Proceedings of Our National Landscape: A

Highway Development1

2/ Peter M. Harvard and Bernard L. Chaplin

Abstract: Highways are something we see, and something we see the landscape from. They exert tremendous visual influence on our national landscape and will continue to do so. While most interstate mileage is in place, major unbuilt urban segments remain, and rural and suburban trunk roads are receiving renewed emphasis. Nationwide programs of bridge replacement, safety and environmental improvements, changing design speeds, and the public's demand for a high quality visual environment will all have their effect.

Highways are the cumulative product of numerous small decisions, from corridor location through alignment selection, design, construction and maintenance. Through simulation techniques and effective public involvement, we can minimize and mitigate these cumulative impacts.

INTRODUCTION appear into the distance, you pulled into Denver, the last stockyard before the grand escarpment Driving for pleasure is a favorite American of the Rockies. Some of you would have headed form of recreation, and much of the pleasure south destined for the arid beauty of the south- comes from looking at our national landscape, west and the bright lights of Los Angeles. diverse and beautiful as no other nation's, Those of you who turned north at Denver (or spreading from sea to sea in a rolling, changing even earlier) might have been lured by the park- sequence of hills and plains, mountains and lands and peaks of Yellowstone and the Grand river valleys. Chances are that nearly everyone Tetons, or the Badlands. For you, the passage has driven the "Trans Am" -- or parts of it -- through the high desert of eastern Oregon or at one time or another. Whether you started in Washington led to the final contrast of the lush, New England, and drove along coastal plain dark green Puget-Willamette Basin lying at the landscapes hallowed in history, out of the feet of snow-capped volcanoes. The view from "Bos-Wash" megalopolis, through the Appalachian the road: subject of American myth and poetry. water gaps, or left the palms and mangroves of the Florida wetlands, moving north through the foothills and battlefields of the Confederacy, into the great central valley of the Mississippi, you ended up in the sweeping plains. Rolling through grass and grain, following pioneer trails turned into highspeed ribbons that dis-

1/ Presented at the National Conference on Applied Techniques for Analysis and Management of the Figure 1--Pioneer trails turned into highspeed Visual Resource, Incline Village, Nevada, ribbons. April 23-25, 1979.

2/ HISTORICAL SUMMARY Associate, Jones & Jones, Seattle, Washington; Project Planner, Washington State Department of In the nineteen twenties, only dreamers Transportation, Olympia, Washington. conceived of driving from coast to coast in a

44 few days. Roads, where they existed, were cart tracks, built with little thought to efficiency and none to esthetics. As the automobile increased in numbers new roads were designed and built, often under the direction of a single person or small team. In some cases, esthetics were considered and the results included some of the beautiful rural roads and scenic parkways that we are rediscovering today as the super- Figure 3--Roads that cut across the land or highways become too congested. During the flow with it. thirties, strong-willed individuals were often able to influence the visual quality of a state's entire road system, inspecting each Many of the impacts can be attributed to the segment as it was being built and hand-fitting sheer scale of the new highway system and the it into the landscape. Later, the demands of design short cuts adopted to build it. Initial- a nation at war and a generation of Americans ly, decisions on transportation corridors were increasingly dependent on the open road for made using least economic cost as the primary communication, recreation and commerce led to criterion, and highways tended to follow exist- rapid and virtually uncontrolled growth. ing rail or parkway alignments. Other corridors were selected that cut across the landscape, rather than flowing with it. As specific alignments were chosen little attention was paid to variations in landform, and highways cut arbi- trarily through differing landcovers with little regard for their environmental, social or visual capacity to absorb change. Design effort was sometimes lavished on isolated structures or features. While a cleanly-designed object has its own internal beauty, it is also possible to Figure 2--Recreation and uncontrolled growth. forget the context of a bridge or roadway and cause the effort expended in design to mis- carry. FACILITY TYPES Major civil engineering works take time, By the late fifties there was a full and the scars created during construction can hierarchy of roadways in the United States that remain for long periods. Many will never heal reflected land uses and the mighty grid of the entirely, leaving contrasting patterns forever. Public Land Survey. These roads may be divided into functional classes, starting with our "Forever," is really the realm of the familiar urban and rural interstate highways maintenance crews, and their impact on the connecting cities of 50,000 or more in popula- highway can be considerable. Routine roadside tion. Urban principal arterials serve the maintenance, replacement of damaged guardrails, heaviest long distance and passenger traffic, patching, and a host of other so-called "minor" and with their rural counterpart, serve economic actions can seriously affect the visual appear- development areas. Urban and rural minor ance of the highway and its corridor. arterials vary widely in character but generally serve to connect residential areas to areas of Highway visual impacts fall into three job opportunity. Finally, the vast bulk of the main areas: first, while highways reveal the roads in our country is collector and familiar landscape to us, they also remove pieces of it local roads. As engineering techniques grew to from our view; they both create and block views. meet new needs, designs were developed to solve problems of location, safety and capacity, and the new roads leapt across former barriers and swept, unheeding, past and onward.

VISUAL IMPACTS

As design standards changed to accommodate increased speeds and safety requirements, the Figure 4--Highways reveal and conceal views. visual impact of these new roads became more severe. Now the view of the road and its Second, highways alter the visual character corridor was offsetting the view from the road. of their settings, simply by being there. While

45 a highway can fit compatibly into its landscape, maximum contrast and disruption are too often the case. Highways can introduce forms not previously found in the setting. The linear quality of the highway and corridor right-of- way frequently contrasts with the landscape. The colors of the road and accompanying elements such as signs, signbridges, fences, and plant- ings often contrast rather than blend into their Figure 6--Point impacts: signs and walls. surroundings. The texture of the smooth roadway and its neatly mown edges may contrast even with grassland landscapes. It takes a large VIEWER RESPONSE scale landscape to accept the introduction of a modern highway, but there are other reasons The last fifteen years have brought about that a highway can dominate its setting: the major changes in the way the public holds its distance from viewers, or contrasting combina- agencies accountable. All over the world, tions of form, line, color and texture. High- protests have aimed at halting public works ways are also great simplifiers of landscapes, because of real or perceived social, environ- reducing the natural diversity of the setting mental or economic impacts. Whether the project to a simple swath of grass and concrete, punc- would take the wetland portion of a major city tuated at regular intervals by lights and signs. park and arboretum of national stature, or All too often an alignment also ignores the would carve at rooftop level through an east "lay of the land," and disrupts the continuity coast historic district, would open previously of landforms and patterns of vegetation or wild areas, or bypass aging commercial dis- human development. tricts...visual effects have been a frequent cause of public concern, and, in many cases, rightfully so.

NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY ACT

With the passage of the National Environ- mental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) and the subsequent development of regulations, the Federal Figure 5--Impacts vary with viewer distance Highway Administration and individual state and contrasting combinations of form, line, highway agencies have all tried to comply with color and texture. the letter of NEPA. These agencies have been able to address many primary impacts -- for example, air and water quality, noise, and The third major visual impact of highways to a lesser extent, secondary development. goes beyond their lack of compatibility with Nevertheless, few highway professionals have the setting. Once in place, a highway is the felt comfortable with the issue of visual or setting, and the impact on the overall visual esthetic impacts. Training programs are now quality can be devastating. Landscapes contain- being conducted which will help them move ing highways may not be highly vivid, but beyond the "beauty is in the eye of the beholder" frequently they do have a memorable quality that response and give them techniques to identify is a questionable attribute. The presence of and deal with specific visual issues on a a highway or ancillary highway functions (often point-by-point basis. outside the R.O.W.) like borrow pits, automobile graveyards and signs can encroach, even upon settings with a strong visual pattern. Often the impact is very site specific, a sign or bridge or retaining wall out of place. Some- times it seems that highways that leave the landscape intact are the exception. It is unusual to find a highway at any scale that actually adds to the overall sense of visual balance and harmony in a setting, for the overall quality of unity in a landscape is a fragile one. All of these factors vary with the time Figure 7--New viewers and old will respond. of day, and change of seasons, as well as the attitudes of the viewer.

simple or elaborate techniques are used, accurate simulations repay the effort with SPECIFIC TECHNIQUES better projects that are more likely to pass the test of community acceptability. The most important tools for dealing with visual impacts are an explicit resource management process, an effective public involvement FUTURE ISSUES process that transcends the traditional impasse of the public hearing, and the use of accurate Our national highway system has always simulations to convey the landscape setting, exerted tremendous visual influence upon our the facility characteristics and the alternative national landscape. This influence will con- solutions. The concept of VRM alternatives tinue into the future. While most interstate and objectives discussed elsewhere in these mileage is in place, major unbuilt urban proceedings (Blair, et al.) can be used to link segments remain. Rural and suburban trunk roads these approaches to management decision-making. will receive renewed emphasis. A nationwide program of bridge replacement is underway, along with continuing safety and environmental improvements such as noise barriers and impact attenuators. Guardrails, right-of-way fence and roadside maintenance must be included with traffic signals, lighting and signage on the list of the seemingly humble considerations that have significant visual effects. The visual appearance of the highway is the cumulative result of many individual actions. There will probably never be another burst of freeway construction to match the sixties, but every Figure 8--Simulations convey context, character time we repair or replace a bridge, add a guard and alternatives. rail, change a light standard, or patch a road, we have the opportunity -- and responsibility -- Visual simulations must be more than the to consider the visual impact of our actions. "artists concept," too often seen by the public as a "visual swindle." Computer techniques of visual simulation range from simple sequential plots to more detailed photomontage techniques pioneered by several federal and state agencies. Whether the site is in the Colorado mountain passes or a major eastern forest preserve, computer generated graphics, supplemented by models, are very helpful in developing a common understanding and eliminating distrust due to lack of information. Figure 10--Even changing light standards Where resources and issues permit or dic- presents an opportunity. tate, the use of retouched photographs is recommended. This allows the comparison of With increasing interest in rural and wildland accurate, true color, before-and-after images. travel, we will be facing pressure to upgrade many "country" roads, as recreational travelers flee from the ever-more-crowded superhighways, and rest area design is also becoming important once more; with reduced speeds, we need more pit stops. No matter how hard we strive, esthetics -- like economics -- will always retain its mysteries; but in both cases we must clearly understand the units of value and rates of exchange. We must move beyond cosmetic, add-on solutions that are vulnerable to budget- Figure 9--Comparisons from key viewpoints. cutting and offer only symptomatic relief, toward integration of the highway with the Care must be taken to pick key viewpoints and landscape. We must base our actions on the provide the artist with explicit data on the recognition that these powerful transportation appearance of alternatives, possibly through forms can be at once beautiful objects and the use of the computer techniques just visually compatible with their surroundings - mentioned. If resources are limited, simple -our national landscape. sketches taken from slides at key, pedestrian- eye-level viewpoints can be effective. Whether 47

The Countryside Visual Resource1

Sally Schauman2/

Abstract: This paper identifies the types of visual resource changes occurring in rural landscapes. These types include changes due to agricultural technology and land use patterns. The changes are described in relative dimensions of the landscape elements both as patterns and as individual visual elements. This paper relates visual resource changes to various countryside contexts and thus begins to evaluate the impact of change in certain landscapes. Finally, a process for identifying and evaluating visual changes in rural areas is proposed.

BACKGROUND

The American countryside is a major national some attention in other countries5/ In this country asset. Each day we mine, drill, divide, flood, pave the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) works primarily or plant some part of the countryside landscape. in the countryside. SCS landscape architects are Before we take any of these actions, we should developing tools and techniques to deal with the first understand the countryside's resources. But countryside scenic resource within the evolving seldom do we fully understand. Before we choose theories of visual resources but based on practical to change the countryside, we should consider the field experience. scenic values of this landscape. Unfortunately, we never do. The visual resource is the consistently definable appearance of the landscape and may be described In the United States, political concern for by the measurable visual elements; topography, the countryside visual resource is just emerging.3/ water, vegetation, sky and structures and the The study of it is embryonic4/ and frequently patterns of interaction among these elements (SCS confused with the study of visual resources in 1977). Visual resource quality is an evaluation wildland landscapes. The countryside has received that follows the objective definition of the resource. An evaluation of visual quality is not a simple matter for it occurs within the arena of perception 6/ Regardless of many unanswered perception questions, 1/Presented at the National Conference on Applied quality must be identified among generically similar Techniques for Analysis and Management of the groups. A juicy orange is not a juicy apple. Visual Resource, Incline Village, Nevada, April 23-24, 1979. Visual quality can be determined within a frame of reference (SCS 1978). It is more support- 2/Landscape Architect, Soil Conservation Service, able if it is determined within a context (Smardon Washington, D. C. 1978). One frame of reference emerges from a

3/ The first National Conference on the Scenic

Quality of Rural Areas was held in April 1979 by 5/ the National Trust for Historic Preservation. For the range and scope of this work see Davidson and Wibberley (1977), Weller (1973), Coeterier and 4/ Except for the prodigious commentaries of J. B. Dijkstra (1976), Ayso et al. (1976), Williams (1977), Jackson, almost no systematic study of the American and Leonard (1977). countryside visual resource exists. 6/ See Melhorn et al. (1975), and Craik and Zube (1975) for discussion of perceived quality.

48 study of the visual resource along a section line greatest diversity of dissection and the steepest from the inner city to the pristine wilderness. slopes are more desirable 9/ The assumption is While an infinite number of discrete units appears reasonable for some-but not all- situations. along this section, various clusters can be identified. One convenient clustering classifies the section For example, many countryside landscapes into groups known as inner city, suburbs, country- are croplands with flat to moderately rolling topog- side, wildlands.7/ and wilderness. In SCS we define raphy which would be evaluated as "minimal" by countryside as discrete units of the landscapes some prevailing variety classification systems.10/ that are recognizable by the predominance of agri- Yet there is no evidence that the public perceives cultural patterns and activities including interspersed these croplands as minimal resources, and there is natural areas, woodland and rural communities. only scant documentation to assure us that the Countryside contrasts with suburbs which have average viewer rates the visual resource cropland denser residential patterns. as lower than that of forested mountains. 11/ Classification systems that evaluate steep topography In time, the lack of scholarship on the with flat landscapes may seem reasonable in countries American countryside visual resource will be over- where the distances are short between natural and come. In the meantime we must begin by analyzing agricultural areas. In the United States, however, the existing and future countryside. To do this we the distances between countryside and wildland must see more than the endearing but inaccurate are frequently great. And some states have little mental graphic of the pastoral farmstead with its topographic relief and almost no wildlands. hardworking farm family leading the simple but good life amid interesting barns, quaint fences, Are these areas devoid of high-quality visual flowering fruit trees and docile grazing animals. resources? It's likely that the residents believe We need to analyze objectively the countryside that some distinctive visual resources do exist in visual resource now and as it appears to be changing. these areas. The lack of major topographic relief in We in SCS believe we can do this by considering countryside landscapes should be interpreted within visual elements in the landscape and the patterns the countryside context rather than within the these elements display. context of wildlands. What does the lack of major topographic relief mean in a countryside visual resource situation? Several observations from SCS VISUAL ELEMENTS AND PATTERNS landscape resource experience in agricultural areas seem reasonable: Only five elements are potentially visible in any landscape: landform, vegetation, water, 1. The horizontal nature of crop landscapes structures and sky. All five elements can be makes them especially sensitive to the modified by human action, but the first four elements presence of vertical elements such as provide one ready basis for describing both the streamside vegetation, shelterbelt trees, existing and changing countryside landscape as farm structures, utility poles. manipulated by human decisions. 2. When any topographic relief does exist, it emerges prominently. Thus, wooded Landform drainage patterns become vivid amid cropland, and hill forms are accentuated The shape of the landscape seems to be the by agricultural activities such as terracing most important element. Perhaps this is true be- and stripcropping. cause we also feel the landscape's form as we move either against or with gravity through any given landscape. We do not need our eyes to tell us when 9/See Forest Service (1973) and Weddle (1973). we are climbing a hill. Landform is a major factor 8/ in most published landscape analysis processes. 10/ See Forest Service (1973 , p. 13) for minimal Many of these analysis techniques relate the magni- criteria and Bureau of Land Management (1975) for tude of change or relief in landform to quality. low quality criteria. These techniques that assume landforms with the 11/ See Mitchell (1974) who found that the "presence 7/ of manmade objects is associated with the least- "Lands unoccupied by crops, pastures, urban, resi- preferred scenes," p. 44; while Zube et al. (1974) dential, industrial or transportation facilities " found that "... topographic relief ... water, agricul- (Schwarz et al. 1976). tural elements and natural elements ... all have

8/ a positive effect on the scenic resource value," Nee Weddle (1973) for summary. p. 103.

3. Since there are fewer elevated viewpoints, we can see a rich palette of countryside vegetation. the plan views of ground surface patterns Likely combinations of vegetative visual elements are seen less frequently and less exten- need to be sorted out before any classification sively. Disruptive patterns can be of countryside visual resources can be made. In screened more easily. the meantime several observations seem reasonable:

4. In rolling and flat countryside areas 1. Shelterbelt and drainageway trees become the horizon line is more uniformly hori- visually important in landscapes where zontal and is often the most conspicuous low crops or pastures are visually homog- landscape edge. Any element that eneous from year to year. These trees breaks up the horizon line or changes often provide the only spatial definition its uniformity becomes very prominent. in an otherwise horizontal landscape.

5. Not all agricultural activity occurs in 2. Some crops can screen effectively and flat to rolling topography. Some upland therefore can absorb visual intrusions farming includes pastures and orchard better than other crops. For example, crops. When agricultural activities little ground level visibility exists such as tree rows and fences are aligned through a landscape of citrus groves with the topography, they tend to or mature corn. emphasize the landform. 3. If we compare two landscapes with a 6. Some flat and rolling croplands are in uniform texture--one an evergreen valleys bounded by relatively rugged forest with a uniform height, color and topography. The juxtaposition of flat texture, such as a black spruce area, and and steep landscapes within the same the other a crop landscape--we are viewshed gives both landscapes a special likely to rate the cropland as more visual meaning and, perhaps, even their visually interesting since it changes unique visual identity. The flat fields in texture, height and color through of the Willamette Valley, for example, the growing season. are enhanced visually when Mount Hood appears in the distance. Views from 4. Row crops, especially irrigated crops, the Skyline Drive in Virginia are better give the landscape a strong linear matrix. because the Shenandoah Valley's orchard Any nonlinear pattern located amid crops can be seen below. these straight lines will be prominent.

While not as steep or dissected as wild- 5. Some countryside landscapes, such lands, the topography of the countryside as pastures, idle fields and fallow fields, varies greatly within its own context. are predictable locations for seeing The subtle changes in the visual resource wildlife and grazing animals. of the American countryside must be studied in relationship to the diverse The vegetative visual element in the human activities that occur there. countryside context is widely varied and often related to agricultural activities.

Vegetation Before we can deal thoroughly with the countryside visual resource, we need to study further the Vegetation in the countryside includes agricul- vegetation, the juxtaposition of vegetative types, tural crops that vary widely in size, form, color, and the modifications to the vegetative patterns texture, and planting pattern. Consider the diverse resulting from changes in agricultural technology. appearances of both the individual vegetative elements and the crop patterns among the following: low annual (soybeans), high annual (corn), medium perennial Water vine (grapes), high deciduous tree (apples), high evergreen tree (citrus), high palm (date), wetland One of the few generally accepted notions shrub (cranberries), dryland grass (wheat) and in visual resource theory is that water is a desirable, aquatic grass (rice). Consider not only that crops if not a preferred element in the landscape.12/ In change in appearance through seasons; but also that, on any one landscape, different crops may appear in different seasons of the same year or in the same season of different years. If we add 12/ See Zube et al. (1974), Methorn et al. (1975), and to the visual diversity of crops, the visual diversity Litton et al. (1974) for indicative references to the of vegetation in the interspersed natural areas, importance of water in the landscape. pastures, woodland plots and rural communities,

50 the countryside context, water may be one of the be studied within the countryside context, the more important visual elements. Water is related pattern of interaction among the elements is also directly to agriculture, and appears in the countryside a crucial study need. The patterns or the images in a wide variety of both manmade and natural of all the elements taken together provide the configurations. landscape with its identity.13/ Occasionally, a single visual element gives the landscape a definable Consider the visual diversity among these identity such as miles of wheat fields. More often, typical water patterns in the countryside: perennial however, it is the combination of visual elements in natural streams, field drainage ditches, excavated a consistently describable pattern that gives us our stock watering ponds, natural sinks, impounded small lasting impression of a landscape. The countryside ponds, rice paddies, natural lakes, impounded lakes, visual resource of the Connecticut River Valley ocean coastlines, lined irrigation channels, natural appears distinctly different than the countryside marshes and natural rivers. The diversity of edge of the Willamette River Valley. Understanding configuration, dimension of surface area and appear- the individual visual elements will help us, but ance of associated vegetation are but a few of the in the final analysis we must deal with the elements visual variables in this list. Fortunately, some work together as patterns. We must understand the has been done on classifying the water element existing countryside patterns in order to evaluate (Litton et al. 1974). We need to establish a classifi- ongoing changes. We must begin immediately, cation system appropriate to the countryside context. for surely the rate of change will accelerate. We need also to correlate the classifications to preferences within a local frame of reference. For example, a lined irrigation channel filled with glis- COUNTRYSIDE VISUAL RESOURCES CHANGES tening water amid cotton rows in a desert landscape may not evoke the same response as a similar concrete The American countryside changes rapidly channel transversing grassland. Is a rainbow created before our eyes but beyond our consciousness and by irrigation vapor any less prominent or desirable attention. In other countries, the concern for country- than one created by a natural waterfall? side change has become the focus of government action (Davidson and Wibberley 1977). By contrast, American interest in the visual countryside has Structures been low and the landscape architectural study of it has been inconsequential (Schauman 1977). In the The words countryside structure evoke a countryside context several change agents emerge: rose-colored image from deep in the American urbanization in remote areas (Sunbelt and second psyche: a freshly painted farmhouse, Mail Pouch homes), urbanization in suburbs (most typical problem), signs, quaint barns, rustic stone fences and sparkling linear systems (roads and conduits), industry and farm ponds. Unfortunately, the typical countryside mining, and agricultural production and technology. graphic no longer resembles either the stark clarity These agents differ in their potential for changing of a Wyeth rural landscape or the beloved scenes the visual resource in terms of areal extent, magnitude of a Currier and Ives print. The countryside now and degree of permanence. For example, residential includes interstate highways, transcontinental structures may be built on only a small area, but transmission lines and conduits, regional shopping they permanently change the visual resource over centers, vacation farmettes, theme parks, airports, a large area. Mining activities may make major national cemeteries, solid waste landfills and mining changes for a short time on vast areas which may structures. Until a short time ago the impact of be returned to their original appearance. The visual locating these structures in agricultural areas was impacts of change due to urbanization, mining and not widely considered. Only very recently have the linear systems will be discussed by other conference scenic resources of natural and manmade resources speakers. This discussion focuses on agricultural in the countryside been recognized as they relate trends and changes in the countryside visual resource: to land use (Bergland 1978). More important are idle farms, specialized farming, animal production, the changes in structures brought about by new farm machinery and irrigation. technology. In any case, no systematic study of structural elements in the countryside exists. We need to identify the factors that give some structures Idle Farms an indigenous appearance while other structures seem to be misfits. We should identify landscape Between 1950 and 1974 the urbanization criteria to identify the most likely countryside process consumed 17 million acres of the countryside. areas for locating needed but visually intrusive More than 1/3 of this land in the fast growth urban structures with minimum impact.

13/ Patterns The identity of the landscape is similar to what Simonds refers to as landscape character (Simonds While each of the five visual elements needs to 1961).

