmlttee Oil Ilplll reflponfle. composed of llovernllent. and oil lIlarketin fI com pllnlell. Turtle Conservation COlllllttee. Turtle Conservation Ilnd education

Beach Managellent Task Force. Orflanlzatlon of beach trade

Friends of Mansroves Action Group. Public awarenellS and revefletatlon of lIanflrove systells.

12 CHAPTERlWO FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR TIlE NYALI-BAMBURI-SHANZU STUDY SITE

2.1 MANAGING LAND USE AND PROVISION OF PUBLIC SERVICES AND INFRASTRUCTURE

Findings of Fact

Traditionally, the area's economy depended on fisheries and mangrove forests. The fishing villages were lOCBted on the sea shore and in the mangrove areas. Today, these traditionBl economic sectors have been overshadowed by tourism, residential and commerciBl development and industry. Hotels, restaurants, modern settlements and industriBl sites now characterize this COBStBl land use. Uncontrolled and changing land use has put acute pressureon existing public servicesandinfrastructureincluding water supply, electricity, TOBds, and solid waste disposBl being no longer adequate to meet current needs.

Current Land Use

The Growth of Tourism as a Dominant Shoreline Dependent Economic Activity:

Tourism has replaced fishing as the dominant economic activity along the shoreline. The tourism sector includes hotels, cottages, villas and recreational facilities such as nature trails and aquariums. Tourism also supports other sub-sectors that serve tourists including curio selling, hair salons, massage parlours, photographers, glass bottom boat operators, sport fishing, SCUBA diving, restaurants and an array of vendors. North coast tourism is an important part of the national tourism industry accounting for 23% of the total national visitor arrivals in 1993, and has consistently accounted for 24% of the total national income from tourism.

Since the first hotel in the study site was built in 1946, there has been tremendous growth in the tourism industry in this north coast region (Figure 2.1.1). In 1965, foreign visitors accounted for 48% of all bed nights in beach hotels. By 1974 this had increased to 80%, and in 1993 this number exceeded 95%. Between 1989 and 1993, tourist receipts for the north coast increased by 40%, keeping pace with the increase of national tourist receipts.

13 Figure 2.1.1: Number of Hotels and Tourist ~eds in the Area, 1971-1994

M Beach Hotels 7rxJJ 30 VI VI "0 ~ ~ Beds 6000 (5 25 yX ~ J: 5000 ...... 20 4000 0 0 '­ ~ '­ 15 3000 .0 ~ E :J E:J 10 2000 Z z ~ 1000 5 0 0 1971 1975 1985 1993 Years.

14 However, there is now concern that the growth of this north coast tourism may be slowing and could perhaps be declining. In addition, there is a growing concern that the quality of tourist visiting the study site is decreasing. While complete data for 1994 and 1995 are unavailable, current perceptionsindicate that the number of visitors and industry profits are declining (Figure 2.1.2 and 2.1.3). One indicator for which data does exist is for hotel occupancy. During the growth period between 1971 and 1993, hotel occupancy remained between 57-68%. Figure 2.1.2 Annual Visitor Arrivals in the North Coast (arrow shows perceived trend) 200 .... 195 '0190 185 ...... S <11180 g- 175 QI a. 170 165 160 '------y----.------r------, --,-_ 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1991-95 Year Source: CBS in the-Economic Review of 1994/pers. comm. Tourism Department.

Figure 2.1.3: Gross 'Receipts from Tourism (arrow shows perceived trend)

- -""t:>.. 5 .c III ~ 4 c 0 3

.­OJ 2

o L---r----,------.----~---1-=9-='94·- 95 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 Year

.... Source: CBS in the Economic Review of 1994/pers. comm. Tourism Department. This trend may be attributable to several factors. First, a number of new, less expensive, tourist accommodations (cottages, villas, apartments and guesthouses) have been built landward of the beach hotels and may be drawing customers away from the hotels. Second, the north coast may no longer be competitive with other high quality destinations in Kenya and elsewhere in East Africa because of a decline in environmental quality. Third, the inability of public services and infrastructureto keep pace with development, is resulting in increasing incidents of crime and harassment against tourists, and congestion from tourism development.

Since tourism is one of the largest employers in the area (estimated at approximately 12,700 people), threats to it's long-term economic sustainability is a serious concern. If the north coast continues to be less attractive to tourists, and the level of tourism activity declines the area will have significant economic and social impacts

Existing Management Framework for Tourism Development: There are multiple government regulatory agencies and non-governmental organizations that are involved in managing tourism and approving additional development: • Tourism Department has the responsibility for licensing and regulating the growth of the tourism industry. • District Environment and Development Committees must approve new development. • The Ministry of Lands and Physical Planning and Settlements provides physical plans for new development and housing projects. • Kenya Tourism Development Corporation promotes investment in tourism industry. • Kenya Wildlife Service can influence development adjacent to marine park areas by enforcing the legally mandated 100 foot setback limit along the shoreline and besides marine parks are geared to promote tourism also. • There are several associations that represent a wide range of tourism related interest groups including the Mombasa and Coast Tourism Associations, Kenya Association of Tour Operators and Kenya Association of Hoteliers and Caterers. • The MMC is responsible for implementation of the existing land use plan for the area. • Const Development Authority evaluates developments alternatives and monitors development and sustainable development.

However, the decision making process for siting and designing tourism facilities and the inter-relationships among agencies is unclear and often confusing. Making the situation worse, none of the agencies have the necessary resources to adequately enforce existing regulations and follow-up on complaints and violations.

16 IndustriAl and Commercial Activity: The Bambu ri Cement Factory is a major source of local employment and it is diversifying with reclamation projects and the nature trail, now a popular tourist stop as well. However, the cement factory is also a source of dust that is a problem for the local population life and its immediate environs particularly Mtopanga and its hinterland. Arts and crafts and some service enterprises are also growing. Another important feature for the economy of the area is a large wholesale and retail market at Kongowea, which is the distribution center for Mombasaof food and produce from upcountry and in the coast province. Local people are employed as vendors and support service for this large municipal market and rely on this market for inexpensive, readily available food supply. There is no adequate waste treatment or disposal for this sprawling urban and commercial development.

Urbanization: The overall growth of population and settlements in the area has resulted in rapid urbanization. Large numbers of people seeking employment opportunities are moving into the area between the main road and the beach, in addition to the surrounding areas. Growth in residential development has been enhanced by the Nyali bridge conveniently linking urbanized Mombasa Island with the site. This has allowed a significant number of workers to live in the area and commute to the Island for work. High income residential development is strongest between the hotel developments along the beach and the main road. Inland and along the North Main Road, medium and low income residential development is increasing. Inland of the road, residential development is displacing indigenous arable agriculture.

The pressuresfor residential development are intense as people move from the hinterlands to the Mombasa area, attracted by employment opportunities. As a consequence, the north coast is rapidly urbanizing northward. Road and other infrastructure development is not keeping up the pace causing severe shortages of potable water and power. Moreover, hotels continue to develop in plots landward of the original beach hotels and are beginning to encroach on existing residential areas. This situation is complicated by an unpredictable influx and temporary settlement of refugees with huge demands on the meagre public facilities and degradation of the local environment. Although there is a land use plan for the area, administered by the Municipal Council of Mombasa, development has not adhered to the plan. Decisions about land use and placement of new development are not made according to any comprehensive analysis of current supply and future demand for municipal services.

17 Public Services and Infrastructure

Water: Fresh water is supplied from three sources; the Marere springs, the Mzima springs and Sabaki river, from which water is piped and treated for use in and around Mombasa. The study area receives its water supply from the Sabaki line. These supplies are now inadequate with the Mombasa and North coast area receiving an intermittent supply of 35,000 cubic meters against an estimated demand of over 70,000 cubic meters per day. There has recently been a move to use local boreholes and water supply tankers to make­ up the shortfall. The Nyali beach hotel is now using a desalination plant.

As a consequ'enceof a rising population and diversity of water requirements for activities associated with urbanization such as drinking, sanitation, filling swimming pools, watering lawns, car washing, industrial and for the hotels use the demand for fresh water will continue to increase. Concern is increasing about water allocation decisions, and related public health issues resulting from limited wnter supplies, AS well ns concern over groundwnter contamination which is being increasingly relied on as an alternate source for the severnl human uses. There are two government agencies that regulate both water lIsennd supply: The National Wntcr ConservatiOlltlnd Pipeline Cooperntion (NWCPC) is thc water ulHlerlaker while the MlniHlry of Lond Rl·dn/lll\lIon, Re~ionl\l nlld Woler IJcveloplllent is responsihle for the wntcr resources llcVl~loplIJ('nl.

Electricity: The north coast area experiences voltage fluctuations and frequent power failures which Kenya Power and Lighting Company has associated with inadequate supply resulting in overloading. Due to unreliable electricity supply, individual hotels and a few other consumers have been forced to install power generators.

Roads: The study area has a fairly good road network. The main Mombasa - MaHndi road is designed for single lane traffic in both directions. Sprawling roadside land uses such as constructed shops and stands are situated very close to the roadway. This often slows traffic and presents significant safety hazards. The Ministry of Public Works is responsible for maintaining the roads in the area. The Mombasa Municipal Council is also responsible for managing the roadway infrastructure development in the area.

Sewage: There is no central sewage system for the area. Septic tank/soakage pits systems, are used in all hotels except Severin Hotel which has a package sewage treatment plant. Pit latrines are also used for human waste disposal. Increasing density of development and relianceon septic tan k/soakage pit and pit latrines for disposal of human waste has resulted in contamination of drinking water supplies by coliform bacteria and potentially dangerous human pathogens such as cholera and typhoid.

