The status of duplication of content in high school and college general chemistry by Lynn S Stein A DISSERTATION Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education at Montana State College Montana State University © Copyright by Lynn S Stein (1961) Abstract: In a questionnaire study on the duplication of course content in general chemistry submitted to high school and college experts for their opinions regarding what should or should not be taught in a high school general chemistry course, several findings were revealed. 1. A majority of the experts indicated that they taught most of the topics listed in the questionnaire in their general chemistry course. 2. Fifty per cent or more of the experts were of the opinion that nearly three-fourths of the topics in the questionnaire should be taught in the high school general chemistry course. 3. The experts have questioned the value of repeating in college one-half of the topical content of chemistry as listed in the questionnaire. 4. College experts in their comments indicated that all of the topics in the questionnaire could be repeated in college general chemistry without creating disinterest or boredom by pursuing the topical content to a greater depth with added emphasis on mathematics and qualitative analysis. THE STATUS OF DUPLICATION OF CONTENT IN HIGH SCHOOL AND COLLEGE GENERAL CHEMISTRY
by
Lynn S. Stein
A DISSERTATION
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty
in
partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
Doctor of Education
at
Montana State College
Approved?
--- -- Head, Major Department '''I'", I Jl*;-, ' 'V ,: ''I I
Milford Franks Chairman, Examining Committee
Leon H. Johnson Dean, Graduate Division
Bozeman, Montana • August, 1961 3 > 3 7 1
S t 3 +
c Tf 1 Acknowledgment
This investigator is appreciative of the cooperation given by the state superintendents of public instruction and the city superintendents of schools for making curriculum material available. Special credit is due teachers of chemistry in both high school and college who gave so willingly of their time as experts to a very vital part of this investi gation.
The writer wishes to express gratitude for the counsel and encouragement of members of the committee during the progress of this research. Special thanks are given Dr. Leon Johnson for his continued inspiration, and to Dr. Milford Franks whose criticisms of this research were always most constructive.
Ify heartfelt thanks go to my family for their patience and understanding during the many hours of graduate study, and especially to my wife for the typing of the manuscript.
L.S.S.
ii . TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ■ ix
Chapter Page
I. .INTRODUCTION...... I
Statement of the Problem ...... 3
Procedures It
Definition of Terms ...... 5
Limitations of the Study...... 7
II. BASIC TOPICS IN HIGH SCHOOL CHEMISTRY ...... 8
Topics Taken From Various O^gahizational Types of Syllabi Revealed in the Literature ...... 8
The Traditional Approach ...... 9 College Preparatory ...... 9 Major Topics Approach ...... 16 . A Functional Approach ...... 18 The Modern Approach ...... 19 The Chemical Bond Ap p r o a c h ...... 20 The Chemical Education Material Study Approach ...... 22 Other Trends in Syllabi Content ...... 21).
Contents of High School Chemistry Syllabi from State Departments ...... •..«..*....«25
Chemistry Content of City Syllabi ...... v ...... 29
Course Content from High School Chemxstry ■ Books *«««*«. *••..•«■•«...«... 36
HI. BASIC TOPICS IN COLLEGE GENERAL CHEMISTRY...... 1)0
Variations in College Course Content as Revealed in the Literature ...... 1)0
iii Chapter Page
Traditional College Chemistry...... lj.0 The Terminal Course Special General Chemistry ...... Trends in College General Chemistry ......
Concepts from Textbooks of College General GbemiLStry * « * * * ® # # » • * * * « • • ® • » • * * So S u m mary...... «...... $k
IV. CONSTRUCTION AND ADMINISTRATION OF QUESTIONNAIRE ON BASIC TOPICS FOR A COURSE IN HIGH SCHOOL ■ GHEIMXS TRY e********************** * * * * 5^
Construction of the Questionnaire ......
Administration of the Questionnaire ...... e . 57
■ Selection of the Respondents ......
V. OPINIONS OF HIGH SCHOOL AND COLLEGE EXPERTS CONCERNING THE PLACEMENT OF TOPICS IN VARIOUS AitEIAS OF GENERAL CHEMISTRY ************** * * * * 6o
Opinions of ,Experts Concerning the Area of Introduction to Chemistry ...... * * * e 61
Gases and Their Behavior ...... O O « • 61{,
Electronic Structure of Matter ...... « *■0 6 0' 68.