51 area has been classified as open and idle landscapes Animal Production (USDA 1978). They are often idle farms that have been sold and are falling into disrepair. These Often the farmer growing a corn or bean cash are untended landscapes, slowly reverting to nature crop will purchase calves to feed during the winter while patiently awaiting the inevitable shroud of months. Since these landscapes are devoted mainly suburbia. Working farms in the same landscapes to crops, few if any permanent pastures or hayfields often appear derelict as a result of neglected main- can be seen. In both meat and dairy production, tenance. Soon-to-be demolished barns do not need there is an increase in the use of pellet feed, a fresh paint. reduction in the area in which animals are confined, and a trend to store an increased amount of silage. In addition to a reduction in the general pastoral Specialized Farming scenes of hayfields and grazing animals, several visual changes occur in the structures related to In all regions of the United States cash-grain animal production. New farm artifacts begin to farms grew in population by 1/3 from 1973 to 1975 appear. Making their debut in the landscape are (Williamson 1978). This trend is a result of the tall blue silos, large roof structures covering expan- increase in the world wide need for American grain sive feed lots, and waste management systems crops. Several visible landscape changes result when ranging from simple lagoons to complex tanks, specialization is in one or two cash crops such as pipes and processing systems. soybeans and corn. Small farms are aggregated into large farms with large field sizes. Many large farms include leased or jointly owned land; the Farm Machinery farm operator benefits from the increased efficiency of a large operation, but is not burdened by a major As the size of farms grows larger, the size capital investment. The result is that fewer farm of the equipment follows. Larger machinery in operators live on small to medium size farms, while itself is a small visual change, but the implications the population of large farms increases. Thus the of its use are major visible changes. For example, density of farmsteads in farmed areas is decreasing. larger, more expensive equipment requires larger, sturdier storage sheds (often made of reflective The potential high yield cash crop stimulates metal), and larger maintenance areas. Perhaps the the farm operator to use every inch of available most important visual change is the change in field land for planting. The visual resource changes in borders and windbreaks. The larger equipment the landscape resulting from cash crop trends are requires a larger turning radius in the field. To obvious in many midwestern states. The field sizes give the equipment more room to turn around are larger; therefore, the spatial definition and many field windbreaks have been destroyed 14/ The patterns of the landscape change to a larger, less destruction means not only the disappearance of a human scale. The number of farmsteads and the strong visual change, often the most prominent artifacts of the family farmstead are decreasing. visual element in a crop landscape, but also an The family orchard, pet horses, small herds, animal increase in the appearance of erosion. barns and field fences are disappearing. The farm operator can live in town, buy the family's food at the supermarket, and convert the farmstead landscape Irrigation to a corn or bean field. Irrigation is an ancient technology but a modern Another type of farm specialization is related phenomenon. The advent of lightweight metal to money but not to cash crops. These farms are resulted in a cheap efficient system for deploying few in number, but significant in their visual resource water more extensively. Current estimates indicate considerations. The specialization is gentle farming, that 80 per cent of all water consumed and 50 per cent often horse or cattle breeding. Here the farm of all water withdrawn or diverted in the United owner resides amid a well tended and carefully States is used for irrigation. Approximately 60 managed landscape. In Virginia, the landscape million acres were irrigated in 1977.15/ The technol- image includes white horse fences, green improved ogy of irrigation continues to change as new channel pastures, flowering fruit trees, a main house (often of historic interest), and grazing thoroughbreds. All the landscape elements and activities are in 14/ Lloyd (1978) states the destruction of windbreaks scale and harmony. The countryside image of these has been mostly of field rather than farmstead farms varies among regions, but the net result windbreaks. essentially is the same. They provide major open space and visual resource values. 15/ Irrigation data vary considerably because of the varying definitions for types of irrigated land and the variations in reporting systems. These data are as reported in Boone (1978) and McNeill (1978). 52 linings, sprinkler systems, control devices and LITERATURE CITED drip systems evolve. The conservation of irrigation water becomes crucial. The social, political and Ayuso, E. et al. economic issues of using water for irrigation are 1976. A computer model for land use emotion ridden with strong advocates on all sides. planning. Case study of a rural derelict area: In spite of the potential for bias, a few objective Ayllon, Spain. Landscape Plann. 3(1,2):101-140. observations concerning visual changes due to irrigation trends are possible. Bergland, Bob 1978. Statement on land use policy. 5 p. USDA Secretary's Memorandum 1827, Washington, D. C. The irrigated landscape has clear patterns that reflect the irrigation system, such as linear Boone, Sheldon G., Chairman channels and circular field patterns. The frequency 1978. Draft report on irrigation water use and and distribution of irrigation patterns in the landscape management. Technical Work Group of the will increase. While most irrigation now occurs in the Interagency Task Force on Irrigation Efficiencies. far West, a wider application of irrigation will be 226 p. Denver, Colo. seen. Anyone who has flown across the country in the past 5 years will attest to the spread of the giant Bureau of Land Management green circles. 1975. Visual resource inventory and evaluation. 17 p. Bur. of Land Manage. Man. 6310, The impact of new irrigation technology on the Washington, D. C. visual landscape is conjectural. Drip irrigation has been applied only since about 1968. In those few Coeterier, J. F. and H. Dijkstra years, many landscapes previously unusable for crops, 1976. Research on the visual perception and have been planted. In California, the newly planted appreciation of, and visual changes in a hedgerow avocado areas are a striking visual change. No doubt landscape. Landscape Plann. 3(4):421-452. new irrigation technology will be reflected in future countryside visual elements and patterns. Craik, Kenneth H. and Ervin H. Zube 1975. Issues in perceived environmental quality research. 78 p. Inst. for Man and Environ., University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Mass. CONCLUSION--THE FUTURE Davidson, Joan and Gerald Wibberley The agricultural changes cited are not a com- 1977. Planning and the rural environment. 221 p. plete list but are only indicators. Compared to Pergamon Press, Oxford. other change agents, such as urbanization, linear systems and mining, agricultural changes may be Forest Service the least noticeable in the countryside landscape. 1973. National forest landscape management It is not really important to rank change agents system. USDA Agricu. Handb. 462, 47 p. as to the magnitude of their impact. It is more Washington, D. C. important to recognize the cumulative consequences that result when all change agents are in effect. Leonard, P. L. and R. O. Cobham We have only recently begun this recognition process. 1977. The farming landscapes of England and Wales: It is vital that we proceed with some speed. From A changing scene. Landscape Plann. 4(3):205-236. our experience in the Soil Conservation Service we are convinced the American countryside is a Litton, R. Burton, R. J. Tetlow, J. Sorensen and R. A. valuable visual resource. We have and will continue Beatty developing ways to deal systematically with that 1974. Water and landscape - an aesthetic visual resource. We intend to develop better visual overview of the role of water in the landscape. 314 p. Water Inf. Cent., Port Washington, N.Y. data to deal intelligently with existing development decisions and to establish a base line to measure future changes. SCS landscape architects have Lloyd, William J. not been issued rose-colored glasses. Rather we 1978. Windbreaks in the Great Plains and the SCS are trying to deal with a variable and complex windbreak inventory. Unpubl. paper presented visual resource in the countryside as we see it--not at the NACD annual meeting in Anaheim, Calif. as we romantically remember it. Mayes, Dorothy 1979. Agriculture in the next century. Farm Index 8(1):16-19.

McNeill, Ed, ed 1978. Irrigation survey. Irrig. 28(6):46a-g.

Melhorn, Wilton N., Edward A. Keller and Richard A. Soil Conservation Service McBane 1977. Design of open channels. USDA Soil Conserv. 1975. Landscape aesthetics numerically defined Serv. Tech. Rel. 25, 220 p. Washington, D. C. (LAND system): Application to fluvial environments. 101 p. Water Resour. Res. Cent., Soil Conservation Service Purdue University, West Lafayette, Ind. 1978. Procedure to establish priorities in landscape architecture. USDA Soil Conserv. Serv. Tech. Mitchell, James Paul Rel. 65. 19 p. Washington, D, C. 1974. A study of aesthetic preferences. 126 p. Off. Water Res. Tech., Wyoming University, United States Department of Agriculture. Laramie, Wyo. 1978. Land use. 7 p. U. S. Dep. Agric., Briefing Paper No. 9. November 29, 1978, Washington, Muller, Jorg D. C. 1973. The changing countryside. 7 p. Atheneum, New York. Weddle, A. E. 1973. Applied analysis and evaluation techniques. Schauman, Sally Derek Lovejoy, ed. In land use and landscape 1977. The changing visual resource of agricultural planning. p. 53-82. Harper and Row. New York, landscapes. In visual resources management. N. Y. Colorado Chapter, American Society of Landscape Architects, Vail, Colo. Weller, John B. 1973. Land use and agricultural change. In Schwarz, Charles F., Edward C. Thor and Gary H. Derek Lovejoy, ed. land use and landscape Elsner planning. p. 85-110. Harper and Row, New York. 1976. Wildland planning glossary. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-13, 252 p. Pacific Williams, Michael Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, 1977. Settlements in rural areas: Planned land- Berkeley, Calif. scapes and unplanned changes in south Australia. Landscape Plann. 4(1):29-52. Simonds, John O. 1961. Landscape architecture. 244 p. McGraw Williamson, Daniel R. Hill, New York. 1978. Bucking the trends. Farm Index. 7(12):10-11.

Smardon, Richard C. Zube, Ervin H., David G. Pitt and Thomas W. Anderson 1978. Law and aesthetics or when is the pig in the 1974. Perception and measurement of scenic parlor? Unpublished manuscript. 154 p. Dep. resources in the southern Connecticut River of Landscape Architecture, University of Valley. 191 p. Inst. for Man and His Environ., California, Berkeley, Calif. University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Mass.

Linear Utility Corridors— A Simulated Visual Field Trip1

2/ Robert W. Ross, Jr.

Abstract: With the increase in various utility corridors continuing to find their way across the American landscape, more and more people are becoming concerned about their ecological as well as visual impact. This paper examines "linear utility corridors" in terms of those that transport energy and those that transport fuels, their various components, and the types of resulting visual impacts. A brief review of some of the impact mitigating measures currently being suggested and practiced is also presented.

The work "linear," according to Daniel few guidelines existed to provide for proper Webster, is defined as: ". . .relating to, corridor planning, and associated facility, or resembling a line or lines; straight. . . structure, and site design. As a result, characterized chiefly by forms and shapes serious visual and ecological problems have that are precisely defined by line.” He goes occurred and continue to impact a significant on to define “utility” as: "The condition or portion of the national landscape. quality of being useful, a useful article or device - a public service such as gas, elec- In this paper, we will be exploring the tricity, water, or transportation." In components of linear utility corridors in terms addition, the word "corridor" is explained of what they are and where they are located. as: "A narrow way, passageway or a tract of We will examine the kinds of visual resource land forming a passageway." Combining these management problems associated with them and words, "linear utility corridor," our defini- briefly review some of the impact mitigating tion might very well be: "Tracts of land measures that are currently being suggested forming passageways which are used for the and practiced. purpose of transporting fuels or energy from one point to another in a straight or For the most part, linear utility corridors series of generally straight lines." Linear can be discussed in two basic terms; those utility corridors and their visual impacts on that transport energy, which would, of course, our national landscape become our next topic include power transmission lines of all sizes for consideration. and shapes and found in virtually every landscape type in this country, and those that Well over 500,000 miles are dedicated to transport fuels, which can also be found in utility corridors of one type or another in nearly every landscape type. These would this country today. Due to increasing energy include pipelines which move oil and gas demands brought on by population growth and slurry, C02, and various agricultural products. changing life styles, the requirements will Other facilities that would be considered as continue to rise at a tremendously sharp rate. components of linear utility corridors can Until the late 1960's, little concern and surely include telephone lines and various aqueducts and canals. However, for the purpose of this presentation, we will con- 1/ Presented at the National Conference on centrate on the first two types of corridors: Applied Techniques for Analysis and Manage- Those that transport energy and those that ment of the Visual Resource, Incline Village, transport fuels. Nevada, April 23-25, 1979.

2/ Chief Landscape Architect, Division of Recreation and Cultural Resources, U.S. Depart- ment of the Interior, Washington, D.C. 20240.

Transporting energy is big business in their costs are important items of concern to America today and we can only expect it to the utility companies. For instance, recently get bigger. In fact, according to the Federal a segment of a major 230KV line, crossing the Power Commission, the use of electric power northern portion of Nevada, was constructed has been doubling about every 10 years. They with wood poles instead of aluminum, as was go on to say that per capita consumption of the first segment. The reasons were that the electric power has been increasing, roughly cost of aluminum, cost of fabrication, and five times as fast as population growth. The the dulling requirement all added up to more United States, with one-seventeenth of the than the cost of H-frame wood structures. For earth's population, consumes one-third of its the most part, wood structures are feasible energy in order to support the world's high- for consideration on smaller KV lines. How- est standard of living. The National Rural ever, the larger "electrical super highways," Electric Cooperative goes on to point out the 345KV, and above require aluminum or that the per person use of energy average steel for strength and durability. Other in this country is six times the world while facilities normally associated with power our standard of living is five times the transmission lines include generating facili- world average. As pointed out earlier, ties, such as nuclear, coal, hydro-electric, power transmission lines and their ever geothermal and gas, are discussed elsewhere present characteristics can be observed in in this publication. nearly every landscape type found in the country: mountains, valleys, plains, coni- ferous forests, and deciduous woodlands. In Powerline construction activities also order to take a closer look at the types of play a significant role relative to visual visual modifications that have affected and modification. Access roads, for hauling in generally continue to impact landscapes, we structures and equipment for tower site level- can examine three basic areas: modification ing and stringing operations are often to landform, modification to vegetation, required or allowed to be constructed. In and the introduction of the structures. addition, staging areas and storage yards have the potential for creating short-term, as well Perhaps it should be pointed out at this as long-term impacts. time that there is a basic hierarchy of utility lines. Voltage on transmission lines is Transporting fuels is also big business seldom less than 69,000 volts or 69KV. in America and can only continue to expand. Lines with less voltage than this are usually Major oil and gas pipelines already criss- referred to as distribution lines; are cross the country, and are evident in large normally associated with shorter distance; metropolitan areas, as well as in some of the and for the most part, but not always, will most secluded back-country. create less of a visual impact. Transmission lines of 135 KV and above, which include Plans are already on the boards for a

230KV, 345KV, 375KV, 500KV, and 765KV have a major C02 pipeline in the western United much greater chance of having major impacts. States and a large coal slurry pipeline to Although modification to landform due to extend across several western and midwestern transmission line introduction can cause States. major noticeable impacts, as evidenced in many examples, perhaps the more obvious Again, by examining the basic components impacts are generated from the removal of of landform modification, vegetation modifica- vegetation and the introduction of the tion, and introduction of structures, we can structures themselves. There are classic easily identify kinds of visual impacts examples of the brutal way vegetation was associated with transporting fuels. Although normally removed up until just a few years landform change requirements due to the ago. Although many utility companies have introduction of a pipeline can vary signif- been persuaded to modify this approach, and icantly, depending upon topography and in some cases, remove only vegetation whether or not the line is to be buried, some necessary to facilitate structure placement, sort of long-term vegetation modification can the acts of years past are obvious and nearly always be expected, even though there numerous on America's landscape, and will are a few important exceptions. This is take years to rectify. dependent upon type of vegetation affected, climatic conditions of the site and construc- The structures themselves come in a tion techniques. Major vegetation manipula- variety of materials, sizes, shapes and tion for both above- and below-ground pipelines colors. Although structure materials are will have long lasting effects on the landscape. usually selected on the basis of structural strength due to capacity and design require- Pipeline structures vary in size from 2 ments, availability of certain materials and inch to 42 inch diameter, and in some special

56 cases, to 48-inch. Size, of course, depends facilities, both permanent and temporary, are upon material being transported, distance, associated with pipelines. and whether the pipeline is being used as a distribution or major transportation line. Construction requirements on larger lines Although, many pipelines are buried below- usually mean large but temporary storage and ground, circumstances may require that the staging areas. In some situations, such as line be located above-ground, due to special a camp in Alaska developed as support pumping requirements or other surface or sub- for the pipeline, a small temporary community surface conditions. Some major pipelines are may actually become established. Permanent fitted with "shoe-saddle" supports which facilities other than the actual pipe often allow for pipe monuments without damage to include pumping and metering stations and the pipe itself. They can be as simple as storage tanks. wood cross ties or as elaborate as steel "H" pilings. Expansion and contraction character- Now that we have seen some of the istics of above-ground pipelines create major visual impacts associated with "linear problems that can, in part, be solved through utility corridors," we can ask ourselves what structural design of the pipe itself, as well is being done to make sure that this type of as the use of "expansion loops" and zigzag action is no longer allowed to take place. configuration. Lines that cross rivers or Although we sometimes, perhaps often, streams usually require special construction struggle with the concepts of striving to procedures for below grade crossings which achieve a workable balance between increased can result in bank grading, rip raping, and productivity and a quality environment, we do the development of temporary bridges and seem to be learning about the importance and dikes to facilitate the movement of equip- benefit of preplanning and early considera- ment and materials. Several kinds of tion of visual resource management concepts in the design process.

Range Management Visual Impacts1

2/ Bruce R. Brown and David Kissel

Abstract: Historical overgrazing of western public rangelands has resulted in the passage of the Public Rangeland Improvement Act of 1978. The main purpose of this Act is to improve unsatisfactory range conditions. A contributing factor to unfavorable range conditions is adverse visual impacts. These visual impacts can be identified in three categories of range management: range projects, vegetative manipulations, and grazing systems. The visual impacts are identifiable in the visual landscape components of landform, vegetation and structures. The impact occurs when the form, line, color or texture of the proposed action visually contrasts with the existing characteristic landscape. The degree of impact is determined by how the action is planned, designed, located and constructed. On the whole, range management activities do not create a significant visual impact on the national landscape, but their appearance must be considered when planning multiple-use land activities.

INTRODUCTION free from brush and undissected by gullies (Hastings 1959). There were wide open pas- Grazing of domestic livestock was intro- tures, as many cattle as could be grazed and duced by the Spanish in the Southwest in the cattle drives as long as you could see. It early 1600's. The missions were each stocked was seen as the Biblical "Land of Milk and with a herd of cattle to sustain the inhabitants Honey." Soon, however, the implication of the and teach the Indians the art of animal hus- Homestead Act of 1862 would impact this golden bandry (USFS 1977). By 1880, the western scene. In time, the homesteader would crowd livestock industry was at its zenith and the cattleman off the fertile grasslands and occupied the vast grasslands from the Missouri force his retreat to the less desirable lands River to the Colorado Rockies. Government con- to the west. The livestock operator ended up tracts encouraged beef production to supply on lands that were too poor to farm. Much of military posts and Indian reservations. New this was fragile land and once the vegetative railroads made it possible to raise western cover was damaged, its recovery would take beef for eastern markets. It has been viewed generations. It was also public land where as a romantic time in our history when the everyone had the same right to use the land. cowboy was a hero and field of grass "belly- Competition for grass was often bitter and high to a horse" used to wave across the plains there was no incentive for an individual to consider what was best for the land. Over- grazing became the common practice throughout l/ Presented at the National Conference on Ap- the rangelands of the west. The winter of plied Techniques for Analysis and Management 1886-87 hit the cattle industry so hard that of the Visual Resource, Incline Village, it has never fully recovered. Nevada, April 23-25, 1979. The deterioration from overabuse continued 2/ Landscape Architects, Bureau of Land Manage- until the drought and depression of 1930 con- ment, Denver, Colo., and Boise, Idaho. vinced livestock operators that drastic measures would be required to save the industry.

The Taylor Grazing Act of 1934 brought 2. Vegetative manipulations such as the first livestock regulation to the public mechanical, chemical or burning, and, domain range. However, the government agency established to administer management of the 3. Grazing systems such as rest rotation. range proved to be ineffective in controlling overuse because of the public apathy and a The visual impacts associated with each small operating budget. In 1946, another category are identifiable in each of the three agency was formed to bring the grazing use of visible landscape components: landform, vege- public lands into balance with their product- tation and structures. A visual impact usually ive capabilities. By the mid-1960's, range occurs when the form, line, color or texture conditions had vastly improved since the 1934 of a proposed landscape modification contrasts Taylor Grazing Act was passed, but based on strongly with the existing characteristic land- the potential of the land, mostly poor con- scape. (BLM 1978.) ditions still prevailed. The National Environ- mental Policy Act of 1969 required that an Each category of range management will be environmental statement be required for all examined for the type of visual impacts that major Federal actions that impacted the human could occur, the degree to which the impacts environment. Ensuing litigation by a na- might become more or less significant due to tional organization required the Federal gov- the physiographic landscape and the effect that ernment to conduct such an environmental time has on the visual impacts. statement on the livestock grazing program on Federal rangelands. Congress reacted and accepted responsibility for the condition and VISUAL IMPACTS OF RANGE MANAGEMENT management of Federal rangeland by passing the Public Rangelands Improvement Act of 1978. Range Projects This Act authorized increased expenditures for rangeland improvements and declared that unsatisfactory conditions can be improved by: Stock Tanks "an intensive, public rangelands maintenance, management, and improvement program involving The major visual impact of stock tanks is significant increases in levels of rangeland a result of the standard silver color of the management and improvement funding for multiple tanks which contrasts strongly with surrounding use values." (BLM 1978.) landscape colors. They can be seen from a great distance. Also because of their circular geometric Since the late 1960's, the public has be- shape, the form and line of stock tanks contrast come more aware of the environment. with natural landscape forms and lines. Another Travel and mobility have added a great visual impact is the exposed soil "trampled" deal to this perception, and attitudes about effect around tanks as a result of livestock how our national resources are being used are congregating at the "waterhole." This impact changing. In the past, range practices were usually becomes more noticeable over a period accepted as a way of life, the same as mining, of time. As the landscape character becomes forestry and other resource activities. Today, more hilly, these impacts become more significant the public is viewing these activities as if the tank is at the top of a hill or at the competing land uses which must be held account- apex of coverging lines. These are key locations able for their environmental effects and con- in the landscape and the viewing eye is natur- flicting requirements. The suit brought against ally drawn to them. In a forested landscape, the Federal government regarding "livestock the view distance is reduced but a horizontal grazing activities" is a good example of this silvery form strongly contrasts with the verticle concern. green trees. Most of these visual impacts would not significantly decrease over time. The visual appearance of range management practices has a lot to do with how well the Fences public accepts the practices. Therefore, the first step in effectively reducing the adverse The visual impact of fences depends a visual impacts of range management activities lot on how they are constructed. If the fenceline is to identify those visual impacts. is cleared with a dozer, there would result a strong contrast in line and color of the soil. Range management as discussed in this paper The effect would only slightly diminish over is divided into three categories: time. If the fence was always laid out in a long straight line, the line would contrast 1. Range projects which are engineered with natural contour lines in the landscape. and constructed such as stock tanks, pipelines, This effect would be most accentuated if the fences, etc. fencelines were sky-lighted along ridge tops.