18 Increasing commercial and residential development, urbanization pressures, and uncontrolled land use changes have placed a significant strain on existing services and infrastructurein the area. Trends suggest increasing developmentof many sectors within the area, all of which will exacerbate the public service and infrastructure problems already being experienced. Existing land use policies and plans have proved inadequate to mitigate the existing development impacts nor will they deal with future demands. Uncontrolled development and the inability of public services and infrastructure to keep pace with development threatens the cnvironment, continued economic prosperity, public health, and the quality of life of residcnts. All of these factors are interlinked and affect one another. Solutions will require II coordinated nnd very aggressive approach.

Recommendations Objective 1: Provide and maintain sufficient public servicesand infrastructurefacilities to adequately support an increasing population, sustain an economically viable tourism industry, and provide for olher commercial and residential activities. Objective 2: Manage growth and development in an economically, socially and environmentally sustainable manner.

Strategy 1- Planning: Beca useof the magnitude ofthe existing land use and infrastructure problems; and the amount of time and resources needed to adequately solve these problems, additional planning, researchand expert consultation on the following is needed: 1. a capital improvement plan for the site that address: (1) alternative solid waste collection mechanisms (such as privatization) and identifies alternative disposal sites to the Kibarani dump site (particularly in the north coast area) (e.g., Miritini abandoned quarries and (2) fresh water supply needs in relationship to demand by residents, industry, hotels, nnd other commercial development into the next century; beginning with a reassessment of water supply development plans and demand projections. Lead: MMC (Proposed) Cooperators: CDA, Water authorities

2. a coordinated approach to land use and development decisions by conducting a review of the existing land use plan, problems of implementation, and recommend revisions to the plan, policies and more effective implementing mechanisms. Revisions to the land plan and implementing mechanisms must address environmental carrying capacity, infrastructure constraints and the relationship of sector specific development with other sectors of the economy. Lead: Provincial Administration (Proposed) Cooperators: CDA, land use/urban planners, Research Institutes.

19 3. an institutional review of how development decisions are made, and how existing policies, plans, and regulations on land use, public services and infrastructure supply and demand, and environment, effect these decisions. Results of the institutional review need to be used to make recommendations for changes in policies, plans, regulations and procedures concerning land use and development siting. Lead: Provincial Administration (Proposed) Cooperators: CDA, MMC, legal expert

4. a housing plan that focuses on providing low income affordable housing in areas where squatters and shanties currently exist and manages the growth of new residential development between the coast road and the beach hotels. Lead: MMC (Proposed) Cooperators: CDA, NGG, Ministry of Housing and Human Settlement.

Strategy 2- Short Term Action: Although the land use and infrastructure problems in the site are great and additional planning is necessary, some remedial action that can be implemented quickly, to make progress on pressing problems. Immediate actions should include: 1. Promote solid waste recycling and composting of organic waste. This could be done by promoting and encouraging the use of innovative model recycling programs, grading and recyclingof waste through providing technical assistance, educational programs;,and conducting demonstration programs. Lead: MMC (Proposed) . Cooperators: CDA, NGG

2. Promote water conservation in the area.

Establishing demonstration projects for simple, cost effective water conservation measures for residential and commercial establishments such as roof catchments, low volume toilets, low water maintenance landscaping, etc. Increasing rainwater catchment from roofs of residential, commercial and public structures. Lead: CDA (Proposed) Cooperators: MMC, Water authorities, NGG.

J. Encourage active participation of indigenous users on land use decision making processes and development activities. Lead: Provincial Administration (Proposed) Cooperators: CDA, MMC

20 2.2 MANAGING WATER QUAI.tTY

Findings of Fact

Groundwater in the area - a significant source of drinking water - is contBminated by faecal coliform representinga significant public health risk. Surface watersin Tudor and Port Reitz CreeksarealsocontBminatedrepresentinga public health risk fromsldn contact and consumption of contBminated shellfish and other seafood harvested from the area. Water quality in the marine park and reserve is considered good at present. However, increaseddevelopment and direct discharges from Idtchen wastewater, sewage treatment plant discharges, seepagefrom soakpitsandimproperdisposRlofdredgespoilare threats to future water quality. Information on ambient water quality in the reef and lagoon is lacldng. Surface runoffand stormwater drainage is inadequBte resulting in water pools on roads and residential areas, and contamination ofsourcesof domestic water.

The Importance of Protecting and Maintaining Good Water Quality

Protected and welllllaintained WElter qUEllity is needed to support tourism activities and residential commu nities in Bambu rio Safe d rin king water and clean marine water for recreational uses and to support marine life is essential for the following reasons: Health: Safe water for drinking, bathing and recreation to safeguard public health Environment: Good quality water is essential to protect aquatic and marine life including seagrasses, fish, algae and corals. Aesthetic: Good quality water without odours is vital for attractive and pleasant surroundings. Economic: Maintaining good quality water is easier and cheaper than attempting to restore a polluted sou rce.

Status of Water Quality in the Area

Drinking Water: Water quality in wells and boreholes in the study site is declining. Sources of contamination include sea water intrusion, seepage of coliform bacteria and potential human pathogens from septic systems and soakage tank/soakage pit system (Table 2.2.1). The porosity of the limestone geology of the Bamburi area exacerbates the contamination problem. Monitoring public water supply quality is the responsibility of the MombasaMunicipal Council (MMC),and the Ministry of Health (MOll). Sampling is not regular due to human resource and budgetary constraints.

21 j' . ' 1,/ , . , _ ,LUUl \ . "ii"" \ If(/ ;',:'.,1><,' " ~'--:""'/ . ,,\. // ...... ' I ( \' \ ._a Table 2.2.1: Microbial Contamination of Well and Bo~u~~~y~uasaDistrict Inshore Water Sources

Source: Assessment of Land Based Sources of Marine Pollution along the Kenyan Coast, By D. Munga et aI, 1993. Borehole water treated with ultra-violet radiation. (Drinking water standards applied in Kenya are: Coliform count < 10/100 ml - E. Coli Count, nil.)

Marine and Estuarine Waters: There is no known quantitative information about the levels of water pollution in the Bamburi reef area. Observations indicate that some hotels discharge grey water (kitchen, shower and sink water) directly into the reef area. BeCHuse there is no sewer system it is likely that some effluents from human wastes enters the reef area through seepage from septic tank/soakage pit system and direct discharge. -Limited studies of the mangrove areas indicate that water quality in the creeks as reported by Munga, et al (1993) is degraded and faecal coliform in some cases exceed safe limits. Reports from local observers indicate that many industries and businesses along the edge of the creek discharge wastes directly into Tudor Creek. KMFRI has conducted studies from time to time on water quality of the creeks and reef area along with the Government Chemist (analysis), KWS and the MMC. However, no regular water quality monitoring program exists.

Types of Pollution

The main types of contamination to the water systems of the area are sewage, stormwater, solid wastes industrial effluents and sporadic oil spills.

Sewage: The Mombasa Municipality sewage system covers only 17% of the population when it is operating. The demonstration site is not sewered and relies primarily on septic tank soakage pit systems to dispose of human waste. When full, these systems are pumped by commercial haulers and the waste is sometimes illegally disposed of at

22 the Kibarani Dump site. Emptying of septic tank/soakage pit sludge directly into the sea and creeks sometimes occurs in the cover of darkness. The MMC is responsible for the design construction and maintenance of sewers and storm drains.

Stormwater: There is one storm water drain in the demonstration site whose outlet is near Tamarind Hotel. This inadequate drainage allows rainwater to cause flooding and contamination of water sources during the rain season. There are three stormwater drains into Tudor Creek and three others discharging into the Kilindini creek from the Mombasa Island. Two storm water drains from the North Mainland discharge into Tudor Creek. Stormwater introduces nutrients and pollution to both surface and ground waters.

Solid Wastes: Total annual solid waste generation in the Mombasa Municipality is 77 ,000 - 102,000 tons per year. The percentage originating from the study site is un known. The Municipal garbage collection service collects about 55,000 tons per year. The rest remains uncollected. Solid wastes, when left uncollected, can be carried by storm water into marine waters. Solid wastes often include plastics and other non-biodegradable items that threaten marine life. The Mombasa Municipal Council is responsible for collection, transportation, and disposal of garbage and for management of the Kibarani dumping site which borders directly on Tudor Creek. A number of suggestions have been put forward to consider privatization of garbage collection, or alternatively, decentralizing the current centralized municipal depot system. In addition, efforts are underway to identify a new solid waste dump site but there is little public land remaining in the district which could be designated as a dump site.

Oil Pollution: The study area is near the oil tanker route from the Middle East. The high volume of traffic that transits this area increases the threat of a major oil spill. Oil pollution also results from normal oil transportation activities such as ship-to-shore transfer, tank washing and upland tank storage. These routine activities can result in spills of a lesser magnitude, but still have significant environmental consequences (Figure 2.2.1). For example, one spill of 5000 tons in Port Reitz killed approximately two hectares of mangroves at Kibarani in 1988. A considerable volume of oil is off loaded in the harbour and pumped into storage tanks enroute to the oil refinery.

The National Oil Spill Response Committee (NOSRC) of which the Kenya Ports Authority (KPA) is a member is responsible for containing and cleaning up major oil spills. KPA is specifically responsible for spills due to the day to day shipping activities within the port. The NOSRC has prepared an oil spill contingency plan, conducts training of response personnel, and maintains clean up and containment equipment at the port.

23 Table 2.2.1: Recent oil spillages and magnitude in the creek harbour area

6 ...... -..>­ 5 ­ III C 0 I- u III 4 ~ "C "'0 ..­ C QI 0 ~ III ::J 3 roo Q 0 UJ .c ..J I­ ..J a: 2 I­ 1Il ..J 0 1 ­

0 i-': 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 YEAR

Consequences of Degraded Water Quality

Degraded water quality has impacts on both the environment and economic health of the area. Direct discharge of sewage and grey water onto the reef detracts from the desirability of the area for tourists. These pollutants coupled with others such as stormwater and oil spills, can kill, weaken or retard growth of coral reefs, mangroves and seagrassesand associated aquatic organisms. As environmental systems degrade, public health problems from contaminated drinking water supplies, contaminated shellfish and contact with such water by recreational users (tourists) are likely to increase. In addition, as marine habitats such as corals, mangroves and seagrassesare degraded, associated fish populations and fisheries production will also decline.