Selutionss Suspensions5 and Colloids
Ionization Acids5 Salts5 and Bases ********** .... 76
Chemical Families ******************* o o « e ?8
Oxidation^Reduction Reaction and Oxidation GO O Numbers ***********************
M e t a l S eee.ee e»o*e0eooee6e»eee«e«ee*o2
Carbon and its Compounds ...... 85
Others of Special Interest ...... $7
iv Chapter Page
Comments and Suggestions by Respondents 89
Summary 93
Topics Taught by Experts in own General Chemistry Course ...... 93 Topics in General Chemistry that Should be Taught in High School ...... 95 Those Topics that Should be Repeated in College General Chemistry for Mastery and Greater Depth 102 Those Topics Which When Repeated in College May Create Disinterest or Boredom ...... 105
VI. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 108
Summary 109
Trends in Topical Content in Chemistry ...... 109 Course Content in General Chemistry at High School and College Level ...... H O
Conclusions 112
Recommendations ...... 113
Some Problems for Further Investigation ...... 115
APPENDIX o' »e o e # # o e e e * e » o e o ® 0 e o e o . . . 117
Appendix As CBA Approach ...... 117
Proposed Outline for High School Chemistry Course Based on Chemical Bonds as the Central Theme ...... 118
Appendix Bs Communication with State Departments of Education ...... 121
Letter Requesting Copy of Syllabus in High School Chemistry ...... 122 Enclosure of Ten Most Used High School Chemistry Textbooks in the State of Montana ...... 123 F OIIoWi-Up Letter 12lj.
v Chapter Page
Appendix Cs Corammication With Twenty-five Cities ...... 125
'Letter Requesting Copy of Syllabus in High ■ School Chemistry ...... 126 Follow-up Letter ...... 127
Appendix D$ College General Textbooks Examined . . 128
A List of the ,1.8 College Textbooks Examined for Topical Content ...... **»***C4) . 129
Appendix E . 131
A List of High School Chemistry Teachers Used as Experts in This Study . . . . 132 A List of College Chemistry Teachers Used as Experts in this Study ...... a a a a a a a 133 Letter Requesting Experts to Cooperate in the Stucfy . . . oooo»O99O09eooe640C«>e . 1314 Card Signifying Intent to Cooperate a a a a a a a 135 'Cover Letter Accompanying Checklist a a a o a a a 136 Questionnaire-checklist of Basic Topics in High School General Chemistry. . 137 A Follow—up Letter ...... a e a ® a a e Ifyl A Follow-up Card ...... a a a a a a aaaaea . 3fy2
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 153
BIOGRAPHICAL DATA aeeeeeeaaeaeaaeeefteeao 158
yi LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
I. Opinions of 13 High School and 18 College Experts on Basic Topics in an Introductory Unit in High School Chemistry to be or not to be Repeated at the College Level • . o 62
II. Opinions of 13 High School and 18 College Experts Reporting on Basic Topics in an Area in High School Chemistry Called Gases and Their Behavior to be or not to be Repeated at the College L e vel. . « « . . e 63
IIIo Opinions of 13 High School and 18 College Experts Reporting on Basic Topics in an Area in High School Chemistry Called Electronic Structure of Matter to be or not to be Repeated at the College Level . . . . ® e e 0 YO
IV. Opinions of 13 High School and 18 College Experts Reporting on Basic Topics in an Area in High School Chemistry Called Solutions, Suspensions, and Colloids to be or not to be Repeated at the College Level ...... ; 7li
Vo Opinions of 13 High School and 18 College Experts Reporting on Basic Topics in an Area in High School Chemistry Called Ionization, Acids, Salts, and Bases to be or not to be Repeated at the College Level .....o....-.. . . .77
VI. Opinions of 13 High School and 18 College Experts Reporting on Basic Topics in an Area in High School Chemistry Called Chemical Families to be or not to be Repeated at the College Level ...... * * »
vn. Opinions of 13 High School and 18 College Experts Reporting on Basic Topics in an Area in High School Chemistry Called Oxidationr-Reduction Reactions and Oxidation Numbers to be or not to be Repeated at the College Level ...... 81 v m . Opinions of 13 High School and 18 College Experts Reporting on Basic Topics in an Area in High School Chemistry Called Metals to be or not to be Repeated at the College Level ...... 83
vii Table Page
IXi Opinions of 13 High School and 18 College Experts Reporting on Basic Topics in an Area in High School Chemistry Called Metals to be or not to be Repeated at the College Level...... 83
X. Opinions of 13- High School and 18 College Experts Reporting on Basic Topics in Areas of Special Interest to the Instructor of High School Chemistry to be or not to be Repeated at tfye College Level ...... 88
viii ABSTRACT
In a questionnaire study on the duplication of course content in general chemistry submitted to high school and college experts for their opinions regarding what should or should not be taught in a high school general chemistry course, several findings were revealed. 1. A majority of the experts indicated that they taught most of the topics listed in the questionnaire in their general chemistry course. 2. Fifty per cent or more of the experts were of the opinion that nearly three-fourths of the topics in the questionnaire should be taught in the high school general chemistry course. 3» The experts have questioned the value of repeating in college one-half of the topical content of chemistry as listed in the question naire. Iu College experts in their comments indicated that all of the topics in the questionnaire could be repeated in college general chem istry without creating disinterest or boredom by pursuing the topical content to a greater depth with added emphasis on mathematics and qualitative analysis.
ix CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Educators and laymen have pondered over the solution of college
11dropouts" due to boredom and ,disappointment on the part of students who have repeated in college material which was covered adequately in the high school. It appeared to this writer that with science moving rapidly forward and with added emphasis on quality of instruction in the classroom, colleges cannot afford to waste time and effort duplicating that which was already covered satisfactorily in the high school. Several of the paragraphs that follow convey the viewpoints of various persons and groups 'with regard tor the above statements.