Bright colored fenceposts create a contrast Wells and Springs with the natural colors of the landscape. Be- cause a fence separates pastures, there would The visual impact of wells and springs is be a strong contrast created along the fence- usually minimal, however, if there is an associ- line if the vegetation were of different com- ated storage tank, this can create a visual im- position or vigor. These contrasts would vary pact. The tanks are strong geometrical shapes with the time of year, the degree of grazing that can contrast in form, line and color with on each side of the fence, and the range con- the natural landscape. As was discussed under ditions. reservoirs, there would be a contrast with vegetation inside and outside the fence. Pipelines

Because the lines are usually buried, the Vegetative Manipulation most significant visual impact is the exposed soil that causes a contrast in line and color. The visual impacts of vegetative manipu- Depending on the revegetative capabilities, lation usually depend on the size and density the scar will usually heal after a short time. of the vegetation, the final shape of the treated As the angle of the landscape increases toward area, the technique used to clear the vegetation, the viewer, such as in hilly landscapes, the and the degree of cleanup or removal. The closer contrast would increase. In forested land- the manipulation looks to what might be consider- scapes, if the path of the pipeline were cleared ed a natural occurrence, the less the impact will in a swath, the unnatural line created in the appear. vegetation would cause a significant visual impact that would not diminish very much over Mechanical Techniques time. Mechanical techniques include discing, Windmills and Associated Storage Tanks rootplowing, pushing, chopping, crushing and chaining. The main contrast of windmills is the form, line, and color of the structure itself. A Discing and rootplowing are usually done vertical form in a predominantly horizontal on a low growing vegetation such as sagebrush, landscape creates a very noticeable contrast. chaparral and mesquite. The disc or rootplow Their usual silver color and the motion of the is pulled behind a crawler tractor and the vege- blades also attract attention; however, for tation is inverted or uprooted. the most part, windmills are considered a positive contrast. The associated storage tanks Pushing is used to control large mesquite would have similar contrast as described for and pinon-juniper. A crawler tractor equipped stock tanks but on a larger scale. with a dozer blade and usually a push bar up- roots the plants. Reservoirs Chopping is accomplished by use of a drum If the reservoir and embankment form a geo- with cutting blades pulled behind a crawler metric shape, the form and line would contrast tractor that forces the plant to the surface with the natural landforms. As the cattle and chops it into several pieces. gather around the "old watering hole" the vegetation becomes trampled and the exposed soil A tree crusher is similar to the chopping creates a contrast with the color of the vege- drum but the large blades mounted on drums tation. This effect could get worse over time. serve as the wheels of a large, self-propelled If there is a fence around the reservoir, the unit. This unit is primarily used to eradicate fenceline itself would create a contrast in small to medium sized trees. form and line. The vegetation inside the fence usually grows unchecked and contrasts with the The chaining technique involves two tractors grazed vegetation on the outside of the fence. moving in the same direction dragging a large chain between them uprooting plants as they Water Collection Devices move.

The main impact of structural water collec- The visual impacts of all these techniques tion devices is the structure itself. The form, could be very similar. If the line between the line, and color of the structure contrast with treated and untreated areas were straight, the the natural landscape. If there is a fence form of the treated area outlined by this around the structure, it would create the same straight line would create a strong contrast in kind of visual contrast as discussed under form and line. The color and texture of the reservoirs. treated area would also create a visual contrast. If the debris were not cleaned up or windrowed

60 or piled in high evenly spaced geometric forms, ously in the same area, year after year. Stock- the visual contrast with the natural landscape ing rates must be low enough to ensure that would be quite noticeable. The size and shape desired forage plants maintain vigor and proof treated areas in relation to the untreated duce seed crops. Because of continuous grazing, areas can determine visual acceptability. As watering areas are "beat out" causing a con- variety and harmony increase, the visual im- trast in soil color. A pattern of livestock pact decreases. An opening created in a dense paths become established resulting in a line stand of vegetation is more noticeable than and color contrast. Depending on the vegetation one created in sparse vegetation. These im- conditions there could also be a line, color, pacts are diminished as new, more desirable and texture contrast created by pasture fence- species appear and grow. lines. The conditions on one side of a fence could contrast with those on the other side of Spraying the fence.

The chemical control of vegetation results Deferred Rotation Grazing in defoliated shrubs or trees. The contrast or visual impact depends on the size and den- With this system grazing is delayed on a sity of the vegetation affected. The larger portion of the range in succeeding years until and more dense the vegetation, the greater the a specific plant growth stage is reached. Graz- impact. The nature of seeing dead plant ma- ing is rotated among all pastures during the terials is to associate them with devegetation grazing season, except one, which is deferred and disease and the uniformed viewer might see each year until after seed of the key forage this as a visual impact. Again, how natural a plants is mature. Visual impacts of this shape the treated area takes can help determine system are less than a continuous grazing sys- its visual impact. The impact will usually tem because the deferred rotation reduces some last as long as the defoliated plant material of the vegetative contrast. However, some of is easily visible, however, because the effected the same impacts can occur if each pasture is species can be selected, the ground cover re- grazed beyond its capacity. mains and the visual impact is not as great as other vegetative manipulations. Rest Rotation Grazing

Burning This system rests the range from grazing at suitable intervals dictated by the growth The visual impact of burning is associated requirements of key forage plants. It is use- with the psychological effect of fire. That ful in counteracting the effects of the se- is to say, fire is associated with damage and lective grazing habits of livestock by allowing destruction. The standard management philosophy desirable forage species to recover vigor, proof fire is to put it out. Therefore, when duce seed and again reproduce. Three or more people see fire-blackened tree trunks and grass- pastures are used during the grazing cycle with land, they think of it as a negative visual im- some pastures being rested while others are pact. This effect lasts until new secondary grazed. This system is the most desirable in growth becomes visible. terms of visual impacts because of increased plant vigor and more uniform appearance of the Grazing Systems vegetation. Again, overgrazing can create visual impacts similar to other systems, but The visual impacts of grazing systems are it would take longer to become noticeable be- associated with range conditions. That is to cause of the additional pastures. say, how livestock are grazed in a certain allotment affects the perceived visual patterns The critical factor in all these systems, of the landscape. The perceived patterns are as relates to the visual impacts, is the carry- affected by the following factors and conditions: ing capacity or stocking rate of the pasture. The existing vigor and condition of the vege- Over-grazing with any system causes negative tation, soil fertility, erosion potential, the visual impacts to the scenic quality of the availability and spacing of water sources, the landscape. number of livestock being grazed and the length of time they are grazed. All these factors and more combine to determine the degree of visual SUMMARY impacts associated with grazing systems. The visual impacts of three basic grazing systems As described in this paper, the visual will be discussed individually and collectively. impacts of range management vary in degree depending on how the specific actions are planned, Seasonal Continuous Grazing designed and implemented in the various characteristic landscape types. A project in one In this system, livestock graze continu- landscape type may look totally different in

61 another landscape type. There are many vari- how range management activities "fit" the land ables involved when evaluating any type of scape in order to reduce negative visual im- visual impact. Most impacts are noticeable in pacts. the foreground and middleground viewing zones. The more varied the landscape the less impacting they become. LITERATURE CITED The visual impacts of range management activities vary in degree over the life of the Bureau of Land Management project. The visual impact of site construction 1978. Managing the Public Rangelands. A for example, will probably diminish over time. commitment to Restore and Maintain the Vegetative manipulations are most noticeable Productivity of the Nations Rangelands. within the first five years after implementation. The longest visual impact occurs with grazing Bureau of Land Management practices themselves. Overgrazed rangeland 1978. Manual Series 8400 - Visual Resource takes a long time to recover and the effects Management. go far beyond visual impacts. Hastings, James R. Because of the historical significance 1959. Vegetation Change and Arroyo Cutting associated with cattle ranching, range manage- in Southeastern Arizona. J. Arizona Acad- ment activities are not considered a major emy of Science. 59 Vol. 1 No. 2: 60-67. visual impact nationally. However, as people are becoming more aware of their environment, United States Forest Service they are objecting to adverse visual changes 1977. National Forest Landscape Management. caused by highly competitive land uses. It, Vol. 2, Chap. 3 (Range). U. S. Dept. Ag ric. therefore, becomes more important to consider Handbook 484, 43 p., illus. U. S. Govern- ment Printing Office, Washington.

A Simulated Field Trip: "The Visual Aspects of Power Plant Sitings1"

Bill Bottom 2 Alex Young3

Abstract: The growth of our economy is demanding construction of a variety of power plants to generate electricity which is having a significant impact on the visual environment. These power plants will consist of conventional thermal (fossil fuel and nuclear), geothermal, wind and solar power plants. There are several areas where solutions to the visual impacts of these power plants can be effectively addressed - site selection, site planning, and cooperative research towards alternative design. In resolving the visual impacts of power plants and the visual resource, we as professionals and managers must be prepared to evaluate a variety of power plant types and a multitude of conflicts which will exist between the visual resource and other resource concerns.

INTRODUCTION Long term projections are varied for supplying electric energy by the year 2000. Some The growth of the American economy estimates indicate we could still be generating is resulting in the increased consumption of up to 80% of the electric needs of this nation energy, particularly electric energy. This is by conventional thermal plants, which will be demanding construction of increased numbers dependent on a variety of complex factors: and varieties of power plants to generate electrical energy which is having a significant impact - fuel availability and production on the environment and the visual resource. - economic factors or demand levels - current events In sorting out our energy needs and their - environmental issues effect on the visual environment we must look - energy policy and regulations at the short term and long term options. For - technology development the near future we will still be dependent on - public acceptability of alternative conventional thermal power plants to generate energy sources. electricity. These power plants are powered by a variety of fuels which include coal, gas, The prospects for satisfying a major share oil, nuclear and synthetic fuel combinations. of total electric demands by alternative energy A dependence on "conventional" power plants or power plant sources by the year 2000 are will exist even if we are successful in conser- clouded. The most likely future alternatives ving energy and developing alternative energy for electric energy generation are geothermal, sources today. wind and solar power plants. The basic technology for solar and wind power plants exists 1/ Presented at the National Conference on today and is being tested in prototype or demon- Applied Techniques for Analysis and Management stration situations. Geothermal energy is being of the Visual Resource, Incline Village, Nevada, utilized on a limited regional basis where these April 23-25, 1979. power plant complexes can economically supple- ment existing power grids. Substantial improve- 2/ Bill Bottomly, Landscape Architect, Bureau of ments in technology and economics may be Land Management, Denver, Colorado. 3/ available in the near future and influence the Alex Young, Landscape. Architect, Bureau of implementation of these or other alternative Land Management, Sacramento, California. energy sources.

Projections after the year 2000 are difficult sources of energy known to man. Current to predict although we know that alternative new techniques are exploring and utilizing sources and their associated power plants will this heat contained (natural steam and play a more important role in supplying electric hot water), in impervious dry rock and geo- energy (Moon 1979 EPRI 1978, CDWR 1978). pressure formations for electric power generation. Only a small fraction of the gross potential of these sources of energy VISUAL IMPACTS can be economically used for power generation in the western United States (USDI 1975). Let us examine the visual impacts of The process and equipment used to develop plants, both for conventional and alternative the geothermal resource are similar to oil energy sources. and gas resources. The final development

Conventional Thermal Power Plants - For consists of well heads, pipe line collec- as long as man has been involved with the indus- tion systems, power plants and electric trial age he has depended on centralized production transmission facilities. There is much of energy, particularly electric energy to power unused land that exists within a geothermal his machines and light his homes. Traditionally, complex. In fact, the space occupied by these power plants have been constructed near the physical plant is only a fraction of population centers. However, as the demand the total land area committed in a typical for electricity increases, public concern and geothermal development (fig. 2). environmental controls have forced the siting of a new breed of power plants in areas that are environmentally and visually more sensitive (CAI 1974).

Many of these power plants are "mega colossal engineering masterpieces" and among the largest power plants in the world, creating a visual impact not found anywhere in the natural landscape (fig. 1). These plants could require a minimum site of 1,000 acres for nuclear power plants up to several square miles for coal fired plants to accommodate the generation complex, fuel storage, fuel handling and preparation facilities, cooling structures, support facilities, transportation networks and waste disposal Figure 1--A new generation of power plants (EDAW 1978). is typified by this fossil fueled thermal power plant, courtesy TVA. The visual impact of these facilities is particularly acute in the west - "the last of the blue sky areas." One major regional power plant complex - "Four Corners" - is near some of the most popular visual attractions in the nation (Craig 1971). However, this is not the end. Many multiple power plant complexes have been planned or are being proposed in other parts of the country. A southern utility has begun planning for several such facilities that would require a minimum site of 20,000 plus acres or 30 square miles (Jopling 1976).

Geothermal - Geothermal energy is directly related to the tremendous heat reserves from the earth's subsurface and one of the oldest

Figure 2--This is an example of a typical geothermal facility in the "Geysers," California. 64

Wind power plants - Wind has been used to provide a multitude of uses. But with the search for alternative energy sources, wind power is becoming a more attractive energy source. At its optimum wind power could generate only a small percentage of the national energy needs by the end of the century (EPRI 1979).

Typically wind power plants will consist of towers with massive blades and generators, a collection network, and support facilities which will require extensive land areas (fig. 3).

One of the wind power's major drawbacks is energy storage when there is no wind. Additional visual impacts would be associated in solving the base loading problem with pumped water storage or other alternatives.

Favorable sites for these facilities are difficult to predict at this time, since very little reliable data exist concerning suitable wind sites in the United States. A recent study in California indicates that mountainous areas, coastal zones and portions of the more open desert areas are most suitable. A high percentage of these sites is located in areas considered for their natural visual quality, or in highly visual areas close to population centers or travel routes (Hamilton 1975, Hohenemser 1977, Inglis 1977, Lockheed, 1976, Putman 1948).

Solar Power Plants - The technology to utilize the vast energy potential of the sun has Figure 3--Prototype wind power plant site existed for some time, yet until recently application in Puerto Rico, courtesy EPA. of centralized electric generation from solar power plants has not been pursued. POWER PLANT CHARACTERISTICS Even though the sun radiates enormous amounts of energy, oily the sunbelt regions afford eco- Now that we have examined the general nomical utilization of this energy for major power plant sites, while areas of frequent cloud characteristics of the major power plant types cover would be excluded. This places regional in our future, let us examine the physical com- siting limitations upon solar power plants. ponents that will affect the visual resources. We must keep in mind that each power plant is To recover this energy economically will unique unto itself and the surrounding charac- require large expanses of solar collectors to convert teristic landscape. However, we can make cer- the solar energy into electrical energy. At this tain assumptions about the visual impacts of power time solar thermal conversion power plants offer plant components which can be categorized as the best promise since they utilize present thermal follows: (EDAW 1978). power plant technology. Future solar plants could require over one square mile of generally level land with as many as 10,000 highly reflective 1. Fuel storage, energy collection systems surfaces or heliotats (Caputo 1977, Metz or towers, 1976, Mayer 1976). 2. generation complex, 3. stacks, 4. cooling structures, 5. support and transmission facilities, 6. emissions and waste disposal.

Fuel Storage and Energy Collection Systems or Towers - A very significant portion of power sites is consumed by fuel storage and/or collection systems.

Coal fired power plants require large stock- piles of coal and handling equipment whether the coal is found "on-site" or is imported by unit trains, barges or slurry pipelines. This equipment can consume hundreds of acres for "mega" power plants. Other fossil fueled power plants also require storage tank farms of similar size (Craig 1971, Jones/Jones 1979).

The alternative power plant types afford certain advantages of utilizing renewable energy which appear at this time to be environmentally more acceptable. However, these plants require extensive collection systems or structures. Geothermal power plants must rely on deep well fields with collector pipeline systems which can be as much as one mile from the generating facility to supply a typical 100 MW power plant. An average of 500 acres could be affected per plant (Moon 1979).

A "typical" wind generating facility could occupy several square miles to provide economical electric energy. Solar thermal generation plants are being proposed that could cover up to one square mile per plant.

Generation Complex - Another significant visual impact of power plants is the generation complex. This is particularly significant for "mega" thermal power plants with massive boilers and generating rooms. These Figure 4--Typical stack at coal-fired power structures can be as tall as a 10-20 story building plant. and could occupy several hundred to several thousand acres for a multiple plant site. These visual impacts are almost impossible to mitigate Cooling Structures - Cooling structures totally. take on a variety of forms and functional aspects. Direct cooling systems are generally associated There is some reduction in the size of with sites with abundant water supply along the structures for alternative energy sources. major rivers, estuaries and oceans. The intake Geothermal energy plants are generally smaller and discharge structures usually consist of head but require an extensive network of on-site walls, channels and/or low dikes while mechanical power plants to exploit the geothermal re- coolers are low, massive structures and natural source economically. This is also true of wi [sic] draft towers can rise 40-50 stories above the surround- power plant sites which will require a large ing landscape. The total number and size of units number of generating powers over an extensive will vary with the size and type of power plant. area to generate electricity economically. In the case of cooling towers and mechanical coolers water vapor brings additional attention to and Stack Structures - Another major visual accentuates the physical structure (Jones/Jones 1979). impact is tall stacks of fossil fueled power plants which can be 600-700-feet tall. The Cooling ponds and lakes or lagoons are general- visual impact of these structures speaks for ly not associated with major physical structures itself. In many cases, these stacks are painted but impact significant total areas. In more arid in contrasting colors or adorned with lights climates dry power plant sites may need to import "for air safety reasons" which makes the struc- water by aqueducts or open channels which create tures highly visible. Additional attention is additional visual impacts. brought to the stacks by the plume smoke (fig. 4).

visibility models related to particulate concentrations to visual range (Ziler and Wagner 1979).

Large quantities of waste material are also generated in energy production, particularly fossil fueled thermal plants which create tons of fly ash and scrubber sludge which must be disposed of on site or transported to dumps or utilized in construction materials.

MITIGATION OF VISUAL IMPACTS FOR POWER PLANT SITES

Figure 5--Stack emissions from Four Corners power In assessing the visual impacts of major plant. power plants we must remember that the impacts will vary within the landscape, depending on the specific power plant configuration and Support/Transmission Facilities - Major power the characteristic landscape. It is difficult plants regardless of the type of energy source will to address specific solutions; however, we require additional structures to house control rooms, can point out several general areas of concern store equipment and for electric transmission (switch where the visual impact of plants can be effec- yards). These facilities are generally low profile tively mitigated. structures but add to the total site impact. Site Selection - We must look at site Other visual impacts are associated with selection as a primary mitigation for visual transportation systems or service roads, which resource management regardless of the number will vary with the energy source and terrain. Exten- or configuration of the components or energy sive transportation systems are generally associated source. Because of the size of power plants with fossil fueled power plants which must continually architectual or engineering solutions do little import coal or other fossil fuels on a daily basis. to improve the appearance of large scale engineer- These facilities consist of rail yards, docks or pipeline ing marvels and usually come off as "decorative" systems. The visual impact of service roads is statements with little relation to the visual particularly acute for alternative energy power environment. More attention should be made plant sites which cover extensive areas to service in selection of sites with higher visual absorption the energy collection systems (EDAW 1978). capacity and lower visual sensitivity.

Emissions - The impact of power plant structures In the past ecological and engineering and support facilities is obvious. However, concerns took precedence over visual resource there are less obvious visual impacts associated values. Times are changing however. Many with other resource concerns - air quality and waste models have been developed to aid in site disposal! selection which consider all factors including the visual resource. If there is a return to reliance on coal powered electric generation, tons of fine particulate matter More recently the U.S. Nuclear Regu- and gaseous pollutants will be pumped out at a latory Commission denied the permit for con- high rate impairing the distant scenic views. In struction of a nuclear power plant in Green the Four Corners example, the "plume smoke" County, New York, based on a number of factors can be detected 200 miles or more from the point of which the visual resource was a primary source. Newer technology for cleaning up the consideration (NRC 1979). air could reduce the problem but never completely cure it. Site Planning - Even after the site is selected proper attention to site planning Recent amendments to the Clean Air Act is essential. Site planning techniques are most require visibility be protected on the same level effective in mitigating the visual impacts of as health hazards (fig. 5) (Smardon 1978). However, arrangement and screening of low level the law does not provide guidelines for assessing components. the scientific aspects of visibility deterioration. Studies have been conducted that obtain related This is particularly true for centralized measurements via Nephelometer and photographic, facilities such as conventional, thermal and techniques or methodologies. There are also several solar power plants. However, the diverse

67 site requirements of wind and geothermal LITERATURE CITED power plants will require development of innovative site planning techniques to California Department of Water Resources (CDWR) reduce visual impacts. 1973. Energy Dilemma - California 20-year Power Plant Siting Plan. Total site dedication to energy supply can lessen total acreage required, and be Caputo, R.S. a deliberate design alternative to minimizing 1975. Solar Power Plants. Bull Atom sci. individual impact of dispersed sites. 33:46-8.

Alternative Design - Alternative physical Commonwealth Associates, Inc. (CAI) design of power plants is another effective tool 1974. Nuclear Power Plant Siting A generalized in mitigating the visual impacts and could Process. Atomic Industrial Forum, Inc., offer structural architectural and/or New York. engineering efficiency. Therefore, cooperative research is needed for design concepts, Craig, Roy particularly for newer technologies, otherwise 1971. Desert. Environment, 13 (6). pp. 21-34. we will be confronted with visual impacts equal to or exceeding those of conventional EDAW, IN'L. thermal power plants of today. 1978. Visual Sensitivity of River Recreation to Power Plants. Minnesota Environmental Conflicts and Consideration - In Quality Board. pp. 515. resolving visual impacts of power plant sites there is a multitude of conflicts which exist EPRI between visual resource values and other 1979. Staff Interview, Palo Alto, California. resources. These conflicts must be recognized if visual resource management is to be an Hamilton, Roger effective management force. For example, 1975. Can We Harness the Wind. National Bio- large cooling towers add high contrast forms to graphical Magazine. December. pp. 812- the environment and bring added attention to 829. themselves with large plumes of water vapor. Direct cooling would eliminate these structures Hohenemser, K.H. but the solution may conflict with public 1977. Wind Power Update. Environment. 19:5. concern for other resource values. Inglis, D.R. In the Geysers geothermal area of 1977. Answer is Blowing in the Wind. Progres- California, plants are located on more prominent sive. 41:43-6. visible sites to increase air circulation and reduce potentially toxic gases that accumulate at lower Jones and Jones less visible sites. Other conflicts arise from the 1979. Staff Interview, Seattle, Washington. specific nature or location of the energy source- solar, wind, and geothermal which restricts the Jopling, D.G. options in site selection and site planning. 1976. Large Capacity Plant Sites: Problems and Opportunities. Power Engineering. pp. 36-43. IN SUMMARY Lockheed, Inc. We can assume that for the foreseeable 1976. Wind Mission Energy Analysis. A Study future the major visual impacts of power for the Energy Research and Development plants will be associated with thermal power Administration. plant complexes on a national level and with a variety of alternative energy power plants Mayu, A.J. on a regional level. In addition to 1976. All About Solar Power. Newsweek. 87:68. the fundamental socioeconomic and environmental problems of siting power plants, visual resource Metz, W.D. management is becoming a more critical issue as 1977. Solar Thermal Electricity Power Tower. suitable sites with minimum environmental Science. 197:353-6 impacts are becoming scarce. We, as professionals and managers, must be prepared to evaluate and Moon, John deal with visual impacts for a variety of power 1979. Lands and Minerals Staff, Interview, Bureau plant alternatives. of Land Management, Sacramento, California.

Putman, Palmer Crosslett U.S. Department of Interior (USDI) 1948. Power From the Wind. Van Norstrand 1975. Final Environmental Statement for Reinhold and Co. New York. the Geothermal Leasing Program.

Smardon, R. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) 1978. Law and Aesthetics or When is the Pig 1979. Environmental Statement - Greene in the Parlor? - A legal overview of legal County Nuclear Power Plant, National factors influence on visual landscape. Technical Information Service, Springfield, Policy. Berkeley, California. Virginia.

Zeller, K. and W. Wagner 1978. Bureau of Land Management Visibility.

Dams and Water Developments1

2/ Robert H. Schueneman

Abstract: The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is involved in the construction and regulation of many activities relating to water resource development. Such activities include dams and reservoirs, channelization and erosion control on rivers and tributaries, and coastal works. These activities can result in an array of visual effects depending on the specific activity type and means of implementation.