24 Current Management Framework

No national standards and criteria have been established for the quality of surface waters including marine and estuary waters, nor have water bodies been classified for any specific standards or goals. However, for potable, and recreational waters, WHO standards have been adapted.

Recommendations

Objective 1: Protect and restore ground water quality which meets potable standards and criteria. Objective 2: Improve surface water quality to allow safe harvest of shellfish and seafood, safe swimming, and to sustain healthy coral reef and mangrove ecosystems, as well as associated seagrass beds and fish populations.

Strategy 1- Action: Protect the local population from health risks from drinking contlJminBted ground wBter by: 1. implementing measures that will protect public health in communities dependent on ground water for drinking water supplies until such time that ground water quality meets potable water standards. Immediate actions may include:

Installatio'l of water purifiers, candle filters and other small filtration units for individual ,food establishments and residential units relying on ground water. • Public health education campaigns in low income and squatter areas which rely on contaminated ground water as to health risks and benefits of boiling drinking water. Lead: MMC (Proposed) Cooperators: MOH, NGO.

2. Increase supply and reduce demand for existing potable (piped) water supplies as a means of reducing reliance on groundwater as a source of drinking water supply. Reduce demand and extraction rates of groundwater to help prevent and reduce salt water intrusion and contamination. Actions for reducing demand for piped potable water are described in section 2.1, strategy 2.2.

Lead: CDA (Proposed) Cooperators:NGO, MMC, MLRRWD

25 1. The feasibility of constructing a centralized wastewater treatment plant tor ttle Nyali-Bamburi-Shanzu area which would serve the commercial, residential and hotel communities. Special attention should be given to modern technologies for recycling wastewater for irrigation purposes and recharging groundwater supplies, or deep well injection of wastewater. In addition, attention needs to be given to alternative means of operation to avoid the problems of the Mombasa island waste treatment plant, such as parastatal status, private sector management, financing and fee structures, and training of operation and maintenance personnel. Alternative to centralized sewage treatment such as package treatment plants also need to be explored. This feasibility study should also outline options that will allow the repair and restoration of the existing sewage treatment plant on Mombasa Island. Lead: MMC (Proposed) Cooperators: CDA, Water authorities, Research Institutions.

2. The establishment of a regulatory or non-regulatory water quality management program that sets water quality goals, standards and criteria for marine and coastal \Vaters and incorporates:

• water quality monitoring for coastal and marine waters, including monitoring of discharges from establishments 011 bench fronts nnd along the creeks.

• the control of point source discharges, specifically those from ships, hotels and commercial and industrial estnblishments discharging into the reef area and creeks.

• the control of nonpoint sources of pollution, specifically from urbanized and developed areas and upland agricultural areas.

• storm water catchment and treatment

Lead: MMC (Proposed) Cooperators: Research Institutions, Government Chemist, CDA, KPA, Fisheries Department.

26 2.3 FISHERIES MANA<,EMENT

Findings of Fact

Fisheries on Leven Reef have faced significant changes as a result of reductions in a vBi1ablefishing areaand reductionsin the n umberofartisanal fishermen. It is estimated that from }OO only 30 fishermen now fish in the Marine Reserve. Initial increases in catch per unit of effort occurred after the establishment of the marine park. However more recently, there has been a declinein catch per unitofeffort and total catch. Sport fishing hasincreased with the increasein tourism, and some aquarium fish collectionoccursin the Marine Reserve. Offshore fisheries, including the outer reef, are considered underexploited at this time. Artisanal fishing villages have also been displaced from shorefnmt areas to upland settlements, making access to the resource difficult. 7bday, the fishery is oflittle importance to the area's economy but continue..~ to be an important traditioIJalactivity.

Fisheries COntribution to the Bl1mburi Economy fishing which was once a dominant traditional economic activity along the Damburi shoreline is no longer an important economic activity. fisheries has been overshadowed by shoreline and water-dependent tourism activities and the development of residential and commercia1.establishments. This has brought many changes and impacts on the traditional fishermen in the area and on the resource itself.

Trends in Fisheries catch and Effort

The Impact of the Marine Park: The creation of the Mombasa Marine Park in 1986 resulted in two-thirds of the traditional in-shore fishing grounds being put off limits to fishermen. Many fishermen either migrated or left fishing for other activities,and only approximately 30 fishermen remain of the hundred who fished before the Marine Park was established. As a result of the creation of the marine park through the exclusion of fishing within its boundaries (enforcement started in 1990) and from a decline in the number of fishermen, catch rates in the remaining fishing grounds initially increased (Table 2.3.1). However, this was only a temporary gain. Recent studies show a reduction in catch per unit of effort to levels similar to those prior to the park's creation (Figure 2.3.1 and 2.3.2). To increase catch, fishermen have recently learned that traps put closer to the park boundary catch more fish and have modified their fishing behaviour accordingly. It is suspected that this new practice may be a contributing factor to the declines in catch per unit of effort. Poor reef condition (see habitats section) may also be a contributing cause, or a result of overfishing.

27 Table 2.3.1: Fishermen, Fishing Area and Catch Statistics at Kenyatta Beach (8 months prior to and 18 months after the creation of the Mombasa Marine Park)

BEFORE PARK AFTER PARK (1990) (1992)

Total Number of Fishermen 101 35

Fis hing Area, Km 2 8 3

Fishermen Density, /Km2 12 11

Benthic Catch/Area, Kg/Km2 257 468

Source: McClanahan and Knunda-Araro, in press.

Figure 2.3.1: Catch per Unit of Effort on Leven Reef

1991 1992 1993 1994 Months

10

0- -I , I I , I I I I "-+-+-+-+-+--+-+-+-+--~-f--+---I--I----+-+--t----+-+---f-+-+-+--+-l-1 ~ ~ ~w ~ ~ ~y ~ ~ ~ ~w ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ .- r;" Sf W :fJ r:- VJ !l' ;:;, t1 ii l1 n rt!l !i!i b1 ;a te !C t1 M

Source: McClanahan and Kaunda-Araro.

28 , _...... ~/ --.- ..."..... -.- e-.It ­ • ...... I J I

&--+---,.---.--r--'-'---1 I I I 1 I 1-,--r---.---,--r--T--r-- - • o * .. • • '0....,t182 111 ,.. ,. ,. .. .. 1M,..,.. _ _ sa M,... M U • Mr

Source:M McClanahan and Kaunda-Araro

Non-traditional Fisheries: In addition to the traditional fisheries for food production, sport fishing in ·the area has been increasing. Sport fishing caters to the tourists who seek offshore game fish. A small amount of aquarium fish collection for export, has also been reported as a recent activity in the marine reserve.

Seasonality of Fishing: The good fishing season coincides with the high tourist season between September and March. The rest of the year, April through August, the sea is unventurable due to the effect of the South East Monsoons.

Socia-economicTrends in the Fisheries

The Fishery has Remained an Artisanal Activity: There have been few changes in the type of gears and boats which are used by the traditional small-scRle fishermen who remain in the area. Dugout canoes are the main vessel used and rarely do fishermen venture beyond the outer reef to exploit what is considered an under-fished offshore fisheries resource.

Displacement of the Fishermen: As land was converted for hotel and residential development along the shorefront, traditional fishing villages were displaced. The original

29

- -~------~ ------­ fishing villages were moved from the beach front to hinterland locations as far as 12 miles away, thus disrupting the traditional fishermen life style and culture. Today, few shorefront fishing villages remain, and fishermen are forced to commute long distances to their boats from home at greater expense. This has several consequences, such as increased incidents of vandalism to fishing boats because they are left unattended.

Fishermen have Lost Access to the Beach: The number of fish landing sites which fishermen have access to has declined. Developers have fenced off previously used lateral access points to the shoreline as a security measure. This has also contributed to increasing commutes for the remaining fishermen and increased the distances between landing sites and traditional fishing grounds. There are eight gazetted landing sites in the area, but some of them have already been converted for other developments. Access to gazetted landing sites has been made even more difficult because the Fisheries Act does not legally delineate access to them.

Fishing has Lost Esteem: The community in general holds fishing as an occupation in low esteem. Youth consider fishing as a last choice career and most prefer other occupations. The older generation who continue with full time fishing remain poor.

Evolution of the Middlemen: The long distance from the beach to the fishing villages has made it difficult for fishermen to sell their fish directly at the market. After returning from the fishing grounds, the fisherman is willing to sell his catch to middlemen at the beach landing points who guarantee an easy market for them at all times. The middleman then transports the fish to markets in Mombasa where they are sold for a profit. As the middlemen sold the fish at higher prices, they could afford to purchase fishing vessels while fishermen could no longer afford to buy their own boats. This has made the fisherman dependent on the middleman for the provision of vessels and fishing gear, which the fishermen pays for by surrender of three-fourths of his daily catch. It is significant to note that women also participate effectively as dealers in the fishery industry.

Current Management Framework

In the past, traditional fishing was managed by village elders making decisions on the utilization of fishing grounds, selective fishing during specific times of the year as well as demarcation of marine "kayas" (traditional conservation areas) on the reef. These traditional management practices have completely broken down with the creation of modern institutions and governance arrangements, llithough older fishermen still recall their use decades ago. At present, several institutions play important roles in mllnagement of the fishery.

30

--- ~------~- The Fisheries Department has a legal mandate that provides for development, management, exploitation, utilization and conservation of fisheries and connected purposes. The Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) has a legal mandate to control use activities including fishing gear and pr8.ctices within the marine park and the reserve. In addition to the catch data collected by the Fisheries Department, KMFRI and KWS conduct basic and applied research on the reef.