An array of water resource activities Dam in Arizona, were first constructed to typically impacts our natural watershed sys- relieve increasing demands for irrigation. By tems. Such activities include dams and asso- the mid-thirties, the concern for flood control ciated reservoirs, flood and erosion control became equally important to garner support for on tributaries and rivers, the regulation of dam construction. dredging and filling, and the protection of shorelines. For our portion of the simu- Characteristically, in terms of size, form, lated field trip, we will follow a natural material and texture, the concrete dam is an progression of those elements found at the imposing structure in relation to the natural headwaters and downstream to the coastline, landscape. However, this hardened image can take primarily of the west. We should emphasize on an ephemeral, fanciful quality simply by that many water resource activities signifi- water cascading over its spillway. Earthen cantly alter the character of the natural land- dams can have an overbearing visual impact, as scape, particularly those activities whose ele- well, considering their austere form, juxtaposed ments are architectonic and imposing. However, with the natural topography, and texture, since some activities may enhance landscape values their embankments are often void of woody vege- which were monotonous, lacking in visual diver- tation native to the locale. Appurtenant struc- sity beforehand. Other landscapes can be re- tures are often associated with dams such as habilitated after the activity has ensued outlet works, power generating facilities and resulting in little discernible visual impact. fish ladders to facilitate migration. Fish hatcheries are often constructed downstream Water resource development is probably from the dam to mitigate loss of fishery values, best exemplified by the concrete dam. In the since the reservoir may not provide a suitable early 1900's these structures, such as Roosevelt or sustaining environment for many species.

Construction activities present many visual 1/ Presented at the National Conference on impacts such as denuding expansive areas of Applied Techniques for Analysis and. Manage- vegetation and conveying fill material to the ment of the Visual Resource, Incline Village, site, whose quarry may remain evident long after Nevada, April 23-25, 1979• the project has been completed. As the dam slowly evolves, it begins visually to dominate 2/ Chief, Environmental Branch, U.S. Army the surrounding environs. Roads and bridges Engineer District San Francisco, Corps of are normally relocated from the proposed reser- Engineers, 211 Main St., San Francisco, voir area often requiring extensive cutting Calif. 94105. and filling operations. Particularly in hot, arid climates, cut and fill slopes may remain

scathed for several years. can be radically affected by adjacent land use. In urban areas the character of such streams Today, the construction of dams is not can be negatively impacted by encroaching universally endorsed. Fewer optimum locations development, often oblivious to potential for flood control and power generation, adverse visual and recreational amenities. Development environmental impacts, costs, and the feasibi- occurring within the flood plain is susceptible lity of non-structural alternatives have dimi- to periodic flooding and damage. Under these nished the dam's role in solving our water conditions, when the carrying capacity of the resource problems of the future. flood plain is severely impacted, we often employ structural methods to control flooding. Bodies of water may visually enhance the While such solutions may not enhance the visual landscape and can provide recreational benefits. quality of the landscape, large volumes of water We often idyllically perceive the act of are efficiently conveyed. recreating and quite often our expectations materialize, like sailing or camping adjacent Many materials and methods of construction to impounded water. But all too often, recre- are employed in channelization projects. Some ational areas become over-utilized resulting flood control channels are earth bottomed with in the visual and physical deterioration of riprapped slopes; given time, vegetation may the environment, particularly, as more and become established softening the structural more accouterments of our culture subjugate framework. When the right-of-way is restrictive, the natural setting. Poorly designed facil- vegetation can be planted and irrigated to en- ities can further erode visual quality although courage rapid growth for screening. If the such problems can be resolved by rehabilitation right-of-way is of sufficient breadth, the providing their use is controlled in relation alignment of channelized streams can be varied to the carrying capacity of the site. Even to avoid existing vegetation altogether. recreational facilities that are propitiously Concrete channels can be completely buried designed can have a cumulative effect on those possibly creating an artificial stream bed above landscapes that were pristine in character. by pumping water from below, a deceptively naturalistic solution. Flood walls are used The operation of man-made reservoirs fre- along large rivers resulting in their visually quently results in drawdown to increase storage isolation from the surroundings, Austere flood- capacity, to utilize water for agricultural, walls can be superficially altered by texture and domestic and industrial purposes and to gener- form or murals painted by local teenagers during ate power. The fluctuation in water level their simmer vacation. creates unsightly mud flats devoid of vegetation and shorelines susceptible to erosion. Since these flood protection projects are Several agencies are determining what plants usually located in urban areas, their rights-of- can withstand this extreme fluctuation in water way may present excellent opportunities for level; this process is s low and the results are hiking, biking and, occasionally, equestrian inconclusive since many species that are trails, linking residential areas with schools, usually vigorous growers have not responded stores and parks. However, to provide any type in a like manner under these conditions. As a of public access within the right-of-way, usually result, rip-rap, gabions or other artificial strong objections from adjacent homeowners have means are frequently employed to control erosion. to he overcome.

In the southwest we often encounter flood Sometimes a bypass channel is constructed control structures, both concrete and earth fill, to carry flood water around an urban area. While which only impound water during infrequent but the river is preserved, the channel may be often intense flooding conditions. These oblivious to the integrity of the landscape. structures whose embankments may be barren, In urban areas, these bypass channels insure rip-rapped slopes can visually dominate those stable flows through the city, enabling intensive flood plains that are expansive and uneventful. development along the river's edge. If pro- In rural settings, the flood pool area may be pitiously handled, as in Sari Antonio, Texas. available for agricultural use; frequently, the river can become a visual amenity and foster these dry reservoirs are in suburban areas and economic growth. provide excellent opportunities for intensive recreational use such as golfing, athletic fields We are required to first consider non- and playgrounds. Within the dry reservoir sub- structural solutions, particularly, within flood impoundments can be constructed to enhance plains that have not been severely impacted by wildlife, recreation and scenic values, while development susceptible to flood damage. Indian not affecting flood control capacity. Bend Wash, in Scottsdale, Arizona combines structural inlet and outlet works with a green- The visual aspects of streams and rivers belt floodway, containing trails, parks

and other compatible facilities. In addition Presently, we are regulating filling to these flood control projects, we are often operations performed by others in wetland involved in river bank stabilization to deter areas, activities which have destroyed count- severe erosion. Although extensive grading and less acres in the past. Fresh water wetlands placement of material may take place, existing are susceptible to diking and draining for trees can be preserved, subduing the contrived agricultural purposes or quarrying operations. bank. Saltwater marshes often succumbed to the pressures of urban development. We also must Coastal work is an important function of approve and issue permits for all structures the Corps. Projects vary from the construction to be located within navigable waters. Indi- of ship channels to beach renourishment. We vidual boat docks may not have significant also construct breakwaters to protect harbors visual impact but their cumulative effect can and shorelines from wave action often creating be consequential. habitats for fish and wildlife. Unrestrained development can disrupt the natural process While there are many other examples of of deposition, resulting in severe beach ero- water resource projects, our simulated field sion. Huge, jack-like structures called dolosse trip has given you a broad indication of our are sometimes used to protect shorelines. involvement. We have briefly discussed dams While the visual impact of such structures and reservoirs, channelization and erosion con- is austere and imposing, further erosion is trol on rivers and tributaries, and coastal often contained. works - projects which have significantly affected our visual environment. Dredging navigation channels is one of our oldest activities, and depending on how the fill material is disposed, no visual impact may result. Sometimes dredging is done by pipeline creating fill areas which simulate natural sandbar nesting and feeding areas for wildlife.

The Off-Road Recreation Vehicle— Visual Impacts1

2/ Stephen F. McCool

Abstract: The off-road recreation vehicle (ORV) has become a major influence on the character of wild landscapes. Visual impacts resulting from ORV use are shaped not only by site-environmental variables, but also by the nature of the recreation experience users seek, The problem is further compounded by conflicts between ORV’s and other recreational uses. Solutions to ORV-induced visual impact problems will require further understanding of the specific behaviors of ORV users.

The pre-dawn stillness of a spring day trail-bikes, sand-buggies, snowmobiles, or any on the desert tells many things to the sensi- other mechanical contraption capable of tra- tive listener. It is a period in the diurnal versing unroaded terrain. Even typical high- order of things which nature seems to have way vehicles may sometimes be counted as ORV's. designed for those who appreciate ecological At times it seems as if all of nature's diverse stability, diversity, and beauty. As the dark- landscapes will inevitably result in the presence ness evolves into gray and then into a brilliant of an ORV. eastern horizon orange, the sensitive observer How many ORV's are there? We really don't discerns a landscape rutted by the previous know. However, a recent survey by the Heritage day's recreational activities. Just as suddenly Conservation and Recreation Service suggests as the sun breaks above the horizon, the arid 40 million or so, including about 14 million serenity is shattered by the sound of a motor- snowmobilers. Naturally, snowmobile use is cycle revving up for the first climb of the day. focused in the northern tier of states--espe- The off-road recreation vehicle (ORV) cially in the upper Midwest--and in other regions and its impacts are one of the most challenging having an adequate season-long snow cover. ORV’S visual management tasks facing land managers other than snowmobiles occur nearly everywhere, today. They have become a pervasive influence but the Intermountain and Pacific Northwest on the character of wildlands in the United regions record the highest rates of partici- States. Only two short decades ago few places pation. Of course, concentrations of specific in the country had been touched; now in the kinds of ORVS vary locally. In mountainous late 1970's many critics claim that there is regions, the manager may be confronted with hardly a locale exempted from the visually high proportions of four-wheel drive units, disruptive influence of ORVS. Two decades ago, In the sandy and coastal locales of the South- the number of ORV participants could have been west, one may deal with variations of sand and counted in the hundreds of thousands; now we dune buggies number them in the tens of millions. To discuss visual impacts resulting from What is an ORV? ORVS include motorcycles, ORV use, one must first attempt to understand four-wheel drive vehicles, all-terrain vehicles, the nature of the activity. Observing the behavior of ORV participants, one quickly sees

1/ that there are really several sets of activities Presented at the National Conference on associated with ORV's. Each has its own require- Applied Techniques for Analysis and management ments for space, environmental settings, and of the Visual Resource, Incline Village, Nevada, social interaction; each has its unique visual April 23-25, 1979 and resource impacts; each has differing func-

2/ tional and dysfunctional values. This diversity Associate professor, School of Forestry, must be recognized in analyzing and mitigating University of Montana, Missoula. visual impacts,

ORV activity includes such aspects as Visual impacts from snowmobile operation competition, play, exploration, and group are conceptually similar, The snowmobile lays participation. At any given time and place, down a track--a linearly compacted area--in the an ORV participant may hold differing levels snow, The resulting track may attract more of these orientations, thus affecting the snowmobilers. Heavy snowmobile traffic will participants' behavior, and consequently im- usually lead to the development of moguls on pacts on the resource and conflicts with other the trail which must either be groomed or avoided users. by the snowmobiler. Intensive use may result Participants oriented toward competitive in trails 8- to 12-feet wide. activity seek status and excitement. The user However, the arrangement of the impacts reaps benefits from interacting with other is again influenced by the experience partici- participants. Essential support activities pants seek. In a competitive include pit crews, competition administrators, cross-country race, tremendous, if temporary, information systems, health care, trophies, and volumes of dust are raised at the mass start. so on. Much of the pre- and post-competition Further down the course the landscape impact activity is centered on maintaining the machine of the event may be limited to a single track, and utilizing it as the attraction for social which may not be visible to the casual observer, interaction. Competitive activities which impact the land- ORV play involves somewhat random move- scape may involve hill climbs and drag races ment over the landscape with no specific des- as well as cross-country races. Each leaves tination, other than the landscape, in mind. a describable impact. The challenge of the environment, informal Contrasted to the linearly oriented im- recognition of status, and social interaction pacts of a race are the broad effects of may be the important values. The operating ORV play. Since movements are somewhat ran- efficiency of the machine may not approach dom, or even ordered such as in "follow-the- the same level of significance as in competition. leader" and "tag" games, multitudes of tracks Supplemental recreational activities such as gradually mingle to impact a fairly wide area. camping, general play, and social interaction Yet, many of these impacts appear to be focused may be critical to a "quality" ORV experience. along a corridor that is determined by acces- To the individual using the ORV for sibility and spectator visibility, exploration, the machine may be viewed princi- In some areas, a snowmobiler also engages pally as a means to an end. The ORV permits in play. In these places, there may be many other kinds of recreational experiences. Status, tracks spread over a broad area. excitement, and affiliation motives may be The imprint of the snowmobile may not be as minimal. Appreciation of amenities and learning obtrusive as other ORVS--unless one is a cross- about nature may be more important expectations. country skier. Snowmobile use represents a Activities may include rockhounding, backcoun- visual, audible, and functional disruption try camping, exploring ghost towns and ancient to this group of wildland visitors. Of course, Indian ruins. the saving factor for wildland managers is the A final dimension typlifying much snow- snowstorm, If a snowfall does not completely mobile activity in the upper Midwest relates obliterate a track, it will often soften the to the user's gregariousness. This activity disrupting abruptness of the impression. is characterized by large numbers of individual Finally, in ORV exploration, impacts snowmobilers gathering together (perhaps a club) again are concentrated in a linear corridor. and traveling from one rural taphouse to another. In mountainous regions much of this activity Activity occurs during the evening along linear actually occurs on roads, trails, or right-of- pathways that may be very close to existing ways originally constructed for logging, grazing, transportation corridors, or along abandoned mineral extraction, or some other purpose. logging trails. Thus, ORV's are impacting an already impacted The nature and extent of visual intrusions area. resulting from ORV operation is a function not It is worth noting some behavior which only of the recreation experience but also of extends the initial impacts of ORV's. In some the site. The principal visual intrusion competitive situations, spectators will return to begins as a track or set off parallel lines the site of a cross-country race the fol- imposed upon the vegetation or the surface lowing weekend to see if they can successfully of the soil. These lines may remain simply complete the course without the competitive as lines, but with intensive use may evolve pressure. into ruts. The ruts appear, in some forms Spectators impact the landscape another of ORV activity, as challenges to the partici- way, too. Often, during a cross-country race, pant, furthering use and impacts. One set of there are times of little competitive activity. ruts in an intensive use area becomes several Spectators, having nothing else to do, may drive ruts. Many ruts used intensively may result their machines at random, increasing visual in complete elimination of vegetation over a impacts. broad area.

Pit areas and informal camping grounds be successful. Several years ago, a once heavi- are often associated with competitive events, ly used ORV site in western Montana showed the The confused, unorganized conglomeration of effects of several mitigating measure: closure, vehicles results in another type of visual seeding and landscape modification. Eighteen impact. The color and texture of campers and months later the once noticeable visual intru- spectator vehicles are not congruent with the sion had all but disappeared. Finally, we may natural, free-flowing landscape they are imposed have to accept permanent irreversible disrup- upon. tion in many places such as the disturbance of Visual impacts are not necessarily limited desert intaglios which has already occurred or to on-site activities or even during the same where economic feasibility of mitigation is time period. These scenes indicate off-site prohibitive. visual impacts resulting from nearby ORV These considerations raise two major activity. issues in a discussion of visual impacts. First, The intensity of ORV visual impact varies what is a visual impact? Is a single set according to use levels, type of vehicle, oper- of tracks across a meadow a visual disruption? ation of vehicle, soil, aspect, vegetation We might all agree that a large area devoid characteristics, and season of use. Often, in of vegetation is an impact. The essential arid climates, direct effects of ORV activity question is: where does one draw the line? are compounded by wind erosion and accelerated Second, if an impact is defined as a culturally runoff due to the reduction of soil holding induced change from the natural landscape con- vegetation. And, there may be a critical point dition, are the visual impacts left by ORV's in use levels beyond which such a compounding negative or positive? I'm sure environmentalists effect occurs, We can predict some impacts: would argue that such impacts are a detriment Four-wheel drive vehicles visually disrupt an to the natural scheme of things. They would area more than three times more quickly than motor- argue that man ought to engage in low-impact cycles. Wet season operation in some locales activity; they might even argue that ORV's is a high impact period, regardless of the ought to be banned because of their visual activity. Visual impacts on sand dunes may be and ecological consequences. obliterated by an overnight breeze while the To the ORV enthusiast, however, such visual intrusions left by the same vehicle tracks and bared surfaces may actually be an in a nearby pinion-juniper stand may last end- attraction and viewed in a positive sense. lessly. We've all heard the example of how The motorcyclist may see a track up the hill the tracks laid down by General Patton's WWII as the trail to follow; to the sand buggy driver, maneuvers in the Southern California desert the pair of tracks ending halfway up a steep are still visible 30 years later. The careful dune or hill may suggest a challenge that must observer can see traces of the Donner Party's be met, The ORV enthusiast may argue that many fateful trek across the Great Salt Lake 130 visual impacts are simply that and do not sig- years ago, Generally speaking, visual impacts nificantly impair the environment, They may last the longest in extreme environments and argue that the traces left by their activity are self-mitigating relatively quickly in more are no more significant than the disruption mesic climates. resulting from silviculture, mineral extraction, Two major decisions confront the visual or energy production. They may even agree that resource manager. First there is a siting such impacts are a cost, but they will point decision, i.e., where should ORV activity he to the recreational benefits received by millions located. Beyond the very specific criteria of participants. defined in Presidential Executive Orders 11644 Of course, the visual impacts left by and 11989, the following are suggested criteria: ORV's are only one part of the ORV issue, As type of experience, resource capability, visi- you all well know, ORV's have become one of the bility, residence of users, management costs, most controversial wildland recreation activities edge, and previous disturbance. in the country. The second decision concerns mitigation Visual impacts interact with other con- and rehabilitation. Essentially the manager siderations. First, many opposed to ORV’s are is confronted with the "how-to" aspect of opposed on the basis of the values that ORV’s mitigating impacts after they occur and reha- represent: high-impact hard technology, Second, bilitating the site. In some areas, simple ORV’s produce noise--the absolute amount of which closure of the site is an acceptable and varies, obviously--which is often disruptive effective device, as shown in these scenes. of other recreation experiences. Third, ORV’s In other situations, closures must be accom- conflict with many types of self-propelled panied by additional measures such as seeding, activities such as hiking and ski-touring. In fertilization, and watering. And in some areas fact, ORV management may be the most complex even more intensive measures, such as land- recreation management task facing wildland scape modification (terracing, filling) may be administrators, with literally hundreds of required to prevent further degradation after issues needing to be addressed at the national cessation of ORV activity. Such programs can level,

The visual resource challenge is a great 6. initiate a systematic research one. We need to: program focusing on the above and other high 1. inventory how much area is being priority issues. disrupted on a national scale; Mitigating the visual impacts of off-road 2. project future levels of participation; recreation vehicle use probably will not elimi- 3. identify the different kinds of ORV nate the controversy centering on this land experiences; use, but it may go a long way in providing 4. assess the characteristics of ORV Americans with a more visually appealing sites for different experiences; landscape 5. develop environmental and landscape impact monitoring approaches and technologies;

Technology Available to Solve Landscape Problems

Descriptive Approaches to Landscape Analysis1

2/ R. Burton Litton, Jr.

Abstract: Descriptive landscape analyses include various procedures used to document visual/scenic resources. Historic and regional examples of landscape description represent desirable insight for contemporary professional inventory work. Routed and areal landscape inventories are discussed as basic tools. From them, qualitative and quantitative evaluations can be developed although certain landscape attributes are omitted. Aesthetic evaluations and visual impact predictions for environmental impact studies can originate from landscape analyses. Scope and implications of needed research in visual landscape studies are discussed. Finally, landscape planning goals and landscape design policies are outlined as visual quality controls. The professional role of landscape architects and environmental planners is stressed in the paper.

LANDSCAPE DESCRIPTION: INTRODUCTION SOME HISTORIC BACKGROUNDS

Landscape analysis is the broad, some- It is ignorant to think that landscape times fuzzy field which includes a set of architects have created descriptive land- different activities all concerned with vis- scape analysis in the last decade. There is ual resources. Included are inventories of a rich store of landscape descriptions from physical-visual elements and their relation- the past as well as the present. It comes ships, qualitative or quantitative evalua- from varied sources, but it can be useful to tions (or assessments), landscape aesthetics us in developing contemporary methods of reports for environmental impact studies, visual analysis applied to landscape plan- visual impact predictions, and the identifi- ning and design. cation of planning and design goals as related to the landscape. In this paper, empha- While the characteristics of landscape sis is in descriptive approaches and the description may be as varied as different professional roles that may be assumed by authors' purposes, that variation can sug- the landscape architect or environmental gest how complex landscape perception may planner in visual analysis. Yet it is clear be. Pragmatically, it is instructive to that many different professionals and acade- examine the language used in narrative ac- mic disciplines have related interests in counts of landscape and to be aware of what landscape analysis and aesthetic quality of artists such as Catlin and Moran have done. the outdoor environment; their perceptions The field observations of others can improve and capabilities are needed. our astuteness in the field. We should be acquainted with cultural or historic per-

1/ spectives that landscape descriptions can Presented at the National Conference on carry and appreciate the potential useful- Applied Techniques for Analysis and Manage- ness of portrayals made at a particular ment of the Visual Resource, Incline Vil- point in time. Landscape elements and their lage, Nevada, April 23-25, 1979. relationships seized upon for description by

2/ various observers may confirm some common Professor of Landscape Architecture, threads of perception, giving us guidance in University of California, Berkeley. Land- selection of what to include in an inventory. scape Architect, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Berkeley, Calif.

Descriptions may take a turn toward The scenery of Walden is on a humble evaluation. To avoid confusion, it is im- scale, and, though beautiful, does not portant to differentiate between direct des- approach grandeur, nor can it much con- cription and the appearance of personal or cern one who has not frequented it or professional values attached to the outdoor lived on its shore; yet this pond is environment. What has been written or gra- remarkable for its depth and purity... It phically represented can give clues about is a clear and deep green well, a half valued aspects that others have held from mile long and a mile and three quarters seeing the landscape; this is information in circumference... The surrounding hills useful in broadening our perspective on vis- rise abruptly from the water to the ual values. height of forty to eighty feet ... They are exclusively woodland. All our Con- Especially in the accounts of scientists cord waters have two colors at least; and naturalists, there may be insight on how one where viewed at a distance and an- appreciation of the landscape may be linked other, more proper, close at hand. (p. to natural processes--how environmental fac- 121) [Later the philosopher says] A tors may have ties to the nebulous world of lake is the landscape's most beautiful landscape aesthetics. and expressive feature. It is the earth's eye; looking into which the A few personal selections of landscape beholder measures the depth of his own descriptive examples follow. Some are con- nature. (Thoreau 1960, p. 128) temporary. Some are from recent history. They represent diverse samples rather than William H. Brewer, 19th century botanist, any attempt to be comprehensive. They rep- agricultural scientist resent different relationships with the landscape, whether seeking its protection, For the period 1860-1864, William Brewer fitting it into a life philosophy, using it was the resourceful and diplomatic field as a background to a set of activities, mak- director of the Whitney Geologic Survey of ing man-made changes compatible with it or California. Traveling up and down the state simply enjoying it. for four years, living virtually all those years out in the open landscape, Brewer des- Sir Humphrey Repton, 18th century landscape cribes succinctly what he saw. He discards gardener hearsay. First and foremost a scientist, he measured topography, took temperature rec- Repton wrote more than 50 "Red Books." ords, geological and botanical specimens. Each was a landscape description of an indi- He suffered from bad water, fought mosquitos vidual estate--its terrain, water bodies, and weather, and plowed his way through and plant cover. Included were the "im- chaparral. In 1861, Brewer was in the Santa provements" which he proposed. To help the Cruz Mountains and said: client's visualization of improvements, Sir Humphrey introduced the device of slides--a Around us was the sea of mountains, simulation of "before and after landscapes." every billow a mountain; deep dark canyons thread them, the form and topo- His descriptive language was simple and graphy very complicated, the geological direct--to this he adds: structure very broken. Redwood forests darken the canyons on the west toward My habit of landscape sketching I have the sea, chaparral covers the ridge on considerably improved by practice and the east. (Brewer 1966, p. 155) this may be of great use in showing effects where descriptions are not suf- Clarence E. Dutton, 19th century geologist, ficient. (Repton 1792, v.2) U.S. Army

Henry David Thoreau, 19th century philoso- Shortly after Major John Powell success- pher-naturalist fully explored the Colorado River, Clarence Dutton went to the Grand Canyon area to Thoreau's year spent at Walden Pond is a study its geologic history--"Erosion on a philosophic connection between man, uni- grand scale."--he says. He was accompanied verse, and the landscape at hand. The by William Holmes whose extraordinary ink philosophy is part Emerson, part Thoreau, drawings of the Grand Canyon remain clas- but the graphic description of landscape is sics. purely that of Thoreau the Naturalist. He says:

Through his description Dutton takes us professors and short sighted practices lead- on a trip across the Kanab Desert, the ing to degradation of resources, he saw the Kaibab Plateau and--"to the brink of the ecological and aesthetic values of an un- chasm, where we may contemplate its subli- fragmented landscape. Gifted in his ability mity." There is accuracy of observation to describe the wholeness of landscape, he combined with scenic experience. The jour- weaves together the feel of weather, the ney is a set of successive, linked encount- edge of stream and willow grove, the pre- ers with varied landscape. He relates: sence of animals--including his hunting dog --the sound of geese. Of a Wisconsin marsh When viewed from a distance, (the Leopold says: Kaibab) summit, projected against the sky, looks remarkably smooth and lev- A dawn wind stirs on the great el...when we actually visit the plateau marsh. With almost imperceptible slow- we actually find (it) ...to be really ness it rolls a bank of fog across the very rugged....Over the Permian terrace wide morass. Like the white ghost of a the Kaibab is in full view ... The light glacier the mists advance, riding over of the declining sun is upon it and the phalanxes of tamarack, sliding across larger details stand forth in clear re- bog meadows heavy with dew. A single lief, displaying the openings of grand silence hangs from horizon to horizon. ravines and the massive faces of the intervening pediments. Out of some far recess is the sky a tinkling of little bells falls soft upon Further on Dutton says: the listening land. Then again silence. Now comes a baying of some sweet- The desert before us is... (like)...the throated hound, soon the clamor of a rolling prairie of Iowa but the range of responding pack. Then a far clear blast vision is vastly greater.... In the of hunting horns, out of the sky into prairie the curvature of the earth soon the fog. carries the surface out of sight.... (Here) we are constantly looking across ... at last a glint of sun reveals a very wide but shallow depression--the the approach of a great echelon of earth's surface is here slightly concave birds. On motionless wing they emerge instead of convex. [Toward the end of from the lifting mists, sweep a final the day's journey, Dutton writes] As arc of sky, and settle in clangorous the sun nears the horizon, the desert descending spirals to their feeding scenery becomes exquisitely beautiful. grounds. A new day has begun on the The deep rich hues of the Permian, the crane marsh. (Leopold 1949, p. 95) intense red of the Vermillian Cliffs, the lustrous white of the distant Sigurd F. Olson, 20th century ecologist, Jurassic headlands are greatly height- wilderness advocate ened in tone and seem self-luminous. But more than all, the flood of purple Biologist, north country guide, and and blue which is in the very air, steadfast spokesman for wilderness, Sigurd (bathes) not only the naked rock faces Olson expresses a philosophy reminiscent of but even the obscurely tinted fronts of Emerson and Thoreau, a scientific curiosity the Kaibab and the pale brown of the in league with that of Leopold, of Loren desert surface... (Dutton 1882, p. Eisley and Henry Beston. With long years of 122-125) outdoor experience on the Quetico-Superior lakes, the backcountry of Canada and Alaska, Several more days of travel take us to Olson speaks knowingly of remoteness, the the edge of the canyon. Dutton has provided changing faces of the season, the loon's a remarkable clear and graphic description call in a moonlit night, an awareness of of a remarkably rich landscape. what is going wrong in the environment. For him, aesthetics of the landscape is a com- Aldo Leopold, 20th century forester, ecolo- plex fabric of sight, sound, knowledge, gist, game management biologist time, and ethics. Turning to observation, he says: One of the originators of wilderness in Forest Service lands, Aldo Leopold is inti- Swamps are particularly beautiful to me, mately associated with the beginnings of for in them, I know, is true wilderness. American game management and the concepts of I like them in spring when they are a- a land ethic--land use which is--"ethically live with redwinged blackbirds ... when black ducks explode around every bend in and aesthetically right." Pithy critic of

wild confusion as they climb for the Descriptive inventories may be divided sky. I appreciate them in the fall when into two classes: routed and areal. The heathers become coppery and even the routed inventory uses a road, trail or spagnum is full of color, and the pit- stream as the location of a traveling obser- cher plants stand bold and tall as they ver, limiting attention to the landscape change from summer's green to red. within the visual corridor. The visual cor- (Olson 1976, p. 85) ridor is the bounded area visible to the observer; it includes invisible pockets. In The foregoing examples of landscape des- hilly or mountainous terrain, the routed cription represent a variety of purposes. inventory tends to have a restricted cor- But from them we may develop better contem- ridor in which intensive detail may be rec- porary descriptions for application to land- orded. For example, the 15-mile inventory scape analysis and land planning. between Shaver and Huntington Lakes, Sierra National Forest, California, (Litton 1968) includes 37,500 acres in the visual corridor DESCRIPTIVE VISUAL INVENTORIES but three-fourths of that seen area is less than 3 miles from that road. Areal inven- Landscape inventories, based upon des- tories may be of any scale or extent, hence cription, are rational documentations of they may contain detail varied to suit observed landscape. They are the foundation either broad planning purposes or those of for succeeding assessment and analytical intensive design. In three examples of area interpretation. They are not assessments. inventories, a Lake Tahoe study covers the Professionally prepared, they need to be 315 square miles of the lake watershed, a objective representations of the landscape British Columbia study is of 10,000 square at a known point in time. What does objec- miles, and a Northern Great Plains visual tivity mean in this instance? It means that study samples the landscapes within a base line information is provided, that the 235,000-square-mile area. It is important landscape is represented in a straightfor- to note that each of the area examples above ward way as it may be seen, not as it may be are subdivided into subordinate parts or judged to have particular values. It means units. that the inventory elements and criteria are clearly identified. Brewer's means of des- Any inventory, routed or areal, becomes cribing landscape may be useful here--he more useful and more representative of land- used simple unbiased language that provide scape variations if it is divided into vis- clear images. ual units. Definitions of units depend upon spatial characteristics of land forms and An objective inventory further means the vegetation or upon presence of a visually observer identifies typical landform, vege- consistent (or homogeneous) set of ele- tation, water, and land use elements that ments. In an intensive research project are characteristic for a study area. Visual combining landscape design, plant ecology, patterns and relationships among these four and silvicultural objectives,3/ 200 acres elements are most important to identify. of forested roadside are being manipulated These may be represented from sampling and and studied along 3 miles of highway; land- portrayed through photographs and drawings. scape units of the study consist of nine It is not a visual inventory if it does not visual reaches or spatial segments of the have graphic representation. Most land- road and its roadside. The Lake Tahoe in- scapes will also have some atypical ele- ventory (Litton 1971) is built upon terrain ments, such as landforms of unusual contour enclosures with side spurs and cohesive sky- or scale, cascades of fast water, or coves lines, upon conspicuous peaks or lake fea- of old, mature trees; these are the more tures, and upon distinctive or consistent distinctive things easiest to identify and vegetation mosaics; there are 20 visual record. While graphic examples represent units which vary in size from 4 to 40 square what both typical and atypical parts of the miles. The British Columbia visual re- landscape look like, a map and descriptive sources study contains 125 units which are narrative give coordination to the inventory. Another way for the professional to 3/ maintain objectivity is to consider that the McDonald, Philip M. and R. Burton integrity of the typical or ordinary lands- Litton, Jr. 1976. Landscape Management - cape combined with the atypical or extraor- Silvicultural Prescription for Enhancing the dinary landscape is necessary to maintain Scenic View from a Highway in the Mixed- overall scenic quality. The protection of Conifer Forest Type. (Study Plan Title) only special or unusually scenic places Pacific Southwest Forest & Range Exp. Stn., --what ever they may be--would be to make Berkeley, Calif. Project now in progress on the landscape a museum piece. the Plumas Nat. Forest.

topographic enclosures "Each with its own that they be expressed in tangible ways ex- distinct visual character and degree of pressive of landscape values. Otherwise the unity." (Tetlow and Sheppard 1977, p. 9), visual assessment is not made intelligible and in size they range from 12 to 275 square to the reader. The abstract concepts of miles. form, space, and color need, then, to be tied to landforms, vegetation, water, and The Northern Great Plains study (Litton land use patterns--the basic physical ele- and Tetlow 1979) proposes a conceptual set ments of visual landscape. of four different kinds of visual units. Two of them, called "continuities" and "pro- It is unfortunately true that visual vinces," are broad and generalized, use rep- assessments are prone to omit values that etition of consistent landforms, water, veg- may be attributed to dynamics of the land- etation and land use patterns for identifi- scape. These are the long and short term cation, and cover hundreds to thousands of changes of visual image (and of aesthetic square miles. The other two, called "units" impact) due to factors such as season, and "settings," are based upon topographic weather, animal life, or vegetation's suc- enclosures and other landscape features; cessional progression. Descriptive litera- they cover a few to tens of square miles per ture suggests that seasonal aspects of land- unit. scape or its apparent modification by weather and light may indeed make the most indel- LANDSCAPE EVALUATIONS ible impressions upon the observer. Refer- ence to the "ephemeral landscape" has been a Two kinds of evaluations may follow the personal attempt to recognize this idea visual inventory. They are professional (Litton 1968). Additionally, the sequential judgments by landscape architects and envi- movement of an observer through the land- ronmental planners and the summation of pre- scape, both in time and space, may profound- ferences expressed by interested citizens, ly alter a person's sense of scenic values. making use of public participation proce- The reasons for omitting these several dures. In both situations, simpler visual things from evaluations are simple enough. values (or relationships) are usually sub- We do not know how to do it; or prospects stituted for fuller and more complex aesthe- for agreement are poor. Here is another set tic values. Yet it is very questionable of interesting dilemmas about landscape that visual and aesthetic values can ever be evaluation. entirely separated from one another. This question about the nature of values poses Definition of visual inventory units, one of the most fundamental dilemmas of within the context of a regional landscape landscape assessment. ("character type," "characteristic landscape," USFS 1974, p. 5-7) not only improves Criteria used in professional evaluation the inventory, but it is essential in making are fundamentally derived from design, aes- comparative qualitative assessments among thetics, and observational perception. The units. It assures that systematic applica- Visual Management System (USFS 1974) and the tion of adopted criteria is applied to all Visual Resource Management guides (USBLM area subdivisions. Visual sub-units have a 1976) both name line, form, color, and tex- greater tangibility than do a whole study ture as criteria; but then they are exempli- area, especially if the area is large. fied by occurrences and relationships found Overall evaluation is more logically devel- in nature. My preference has been to use oped as a sum from tangible parts than the aesthetic criteria of unity, vividness, emerging full blown from a total study area. and variety (1972), but I have tried to lend reality to these through interpretations of Qualitative and quantitative evaluations how they may exist in the landscape. It is need comment. Professional evaluations are absolutely essential that these abstract primarily qualitative even if quantitative 4/ terms and others not remain esoteric and means of assessment are applied. Qualita- tive judgments normally express the results of using criteria which are not themselves 4/ Line is also edge, contour or silhou- readily reduced to simple or precise numeri- ette. Form includes space and shape. Color cal values. Quantitative procedures, parti- includes hue or chroma, brilliance and cularly applied to different visual units, value. Texture is but one part of surface can systematically measure such things as variance and patterns. Then there are rela- relative relief, mosaic unit areas of var- tionships of scale-proportion-relative size, ious vegetation types, or numbers and cover- of dominance and subordination, of unity- age of water bodies. The results of such harmony-discord, of richness-diversity-var- measurements are most useful in drawing sys- iety, of vividness-imageability-novelty, of tematic comparisons among differing compo- contrast and of repetition, etc. nents in different units; their rankings as

to visual value still call for qualitative values (Zube et al. 1974) which are not judgment. safely attributed to other regions. It is also a point of caution that participatory The use of arbitrary (or relative) num- evaluations may change over time. Present bers to represent visual/aesthetic criteria opinions about landscape values should not is common and useful. Assumed numerical eliminate choices to be expressed in the values do not produce quantitative evalua- future. tions and they should not be so termed. They do (or should) produce comparative After evaluations are made, whatever evaluations. Arbitrary numbers are merely their origin, the question remains about labels which are no better than the criteria what decisions are most appropriate for they represent or the reliability with which landscape units of different value. Where they are used. Where such numbers are high quality is identified--and it is apt to weighted or multiplied, as opposed to being be a rare thing--it is clear enough that simply summed, they are especially apt to go special planning and design efforts are astray. called for. But it would be an error to spend most of a planning-design-management The Northeast Coal Study Area of British budget to protect a relatively small piece Columbia (Tetlow and Sheppard 1977) is a of a large landscape. Because ordinary good example of using relative ranking num- landscapes are regionally typical over broad bers to draw careful, methodic scenic com- sweeps of country, it seems most appropriate parisons among a large number of units. to put most of the planning and management Their criteria are well identified, con- effort into maintaining their kinds of vis- ceived in the context of the region, and ual integrity. Otherwise the landscape final rankings are the result of profes- falls apart, losing overall aesthetic qual- sional judgment. The criteria and their ity. representative numbers are used only by the professionals involved--the question of un- reliability due to application by a dif- LANDSCAPE INVENTORIES FOR ferent set of judges is avoided. RESEARCH AND MONITORING

Community participation in identifica- The professionally prepared landscape tion of perceived values of landscape re- inventory, properly done, represents work of quires psychological or sociological analy- a qualified and experienced practitioner--an sis. Because of conflicting political views expert's product. This same inventory with and administrative/legal restrictions, it is its supporting elements may also be consid- virtually impossible for public agencies to ered as hypothetical, being subject to exam- conduct social response studies on public ination for validity or additional re- land. As a consequence, most of this kind search. Landscape concepts of inventory of insight must come from academic research; elements such as landform features or spa- it is a restricted endeavor. Workshops, tial enclosures (Litton 1972) were the sub- such as conducted by the National Park Ser- ject of perceptual validation by psycholo- vice (1978) or by professional consultants, gist Kenneth Craik (1972); results showed a are currently the most prevalent means of high level of agreement between the visual soliciting citizens' opinions and seeking perception of lay persons and that of the their preferences. Preferences are, how- professional. In another example of psycho- ever, generalized judgments; and include a logical research directed toward landscape complex of variables in which visual ele- displays, visual relationships of elements ments are elusive. It is more feasible to found in the riparian environment of the conduct workshops on management and design Connecticut River Valley are the subjects of alternatives than it is for every problem of perceptual response and evaluation (Zube et landscape quality evaluation. al. 1974).

Much work is needed to establish cor- Combined research between the disci- relations between physical-visual landscape plines of plant ecology and landscape archi- criteria used by professionals and perceptual tecture was referred to earlier (McDonald values identified in public workshops or and Litton). In this project, landscape participatory testing. Reinforcement of prescriptions to manipulate the visual rela- visual analysis procedures would result as tionships within the roadside forest land- validity of criteria is cross-checked. It scape are being combined with silvicultural should be anticipated that participatory techniques. The research could be called evaluations or research will reflect local "recreational silviculture." Inventories of

82 existing vegetation with sample plots and of the subject of landscape amenity within an visual landscape recorded the original con- EIS is treated in superior fashion, the re- ditions before either visual prescriptions port is not often readily obtainable and or silvicultural treatments were developed. drops out of sight when the immediate pur- A "View Enhancement Plan" now represents the poses of hearings and review are satisfied. joint objectives. It is a detailed study The opportunity is lost for the substantial along 3 miles of road. Being in the Sierra amenity report to contribute to improvement Nevada mixed conifer forest, the vegetative of the analytical process. mosaic is complex. Already identified is a clear necessity for flexibility in how pres- The aesthetics resource analysis of the criptions may be altered or shifted for best Upper Susitna River, Alaska, part of an en- compatibility to specific plant aggregations. vironmental report (Jones and Jones 1975), is thorough and excellent. It is built upon The landscape inventory with visual sam- visual analysis. Four proposed dams and ples is a device for monitoring the appear- reservoirs are the sources of developmental ance of natural and man-made change over impact. River landscape units are identi- time. Individual changes in the landscape fied and comparative visual evaluations are may seem insignificant but their accumula- made within and among units. Aesthetic val- tion over time can be seriously degrading. ues are equated to visual values and rela- No judgment about shifting changes in qual- tionships. Four criteria are used. They ity is possible without the visual base line are vividness (memorability), intactness of how the landscape looked at a specific (relative apparent naturalness), encroach- time in the past. ment (presence of degradation), and uniqueness (relative scarcity). Conclusions in- This kind of record is also desirable clude a comparison of the visual-aesthetic for legal purposes where litigation seeks impacts of alternative planning proposals. proof demonstrating a magnitude of degrada- In summary, the report is a good indication tion or loss of landscape values. Addition- that the abstract generalities of environ- ally, changes in visual character may pro- mental aesthetics can be logically and tan- vide initial clues that other less visible gibly developed through the use of visual changes of environmental quality are taking landscape analysis. place. Visual impact predictions are the fit or misfit between development alternatives and ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT REPORTS AND the landscape's visual vulnerability--its VISUAL IMPACT PREDICTION relative sensitivity to degrading change. Results of visual impact investigation may Environmental analyses and associated take one of two forms. The points and impact statements require consideration of places within the study area can be identi- landscape aesthetics. The National Environ- fied where greatest visual alteration is mental Policy Act of 1969 calls for "... expected--a "red flag" procedure. Or im- esthetically and culturally pleasing sur- pacts may be portrayed by visual simulation; roundings." (Sec 101(b)2) and insuring that graphic or photographic images are made to "... presently unquantified environmental represent changes as they may be seen in the amenities and values may be given appropri- context of surrounding landscape. ate consideration in decisionmaking..." (Sec 102(B)). State environmental acts somewhat In environmental impact studies, gen- similarly make this a responsibility. Even eralized planning or design choices, such as so, environmental analyses and impact state- alternative highway corridors or dam sites, ments per se have contributed unevenly to mean that visual impact predictions must be the improvement of amenity resource analy- approximations made in the absence of speci- sis. Reasons for this are several. The fic design and construction details. When problem is esoteric, and frequently the aes- the impact source is known in principle thetics sections of EIS's are mediocre. rather than detail, using the concept of Professional inadequacy is a frequent cause visual vulnerability and "red flagging" of poor performance or a low priority is seems a sensible approach. In brief, visual given to the amenity section by those re- vulnerability evaluation (Litton 1974) makes sponsible for the preparation of the whole use of three categories of information. environmental report. Public response, how- They are: identification of special land- ever, suggests that the matter of scenic scape compositions and landscape units of quality and amelioration of impacts is of higher quality, sensitive places and loca- significant concern (Gallup 1978). Where tions in the landscape, and inherent condi-

83 tions and their surrounding influences. A much more sophisticated means of pre- When landscape units have been qualitatively senting alternative design solutions and evaluated, protection of highly valued areas their visual impacts is by use of the envi- should be an obvious priority. Units of ronmental simulator. One is in use at the high visual quality may also include special College of Environmental Design, University compositions such as conspicuous "enclosed," of California, Berkeley, under the direction "feature," or "focal" landscape types of Professor Donald Appleyard. In brief, a (Litton 1968 p. 26-35). Sensitive places scale model of urban or rural landscape is and locations in the landscape include sky- made, including the modifications which rep- lines, water edge zones, edges between con- resent a particular design solution, such as trasting vegetation types, open faces, and a freeway, park, or shopping center. Using higher locations upon the terrain. Inherent a movie or video camera suspended from a conditions include factors such as steep carriage system, a movie is made from the topographic slopes, soil color contrasts, viewing level of an automobile or a pedes- and degree of complexity of the vegetation trian, following any route desired. The mosaic. Surrounding influences include degree of realism is remarkable, and the orientation affecting visibility and plant dynamic presentation simulates the way we regeneration, climate, and differential re- normally see our surroundings. The simula- sponses to seasonal change. When visual tor is a tool for basic research in percep- vulnerability evaluation of visual impact is tion. It has application to everyday design applied to a particular locality, criteria problems. Its visual products are being used need to be modified to suit the circum- to compare reality with simulation, lay stances. perception with that of professionals, and also to present design proposals to public Another way of considering relative vis- groups for their response. (Appleyard 1977) ual impact is found in Jacob and Way's study of visual absorption capability (1969). VISUAL CONTROLS IN LANDSCAPE Similar in some ways to the concept of vis- PLANNING AND DESIGN ual vulnerability, visual absorption is the potential for developmental changes to be It is unfortunate that environmental absorbed (or screened) by vegetation and impact statements and attendant landscape topography. Set in the New England land- analyses carry the implication of single scape, the relative visibility of typical project--short term use. In a longer term houses is examined in the surroundings of view of the landscape and sustaining its young deciduous forest and low coastal hills. varied qualities, landscape inventories and assessments of region and locality are tools Visual impact prediction carried to the to affect visual controls in landscape plan- level of visual simulation is possible when ning and design. Through monitoring and alternative design solutions are known in revision, landscape analyses should keep up some detail and are applied to specific with the dynamics of change, whether those sites. One approach is to use landscape of wildfire, insect infestation, or timber control points (Litton 1973). These are set harvesting. Similarly, visual controls viewing points from which a rather extensive within resource planning and administration landscape may be seen and from which draw- should be subject to refinement as time ings may be made to show proposed changes. passes. Alteration of landscape policies Not only may the components of the proposal should reflect better identification of be altered to reflect different design solu- priorities. In many respects we are only tions, but their visualization may be shown beginning to recognize that the whole land- from several different control points. scape is a scenic resource--not just the While this is a conventional device used by rare and spectacular. The procedures now architects and landscape architects to show being developed to protect the landscape are a client what proposed designs will look still crude. Improvement is needed. like, the idea can be applied to review by resource management, to professionals from Visual controls can be categorized as different disciplines, or to public meetings general goals within landscape planning and to solicit the reactions of interested design policies within landscape design. citizens. It is assumed that drawings will The two are interdependent because there is be reasonably accurate representations (in the chicken/egg relationship between plan- the sense of being professional and ning at broader, regional scale and design ethical). It is essential that several al- at smaller, local scale. One is not more ternatives be prepared so that their display important than the other. results in a useful interchange of positive and negative responses.