Although the traditional management measures have broken down with the development of modern government and with urbanization of the area, incorporation of village elders and fishermen in the decision making process can be a basis for developing new co­ managed systems through joint decision making among fishermen and/or community based groups with government agencies such as the Fisheries Department and KWS.

Recommendations Objective 1: Maintain a small, sustainable traditional artisanal fishery which is profitable for the fisherman and economy of the area.

Strategy 1- Planning: To nmke the current fishery profitable 8nd sustain8ble, a fisheries management pl8n is required. The g08ls of the man8gement pl8n should be to regulate the insiJorefisheries to sustain8bleexploitationlimits, lind toincrellse the incomesof the site's remaining fishermen. Lead: Fisheries Department (Proposed) Cooperators: CDA, Fishermen, marketers/middlemen, boat owners, KWS, and KMFRI

The planning effort should: 1. Institute management measures to protect the resources from further degradation and over-exploitation. Measures may include limits on the total number of fishermen, gear restrictions and minimum sizes of fish caught.

2. Require amendments to the Fisheries Act so that the landing sites location, size and status are legally delineated for the title deed issuing (also see Chapter 2.6, strategy 1.1)

3. Measures to ensure the local fishermen have the necessary land-based infrastructure necessary to operate efficiently (also see Chapter 2.6, strategy 2.1).

4. Support on-going and additional research needed to answer questions related to management concerns, including assessment of the status of offshore and in-shore stocks, and socio-economicstudies of local fisher folks and their communities.

31 S. Recommendntions to establish nn nction group consisting of CDA, fishermen from local villnges, mnrketers/micJdlemenand boat owners, along with KWS, the Fisheries Department and KMFRI, to provide input into the fisheries mnnagement plan.

6. Address the specific needs of women nnd young people involved with fisheries and fisheries related activities.

Strategy 2- Action: To stlfbilize tl1e e;dsting fisl1ing industry the {oJ/olVing lfctions should be implemented:

1. Enforce existing wildlife conservation and management actions, and fisheries regulation, focusing on reducing night poaching in the Marine Park & Reserve.

2. Improve fisheries infrastructure support facilities by: • Improving the conditions of existing structures at fish landing sites. • Building fish bandas for boat operators and local fisherman with necessary facilities for ice holding, n cleaning platform and net/engine storage. • Building restroom facilities for use by fishermen, boat and beach operators, and the general public that is operated and maintained jointly by the Municipality and fishermen, boat and beach operntors. • Establish an education progrnm for fishing organizations regarding sustainable use of the resource. Lead: Fisheries Department (Proposed) Cooperators: Fishermen, marketers/middlemen, boat owners, KWS, KMFRr and CDA.

32 2.4 MANAGING CRIT1CAL HA81TATS

Findings of Fact

Important critical habitats in the area include mangruves, corBl reefs, turtle nesting beaches and seagrass beds. Each of these are threatened by the effects of rapid urbanization including overexploitation, pollution and physical d8l1l8ge:

Mangruve are&

Mangroves Mangroves are terrestrial woody trees or shrubs which adapted to life in intertidal aquatic :')1 habitats that nre under the influence of both fresh wnter nnd sen water. They are an important woody· trees system. The most predominant species of mangroves in Kenya are:

Sonneratia alba Rhizophora mucronata Bruguiera gymnorhiza CerrioJ>s tagal XylocRrpus granatum lIeritienl littoralis Lumnitzera racemosa Avicennia 111arina

Rhizophora mucrun8ta ("Mkoko" in Swahili) is the most dominant species in the Mombasa area.

33 The Importance of Mangrove Ecosystems: • Economic and Social Importance: Historically, mangroves supported important economic activities such as mangrove harvesting, woodwork, handicrafts, boat buiJding, charcoal burning, smaH scale farming, shell collection and honey gathering. In all major mangrove forest areas, commercial cutting activities accounts for up to 60% of the total income for mangrove inhabitants. In minor mangrove forest areas, fishing accounts for about 70% and mangrove cutting 15%.

• Protection of Shoreline Against Erosion: Because of their rooting systems, mangroves help protect against erosion of the shore and even encourage seaward build":'up of sediments. The canopy of mangroves act as an efficient wind breaker and help in stabilization of sand dunes.

• Nursery Grounds: Mangrove biotopes, act both as nursery ground for the young and a feeding ground for adult or sub-adult fish. Therefore, mangroves enhance fish yields. Studies show that fish landings will decreasefrom filling, deforestation or over-exploitation of mangrove areas.

• Nutrient Traps: Mangroves act as nutrient traps by absorbing nutrients from effluent as it transits mangrove areas.

• Biodiversity: Mangroves increase biodiversity in estuarine and brackish water inter-tidat zones.

• Important Landmarks: Mangrove vegetation along the coastline provide important landmarks 'for coastal and marine migratory birds and provide clues to finding watering points as seepage of fresh water from underground aquifers commonly occurs in mangrove areas.

Status of Mangroves in the Mombasa Area: The Mangrove areas within the Mombasa Municipalit.y have become peri-urban. The mangrove communities and fishing villages in Tudor and Port Reitz Creek no longer retain their traditional lifestyles or employment. Fishing and mangrove cutting are no longer the mainstay economic activities. This change was brought about by urbanization, rapid population growth and over-exploitationof the resource. Today, mangrove dwellers rely on alternate sources of income such as poultry, market gurdening, and pottery for tourists. Newer alternatives such as eco-tourism at Tudor Creek is starting to emerge.

Uses of Mangroves: Although, dependence on the mangrove resources has significantly declined, some villages still exploit Mangroves for their wood both for commercial sale and

------subsistence use. Depending on the configuration, the mangrove wood could be used for building purposes, firewood or for making charcoal. Mangroves as a source of fuel wood is used in clay works. In the Mombasa area, due to over-exploitation, the wood that is available is suitable only for Fito or Pau for building but mostly suitable for charcoal or fuelwood. Larger categories sold by Mombasa retailers are imported from Lamu and other out locations.

Table 2.4.1: Categories of Commercial Size Clusses of Mangroves

Category DIameter SIze class (mm) (Swahili local name) Fito 2.5 - 3.5 Pau 4.0 - 7.5 Boriti 8.0 - 11.0 Nguzo 1 14.0 - 16.5 Nguzo 2 17.0 - 20.0 Nguzo 3 20.5 - 30.0 Banaa Over 30.5

Source: Kenya National Environment Secretariat (KNES), 1985

Table 2.4.2: Uses of Various Species of Mangroves

pecles Cenops taga , IZOp ora mucronata, BrugUlera, gYmnohriza, Heritiera littoralis, Xylocarpus granatum e a ove specIes a so 0 er e es uewoo are more valuable as a source of building wood than to be exploited for firewood. The following species which offer inferior wood are mostly used for firewood: Avicennia marina, Lumnitzera racemose, Sonneratia alba

35 ,-~ ;R!NE- ;tp~_ , , ')Y~~ I' -:)"~ ~r 1 ~( , ii" : t' 1 ~ " ' " .. , l \~," . f . , '" \. ~>~,/ causes a~d ConsequencesofDegraded Mangro~~stsignificant impacts on mangroves in the Mombasa area are: • Dumping of solid organic wastes and non-biodegradable materials, sewage,and industrial toxic wastes. These toxic materials kill mangroves and decrease mangrove germination. • Oil spills from the port area threaten mangroves. In 1988 an accidental spill from a punctured tank killed two hectares of healthy mangroves near Kibarani. Natural regeneration and attempts at replanting have failed to result in restoration of this area. • Clearing of mangrove trees to create access routes to shorelines and pave the way for physical developments. This causes hydrodynamic changes in sea currents and encourages erosion of the shoreline. • Overcutting of mangroves results in: loss of many arboreal organisms both in terms of number of organisms and species, due to a breakdown in the food chain. loss of fisheries breeding grounds. loss of canopy consequently eliminates the existence of some terrestrial organisms (e.g., monkeys, birds, etc.) and shade preferring benthic species thus reducing biodiversity. reduces litter fall with time which disrupts the detritus based food chain and is 'the basis of the community support system in the mangrove ecosystem. inability to produce poles for the building industry. • Subsistence farming activities around the environs of the catchment areas of the rivers draining into the Mtwapa and Tudor Creeks encourage soil erosion leading to enhanced sediment input in the estuaries. This has resulted in shore accretion causing high gradient shore profiles that do not support fringing mangroves. • Improperoyster harvesting from mangrove areas has led to the death of mangroves through constant cutting of root systems.

Existing Management Framework: Licensing of Mangrove cutting is done by the Min. of Environment and Natural Resources, Forest Department. While mangrove wood dealers are licensed, the individual cutters are not. Licensing of Oyster collectors is done by the Fisheries Department.

36 Coral Reefs The area has an extensive fringing coral reef along its coastline made of hard corals. The reef extends from the mouth of Tudor Creek to the mouth of Mtwapa Creek. The reef edge extends out approximately 1-2 kilometres from the shoreline (Figure 2.4.1). Figure 2.4.1: Cross Section of a Typical Fringing Reef

Sandy Beech ~ Mean 11de--"~-~~------'""""""~------'v------Level I II Seegrauleigal fleta

------seaward

Importance of the- Fringing Coral Reef Along the Nyali-Bamburi-Shanzu Site: • The fringing coral reef along this coast dissipates wave energy built up over a long fetch, thus it protects the shoreline from erosion. • Corals attract and allow for a high species diversity of flora and fauna, most conspicuous being fish fauna. • They are economically important and support the tourism business for, boat tours for thousands offoreign and domestic tourists for snorkelling, diving, sport fishing and sightseeing in the Marine Park and Reserve. On a per unit area basis, coral reefs earn a gross income of approximately US$ 25,000 per sq. km. if managed as a park and US$ 10,000 per sq. km. if managed for fishing per year (McClanahan & Obura, 1995). Mombasa Marine Park saw over 36,000 visitors in 1991 and generated revenues from park fees of over US$67,000 (McClanahan & Obura, 1995), well above the average earnings of any other Notional Marine Park. • Historically they support small-scale artisanal fishing. • They ore a source of sand for local beaches.