Landscape Planning Goals unit scale. Compatible relationships between the visual components of the landscape General goals are the expressed inten- and the components of site projects are then tions to protect the visual qualities of a the source of design policies. Form, shape, regional landscape. To address the visual space, color, line/edge, texture, mass and integrity of a large area means to account size are both landscape descriptors and de- for the landscape management intentions sign tools. Similarly such words as propor- within a set of identified sub-areas or tion, scale, pattern, location/dispersion, units. Control goals may be defined through contrast, dominance/subordinance, weight/ the degree of change allowable with the dom- balance, and repetition express relation- ination of natural characteristics at one ships seen in the landscape and those end of the scale and man-made domination at created in various design projects. Dynamic the other end. Some years ago (1972) I sug- and temporal changes also apply equally to gested that the following list of terms landscape and effects of design. It is could be used to express this idea: re-emphasized that the abstract words of design do need interpretation to describe Preservation and fit the context of the local landscape. Protection/Retention/Maintenance Alteration/Modification Design policy concepts--expressive of Rehabilitation/Restoration compatible relationships--may be suggested Degradation/Deterioration/Destruction by combinations from the following illustra- tive list: Such words adopted as goals mean nothing without further elaboration. It is essen- Proportional similarity tial that they be graphically expressed, Pattern emulation using landscape displays representative of Color contrast limitation different regional landscapes and their sub- Dominant line attitudes ordinate, local units. Even graphic dis- Scale replication/compatibility/ plays need explanation because the visual subordinance image may not carry the same message to all Shape/edge types and linkages viewers. National Forest Service landscape Location/dispersion pattern management (1974) has adopted general goals Recovery/temporal phases patterned after the list above, calling them Form and shape complements "visual quality objectives" (p. 28). Dis- cretion has led to omission of "deteriora- In theory, design policies which promote tion" and "destruction" as responsible goals either conspicuous or inconspicuous man-made even if experience shows that these condi- changes can be equally satisfactory; both tions are easily enough obtained. can have high visual quality. In present wildlands, the more acceptable model is the Landscape Design Policies one with changes held subordinate to surrounding landscape. Eventually, judging Design policies are built upon design from European models and anticipating a time solutions which appear visually most appro- when planning and design are improved, more priate at specific sites within unit scale dominant man-made changes should become more landscapes. All of the usual resource mani- acceptable. Some of our wildlands will then pulations are the design subjects, including have become akin to rural agricultural land- roads, power corridors, timber harvest, scapes. mining, vegetation type conversions, administrative centers, recreational facilities, mining, and water resources structures. CONCLUSIONS Then there needs to be scrutiny of the visual interrelationships between individual Descriptive landscape analysis is now site projects or manipulations and their serving a variety of purposes. Visual in- adjacent neighbors within landscape units. ventories and assessments, while in need of In both space and over time, visual rela- improvements by research, do contribute to tionships need critical analysis if we are environmental aesthetics, visual impact pre- to improve visual management. diction, landscape planning goals, design policies, perceptual and other research. The landscape inventory/assessment again Landscape planning and management for the represents the physical components of the scenic resource is actively developing but scenic environment. Tangibility of visual will improve as experience and research pro- elements should be greatest at the site and vides improved foundations.

In summary, some ten major points of ues within environmental impact studies. this paper may be emphasized. When such studies do contain a worthwhile treatment of aesthetics, they are not Roots of landscape description especial- usually easy to obtain, meaning the loss or ly relevant to visual inventories can be burial of potentially good analytical discovered in the literature of different methods. geographic regions and of natural history. Descriptive landscape analyses have ap- Objectivity of landscape description and plication to development of both general of related inventories is a professional landscape planning goals and more detailed responsibility. It rests upon astute field landscape design policies. Balance is needed observation and straight-forward documenta- since design and planning represent tion of both typical and atypical landscape related parts of a single planning process. elements.

Landscape evaluations cannot be made LITERATURE CITED without prior inventories. Evaluation criteria need to be clearly expressed and have Appleyard, Donald to be tangibly related to the landscape 1977. Understanding professional media In being studied. Identification of visual Altman and Wohwill, eds., Human behavior units within an area assists the evaluation. and Environment, Plenum Press, New York.

Quantitative landscape evaluations are Brewer, William H. frequently misnamed. Many visual elements 1966. Up and down California, 1860 - 1864. and relationships can be measured and 570 p. University of California Press, scaled, but resulting assessments are com- Berkeley and Los Angeles. parative rather than quantitative. Qualita- tive approaches are the norm for present Craik, Kenneth, H. landscape evaluations. 1972. Appraising the objectivity of landscape dimensions, p. 292-346, In Preference evaluations of landscape Natural environments, John V. Krutilla, quality expressive of public participation ed. 352 p. John Hopkins Press, Balti- are extremely difficult to obtain for public more, Md. (for Resources for the Future, lands. Expressions of preference also con- Inc.) tain many hidden dimensions. Workshop procedures are successful in seeking public Dutton, Clarence E. response to planning, design, and management 1882. Tertiary history of the Grand Canon alternatives. district. Monographs of the U.S. Geol. Survey Vol 11. Gov. Print. Off., Wash- Physical-visual landscape criteria used ington, D.C. by landscape architects need to be correla- ted to perceptual values of an interested Gallup Organization, Inc. public. Values identified for a certain 1978. National opinions concerning the locale cannot be dependably attributed to California Desert Conservation Area. other places. Perceptual values can also be Report to U.S. Dept. of Interior, Bur. expected to shift over time. of Land Management. 20 p. The Gallup Organization, Inc., Princeton, NJ. Descriptive visual inventories represent tools for several kinds of combined research Jacobs, Peter, and Douglas Way in psychometrics, plant ecology, and re- 1969. Visual analysis of landscape source management planning. Their use is development. Dept. of Landscape Archi- not restricted to immediate problems of tecture, Harvard University, Cambridge, landscape planning. Mass.

Visual impact prediction, varying in Jones, Grant, and Ilsa Jones degrees of generality or specificity, can be 1975. Environmental, ecological, and addressed through a variety of available aesthetic resources of the Upper Susitna techniques. Reliability of different pre- River, Alaska. Report to the U.S. Army diction methods needs to be validated. Corps of Engineers, Jones and Jones, Seattle, Wash. Visual analysis techniques provide a rational means of indicating aesthetic val-

Leopold, Aldo Repton, Sir Humphrey 1949. A Sand County almanac. Oxford 1792. Anthony House. v. 2. In The Univ. Press, New York. redbooks of Humphrey Pepton. 1976. Edward Malins, ed. Basilisk Press, Litton, R. Burton, Jr. London. 1968. Forest landscape description and inventories - a basis for land planning Olson, Sigurd F. and design. USDA Forest Serv. Res. 1976. Reflections from the north country. Paper PSW-49. 64 p., illus. Pacific 172 p. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. Southwest Forest and Range Exp. Stn., Berkeley, Calif. Tetlow, Robert J. and Stephen R. J. Sheppard 1977. Visual resources of the northeast Litton, R. Burton, Jr. coal study area 1976 - 1977. 147 p., 1971. Visual landscape units of the Lake illus. Ministry of the Environment, Tahoe Region. p. 6-14. In Scenic Province of British Columbia, Victoria, analyses of the Lake Tahoe Region. Canada. Tahoe Regional Planning Agency and For- Thoreau, Henry David est Service, USDA, South Lake Tahoe, 1854. Walden. The New American Libr. of Calif. World Literature 1960, Signet, New York. Litton, R. Burton, Jr. 1972. Aesthetic dimensions of the USDA Forest Service landscape. p. 262-291. In Natural en- 1974. National forest landscape manage- vironments, John V. Krutilla, ed. 352 ment V. 2, Ch. 1 The visual management p., illus. John Hopkins Press, Balti- system. 47 p. USDA Agric. Handbook 462. more, Md. (for Resources for the Washington, Imo. Future, Inc.) USDI, Bureau of Land Management Litton, R. Burton, Jr. 1976. Visual resource management (Admin. 1973. Landscape control points, a proce- Man., Sec. 8423) Bureau of Land Manage- dure for predicting and monitoring vis- ment, Washington, Imo. ual impacts. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Paper PSW-91. 22 p., illus. Pacific USDI, National Park Service Southwest Forest and Range Exp. Stn., 1978. Yosemite National Park, summary of Berkeley, Calif. the general management plan. 42 p., illus. NPS, Yosemite, Calif. Litton, R. Burton, Jr. 1974. Visual vulnerability of forest Zube, Ervin H., David G. Pitt, and Thomas W. landscape. J. For. 72(7):392-397. Anderson 1974. Perception and measurement of scenic Litton, R. Burton, Jr., and Robert J. Tetlow resources in the Southern Connecticut 1978. A landscape inventory framework: River Valley. 191 p., illus. Institute scenic analyses of the Northern Great of Man and His Environment, University Plains. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Paper of Mass., Amherst, Mass. PSW-135 (in press). Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Exp. Stn., Berkeley, Calif.

Computers and the Landscape1

2/ Gary H. Elsner

Abstract: Computers can analyze and help to plan the visual aspects of large wildland landscapes. This paper categor- izes and explains current computer methods available. It also contains a futuristic dialogue between a landscape architect and a computer.

INTRODUCTION To illustrate the size of one million acres, assume the area is square. If you Computers can do routine things, such as started on a walk to visit each acre and balance checkbooks, calculate transportation walked continuously at the rate of 4 miles costs, and send you bills. How can a compu- per hour, it would take you 1 year, 1 month ter possibly assist in the challenging, es- and 17 days. thetic area of landscape planning? This paper discusses the current role of computers in landscape planning and suggests pos- ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN sibilities for the future. VISUAL LANDSCAPE ANALYSIS

Size of the Job The implication of the above discussion for landscape analysis is that any problem If we consider that wildlands constitute requiring an area to be consistently ana- 1.6 billion acres of the United States or lyzed will usually require a lot of field approximately 66 percent of our land area, work, or a lot of data collection, or both, then it follows that landscape planning for and will result in masses of data. Often this area is a big job. As we have heard the field work can be minimized through wise from R. Burton Litton, the largest public sampling, but usually data on the visual land management agencies have recommended properties must be maintained and analyzed approaches for planning the large areas they to make tradeoffs with other uses. The re- administer. But the actual job of landscape sult: a computer robot may be a helpful analysis and planning usually is done by one friend. or two people on each administrative unit. For the Forest Service this typically means Consider an example of determining that these people have the job of analyzing scenic complexity. The analyst suggests about a million acres of land. And for the that several variables must be considered Bureau of Land Management it typically means and that these variables working together, several million acres for one or two peo- determine scenic complexity. Furthermore, ple. Other agencies, private industry, and he knows some specific sites--control States often have a job of equal or greater points--that are highly complex and some magnitude. that are uniform. A simple approach to analyzing the entire area would be to prepare a map for each of the basic variables and com- 1/ bine these in various ways until the result- Presented at the National Conference on ing map produced complexity indices matching applied Techniques for Analysis and Manage- those of the known control points. ment of the Visual Resource, Incline Vil- lage, Nevada, April 23-25, 1979. Now consider how a computer can handle

2/ the mechanical and bookkeeping aspects of Project Leader, Land Use and Landscape this job. Suppose a transect of known val- Planning Research Unit, Pacific Southwest ues has been determined and the basic vari- Forest and Range Experiment Station, Forest ables for the transect and the remainder of Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, the area have been mapped. The computer may Berkeley, CA.

combine such variables as topographic com- It is usually one irregular contiguous area plexity, vegetation complexity, and accessi- around the proposed development site with bility with different weightings until it seen area "islands" scattered about; for reproduces the known transect. Then the examples, mountain tops. computer can use the same formula to determine automatically the scenic complexity for For more complex situations--for ex- the remainder of the 1 million acres and ample, a proposed roadway or an aerial prepare maps of the entire area. tram--the computer can determine the seen area from the multitude of points that com- Grid and Polygon Overlay Mapping prise the route. The computer can easily overlay each of these separate analyses to Computers can perform two types of over- produce an intensity map of seen areas, a lay mapping. One general type is called map that is frequently referred to as a grid mapping; another type is called polygon times-seen map. This more complicated anal- mapping. These types can be combined; for ysis is particularly useful in deciding example, input data is in grid form and the where to allocate the most design effort and printout appears as a line-drawn polygon map; where to locate landscape control points. or, data is input by digitizing polygons and It can also be used to help answer many more the printout consists of overlays in grid complex questions; for example, comparing form and polygon maps. one route with another on the basis of diversity of scenery and viewing (Travis and Overlay mapping is a valuable tool in others 1975). dealing with the many variables involved in landscape analysis as well as in incorporating these results into the total job of ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN VISUAL LANDSCAPE land-use planning. PORTRAYAL

Psychometric and Social Science Analyses Suppose a manager asks the landscape architect to show him how a proposed micro- Any type of observer-based analysis con- wave relay station will appear from six de- cerning landscape preferences will generate veloped campgrounds, four major intersec- large amounts of basic data. Both question- tions, three staging areas for hiking naire and interview approaches typically trails, and a planned residential area. The gather subjective data from several hundred manager insists that he wants accurate por- people on from 10 to 100 points of investi- trayals. From some of the fourteen view- gation. For a typical study this will points only part of the relay station will amount to from 1000 to more than 10,000 sep- be visible and from others it will be total- arate pieces of data to be considered. To ly visible. It will always be a different save time, computers are used extensively, apparent size, however, because each of the in analyzing this data. The methods include 14 viewing points is a different viewing factor analysis, Chi-square tests, and other distance from the proposed station. Avail- approaches to testing hypotheses as well as able computer programs can determine visi- an array of methods for summarizing the data bility and prepare an accurate, scaled and generalizing results. drawing of the relay station from each of the 14 points. The computer can easily re- In addition to the psychometric methods, peat the process if a differently designed computers are used extensively in many so- station is proposed later or if the location cial science methods. The objectives of of the station has been shifted. these studies range from testing a simple hypothesis to developing a complex predic- When developments, rehabilitations, or tion or simulation model of landscape pref- other activities are planned, managers and erences, enjoyment, or many other aspects of public often want to see how they will ap- the landscape environment. pear before they decide to take action. For the wildland situation we are usually talk- Seen Area Analyses ing about "simulating" a scene that may have a vista of 20 miles or more. At this dis- Because the "landscape" is often defined tance both the earth's curvature and light as that area which is visible, it is fre- refractions become significant problems in quently necessary to prepare a map of the preparing an accurate portrayal. Computers "seen areas." For a single proposed devel- can take these two variables into account opment the map simply shows from which areas automatically and can also automatically the development could be seen or not seen. draw the correct relative size of the pro-

posed change and determine what portions of A FUTURE SCENARIO: the change will be visible. LANDSCAPE ARCHITECT AND COMPUTER DIALOGUE

Two computerized approaches are: (a) I believe that the extent to which com- scenes drawn totally by computer, and (b) puters are used in landscape planning will modifications only drawn by computer and increase dramatically in the next 5 years overlaid on color photographs. Either ap- and that the usefulness will surpass most proach typically requires considerable elap- all of our current expectations. The fol- sed time in putting together all the data lowing fictional dialogue between a future that represent the topography, the vegeta- landscape architect and his friendly com- tion, and the planned modification, and mak- puter suggests several potential uses and ing the first accurate picture. After the implies priorities for research and develop- first picture has been made, it is usually ment. easy and quick to change viewing locations or the design of the modification, or both, Landscape Architect: "What's the status of and produce additional simulated pictures. the landscape this morning?" One often chooses to use a computerized portrayal technique when examining many views Computer: "Generally things are in pretty or many designs or when an area is subject good shape. The blowdown we've been predic- to frequent developmental pressures of all ting for the last several days has oc- types. curred. Strong winds were accompanying the rainstorm we were having. It's over in both The approach of drawing the scene total- quadrants, 23F and 24F. The extent of the ly by computer has the ability to portray blowdown is about 30 acres. I detected it topography, vegetation, and modifications, this morning about 12:35 a.m. from satellite but may need to have color added by an art- reconnaissance. The visual impact of the ist to make the scene appear realistic and blowdown does not seem to be too signifi- not abstract. Using the computer to draw cant. I've calculated the visibility and it's only the modification, and then overlaying not visible from any major road or any and drawing the modification accurately on a section of the trail system in the forest or color photograph, has the advantages of any developed recreation area, or any areas maintaining the accuracy of the computer planned for development in the next 10 rendition and the realistic qualities of the years. Here's a draft of the paperwork for color photography. competitive bid on the salvage sale."

The previous discussion has defined var- Landscape Architect: "Please change the ious roles for computers in the area of minimum bid considered from 4 to 6 million landscape planning. Specifically, the dis- dollars. Then please route this draft form cussion has highlighted several categories electronically to the timber sale officer's within the areas of visual landscape analy- CRT. sis and portrayal (fig.1). All of the applications in this discussion are presently Were there any other major activities in use by a relatively small group of spe- last night?" cialists and are available for use by a wider audience. Computer: "Local police radio reported a traffic accident on Highway 79 next to the campground area that resulted in damage to several small trees and moderate damage to one large tree. You may want to do a ground inspection of this area later in the day; it may be on the same route with inspection of the blowdown."

"After 1 a.m. there was no apparent action to the landscape within the forest boundaries so I automatically set my program to scan the incoming electronic mail. From this search it appears that we will receive a formal request for extending the highway. Later this morning they will propose crossing the northeast corner of the forest. I Figure 1--Computer applications in landscape checked your Supervisor's schedule and he planning will not be available for a meeting until 10

a.m. I made a tentative appointment. I did Key Scenario Points some additional analyses for you to use in your position paper. I carried out a pre- The question is, what are the technolo- liminary visual analysis of this proposal gical and institutional concerns embodied in and found it will visually impact 23,000 this scenario? acres of our highest scenic quality land • It assumes effective voice activation with high frequencies of viewing, 15,000 for input to computers. acres of medium scenic quality land, and • It assumes the operational development 17,000 acres of low scenic quality land. of dedicated minicomputers. • It assumes that the costs of computers Because I'm not equipped to interface will continue to be less. with the proponent's data files, I had to • In the matter of the blowdown, it as- calculate the construction costs myself. I sumes a monitoring system of the forest, estimate costs will be 42 million dollars." either satellite based or ground based that is linked into a real-time computer Landscape Architect: "Fine, but please system. check your files and show me all proposed • It assumes in the matter of the police routes through this area, for any purpose, report, a verbal communication facility over the last 10 years." to the computer. • It assumes the ability to analyze routes Computer: "Here are several past propo- automatically in terms of scenic impact. sals. The closest to this alignment is the • It assumes the ability to recall pre- proposed expansion to the trail system. The vious statistics in the matter of pro- expansion was not built because the results jected recreational use for trail sys- of our questionnaires showed that there was tems. not sufficient potential traffic or public • It assumes limited capability of design- interest to warrant building the trail." ing its own route for the highway system. • It pinpoints those areas for which spe- Landscape Architect: "Please provide a pre- cial design is absolutely necessary. liminary analysis of putting the highway on • It indicates that the costs of collec- the trail system route." ting new data will continue to be high, and that especially for socio-economic Computer: "The cost of the highway going and preference data, it will be nec- through the valleys, would be about 30 mil- essary to reuse previous data as much as lion dollars. This is a savings of 12 mil- is feasible. lion dollars over the one that will be for- • It predicts that objective data on the mally proposed later today. It would vis- visual resource will become more and ually impact more medium scenic quality land more important and that the public and with high frequencies of viewing. But, it managers will expect to see it in EIS would visually impact 16,000 acres less of documents. our dispersed recreation area. It would • It predicts that administrative complex- also have an extremely good vantage point ities will increase; for example, number for a scenic overlook as it goes over the of necessary forms and number of people ridge into the next valley. concerned with visual resource decisions will increase; high level resource ad- I can calculate additional quantitative ministrators will begin to use computer- results if, you desire. In addition to ized robots to assist in coping with these two alternatives, I'm sure that you this problem. will be able to design modifications that • It predicts an increase in use pres- will be more attractive." sures, of all types, for the land. • It assumes that "man and machine" have Landscape Architect: "I will work on the developed a mature and satisfying rela- modified design later today. In the mean- tionship; this includes both management time, please summarize the visual and econo- levels and analyst levels with computer mic results for these two routes in graphic robots. and tabular form. Have this ready for view- • It assumes that "high-technology tools" ing on the Supervisor's CRT by 10 a.m. to- will be used unevenly by both industry day. Please start a draft EIS and put these and government; that is, only where the summary results in the appropriate sec- value of the resource and the public tions. Also, calculate and show me the demands warrant the expense. minimum time route for visiting the blow- • It assumes that many professionals will down, the campground, and the two alterna- be trained equally well in landscape tive routes for the proposed highway. I'll architecture and computer science; it need to return here in time for the meeting further predicts that there will be an . .'

increased demand for people with this Elsner, Gary H. balanced training. 1976. Quantifying landscape dimensions • It assumes that the design profession for land-use planning. XVI IUFRO World will not be challenged by these computer Congr. Proc. (Div. 6) Oslo, 1976:28-38. robots; rather, the profession will be augmented with additional portrayal and Elsner, Gary H., compiler. analysis tools. 1977. State-of-the-art methods for research, planning, and determining the benefits of outdoor recreation. USDA Forest Serv., Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-20. CONCLUSION: 62 p., illus. Pacific Southwest Forest "Growing" with Computers and Range Exp. Stn., Berkeley, Calif.

The "extended family" concept of the Entzminger, R. A. future will undoubtedly include computers. 1976. MOSAIC/photomontage: a new concept For, like children--we decide to have them to help reclamation planning. Coal Min. or not--and we decide on education (upgrad- and Process. J. 13(6):76-78. ing), health insurance (maintenance con- Litton, R. Burton, Jr. tracts), and we must deal with death or di- 1968. Forest landscape description and in- vorce, or both (trade-ins). ventories--a basis for land planning and design. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Paper Meanwhile, we are going through a learn- PSW-49, 64 p., illus. Pacific Southwest ing experience with this new technology, Forest and Range Exp. Stn., Berkeley, that is often frustrating. Not only are Calif. there queues for the use of computers but also are there dollar costs that we must be Litton, R. Burton, Jr. willing to pay and, indeed, the learning 1973. Landscape Control Points: a proce- experience itself may be trying. dure for predicting and monitoring visual impacts. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Whether computers will play a role in Paper PSW-91, 22 p., illus. Pacific landscape management and planning is not an Southwest Forest and Range Exp. Stn., open question. They already are! The ex- Berkeley, Calif. tent to which the role increases, however will depend on the number of tasks that we Travis, Michael R., Gary H. Elsner, Wayne D. can innovatively assign to the computer and Iverson, and Christine G. Johnson. our ability to teach the computer to carry 1975. VIEWIT: computation of seen areas, them out. slope, and aspect for land-use plan- REFERENCES ning. USDA Forest Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-11, 70 p., illus. Pacific Southwest Arthur, L. M., and R. S. Boster. Forest and Range Exp. Stn., Berkeley, 1976. Measuring scenic beauty: a Calif. selected annotated bibliography. USDA Forest Serv., Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-25, 34 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. p. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Exp. 1973. Aesthetics in environmental plan- Stn., Fort Collins, Colo. ning. EPA-600/5-73-009. U.S. Environ. Protect. Agency, Washington, D.C. Elsner, Gary H. 1977. New techniques for coordinating World Future Society. timber harvesting and esthetic values. 1979. Communications ... dramatic changes In Forests for people: a challenge in ahead. 13(2):80-158, World Future So- world affairs, p. 46-51. Proc., Soc. ciety, Washington, D.C. Amer. For., Washington, D.C. Zube, E. H., R. 0. Brush, and J. G. Fabos, eds. 1975. Landscape assessment--value, perceptions, and resources. 367 p. Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Inc., Stroudsburg, Pa.