37 Condition of the Coral Reefs: Reef condition and fish biomass in the Mombasa Marine Park has made a rapid and dramatic recovery since the Park was established. Current coral condition is compatible with condition seen at some of the older marine parks and is now approximately 45 percent live coral cover (Figures 2.4.2 and 2.4.3). However, coral cover in the marine reserve remains low at about 9 percent coral cover (MncClannhan, pers. comm.) which is similar to other unprotected areas in Kenya. Figure 2.4.2: Percent Coral Cover for Mombasn Marine Park, Older Protected Reefs, and Unprotected Reefs

40 /\ ~o 35 • o Unprotected Reefs 30 ./ o / ~'"""' 25 /\/ Older Protected o 20 • • • o () Reefs 15 -~ o o 10 /\ Mombasa Marine U 5 Park o 1986 1987 1991 1992 1993 1994 Year

Graph 2.4.3 Tot&1 Biomass for Fish in Mombasa Marine Park, Older Marine Parks, and Unprotected Reefs

1600 CU 1400 .~ € 1200 • Older Protected Cl -_ .00 '" " .-',. ~ .. .. Reefs 1000 .. en en 800 Mombasa Marine CU 600 Park E 1\ ,0 400 /\ m 200 O· .- A' 0- , Unprotected Reefs 0 0 () 0 , 1987 1988 1991 1992 1993 Year

Source: MacClanahan and Obura, 1995.

38 Causes of Reef Degradation: The poor condition of coral in the reserve may be due to several factors including overfishing and excessive sea urchin populations, siltation from dredge spoils, damage from boats and tourists, and from land based sources of pollution such as wastewaterdischargesfrom hotels, stormwater runoff, and seepagefrom soak pits. Specific causes include: • Coral damage by park users including, of corals by snorkelers and divers, and boat anchors doing physical damage to the reefs. • Selective removal of predator fish which feed on sea urchins. Resultant high density of sea urchins leads to the weakening of the reef due to burrowing activities of sea urchins and coral cover. This also leads to lower levels of calcium carbonate deposition, an important source of sand along many eroding coastlines. • Reduction of coral cover and diversity due to overfishing of larger and predator species of fish. • Pollution from direct discharges of wastewater from hotels and seepage from soak pits. • Siltation from dredging of Port Reitz. Dredge spoils are dumped near Nyali beach and the mouth of Tudor Creek. Sediment and silt from the dredge spoil drifts northward over the reef with the prevailing currents. High sediment and silt loads which include cement dust from Mtopanga River, kills coral, which need clean and clear water. • Oil spills can kill coral reefs. A major oil spill from a tanker entering Mombasa Port can cause significant damage to the reef and greatly affect the tourism industry, particularly if beaches are also impacted. • Poor farming methods in the catchment area can increase nutrient and sediment loads, both of which can be detrimental to coral reefs.

Existing Management Framework: At the moment, there are no local regulations for controlling the number of glass bottom boats and/or tourists using the reef. One mooring buoy system has been installed by KWS to reduce damage to corals from anchors. Marine Park Management Plans are continually updated by Kenya Wildlife Service but do not yet adequately address intensifying use of the park and reserveand their associatedimpacts. In addition, increasing development on land which impacts the Park, is beyond the r jurisdiction of KWS. KWS has limited authority for managing uses in the Marine Reserve. Fisheries Department has a fisheries Act which forbids collection of coral heads both live and dead.

39 Beaches and Sea Turtles

Status and Trends in Sea Turtle Nesting in Bamburi: The Bamburi area is well suited and ideal for turtle nesting sites because it contains many sandy beaches that make them choice habitat for turtle nesting (Map 2.4.1). Historically, turtle nesting sites existed in the Study area but the frequency of sightings has been declining. Sea turtles can be an important tourist attraction if they are protected from harassment while nesting. Many of the varieties which nest in study area are endangered and rare species. They include: Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas), lIawksbill (Erelroochelys imbricata), Eretmochelys which have been noted to nest at English Point, Mackenzie, Nyali, Bamburi and Serena areas. causes of the Decline in Sea Turtle Nesting: Increased human settlement and development of the areas adjacent lo sea turtle nesting beaches have caused poaching of eggs for human consumption. While sea turtle egg collection is illeglll, enforcement by local authorities is difficult and local residents are often unaware that sea turtles are endangered find in need of greater protection. Artificial lights from hotels, residential houses and street lights confuse turtle hatchlings. Lighting near nesting sights causes the turtles to move in the wrong direction, inland towards the direction of the lights, rather than towards the sea and safely from prednlol·s. Seawalls present a barrier which prevent female turtles frolll climbing to nesting sites and reduce the availability of sandy shoreline on which they can nest. Constructions within previous nesting areas have further impact turtle population.

Current Efforts and Regulations to Protect Sea Turtles: The Baobab Trust sea turtle conservation project pays fishermen and other people to protect nest sites. This program has had a positive effect on the frequency of nesting and quantity of hatchlings which return to the sea along the north coast. The program is based on an economic incentive which makes it more profitable to protect nest sites and hatchlings than to poach eggs for sale in markets. Unfortunately, while this program is having an impact by reducing poaching, it does not solve the problem of loss of nesting habitat nor the problem concerning evening lighting. A multi-agency Marine turtle committee composed of government institutions, beach front property owners and fishermen has further complimented work by Baobab Trust.

Laws Governing Sea Turtle Protection: Egg poaching and killing of turtles for human consumption or other purposes is illegal. There are no guidelines or regulations concerning viewing or beachfront lighting system. KWS has a 100 foot development setback along the shoreline of the marine parks which protects nesting habitat, however there are several seawalls constructed along the Mombasa Marine Park beaches which are in violation of this regulation.

40 '1 ~ r '\.,\ /

~i .,i ~\ .,I~ } j) ,) I /

~ J 3 .JJ I <'"' ~ BAMBURI JI g~ bD TUDOR I -"I:t c: cd CREEK ::I "0 / c: ) cd ~ ...... / v.l bD J / :E C7.l ~ Z -.~ I xxx· Turtle nesting t: :s MKOMANI ' 1 si tes on sandy E-o MOMS ASA beaches. I ISLAND j or;- c:==::J Mang rove N J areas. ci. cd ::I ) Scagrasses

Seagrasses are an important part of coral reef and estuarine ecosystems which provide fish habitat, breeding space and nursery grounds for important commercial and reef fishes. Healthy seagrass beds help to grip sediments together by the action of their root systems thus helping to curb erosion of the sediments. The leafy species provide fodder for herbivorous fish, marine turtles and dugongs. These species also carry epiphytic marine algae, some of which are of economic importance (e.g., the agar producing phodophytes). Various faunal species find suitable sanctuary among the roots or in firm sediments stabilized by the seagrasses. Thus the latter enhance biodiversity. Shelling by local community members, especially for the large gastropods, occurs in the sea grass beds where many types of mollusk reside. The shells are sold commercially as curios in the tourist trade.

Healthy seagrass beds are found on Leven Reef. The extent of seagrasseson the reef and in the Tudor Creek are unknown. Nutrient loading in Tudor Creek is heavy and may be a threat to seagrass committees in the estuary. Seagrasses can be impacted from heavy nutrient loading which can cause plankton blooms in the water and blocks needed light by the seagrasses.

Seagrasses sea~onal1y deposit dead leaves onto the beaches in the Bamburi area as a naturally occurring phenomenon. Hoteliers often see this llS II nuisance because it covers the clean white beach sand preferred by tourists.

Existing Management Framework: There is no specific management regime to protect existing seagrass beds from exploitation and pollution. However its exploitation is regulated under the general framework of the fisheries act on biological resources.

Recommendations Objective 1: Restore, protectand conservecoral reef, seagrasses,and mangrove habitats and turtle nesting sites on beaches.

Strategy 1- Planning: Existing and new programs and initiatilles need to compliment one another so that the individual habitats- seagrass, beaches, corals and mangroves- are managed 8S a connected ecosystem so that the health of the habitats and the economy which is dependent on them is maintained. To make progress on this strategy, the following should be initiated:

42 1. Develop 11 c(x)pcrativc program between departments of Forestry and Fisheries, and KWS to share boats, people, etc., to help one another to implement conservation and enforcement activities for reefs, mangroves, sea grass beds and turtle nesting sites. Lead: CDA (Proposed) Cooperators: Forestry, Fisheries Dept., KWS, Trawler operators/Owners.

2. Incorporate measures to reduce nutrient and sediment and other pollution loading into and on marine and coastal habitats as part of a comprehensive water pollution management program for the site as outlined in Chapter 2.2, strategy 2.

3. Promote multidisciplinary research on natural forces of habitat degradation (including pests, diseases, abuse, etc.) in order to devise effective strategies for restoration. Translate research findings into simple management recommendations and actions that can be understood and applied in the field by various stakeholders and practitioners. Lead: KMFRI (Proposed) Cooperators: CDA, KWS, University of Nairohi, Moi University

4. For eacn habitat, develop management measures which addresses:

Mangrov~s • licensing mangrove cutters so that they will not be arrested for carrying (machetes) panga. • guidelines on allowable size and spacing of cutting • alternatives to wild oyster harvesting that prevents mangrove root cutting, in order to stop the loss of mangroves and sustain substance for oyster set. Coral Reefs and Sea Grass Beds • fishing effort in Nyali Reserve that ensures a sustainable fisheries (Chapter 2.3 Strategy 1) • use zones for reefs and grass beds. (Chapter 2.6; Strategy 1.2) Turtle Nesting Sites (Beaches) • seasonal sanctuary sites at active nesting sites.(Chapter 2.6; Strategy 1.2) Lead: Forest Dept. (Proposed) Cooperators: Fisheries Dept., KMFRI, CDA, KWS, NGO's.

43 Strategy 2- Action: Mitigate and IVhere possible eliminate current activities that are damaging critical habitats through education and the implementation of small scale activities. 1. Establish an environmental education program to enhance public awareness of the value of critical habitats, and to foster public support of initiatives to protect habitats for a sustainable balance of uses. Lead: CDA (Proposed) Cooperators: KMFRI, KWS, Forestry Dept., Fisheries Dept., NGO's

Specific actions may include: • Educational brochures for mangroves, coral reefs, sea grasses and turtle nesting sites and distribute in cooperation with other agencies, NGO's and the private sector. • Apprentice programs for older mangrove cutters to teach new cutters their special knowledge for sustainable harvesting. • Educate mangrove cutters on size and spacing of cutting, monitor cutting and enforce forest act as it pertains to mangroves.

2. Initiate small scale projects that will protect critical habitats. • Establish mooring buoys and manage them cooperatively with private sector • Recommend low level lighting to be used at beach structures during nesting season. • Install signs to educate the public about the importance of turtles. Lead: KWS (Proposed) Cooperators: CDA, KMFRI, NGO's, Fisheries Dept.

44 2.5 MANAGING AN ERODING SHORELINE

Findings of Fact

Many locationsalong the beachesofthe Nyali-Bamburi-ShanzuBreB showsigns ofIUstoric erosion that are beginning to impact existing coasW structures. Many hotels have constructed seawalls at great expense to combat this problem. However, there is limited information about long term erosion rates and nearshore coasW processes to adequately plan and guide shorelineprotection efforts. Also, theaestheticqualitiesofthe shorefront, which is an important tourism asset, are being degraded by the construction ofshoreline protection. Protection works being constructed individually by shorefront property owners may be exacerbating the erosion problem or transferring the problem to a neighbouring propertyowner.

Extent and Location of the Problem

Bamburi and Kenyatta beachesare experiencingerosion which is directly impacting coastal development, especially hotels. It has been estimated that the rate of erosion in the area ranges between 2.5cm/year (in Shanzu) to 20cm/year on Mombasa Island (Abuodha pers. comm.) Specific data on long-term historic erosion rates in the area are not known. However observations show that erosion is occurring. Some areas along Bamburi beach are estimated to be etoding at a rate of 2 meters per year. Some seawalls constructed along Bamburi beach and Nyali beach are poorly designed and ill danger of collapse. Structures built on collapsing' cliffs in Nyali and Leven are in imminent danger of falling (Abuodha, 1992). Coastal erosion is not a new phenomenon. However its importance as an issue has increased recently as hotels and other structures that were built in erosion prone areas are being threatened by the gradual retreat of the shoreline causes of Erosion

Erosion is caused by both natural and man-made forces. In the Bamburi area, the long fringing reef serves as a natural protection for the shoreline. As reefs become damaged from anchoring and trampling by tourists, they afford the beaches less protection from wave action. Accelerated sea level rise resulting from global warming is expected to increase erosion rates. Removal of sand from beaches and improperly designed shoreline protection works can also increase erosion rates. Sweeping of beaches and removal of beach vegetation can also accelerate erosion. Often, erosion is a seasonal phenomenon. During times of strong wind and waves such as from the South-East monsoons, beaches may erode as sand and sediment is carried offshore. During calmer periods in North East

45 monsoons the beaches build up again. Siting of any development project needs to take into account this natural and seasonal fluctuation of the shoreline. of greater importancefor development siting are areas which face long term erosion where the net rate of shoreline fluctuation results in a net loss of shorefront land over several years. In such instances, the loss of sand from the beach is greater than the rate at which it is being replaced. A major source of sediment and sand in the area is from biogenic sources - dead and crushed coral and calcareous algae from the reefs. Therefore healthy coral reefs provide an important source of sand nourishment to the beaches to replace sand removed by currents and wave action. Additional sourcesof sand to the beaches, but less significant in the Nyali-Bamburi-Shanzuarea, are sediments washed in from the Tudor and Mtwapa Creeks and natural stormwater channels which discharge onto the reef flats and lagoon.

Impacts of Erosion

To protect coastal developments from erosion, significant investments in shoreline protection measures, such as seawalls, have been made. One hotel reported that protection costs exceed Kshs. 1,000,000 annually. As the number of seawalls increases, aesthetic qualities of the beaches are lost. These include loss of beach front area for tourist activities such as sunbathing and strolling. Seawalls also present a physical barrier to the beach, detracting from the inherent aesthetic value of an unrestricted scenic beach view. Seawalls also result in the loss the natural beach profile, restricting the ability of sea turtles to access nesting arens. Construction and design of shoreline protection works require careful study of beach dynamics and nre costly to build and maintain. Manmade coastal pfotectio'n structures if not planned properly, can exacerbatethe erosion problem or transfer the problem to an adjoining location along the beach.

Current Management Framework

Regulations to deal specifically with coastal erosion do not exist in Kenya. In the site, remediation and mitigation efforts are done on a case by case basis by the private sector. A 100 foot setback from the highest water mark is provided. The only known enforcement of the setback requirement exists in marine parks where KWS requires coastal structures be setback 100 feet from the beachline. In Bamburi, this setback became active in 1986 when the Mombasa Marine Park was established. It is unclear how the 100 foot setback standard was established, and it does not appear to be based on historical erosion rates.

Although the setback currently exists in the demonstration site, much of the development in Bamburi (50 percent of hotel beds were built before 1985) was constructed prior to the

46 setback requirement. It is not clear how much subsequent development has conformed to this setback standard, including recent construction of seawalls. In addition, KWS is not routinely consulted during the review and approval process of proposed development projects along the shoreline of the marine parks. Hence, they are forced into a reactive mode of response when actual construction starts that is observed by KWS officers not to conform to the setback requirement.

The University of Nairobi Geology Department has conducted several studies in the area and has extensive knowledge and expertise on understanding the underlying causes of erosion and relative merits of alternative protection measures. It is unclear what role, if any, the Ministry of Lands and Settlements, the Mombasa Municipal Council, or the District Development Committee play in planning and approving shoreline protection works or on the siting of structures during development project approval process.

Recommendations

Objective 1: Protect existing structures and development from shoreline erosion Objective 2: Protect New Development from long-term Damage from Shoreline Erosion. Objective 3: Minimize activities and development along the coast that contribute to shoreline erosion. strategy 1 - Planning and Research: To successfully address the issue of long-term erosion, additional research and planning is necessary to increase understanding of the site specific shoreline dynamics and to develop a program that addresses the issue holistically. The planning process should include: 1. Research on types of ideal shoreline protection structures that minimize shoreline erosion; where such structures could be placed without exacerbating the erosion problem along adjacent sections of the beach; and, the shoreline dynamics and/or coastal processes with a view to developing long term guidelines for shorefront protection. Specifically review the 100 foot setback and make appropriate recommendations. Research findings and their implications need to be disseminated to those concerned with coastal development. Lead: KMFRI (Proposed) Cooperators: University of Nairobi, Moi University, etc.

2. Review institutional arrangements for approving coastal development projects and recommend an institution or institutions to be given authority to develop management scheme for mitigating erosion. Lead: CDA (Proposed) Cooperators: KMFRI, MMC, KWS, KPA, Legal Experts, Ministry of Lands.

47 The program should consider: • Banning constructionofadditional shoreline protectionstructures which can exacerbate shoreline erosion, except in emergency situations.

• The use of non-structural measures such as shoreline vegetation as a natural buffer to mitigate erosion by promoting measures that protect natural coral reef and mangrove habitats which act as natural buffers against waves, wind and erosion. Examplesof potential measures include: (a) landscaping at the maritime vegetation public and private lands; (b) boards/trails in designed access points to prevent trampling and destruction of vegetation throughout the shoreline; and (c) maintenance of a natural buffer between development and the coastal strip.

Strategy 2 - Action: To address the erosion problem in the short term, enforcement, emergency mitigation, and education activities are necessary. These activities should include: 1. Enforce the 100 ft. setback regulation adjacent to the marine park and consider extending setback regulations along the beachfrontadjacent to the marine reserve. Lead: KWS (Proposed) Cooperators: Ministry of Lands, Fisheries Dept.

2. Design criteria. for emergency shoreline protection in cases where imminent loss of existing structures, residence, hotel, or public works will result without shoreline protectiory. L~d: CDA (Proposed) Cooperators: Provincial Administration, MMC.

3. Increase public awareness concerning the causes of coastal erosion, the consequences of poorly designed and sited structures and development projects, and impacts of activities which destroy protective habitats such as coral reefs, mangroves and beach vegetation). Lead: CDA (Proposed) Cooperators: KWS, KMFRI, NGO's, Fisheries Dept.

48 2.6 MANAGING USE CONFLICrS

Findings of Fact

During the last 30 years the number, intensityand variety of marine and beach users has increased. As reefand beach uses change and diversify, traditionBl uses are displaced. In the earJ:y 1940's the~ wa.', only one hotel. todllvthece are 27 hotelsj Areas that were .. ~'------,------­ once used for fishing are now used for recrcationBl activities. On-water conflicts have increased8S beach hotels provide a wide range of recreationBlactivities for their clients such as glass bottom boating, jet skiing, snorkellingand sBiling. This resultsin confficts among recreationBlusersand with fishermen. In addition, many previousshorelineaccess points used by fishermen and the generBl public have been blocked. Harassment of tourists on the beaches has become a problem as competition BITIOng various providers of tourists servicesincreases with an increasing number of beach and boat operators. Some long time users of beaches, such a.Ii fishermen and indigenous beach users resent skimpy dressand other behavioursof tourists which contrasts sharply with theirown vBlues and Culture.