Setting Technical Standards for Visual Assessment Procedures1

2/ 3/ Kenneth H. Craik and Nickolaus R. Feimer

Abstract: Under the impetus of recent legislative and administrative mandates concerning analysis and management of the landscape, governmental agencies are being called upon to adopt or develop visual resource and impact assessment (VRIA) systems. A variety of techniques that combine methods of psychological assessment and landscape analysis to serve these purposes is being explored, especially in this country and Great Britain. A rapidly expanding body of research dealing more generally with conceptual and methodological issues in the use of observer-based descriptions and evaluations of landscape can also be identified. Given these trends, the time has arrived to address the matter of establishing technical standards for VRIA systems as a means of fostering and documenting increased levels of reliability, validity, generality and utility and moving towards procedures that are maximally useful and defensible. This developmental process is viewed in an institutional context from the perspective of socio-cultural evolution.

In the decade since the National Environ- National Forest Management Act of 1976, the mental Policy Act of 1969 called for methods Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of and procedures "which will insure that present- 1977 and the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977, ly unquantified environmental amenities and plus the various state-level versions of NEPA. values may be given appropriate consideration In addition, administrative recognition of the in decision-making along with economic and importance of visual impacts can be found at technical considerations," the visual impact the federal level, e.g., in the Department of of land uses upon the landscape has received Agriculture's Forest Service (USDA, Forest Ser- attention in subsequent legislation, including vice 1974, 1975, 1976), in the Department of the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, the the Interior's Bureau of Land Management (USDI, Bureau of Land Management 1975), in the Depart- ment of Transportation's Federal Highway Admin- 1/ Presented at the National Conference on istration (Redding 1971; USDOT, Federal High- Applied Techniques for Analysis and Management way Administration 1977), and in the Water of the Visual Resource, Incline Village, Nevada, Resources Council (U. S. Water Resources Coun- April 23-25, 1979. cil 1973). 2 / Professor of Psychology and Research Psychol- During the same decade, the emergence of ogist, Institute of Personality Assessment and environmental psychology and related fields Research (IPAR), University of California at (Craik 1977, Stokols 1978) has contributed to Berkeley. our understanding of the factors involved in 3 / environmental perception and evaluation, par- At the time of this report, Assistant Research ticularly in the context of observer-based Specialist at the Institute of Personality appraisals of scenic quality (Arthur, Daniel Assessment and Research (IPAR), University of and Boster 1977; Craik and Zube 1976; Lowenthal California at Berkeley; currently, Assistant 1978; Zube, Brush and Fabos 1975). Professor of Psychology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Especially in this country and in Great Virginia. Britain, a vigorous and pertinent literature

93 is being generated on the performance charac- on-site versus simulated presentations, and teristics of techniques devised to describe 5) the degree of generality of the results landscape attributes and to appraise landscape across populations of potential observers that quality. In this country, the work has been is to be expected of the procedure. Third, more or less directly influenced by the legis- organizational factors must be considered, lative and administrative mandates we have al- such as 1) the training requirements for staff ready noted. In Great Britain, these endeavors who make landscape descriptions and evaluations, seem responsive to the evolution of the Town 2) conducting and communicating the landscape and Country Planning Acts and to the 'Country- assessments in a fashion that maximizes their side in 1970' conferences (Cherry 1974, Turner utility and influence within the decision-making 1975). Similar undertakings are in evidence process, and 3) designing and managing an over- in other countries as well, such as Spain and all program of visual resource and impact Australia (e.g., Rodenas, Sancho-Royo and assessment that fully responds to and adequately Gonzalez-Bernaldez 1972; Wright 1974) and at implements the pertinent legislative and admin- the international level in the UN Man and the istrative mandates. Biosphere's Project 13: Perception of Environ- mental Quality (UNESCO 1973). These matters are receiving active scrutiny both within this country (Brush 1976; Landscape description and evaluation emerge Craik 1969, 1971, 1972b, 1975; Daniel 1976; from an interaction between the human observer, Fabos 1971; Hart and Graham 1967; Kaplan 1975; on the one hand, and land form and land use, on Peterson 1976; Wohlwill 1976, 1978) and in the other. Thus, it is not surprising that this Great Britain (Appleton 1976; Clamp 1976; literature constitutes a joining of methods Crofts 1975; Laurie 1975; Lowenthal 1978; drawn from the fields of psychological assess- Price 1976; Unwin 1975). In the United States, ment and landscape analysis. Within a relatively the participation of research psychologists in brief period, various techniques of visual re- this enterprise is more evident; in Great source and impact assessment have been intro- Britain, a practical concern with effective duced, applied and subjected to initial empiri- incorporation of landscape evaluation tech- cal and critical examination. In this country, niques within the planning context is apparent one can note the techniques of Daniel (Daniel in case studies of their application and com- and Boster 1976; Daniel et al. 1975; Schroeder mentary upon them (Blacksell and Gilg 1975; and Daniel in press); Jones (Jones et al. 1975); Brancher 1972; Dunn 1974; Murray 1962; Penning- Leopold (Leopold 1969a, 1969b; Leopold and Rowsell 1974, 1975; Penning-Rowsell and Hardy Marchand 1968; Hamill 1975); Litton (Litton 1973; Turner 1975; Weddle 1969). 1968, 1972, 1974; Craik 1972); Peterson (Peterson and Neumann 1969; Kreimer 1977); Shafer (Shafer In 1975, a series of research workshops 1969; Shafer and Brush 1977; Shafer and Tooby supported by the National Science Foundation 1973; Shafer, Hamilton and Schmidt 1969; Carlson was held at the University of Massachusetts in 1977; Weinstein 1976; West 1969), and Zube (Zube Amherst to examine issues in the use of observer- 1974, 1976; Zube and Mills 1976; Zube, Pitt, and based assessments of environmental quality. A Anderson 1975). In Great Britain, the techniques subsequent volume offers a systematic research of Fines (Fines 1968,1969; Brancher,1969), agenda dealing with 1) the development of scien- Linton (Linton 1968; Gilg 1975) and the Univer- tifically adequate observer appraisal systems sity of Manchester Landscape Research Evaluation for environmental quality; 2) a conceptual model Project (Robinson et al. 1976; Tandy 1977) are of the observer appraisal process, and 3) a con- noteworthy. ceptual model for application of observer appraisals of environmental quality within Any use of observer-based assessments of planning and management contexts; plus an array landscape in planning and management at the of thirty-one major recommendations (Craik and agency level raises a host of conceptual and Zube 1976). methodological issues (Craik 1968, 1972; Craik and Zube 1976). First, the construct of land- We might note that the notion of observer- scape quality must be appropriately formulated based indices, or perceived environmental qual- and then validly captured by standard indices ity indices (PEQI'O, is not limited to visual and methods of assessment. Second, decisions attributes. The construct of perceived environ- about monitoring operations for the purposes mental quality held by individuals can be of resource inventory and impact assessment thoroughly examined for specific domains of must inevitably address such issues as: 1) the settings (e.g., residential environments, coast- selection of observers, 2) the instructional al zones) and then serves as a basis for devis- sets given to observers, 3) the levels of inter- ing indicators of the components of perceived judge reliability to be required of landscape environmental quality. Nevertheless, many descriptions and evaluations, 4) the choice of currently used techniques entail the assumption

94 that visual attributes are certainly an impor- In the field of psychological testing of tant facet of perceived environmental quality. individuals, explicit standards regarding the In any case, appraising the technical adequacy kinds of information that should be available of observer-based indices and the judgments about psychological assessment procedures when they require proceeds in a similar fashion from they are to be used in decision-making have the point of view of psychological assessment evolved over the last twenty-five years (American principles. Psychological Association 1974). In general, current standards establish the expectation that the The Amherst workshops dealt with priorities manuals for aptitude and ability tests, interest for research; this Tahoe conference focuses upon measures, personality inventories and related matters of application. What kinds of observer- procedures will provide information to potential based assessments of landscape quality are re- users on administration and scoring, reliability, quired by the recent legislative and administra- scales and norms, validity, and qualifications tive mandates? What procedures have been and required of users. The detailed specification are being adopted by agencies whose responsibil- of types of information is graded in importance ities entail the analysis and management of from essential to very desirable to desirable, visual resources? How can we gauge the scien- with the essential recommendations reflecting tific adequacy of current techniques and pro- professional and scientific consensus about what cedures and how can we nurture the evolution information is normally required for operational of procedures that are maximally useful and use of the assessment procedures. Specific defensible? forms of applied research are usually required to generate this information for each procedure. At the outset, psychologists and other re- These standards for the technical manuals have searchers contributing to these developments been supplemented since 1933 by the Mental must acknowledge some genuine sympathy for the Measurements Yearbooks (e.g., Buros 1978), which agencies involved and their staffs. The recent provide critical reviews of psychological tests legislation is requiring significant innovation and procedures. and alterations from customary practice. A wide variety of procedures can be anticipated as the These APA standards have emerged gradually various agencies seek to experiment with ways from extensive consultation with professionals of incorporating visual resource and impact and research scientists in the fields of psy- assessment within their operations. They must chological and educational testing, and the con- do so in the face of a lively interdisciplinary sensus about these technical requirements has literature that is indeed pertinent but is both evolved over the years. A similar developmental scattered and rapidly growing. It would not be process can be expected regarding technical difficult to list over 75 reference citations standards for visual resource and impact assess- since 1970 that are essential reading for any- ment systems. Clearly the next step is to one having professional responsibility for de- expect that agency-level manuals will move be- vising, managing or operating a visual resource yond mere description of procedures and forms and impact assessment system. And, finally, to include psychometric findings on reliability, although full evaluation of the on-going techni- validity, generalizability and utility. cal performance and adequacy of these systems entails the application of principles and Brief comment on these technical properties methods of psychological assessment, staff ex- will reveal their practical significance for the pertise in these agencies has tended to fall use of landscape assessment procedures in primarily within the natural sciences and de- decision-making contexts (Daniel 1976; Feimer, sign disciplines. Craik, Smardon and Shepard 1979). The most basic property of any measurement instrument is Given these trends in the analysis and its degree of reliability. Within this context, management of the landscape, the time has come reliable visual resource and impact assessment to address the question of establishing techni- requires substantial agreement among independent cal standards for Visual Resource and Impact observers for the landscape constructs being Assessment (VRIA) systems. In making an in- monitored. Ample evidence exists in the re- formed decision to adopt a VRIA system or to search literature to demonstrate that landscape put into operational use a VRIA system developed descriptions and evaluations can be dependably in-house, agency staff must know what informa- and consistently assessed and need not be arbi- tion it is appropriate to seek and require re- trary or whimsical. However, indices of inter- garding performance characteristics and psy- rater reliability and agreement should provide chometric properties and must apply suitable this empirical assurance for specific monitoring criteria of psychological measurement in techniques. The validation of landscape assess- appraising VRIA systems. ment procedures takes several forms. For

95 example, descriptive and evaluative dimensions criteria are then applied to identify those should differentiate sensitively among landscape new forms that display functional adaptation. conditions, and assessments of simulated impacts Societal mechanisms come into play to retain should accurately forecast actual post- the selected variants, such mechanisms as construction or post-transformation assessments. legitimacy, imitation and diffusion. Subse- The generality of the reliability and validity quently, additional mechanisms for the preser- indices for landscape assessment procedures must vation and duplication of the selected vari- be gauged across the strikingly wide range of ants are mobilized, including sanctions, poli- land form contexts and land use conditions that cies, training programs and socialization into constitute the domain of land management policy the new practices. and decision-making. Similarly, especially in light of the increasing requirement of attention The loosely organized institution of land to public participation, the generality of land- management in this country has been challenged scape assessment results across observer popula- to take account of landscape quality in a sys- tions (including agency staff, interest groups tematic fashion in its decision-making. As and the general public) must be estimated and we have seen, a variety of applied techniques form part of the available information on the for visual resource and impact assessment has operating properties of visual resource and im- been generated and some forms are being tried pact assessment techniques. Finally, the prac- out at the agency level. Several recommenda- tical utility of an assessment system resides tions flow from Campbell's perspective on in the extent to which it usefully forms a part socio-cultural evolution. of the land management process and advances the institutional goal of responding adequately to 1. The variation in types of visual re- legislative and administrative mandates. source and impact assessment procedures should not be prematurely curtailed.

Indeed, new variants should be fostered, We must recognize that despite legislative for it is too soon to be convinced that and administrative mandates to attend to the intent of the various legislative observer-based appraisal of environmental qual- and administrative mandates has been ity, effective incorporation of these amenities fully captured by any of the present and values into agency-level decision-making- systems. A period of experimentation obstacles. We cannot allow technical standards and openness to innovation and critical set at premature or unrealistic levels to gen- analysis is in order. erate discouragement about the entire effort or to offer an excuse for dismissing these consid- 2. Although variation is to be fostered, erations out of hand. Instead, we require a consistent selection criteria should perspective which shows that the specification be specified and applied to sort out and application of technical standards is a those variants that are reliable, valid, necessary and inevitable step in the maturation generalizable, practical and useful of effective visual resource and impact assess- from those that are not. This point ment procedures. Presumably, if there are man- has been our central message today. dates to incorporate visual resources and impacts within the land management process, then 3. Those VRIA systems that meet suitable there follows just as strong an accompanying standards must be retained, transmitted imperative that the job be done well and de- and continued in operation. This phase fensibly. of the process will require training programs and continuing technical man- Perhaps the formulation of socio-cultural agement of the VRIA systems. A new evolution recently offered by one of our psy- corps of technical experts, trained chological colleagues, Donald T. Campbell, will in both psychological assessment and serve this purpose. Socio-cultural evolution landscape analysis will be required to is viewed by Campbell as an adaptive process, serve this function. distinct from biological evolution but displaying parallel attributes, entailing variation Perhaps this last recommendation is the and selective retention of societal and insti- most alarming of all. The prospect of having tutional forms, such as skills, customs, plans, to attend to visual impacts may itself be dis- designs, and procedures (Campbell 1965, 1969, concerting, but having to welcome a new breed 1975). When confronted with a challenge to of environmental psychologists and landscape its equilibrium, an effective society or socie- evaluators will surely be daunting to the tal entity emits a wide variety of efforts to Department of Agriculture, the Department of cope with its new situation, embodying altera- Energy, the Department of the Interior, the tions, innovations and other deviations from Department of Transportation, and other loci customary practice. Consistent selection of federal land management and land use impacts.

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Litton, R. B., Jr. Robinson, D. G., Wager, J. F., Laurie, I. C. 1968. Forest landscape description and inven- and Trail, A. L., eds. tories: Basis for land planning and design. 1976. Landscape evaluation: A report of the U.S.D.A. Forest Serv. Res. Paper PSW-49. Landscape Evaluation Research Project to U.S.D.A. Pacific Southwest Forest and Range the Countryside Commission for England Exp. Stn., Berkeley, California. and Wales, Univ. of Manchester, Manchester, England. Lowenthal, D. 1978. Finding valued landscapes. Environ- Rodenas, M., Sancho-Royo, F., and Gonzalez- mental Perception Research Working Paper Bernaldez, F. No. 4, Inst. Environ. Stud., University 1972. Structures of landscape preferences: of Toronto, Toronto, Canada. A study based on large dams viewed in their landscape setting. Landscape Plan. 2:159- MacKinnon, D. W. 178. 1975. An overview of assessment centers. CCL Technical Report No. 1. Center for Rutherford, W. and Shafer, E. L., Jr. Creative Leadership, Greensboro, North 1969. Selection cuts increased natural Carolina. beauty in two Adirondack forest stands. J. For. 67:415-419. Murray, W. H. 1962. Highland landscape: A survey. National Schroeder, H. W. and Daniel, T. C. Trust for Scotland, Edinburgh, Scotland. In press. Predicting the scenic quality of forest road corridors. Environ. & Behav. Penning-Rowsell, E. C. 1975. Constraints on the application of land- Shafer, E. L., Jr. scape evaluations. Transac. Institute Brit. 1969. Natural landscape preferences: A Geog. 66:149-155. predictive model. A reply. J. Leisure Res. 1:197-198. Penning-Rowsell, E. C. 1974. Landscape evaluation for development Shafer, E. L., Jr. and Brush, R. 0. plans. J. Royal Town Plan. Inst. 60:930-934. 1977. How to measure preferences for photographs of natural landscapes. Landscape Penning-Rowsell, E. C. and Hardy, D. I. Plan. 4:237-256. 1973. Landscape evaluation and planning policy: A comparative survey in the Wye Shafer, E. L, Jr. and Tooby, M. Valley of Outstanding Natural Beauty. 1973. Landscape preference: An international Region. Stud. 7:153-160. replication. J. Leisure Res. 5:60-65.

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U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. Zube, E. H. 1974, 1975, 1977. National forest landscape 1974. Cross-disciplinary and inter-mode management, vol. 2: Chapter 1 - The visual agreement on the description and evaluation management system; Chapter 2 - Utilities; of landscape resources. Environ. & Behav. Chapter 3 - Range; Chapter 4 - Roads. 6:69-89. Agric. handbook numbers 462, 478, 483, 484. U. S. Gov. Print. Office, Washington, D. C. Zube, E. H. and Mills, L. V., Jr. 1976. Cross-cultural explorations in land- U. S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Land scape perception. In Studies in landscape Management. perception. E. H. Zube, ed., p. 162-169. 1975. Bureau of Land Management Manual, Sec- Inst. for Man & Environ., Univ. of Mass., tion 6300: Visual resource management. Amherst, Mass. U.S.D.I. Bureau of Land Management, Washington, D. C. Zube, E. H., Brush, R. O. and Fabos, J. Gy., eds. 1975. Landscape assessment: Values, percep- U. S. Department of Transportation, Federal tions and resources. Dowden, Hutchinson Highway Administration. and Ross, Stroudsburg, Pa. 1977. Esthetics and visual resource management for highways. Fed. Highway Admin., Zube, E. H., Pitt, D. G. and Anderson, T. W. Washington, D. C. 1975. Perception and prediction of scenic resources values of the Northeast. In Land- scape assessment: Values, perceptions and resources. E. H. Zube, R. O. Brush and J. Gy. Fabos, eds., p. 151-167. Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Stroudsburg, Pa. 100

Technology Available to Solve Landscape Problems— Session A: Descriptive Approaches Seeing Desert as Wilderness and as Landscape-An Exercise in Visual Thinking1

2/ JOHN OPIE

Abstract: Based on the components and program of VRVA (Visual Resources Values Assessment), a behavioral history of the visitor's perception of the American desert is examined. Emphasis is placed upon contrasts between traditional eastern "garden-park" viewpoints and contemporary desert scenery experiences. Special attention is given to the influence of John Wesley Powell's writings and the art of Georgia O'Keeffe. The specific region examined is Canyonlands.

One of the most important new commitments assessment literature from England and the Con- of contemporary society has been toward environ- tinent. The task of this essay is to explore mental quality. Landscape planning, assessment the essential historic, cultural, and social and impact statements have become decisive as- presuppositions of the modern traveller, tour- pects of environmental preservation, conserva- ist, or vacationer. The needs of permanent tion and development, based on the influence of residents and the profit-motive of the business- public opinion, special interest groups, gov- man are another subject. Our attention is ernment agencies and legal statutes. These focussed on the visitor who experiences the new circumstances have also meant an enormous desert, notably the Canyonlands region, as a growth in the need for information, more or temporary interlude intentionally different less precise, about landscape aesthetics, in- from his usual environs. cluding the visual resource. But such reports have often been of poor quality or limited use- The following outline seeks to organize fulness, based upon outdated, irrelevant, or complex visual subjects into a manageable and excessively narrow data. Major historic pre- interpreted framework. Nevertheless, in this conceptions which control landscape values reduction the landscape-observer interaction are rarely considered. Analysis of written must not be ignored. Nor can the immeasure- descriptions, illustrations, paintings and able and often-subjective nature of values photography are rarely given much credibility. assessment be denied. This outline is proposed Contemporary viewpoints of scenic landscape to encourage further disciplined enquiry, by the general public are played down for the analysis, criticism and review in order to sake of professional evaluations which may shape a viable program for a visual resources miss the mark entirely. One difficulty is values assessment. that aesthetic and value information is difficult to quantify. Another difficulty is the lack of significant normative guidelines and PRELIMINARY OUTLINE hence a lack of pragmatically useful information. VISUAL RESOURCES VALUES ASSESSMENT: This is not the place to develop abstract theories of landscape values, or to review the A structural analysis of the visual experience extensive (and excellent) visual landscape of American landscape

Equation: Physical Environment + Behavioral l/ Presented at the National Conference on Ap- Environment = Perceptual Environment plied Techniques for Analysis and Management of the Visual Resource, Incline Village, Neva- Behavioral Environment da, April 23-25, 1979. cultural tradition historical development 2/ Editor, Environmental Review; Professor of natural history History, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, Pa. social patterns

101

technological innovations and limits here as a sample region to explore VRVA as a information processing capability useful framework. In other words, Canyonlands economic conditions will act as an informal case study for the political interfaces suitability of certain components for values assessment. To make the case study as produc- Physical Environment (components) tive as possible, two highly suggestive con- space/scale trol exercises will not be abstract, but his- observer position toric and concrete--traditional view of desert form regions; and historic descriptions of American climate scenery which travellers find visually desire- light able, interesting, or aesthetically pleasing. color Limits of space make the following narrative vegetation description highly selective and obviously in- wildlife complete. archaeological, historic, culture sites existing human impact NARRATIVE Physical Environment (dynamics) dimensions Unlike most other geographic zones, the 2-D (picture plane) legendary image of desert is an environment 3-D (space perceived) utterly hostile to human settlement and develop- 4-D (observer motion in space) ment. This strong antipathy is not mere fable. sequence Mankind emerged in subtropical regions, while vertical/horizontal a desert can be defined as an arid zone of inner/outer high heat, intense sunlight and radiation, order/zone and low humidity, perhaps as little as six panoramic inches of rain a year. Summer temperatures feature reach 120°F and nights can be uncomfortably enclosing cold. Desert soils are often highly alkaline, focal not prone to agriculture even if water were detail available. Vegetation and animal life are more scarce than in humid regions. Giving Perceptual Environment (Physical + Behavioral) little direct support for human life, deserts controls are known for their "terrible indifference to uniqueness man" (Tetsuro 1943, Shepard 1967). There is naturalness a profound consciousness that "this wide ex- environmental quality tent of hopeless sterility" is a world not land-use priorities easily domesticated by man. It is among "the land-use compatibility presently uncomfortable empty places," parts hazard level of the world literally off the map of any limits on intrusions geography of human habitation. Psychologically, controls on disruptions it was believed that entering the desert impact framework (dialectical tensions) courted not only death, but also madness and nature/man the dissolution of one's being in a primeval nature/culture chaos which was best left alone and unknown. beauty/ugliness What if, during the era of discovery, North aesthetics/economics America's Atlantic coast had been a desert? rarity/abundance The physical and psychological problems of elitist/public inland penetration and survival would have public/private been insuperable. policy guidelines (management decisions) project description American painters, who influenced so many definition of clientele of our notions of pleasant scenery, historically accessibility disliked desert regions. In 1835 the romantic land-use activities landscapist Thomas Cole said every landscape available technology without water was defective. A modern painter type and quality of intrusions said it took him a long time to adjust his work jurisdictional authority to the desert: the land impressed him as vast, fiscal resources empty and paralyzing, with only four or five externalities colors (Gussow n.d.). Georgia O'Keefe, master at evoking the sense of the desert, observed while "a flower touches every heart, a red hill The unique desert of southern Utah and in the Badlands, with the grass gone, doesn't" northern Arizona, notably Canyonlands, is used (O'Keeffe 1976). In contrast, the Canyonlands