Traditional versus Non-traditional Use

A Shrinking Fishing Area: The establishment of the marine park reduced fishing area in Bamburi to 3 Krn 2 as opposed to 8 Km 2 before the park thus forcing various fishing groups to share a smaller fishing area, intensifying competition over a smaller piece of resource. This has resulted in the number of fishermen being reduced by two thirds since 1986, from approximately 100 to 30 fishermen (McClanahan and Araro). Recent observation show that the number bf fishermen in the study area is much higher. Today, the fishing area that is now the Marine Park is used solely for recreational uses such as snorkelling, swimming and boating. The park also provides a protected area for fish species, helping with the rehabilitation of local fishing stocks and the coral reef.

Since fishermnn are now limited to a smaller fishing area as a result of the marine park boundaries they are using alternate fishing techniques to increase catch. These techniques are often destructive or occupy large areas of the reef flat competing for space with recreational users. The fish trap Uzio, for example, occupies a large area of shallow water space at hotel beach fronts which is also good walking ground for tourists at low tides. Seine nets used by some fishermen destroy the coral habitat cover that is necessary for fish reproduction and survival. Migratory fishermen with more effective gear have increased the competition.

49 According to the fisherfolk. the park boundaries were created with minimal consultation of them. Some fisherfolk feel that the park boundary should be reviewed toopen up more area for fishing. cultural Conflicts: Tourism activities. as prnctiscd in the study area. do not entirely conform to the religious and cultural practices of the local communities. The major disagreement is the mode of dress and the types of activities that should be allowed to occuron the beach. For example. local fisherfolk and local leaders have expressed concern over the style of bathing suits worn by tourists on the beach. Regulations to deter behaviours considered unacceptable by local residents from occurring on the beach are not enforced, nor are there campaigns to sensitize the tourists on the issue.

Limited Access to the Shoreline: Most of the access points to the shoreline which existed at one time for the local residents and fishermen to walk to the beach have been reduced to only three. The following locations have access; Kenyatta beach, Nyali beach and Shanzu. The others have been displaced or blocked by shorefrontdevelopmentand hotels. In some cases, public shoreline access routes exist on maps. but cannot be used because of physical barriers. In addition, fishermen have complained about the loss of traditional fish landing sites which now makes the commute to their boats from horne longer and more expensive. It also requires longer distances to travel on the water to reach their fishing areas.

Local beach users have limited access to clean and operable public sanitary facilities. The only existing public sanitary facility, located at lomo Kenyatta Public Beach, is not well maintained. Currently, no wnter is availnble at the site for wnste disposnl and vandals have removed toilet fixtures. The MOlllbasn Municipal Council is responsible for maintenance of this facility and is awnre of the situation but does not have Ihe funding available to correct the problems or the human resources to manage the facility once it is fixed. Community participation in managementof the sanitary and ddnking water facilities has not been enlisted.

RecreationalActivities: As recreationalactivities intensify. the numberof conflicts between fishing activities and recreational uses increased. For example, fisherman interviewed stated that their fishing nets are often damaged by personal water crafts and other boats operating in fishing areas.

so Confficts between Recreational Activities

Increased Competition for Tourist Clients: There are a large number of beach operators that provide services to tourists. These include curio/souvenirs traders, safari sellers, hair dressers, money changers, masseurs and other miscellaneous services. Because the number of beach operators is high in comparison to the number of tourists using the beach, some operRtors use sales tactics that result in tourists being harassed and feeling uncomfortable being on the beach. This detracts from the image of the tourist industry in the study areR. Currently, there is a licensing mechanisms for these operators, however, it has not been effective at enforcing a business code of conduct or an effective means of managing beach operators.

A similar conflict exists between the two types of boat operators, which are either hotel­ based or non-hotel based. lIotel-based boat operators have direct access to the clients in that they have booking desks at hotel receptions and the hotel beach fronts are reserved for their exclusive use. Hotel based boat operators can afford insurance and licenses for their boats (the gazetted cost of a license is Kshs. 6,000 per year) which non-hotel based operators can not afford, nor can all their boats pass vessel inspections for sea worthiness necessnry before issuance of insurance. Although the non-hotel based boat operators are organized into an umbrella association, the Mombasa Boat Owners Association (MDOA) they have been ineffective at increasing their share of the tourist market. This situation has created a conflict between the two types of boat operators as the number of boats has increased.

Water use conffitts: The number and diversity of on-the-water recreational activities in the marine parK nrc increasing. In the past, swimming and goggling were the primary recreational activities; today the reef area is used by several, often incompatible users.

• Personal water craft, also known as jet skies, use the reef flat and lagoon at high tide for relatively high speed maneuvers, often by inexperienced operators. Often jet skies operate in the same areas as swimmers, sail boats and snorkelers. This poses a significant danger of collision.

• The number of boats ferrying snorkelers to the lagoon during peak times of the day is estimated to be 30. Currently, there is only one mooring buoy for boats to use. This results in up to seven boats using the mooring buoy at once. As these boats leave or approach the buoy, they have to avoid snorkelers in the water creating a dangerous situation. There are no regulations for separating boat traffic from snorkelersor the number of boats allowed to use the mooring buoy at anyone time.

51 Current Management Framework

Controlling and Regulating On-water Use: KWS police the Marine Park and have the authority to regulate the location, extent and number of users and uses in the Marine Park such as regulations on snorkelling areas, number of glass bottom boat operators, mooring buoy rules, jet skies, etc. It is unclear whether this authority also extends to the Marine Reserve. Park boundaries have been set by l\ legislative Act and llny changes in park boundaries would require a legislative mandate.

Public Access and Facilities: The Mombasa Municipal Council is responsible for the maintenance of public facilities and public access points. The Fisheries Department has traditionally dealt with planning and development of shore facilities for fishermen at fish landing sites.

Harassment of Tourists: A Task Force on Beach Operators has been established and is working diligently on attempting to solve to solve the issues of crime and tourist <1.­ harassment. /.'

Recommendations / Objective 1: Increase public access to the shoreline and improve public access facilities ~nd infrastructure. /'\'\J \ ,,(,,vS? Objective 2: Maintain a safe and pleasant environment for touristk and other users. Objective J: R~duce on-water connicts between mu! among traditional users llnd recreational users.

strategy 1- Planning: InitiBte an aggressive planning effort that sBtisfactorilY resolves [ the increasing diversity and intensity of use conflicts in the site. Critical components of additional use conflict planning activity include:

1. Increasing the number of public access points from the three currently available by completing an inventory of existing access points. Once the inventory is completed identify the location of blocked public access points and apply local government by-laws to reopen such access roads and points and apply the 1989 Fisheries Act to keep fish landing sites open for public use as suggested in section 2.3, strategy 1.2. The inventory should also determine potential locations for new access points which could be acquired. Lead: Provincial Administration (Proposed) Cooperators: Lands, MMC, Fisheries Dept.

52 2. Development of a zoning scheme and rules for on-wnter use activities in the Mombasa Marine Park and Marine Reserve area that incorporates the input from the Fishermen's Association, KWS, Fisheries Department. the Boat Owners Association and representativesof the hoteliers offering water sports facilities. It should also consult the predominant user, tourists, through frequent interviews and surveys of their perspectives and concerns.

The zoning scheme and rules for on-the water use should consider the following potential actions: • Establishing additional mooring buoy sites in the Park and Reserve to reduce congestion of snorkelers and glass bottom boats. • Limiting through a licensing/permit scheme, the number of glass bottom boats allowed in the park and reserve. • Limiting the number of boats which can tie up to a mooring buoy at anyone time. • Establishing rules of the road concerning approach and departure from mooring buoys and restricting snorkelers to areas outside these lanes. • ZOning specific water areas and times for exclusive use (i.e. fishing, swimming, snorkelling, glass bottom boat viewing, low tide reef and reef flat walks) and/or multiple use (i.e. sailing, wind surfing, jet skis, etc.). • Demarcating zones with buoys and flags. • Establishing signs, brochures, videos for hotel rooms, and other public education methods, to inform foreign tourists, local tourists and other users and providers of on-water recreational activities, of the zoning scheme and reg.ulations associated with it. Lead: KWS (Proposed) Cooperators: Fisheries Dept., Navy, Boat Owners. strategy 2- Action: Due to the growing severity of use conflicts, irnmedillte action which can be easilyimplemented and sustained should be completed. Suggested actions include:

1. En hancing and improving the existing three public access points and related facilities and infrastructure including facilities necessary to accommodate fishing activities (section 2.3 strategy 1.3) and drinking water for beach users. Form l~cal Action Groups (including users) to help maintain access roads and public beach facilities, and to upgrade them. Lead: MMC (Proposed) Cooperators: Boat Owners, Fishermen Association, Fisheries Department

53 2. Clearly demarcating all existing and new access ronds and points by means of signboards and maps. Lead: Provincial Administration (Proposed) Cooperators: Fisheries Dept., MMC, KWS.

3. Enforcing regulations for setbacks and design of beach development and structures, particularly in relation to other beach developments, to maintain and improve lateral access along the beach in ccx)f(Hnation with section 2.5, strategy 1.2. Lead: Provincial Administration (Proposed) Cooperators: KPA, MMC, Lands.