102 painter, Harold Bruder, a New England man, wrote and safety (Conron 1974, Stilgoe 1978). in the 1960's: "I don't like New England. I don't like green mountains. I don't feel like These viewpoints involved a long visual painting them and I don't respond to green land- history involving the simultaneous development scapes. I like desert, I like rocks, and I of travel for pleasure, nature painting and like the sense of the West. I can smell the the use of leisure time. Dutch painting in air, feel the vast open sky....There are the seventeenth century portrayed the small, things you've got to go to the edge of--an self-sufficient farm scene--a cluster of abyss--and look in, and the thing opens up. houses circled by fields and woodlots. This What I try to get in the paintings is a qual- was a civilized space--a landscape--devoted ity of discovery" (Gussow n.d.). to plowing, sowing, harvesting and husbandry. This would be followed by Gainsborough, Turner To the earliest settlers and frontiersmen, and eventually the French Impressionists the visual experience of the eastern United (Shepard 1967). For most of American history, States presented a familiar and even friendly our artists were unabashedly nature-romantics, aspect. Like Europe, it was heavily-forested, including Thomas Cole, Martin Johnson Heade, with occasional open spaces, with natural en- Frederick Edwin Church, Thomas Moran and the tries through seacoast bays and river valleys, transplanted Albert Bierstadt. In 1905 the and with a temperate climate. For a millenium painter Worthington Whittredge (McShine 1976) European civilization had been carved out of wrote about the poverty of true landscape in such an ecologically benign region. Biblical America; we had too much wilderness. "I was and classical traditions had already explained in despair...The forest was mass of decaying paradise in pastoral and agrarian terms (Glac- logs and tangled brush wood, no peasants to ken 1967). Later, in America, Crevecoeur and pick up every vestige of fallen sticks to burn Jefferson would heap praises upon the yeoman in their miserable huts, no well-ordered for- farmer, identified as the typical American. ests, nothing but the primitive woods with He cleared out the wilderness, established the their solemn silence reigning everywhere" (fig. rural landscape, and ordered the land. Early 1).* travellers like William Bartram and Timothy Dwight informed Americans of the virtues of The landscapes invented in these paintings, the domestic landscape. This would be turned as well as popular travel narratives, taught into a visual aesthetic by transcendentalists the prospective tourist what he wanted to see, like Emerson, Thoreau, Cole and Durand (Huth and where to see it. The tourist was encouraged 1957, Conron 1974, Marx 1964). by idealized paintings and topographical pictures to seek out the same picturesque materials Hence, in the early nineteenth century, in the landscape itself. This packaging of the when the American traveller began to visit his visual experience may have reached a self-cari- own land, he did not seek out rugged and un- cature with the picturesque, literally the cleared places. The dominant biblical tradi- scenery framed into pictures. William Gilpin tion told him that wilderness areas, notably turned Americans to a search for visual effects desert regions, were places of primeval chaos. in pictorial places. These included rustic The cursed place, Sinai, had to be avoided and bridges, old oak trees, classic ruins, rugged the promised land, Israel, entered. Desert rocks and the strong interplay of light and was the dreaded zone of evil, meaninglessness shade (Conron 1974). and the victory of nature over man. Instead the early tourist looked for satisfaction in cul- The artist and writer, and after 1850 the tivated land, where man could be seen as "the photographer, selected significant details of immortal co-worker with God" (Shepard 1967). the environment and out of them synthesized a By the 1920's, the European visitor, Count highly-interpreted panorama. Looking at the Keyserling, described a Kansas landscape as desert and looking at a painting of the desert near-perfect because it was the most fully-ex- involved a feedback system, "a circle of con- ploited place he had ever seen. The farmland stant comparison, discovery, and modification." of fabled Middle America stood out as the ideal The test of the traveller's vista was its suc- visual image (Schmitt 1969). cess as a work of art. Today's traveller in his automobile comes upon the scenic turnout The difference would not only be between or viewpoint, already chosen for his benefit. loamy farmland and the western desert, but also between landscape and wilderness. Wilderness Eventually the barren desert did gain was defined as any place unhabitable, impene- traveller's interest (Powell 1379). The route trable, barren and unfarmable, such as ocean, was somewhat circuituous. American vacationers forest, mountain and desert. Landscape was any place habitable, fruitful, civilized, ar- ranged and shaped by man, such as an oasis-like *See color illustration on page 387. meadow or pasture, symbolizing harmony, serenity

103 soon sought novelty in their scenery. Natural American wilderness that inspired a Cole or historians like Bartram and Jefferson had al- a Church"(McShine 1976). ready imagined a kind of wild garden, divinely maintained, in a forest or mountain valley. Paradise moved westward with the discovery of natural or wilderness parks. According to Gil- pin, a park included scattered trees in a grassland lawn, with winding streams connecting al- pine lakes (Conron 1974, Fine 1972). In Can- yonlands today an oasis of green is called, significantly, Chesler Park. Soon interpreters made a distinction between the traditional eastern rural landscape and wilderness parks; the former were merely beautiful while the lat- ter were sublime. Americans tested potentially sublime places by Burke's 1756 features: power, obscurity, privation, vastness, sense of infinity, difficulty of access and magnificence. Far-off untamed places, beginning with Niagara Falls and later with Yosemite and Yellowstone, became the new shrines of the American tourist; the parks blended together personal, national, historic, primitive and religious needs. A visit to a wilderness park made "marks on the - Figure 2--Physiographic map of Canyonlands mind" (Nash 1973, Worster 1977). (Reisz 1957)

Under these changing circumstances, curio- Among the inaccessible desert regions sity arose about America's western desert re- of America, the least reachable until recently gions. The traditional "forbidden ground" be- was Canyonlands, covering large areas of came visually accessible through paintings and southeast Utah and northern Arizona. Even narratives long before it was physically acces- today a place called "the Maze" seems to de- sible to the public. The earlier image of a fy investigation (Brooks 1964). The first hostile zone was now covered over with an alter- reports heard in the east about this region nate biblical tradition of retreat into the were not favorable. By the 1830's the occa- desert for spiritual renewal. Desert became sional trapper or trader spoke of mountains the "environment of revelation," the archetype "heaped together in the greatest disorder," of "sacred space" (Eliade 1957, Douglas 1973). or he crossed the area but didn't find any- Symbolizing purity and timelessness, the western thing worthwhile to say (Huth 1957). But by desert became America's Holy Land. Today the 1858 a Lieutenant Ives, leading his expedi- landscape historian, John Brinkerhoff Jackson, tion along the South Rim of the Grand Canyon, describes "an existential landscape--without was captivated by the "strange sublimity of absolutes, without prototypes, devoted to the region." He wrote of "wondering delight, change and mobility" for modern technological surveying the stupendous formation... till man. In contrast, Paul Shepard speaks of a the deep azure blue faded into light of ceru- multipath desert awareness, involving "power lean tint that blended with the dome of the and omniscience of an ultimate and final pre- Heavens"(Huth 1957). Ive's words indicated sence," and "a sudden, aweful awareness of clearly identifiable and sophisticated visual self in space and time" (Shepard 1967). In appreciation. John Wesley Powell provoked this light, zones of absolutes and prototypes more interest by his remarkable journeys in as Americans search for certainty in a world 1871 down the Colorado River entirely through of flux and change. In 1928 the painter John Canyonlands, and his equally spectacular re- Marin wrote: "Seems to me the true artist must ports in 1874 and 1875 to Scribner's Maga- perforce go from time to time to the elemental zine (Stegner 1954). Powell's popularity de- big forms--Sky, Sea, Mountain, Plain,--...to pended upon his satisfying specific public sort of nature himself up, to recharge the expectations about natural beauty and scenic battery. For these big forms have every- value, and his purple prose fulfilled these thing". (McShine 1976). And Robert Rosenblum expectations. "Stand at some point on the in 1976 argued that the new generation of brink of the Grand Canyon where you can over- painters "would have to leave the realm of look the river, and the details of the struc- paint and canvas and move to the land itself, ture, the vast labyrinth of gorges of which precisely to what is left of those remote, it is composed, are scarcely noticed; the still pristine regions of Nevada, Arizona, elements are lost in the grand effect, and a Utah, or California, which for the 1960's and broad, deep, flaring gorge of many colors is 1970's are the equivalent of the unspoiled seen. But stand down among these gorges and

104 the landscape seems to be composed of huge in nature--the sense of freedom, pure air and vertical elements of wonderful form. Above, light, the magic of distance, and the saturated it is an open, sunny gorge; below, it is deep beauty of color" (Gussow n.d., McShine 1976). and gloomy. Above it is a chasm; below, it is a stairway from gloom to heaven: (Powell 1957, Sky (aspect of VRVA space/scale). In 1835 Conron 1974). The region was not physically Thomas Cole spoke of the sky as "the soul of all accessible to the traveller until the Santa Fe scenery... the fountain of light, and shade and railroad reached the South Rim in 1901 and the color. Whatever expression the sky takes, the Union Pacific snaked into southern Utah in features of the landscape are affected in uni- the 1920's (Hollon 1966). It can also be son." In 1843 Emerson wrote, "The sky is the argued that Canyonlands came into its own as daily bread of the eyes." And in 1852 Thoreau a visual experience with the invention of described different skies in terms of different Kodachrome color film in the mid-1930's. kinds of wine (McShine 1976). Eastern visitors find the desert sky almost an exaggeration. John Wesley Powell in particular used The eastern sky is perceived, if at all, through words to spin a visual web which even today a jumble of branches and leaves, filtered by dominates the visitor's perspective on the the perpetual haze of high moisture (and pollu- canyon region. He was unabashedly romantic tion) and often heavy with clouds. It forms and quasi-religious, portraying a mix of an indistinct and distant background to close- reality and unreality in the area (Krutch and middle-distance objects. It may not be 1958). Powell's writings also epitomized seen at all, a matter of indifference. In con- the American traditional quest for concrete trast, the illumination, weather conditions, representations of ephemeral ideals. "The clouds and figure-ground relationships of des- reflected heat from the glaring surface pro- ert sky make it pre-eminent. It is seen unob- duces a curious motion of the atmosphere; structed and becomes an experience both encir- little currents are generated, and the whole cling and infinite. In 1962 Barnett Newman, a seems to be trembling and moving about in painter, wrote, "For me space is where I can many directions .... Plains, hills, and cliffs feel all four horizons, not just the horizon and distant mountains seem vaguely to be in front of me and in back of me because then floating about in a trembling wave-rocked the experience of space exists only in volume" sea, and patches of landscape will seem to (McShine 1976). Sun, clouds, moon and stars float away, and be lost, and then reappear" seem more ideal than real. Landfords, trees (Powell 1957, Conron 1974). Simultaneously, and human beings seem to contract as the field Thomas Moran's canvases incarnated Powell's of view expands. Not framed by windows, leaves, prose (Figure 3*). or branches, the objects of the desert are observed in the open and seem reduced in size Later, in the 1960's, Eliot Porter's classic and importance. Powell writes, "The heavens requiem for the dam-drowned region, The Place constitute a portion of the facade and mount No One Knew: Glen Canyon on the Colorado (Por- into a vast dome from wall to wall.... clouds ter 1967) would claim a similar perspective. creep out of canyons and wind into other can- This would be followed in 1971 by the text yons. The heavens seem to be alive, not moving of Edward Abbey and photographs of Philip as move the heavens over a plain, in one direc- Hyde in Slickrock (Abbey & Hyde 1971), which tion with the wind, but following the multiplied was a conscious attempt to influence public courses of these gorges.... In the imagination perceptions of the area. A very similar view the clouds belong to the sky, and when they was adopted by the Japanese photographer, Yoshi- are in the canyon the skies come down into kazu Shiradawa, whose Eternal America in 1975 the gorges and cling to the cliffs and lift is dominated by Canyonlands. Shirakawa's ex- them up to immeasureable heights ... Thus perience involved his "rediscovery of the they lend infinity to the walls" (Conron earth"(Shirakawa 1975). 1974).

What are distinctive visual components of Landforms. In 1976 Georgia O'Keefe this desert experience (Smardon 1977)? Most said, "The black rocks from the road to the of this essay has centered on the visual stereo- Glen Canyon dam seem to have become a symbol types which desert observers carry with them. to me--of the wideness and wonder of the sky And we have looked at the controlling power and the world. They have lain there for a these stereotypes can have over us. It is long time with the sun and wind and the blow- equally important to look at the external forces ing sand making them into something that is which contribute to the visual experience. In precious to the eye and hand--to find with 1935 the artist Maxfield Parrish wrote, "What excitement, to treasure and love." (Figure 4*) is meant is ... those qualities which delight us Bold angular shapes of erosion form the scenery of Canyonlands for visitors. It

*See color illustration on page 387.

105 is profoundly a world not made by man, a meta- Soil-less/Lack of Vegetation. For most physical stage set for superhuman events. In American travellers, important visual signals Colorado an old tourist site is called Garden are missing in the psychologically alien desert-- of the Gods. The experience is like being a hazy horizon and sky forming a background to present at a primeval moment before the crea- the close maze of branches and leaves along the tion. One stands under the encircling sky, Appalachian Trail in the Blue Ridge or Great in a bold, empty, simple, silent, and yet Smokies, grassy loamy soil underfoot and soft real terrain, at the center of a theophany air. It is difficult to use the old visual (Eliade 1975). The shapes are aesthetically habits and old sense of perspective here; the abstract and lend themselves to human interpre- desert is sensorily austere. Here is a region tation. Canyonlands landfords have been, which flaunts its lack of vegetation. Georgia from the earliest days, interpreted as monu- O'Keeffe uses bones and skulls as metaphors mental architecture akin to the pyramids of for the soilless, treeless land; both are down Egypt, Stonehenge, or the figures of Easter to irreducible basics. (Figure 5*) The masks and Island. Powell took to temples, and named costumes are off. She once said, "Dirt resists you. sites Isis, Buddha, Brahma, Zoroaster, Walhalla It's very hard to make the earth your own" and Deva. For Americans, without a classical (O'Keeffe 1976, McShine 1976). In 1965 past, but hankering for one, the forms became Andrew Wyeth wrote, "I prefer ... when you feel America's ancient ruins out of a legendary the bone structure in the landscape--the lonli- past. In the 1830's, Thomas Cole had written, ness of it.... Something waits beneath it--the "We feel the want of associations such as whole story doesn't show" (McShine 1976, Gussow cling to scenes in the old world. Simple n.d.). In Canyonlands prosaic ground cover nature is not quite sufficient. We want human is removed as nowhere else, and one is allowed interest, incident, and action, to render the to see the real stuff of eternal America. It effect of the landscape complete" (Zevi 1957, is as if we suddenly know too much, as in a Shepard 1967). Much attention was given to religious revelation. We do not expect the discovery of natural "ruins." clarification from a place so boundless and empty, devoid of comforting visual signals. Color. Powell's journal entry for June 7, Life is intensely acute when it is experienced 1869, concludes: "This evening, as I write, without any mediation or gradual awareness. the sun is going down, and the shadows are The desert, lacking a mediating cover, is a settling in the canyon. The vermilion gleams place of purgation, chastity and discipline. and roseate hues, blending with the green and gray tints, are slowly changing to somber Geology. The French historian, Fernand brown above and black shadows are creeping Braudel, when he looked for the long-range over them below; and now it is a dark portal forces controlling human affairs, spoke of to a region of gloom--the gateway through historical "structures" (Braudel 1966, 1972). which we are to enter on our voyage of explora- These structures included climate and terrain tion tomorrow. What shall we find?" (Powell as Braudel sought to emphasize the power of 1957), The most unanticipated feature of Can- natural forces upon man. American history yonlands may be the extraordinary colors. New is said to be too brief to include Braudel's meaning is given to terms like color feeling, structures, but their presence appears in color weight, color intensity. After living the desert, a virtual embodiment of the geo- with the shadings of greens, browns, blacks logical roots of American existence. Even of a world filled with plants and soils, the the history of tourism, and its dependence strong reds, oranges, yellows, together with upon the garden-park visual experience, in- blue and azure in the sky, are new experiences. volves the appropriation of geological know- It is as if the age and varnish were removed, ledge. In the middle of the last century, as when apparently gloomy Dutch masterpieces fixed biblical time was replaced by primordial are brightly revived by the restorer's hand, time. In the desert this geological world is and the original vivid colors the artist in- unburdened by soil or ground cover, the struc- tended are recovered. It is an ontological turalist world of unbelievably slow rhythms discovery. We say, "So that's what the world is open to view. The dimension of space is is really like!" Eastern fecund scenery was penetrated by the dimension of time. As appreciated at the same time of the appearance Braudel argues, fleeting human events, even of the Claude Glass--low-toned pocket mirrors the spans of civilizations, are a temporary which not only were used to frame a scene, but efflorescence compared to the tempo of the to darken it to look like a dirty, heavily- rocks. In Canyonlands, one has a sense of varnished Rembrandt before the vivid colors being "present at the creation," and at the end were recovered (Shepard 1967). Color vision of time, and all ages in between. Powell com- and color memory have also been greatly en- bines biblical and geological imagery in his hanced by the invention of color film in the description of canyon rock formations: "Let 1930's. The impact of this new medium has not us call this formation the variegated quart- been adequately explored. *See color illustration on page 387.

106 site...Let this formation be called the cliff responses to new scenery are largely naive sandstone... .Let it be called the red wall and unconscious. One must admit the virtues limestone..." (Conron 1974). Canyonlands of spontaneity and yet management of the visual becomes a metaphor for the eternal and the landscape implies teaching the visitor not only infinite. This is a rare experience in our content but technique. abbreviated national history. We are enquiring into the question of In the above, attention to Canyonlands human access to the physical facts of a land- features has hardly been tapped. Space does scape. Simultaneously, the landscape is the not allow a further extension of this narrative. concrete embodiment of a person's (nation's) habits, needs, values and ideals. Georgia Tourism, beginning with ancient and medi- O'Keeffe said that the world of shapes and eval origins, is a pilgrimage into the extra- colors makes more definite and enduring state- ordinary, away from ordinary visual experiences ments than does the world of words (O'Keeffe (Shepard 1967). Historically, the common 1976). The landscape historian John Conron foundation for tourism in America was learning argues that when a traveller encounters an ex- natural history and exploring strange places, traordinary place, "we are awed, not informed with the hope of renewal or healing. The idea ....we settle for celebrating the sheer amazing of the vacation as a general restorative from fact that this wondrous thing is self-suffici- mundane and hectic daily existence drew in- ently there before us"(Conron 1974). Space, creasing numbers to nature, which was under- more than time, roots the American experience; stood to be therapeutic. Soon, as conveniences space is the central fact of American history. arose, travel in and of itself was supposed to be pleasureable. Tourism was an ideal way to use the new leisure time because of its educa- LITERATURE CITED tional and redeeming qualities. Abbey, Edward Yet the naturalist-interpreter of a park 1968. Desert solitaire. 303 p. or monument finds himself repeatedly responding Ballantine Books, New York. to the boredom of the tourist, who begins to see his vacation as publicly expensive and Abbey, Edward privately monotonous. Today's tourist has 1977. The journey home. Some words in trouble keeping busy, and seeks to keep his defense of the American west. 242 p. days filled with entertainments and recreation E.P. Dutton, New York. likely to be unconnected with the visual potential around him. His awareness is clogged by Abbey, Edward, and Philip Hyde anticipation and anxiety, and he is disappointed. 1971. Slickrock. 144 p. Sierra Club, The visitor's disappointment may be the result San Francisco. of limited, scanty, or inappropriate anticipation. I suspect the vacationer seeks one parti- Arnheim, Rudolph cular phenomenon as part of a holiday fantasy-- 1969. Visual thinking. 345 p. University to experience a kind of rapture, arousal of of California Press, Berkeley. primeval feelings and transports of the imagination. The desert is a region off the map for Brandel, Fernad most tourists, with their visual baggage tied 1966, 1972. The Mediterranean and the to the garden park. This absence of recognize- Mediterranean World in the age of Philip able landmarks means encounter with a truly II. Second revised edition. Two volumes. alien wilderness. This getting lost involves Translated by Sian Reynolds. 1375 p. an acute visual disorientation leading to the Harper and Row, New York. experience of being out-of-control. The potential rapture or transports which result is a Brooks, Paul major these of Edward Abbey's narratives about 1964. Roadless areas. 242 p. Ballantine the desert (Abbey 1960, 1977). Books, New York.

We habitually bind ourselves to routine Conron, John, ed. visual. patterns. We are in danger of seeing 1974. The American landscape. 625 p. only a world of labels which stereotype our Oxford University Press, New York. visual worlds. We repeatedly invent the same landscapes (Lowenthal & Bowden 1976, Watts Douglas, Mary 1975). We have also looked at the visual inno- 1973. Natural symbols. 219 p. Vintage cence of the American traveller in the sense Books, New York. that he does not recognize his visual traditions. We have also looked at his lack of conscious visual techniques to the extent that his visual

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Eliade, Mircea Powell, John Wesley 1957. The sacred and the profane. 256 p. 1879. Report on the lands of the arid Harper and Row, New York. region of the United States, with a more detailed account of the lands of Utah. Fine, Albert Second edition. 195 p. Government 1972. Frederick Law Olmstead and the Ameri- Printing Office, Washington, D.C. can environmental tradition. 180 p. George Braziller, New York. Schmitt, Peter J. 1969. Back to nature. The arcadian myth in Glacken, Clarence urban America. 230 p. Oxford University 1967. Traces on the Rhodian shore. Univer- Press, New York. sity of California Press, Berkeley. Shepard, Paul Gussow, Alan 1967. Man in the landscape. A historic n.d. A sense of place. The artist and the view of the esthetics of nature. 296 p. American land. 159 p. Friends of the Earth, San Francisco. Shirakawa, Yoshikazu 1975. Eternal America. 228. p. Kodansha Hollon, W. Eugene International Ltd., Tokyo. 1966. The great American desert, then and now. 284 p. Oxford University Press, Smardon, Richard C. New York. 1977. Description and assessment of desert- scape. A content analysis of the litera- Huth, Hans ture. 63 p. College of Environmental 1957. Nature and the American. Three cen- Design (Landscape Architecture), Univer- turies of changing attitudes. 250 p. of California, Berkeley. Oxford University Press, New York. Stegner, Wallace Krutch, Joseph Wood 1954. Beyond the hundredth meridian. John 1958. Grand canyon. Today and all its yes- Wesley Powell and the second opening of terdays. 276 p. William Morrow, New York. the west. 438 p. Houghton Mifflin Com- pany, Boston. Lowenthal, David, and Martyn J. Bowden, eds. 1976. Geographies of the mind. 263 p. Ox- Stilgoe, John R. ford University Press, New York. 1978. The landscape of travel narrative: Pennsylvania, 1776-to 1976. 31 p. un- Marx, Leo published paper, Cambridge, Mass. 1964. The machine in the garden. Techno- logy and the pastoral ideal in America. Tetsuro, Watsuji 392 p. Oxford University Press, New York. 1943. Climate: a philosophical study. 225 p. Government Printing House, Tokyo. McShine, Kynaston, ed. 1976. The natural paradise. Painting in Watts, May Theilgaard America, 1800-1950. 178 p. Museum of 1975. Reading the landscape of America. Modern Art, New York. Revised and expanded edition. 354 p. Collier Macmillan Publishers, New York. Nash, Roderick 1973, 1967. Wilderness and the American Worster, Donald mind, rev. ed. 300 p. Yale University 1977. Nature's economy. The roots of eco- Press, New Haven. logy. 424 p. Anchor Press/Doubleday, Garden City. O'Keeffe, Georgia 1976. Georgia O'Keeffe. n.p. Penguin Zevi, Bruno Books, New York. 1957. Architecture as space (ed. Joseph A. Barry). 288 p. Horizon Press, New York. Porter, Eliot 1962. The place no one knew. Glen Canyon of the Colorado. Ballantine Books, New York.

Powell, John Wesley 1957 (1875). The exploration of the Colo- rado River. (condensed) 138 p. Univer- sity of Chicago Press, Chicago.

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