4. Carrying out a public awareness campaign that focuses on: • Reducing cultural conflicts between the local population and foreign visitors which allow joint enjoyment of the coastal area by: (a) informing tourists of the cultural sensitivities of local people regarding dress and behaviour; (b) Controlling noise levels from entertainment discos in the beach hotels and other beach establishments. Lead: Tourism Dept., (Proposed) Cooperators: Tou rism Association, MMC

5. Suppor..t:ing the on-going activities of the Task Force on Beach Operators. • Vetting of genuine beach operators and designating them to specific beach fronts. • Promoting reasonable licence fee for boat operators and other beach based trades. • Identifying support to establish tourist market centres away from the beach. Lead: Task Force (Proposed) Cooperators: CDA, MMC, Police, KWS

6. Complaints on the shrinking fishing area e.g., Public Awareness on value of the park. Lead: KWS (Proposed) Cooperators: Fisheries Dept., KMFRI

54 CIIAI)TEI~ 3:

TOWARDS AN IMPLEMENTATION FRAMEWORK FOR INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF THE KENYA mAST

3.1 Rationale for Integrated Coastal Area Management

Successful Coastal Management initiatives worldwide have a number of common elements. These include the involvement of the public in all phases of the planning and implementation process, and the ability to coordinate inter-agency actions to achieve a common, integrated set of goals and policies. Integrated Coastal Management OCM) initiatives, whether they are national programs or site specific plans, require a long-term iterative process for development. Typically the time frame for development of initial "first generation" initiatives can take from five - ten years to work through one cycle of the policy process consisting of plan/program development. adoption, implementation, monitoring and evaluation.

At present, no one institution in Kenya has the institutional mandate to adequately address coastal management issues in an integrated manner as demonstrated in the study site. Progress towaf(ls an ICM plan and programs in Kenya will require close cooperation and collaboration of many national agencies with locnl government and appropriate research institutions and private stakeholders and NOOs. A number of ICM relnted projects are being initiated and planned within the country, which nlong with the study site strategy, are taking the initial steps to gaining experience and lessons on how to effectively coordinnte local action, and determine needs for national policy development and coordination. Further discussion and analysis is required to start developing a national ICM policy framework. In addition, much can be learned through the experience of implementation of the strategy developed for the Bamburi-Shanzu-Nyali site.

To make progress in the study site and continue to gain nationally relevant experience, continued planning and implementation actions as outlined in this study site strategy document are essential. This requires continued support as well as the commitment and involvement of national and local agencies, stakeholder groups and NOO's. Stakeholder involvement needs to go beyond just consultation, and reach full partnership and shared responsibility for implementation alongside government, whether it be commitments of individuals time or in some cases, financial and other resource commitments. In addition, implementation requires an institutional framework to catalyze and foster ccxJrdinated actions among various government agencies, the private sector and voluntary groups to

5S achieve t he common set ofobjectives, st rnte.",ics nntlnctions forllluinted through consensus from the participutory planning process.

This chnpter outlines a management framework for implementing the strategiesoutlines in Chapter Two of this document and suggests some initial steps that can be taken to move towards a national ICM policy.

3.2 Implementation Framework for the Study Site

To oversee the implementation of the strategies proposed in this document a Coastal Management Steering Committee (CMSC) should be established which builds on the team of institutions initially assembled to develop the strategy, nlong with other agencies, private sector and NGO representatives, and other representatives as may be appropriate. The CMSC, with the assistance of the secretnriat and appointed sub-committees will be responsible for completing the planning and action strategies outlined in this document.

Box 3.1

Proposed Members for the Coastal Management Steering Committee

Coast Development Authority (('nA) Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) Kenya Marine Fisheries and Research Institute (KMfRI) Fisheries Department Mombasa Municipal Council Provincial Administrator National Environmental Secretariat Tourism Department Baobab Trust East Africa Wildlife Society Representativeof the Boat Operators Association Representativeof the Fishermen's Association Representative from the Mombasa Coast Tourism Association

other public or private sector members as deemed appropriate by the CMSC.

S6 \....Mi)\..... i)Uppon: Wlll mClUoe tne cooramatlon ot meetmgs and technical assistance to the CMSC. The CMSC may appoint Ad Hoc committees during the implementation of assigned actions to deal with specific issues. It may also appoint sub-committees as the need arises to complete planning and implementation actions. The sub-committee members will select one member for liaison with the Steering Committee.

3.3 Action Agenda for Implementation

Once the CMSC is established, the following action agenda is proposed:

Activity 1 Complete the ongoing, high priority demonstration projects that are underway at the site within the next six months to one year. The CMSC will provide logistical and technical support to the volunteer groups in the implementation of the demonstration projects. Volunteer groups were formed during the first stakeholders workshop to implement study demonstration activities in the study site.

Priority demonstration projects currently underway are: • Develop and rehabilitate the public facilities at Kenyatta beach • Install new mooring buoys in the Mombasa Marine Park • Produce brochure and posters on coral reefs and Mangroves

Activity 2: Prioritize planning strategies outlined in Chapter Two of this document and take the necessary steps to initiate the more detailed planning activities. The working groups, lead and cooperators, assigned to each action strategy will report directly to the CMSC during the implementation stage of these activities. The CMSC will cooperate with the working groups to complete workplans and budgets for each action strategy.

The CMSC may also initiate the formation of sub-coinmittees, solicitation of funding, and obtaining input of technical experts. Since each of the individual planning activities needs to be coordinated to form a integrated coastal management strategy for the site, the CMSC will ensure that overlaps are identified and linked, management actions are consistent, and human and financial resources are being used efficiently.

Activity 3: Prioritize and begin implementation of action strategies as detailed in the recommendation section of Chapter Two for issues of land use, water quality, fisheries, critical habitats , coastal erosion, and use conflicts. The working groups, lead and cooperators, assigned to each action strategy will report directly to the CMSC. The CMSC

57 will cooperate with the working groups to complete workplans and budgets for each action strategy. This activity will be achieved in the initial year and is the responsibility of the CMSC to ensure that the working groups are completing action strategiesas detailed in the specific workplans. The CMSC, in cooperation with the working groups, will actively seek support for voluntary action and financial commitments for implementation.

Activity 4: Continue to build public support for ICM and implementation of the strategy for the study site. This will be done within the initial one year after the formation of the CMSC and will be the responsibility of the CMSC to: • Extensively circulate the final site strategy document among national government, private sector and NOO groups. • Organize TV/Radio programmes and newspaper articles on coastal management issues in the site and actions being taken to solve them. • Publicize the strategy document through presentationsat national and international workshops, seminars and other international forums. • conduct public awareness meetings for various user groups. • ,~' Organize drama and songs in schools to highlight ICM management issues. • t- Distribute promotional items - banners, posters, brochures, T-shirts, bags, pens etc., - on specific study site issues and other general issues. Solicit private sector contributions to produce the promotional items and which acknowledge their support.

Activity 5: Monitor implementation of the strategy and report back to stakeholders as to progress on a periodic basis.

Activity 6: Solicit and secure resources for the successful implementation of this strategy and the implementation of ICM. Resources may range from voluntary actions to financial commitments.

Activity 7: Because there is no single agency responsible for coordination of ICM, the CMSC will ensure that activities of the working groups are coordinated to form an integrated approach to coastal management in the study site.

Activity 8: At the conclusion of one year, the CMSC will develop and circulate a report on the implementation experience in the study site and disseminate the lessons learned.

Activity 9: The CMSC will catalyze the development of a national ICM policy by working, in cooperation with others, to explore mechanisms for and participate in the development of a national ICM policy and the institutional arrangements for its implementation.

58 REFERENCES

1. Aboudha, P.A.W. 1992Geomorphologyand sedimentologyof the Mombasa- Diani Area! Implications to coastal zone management. MSc. Thesis, University of Nairobi, Kenya 158pp. 2. Central Bureau of Statistics (1994) Economic Review. 3. Government of Kenya (1989-1996) 6th and 7th Development Plan. 4. Hussain, M.Z. 1991 Mangrove Conservation Ilnd Management: Kenya. Mangrove Management. FO/TCP/KEN/0051 (A) Field Document No.3 FAO. 54pp. 5. KNES 1985 Mombasa District Environmental Assessment Report. Published by the Kenya National Environment Secretadat (KNES) in cooperation with USAID and South East Consortium for International Development's Environmental Training and Management in Africa (ETMA) Project. l.32pp. 6. Martin, E.B. 1973. The history of Mnlindi - A geographical analysis of un East African Coastal Town from the Portuguese period to the present Nairobi: East African Literature Bureau. J01 pp. 7. McClanahan, T.R. and 13. Kaundn Arnro (in press). Creation of Coml Reef Marine Park: Recovery of fishes and its effects on Adjacent fishery. ~Q.I':E!ln~~Js. 8. McClanahan T.R. and Obu rA, D. 1995 Status of KenyAn Coml Reefs. Coastal M~nagement 23:57 - 76. 9. Munga D., A.C. Yobe, M. Owili and S.M. Mwaguni 1993. Assessment of land - based sources of marine pollution along the Kenya Coast. Report to WHO, Regional office, Brazaville (Congo). 10. Sanders, M.J., S.Gichere and Nzioka, R.M. 1990. Report of Kenya Marine Fisheries subsector·study. FAO/RAF/87/008/DR/65/E:44p 11. SAREC 1994. Technical recommendationsof the Workshopon Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Eastern Africa including the Inland States 21-22 April 1993, Arusha, Tanzania. Published by SAREC Marine Science. Program Stockholm - Sweden. 12pp. 12. Spear, T.T. 1978. The Kaya Complex: A history of the Mijikenda Peoples of Kenya Coast to 1900. Nairobi: Kenya Literature Bureau 172pp. 13. Visser, Nand Schoorl, J. 1991. Towards sustainable Coast Tourism. Environmental impact of Tourism on Kenya Coast (mimeo) 14. FAO, 1991 Mangrove Conservation and Management - Kenya Mangrove Management. FAO Technical Cooperation Programme FO:TCP/KEN/005l(A) Field Document No. J. 53pp. 15. Doute, R.N.; N. Ochanda and II. Epp 1981. A forest inventory of Kenya using remote sensing techniques. KREMlJ (Kenyn RangelAnd Ecological Monitoring Unit), Nairobi. Technical Report series No. 30.

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