Among several reasons listed on the front page of a brochure by Science Research Associates foh college dropouts was, "Boredom and disappointment on the part of some who found that they were repeating in their freshman year work that they had already had in high school.
Need for - research pn curriculum improvement was indicated by
Killian,^ chairman of the corporation, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, who indicated there was a great need (I) for giving more national attention to the quality and content of courses and curriculums in high schools and colleges, (2) for extensive organized national effort to bring together in each subject field leading scholars with groups of teachers to re-examine and modernize the content of courses, (3) for ■
•; ^Spencer, Lyle M., "The Reasons for College Dropouts," Guidance Newsletter, p. I, March, 1957.
^Killian, James R., Jr., "Education for the Age of Science," Journal of the National Education Association, Vole b9, p. 12, February, 19607™”” 2
preparing more modern textbooks5 and (I) for making available better but less expensive laboratory equipment.
The concern of educators over the lack of opportunities for gifted students to work at the highest level of ^heir abilities in high schools because of obsolete high school science courses was brought out in an editorial by Brinkman when he quoted the Bean of Columbia1s Engineering
School. He saids 'i We believe5 too;, that the content of many science courses in high school is obsolete-=they have stayed still for a generation or two while the frontiers of science have been rapidly moving forward. We are going to introduce these able young people, both boys and girls, to the growing edge of modern science.3
I Waterman,^- director of the National Science Foundation, pointed out that the emphasis on technology was likely to continue at an accelerated pace, and thai^ it was characteristic of courses in the school to lag behind actual work in the field. But, that lag would present a real problem in seeing to it that trainees come into their profession fresh and prepared to progress with it.
A committee report on specific weaknesses and failures between high school and college was done by members of, the faculties of Andover,
Exeter, Lawrenceville, Harvard, Iale and Princeton. They found two special
3Brinkman, William W., "College Science Courses for Gifted Secondarv Pupils, " an editorial in School and Society, Vole 86, p. 14.22, November 22,- 1#8.
-^Waterman, Alhn T., "The Problems Its Dimensions and What is Being Done," The Growing. Shortage of Scientists and Engineers, in Proceedings of the Sixth Thomas"Alva Edison ^undatroxT^s^tute, .p. "3I4.4. 3
kinds of weaknesses. The first was the wasting of time in covering the same
material twice5 once in high school and again in college, with the most o striking evidenpe of this in the sciences. The other weakness involved
1lIafren work," where a subject was dropped before it had done the student
much good, or a teacher placed emphasis on the less valuable topics in
a course. The committee noted the waste of time was the fault of both
the high school and college, and thp solution ip a joint responsibility.
This fault was thought to be typical throughout the country. The
investigators from the six schools named emphasized that every hour wasted
in school did double flatapgeg time was lost, and more important was the '
loss of pupil interest and momentum. Most unfortunate, however, was the
fact that this dotible damage was done most often to the abler student.^
This committee report and others have indicated what this writer
as a high school and college teacher'had experienced, and has served to
strengthen a strong personal conviction that course content and offerings
should be investigated and coordinated .at these two levels.
Statement of the Problem
The chief purpose of this investigation was to determine the
essential and non-essential content of general chemistry as given in the
title to this study, "The Status of Duplication in Course Content
Between High Schools and Colleges That Teach General Chemistry." The
Committee Report, faculties of Andover, Exeter, Lawrenceville, Harvard, Princeton, and Tale, "General Education in School and College," p. 17. k
main problem, was then.broken down into determining the answers to six
questions. They are s (l) Mhat are the topics in general chemistry that
should be taught in high school? (2) Mhich of the topics taught in high
school general chemistry should be repeated in a comparable course in college for further mastery and to obtain greater depth? (3) Mhich of the topics taught in high school general chemistry should; or should not be repeated in a comparable course in college? (U) Mhat is being done to avoid unnecessary duplication? (5) Mhat are the present trends with regard to teaching high school general chemistry? (6) How might the findings of this study assist:those involved in curriculum research?
Procedures 1
! To answer the questions presented under the statement of the problem three procedures were useds (l) the literature was reviewed to determine the general trends in course offering in general chemistry;
(2) the most frequently used high school and college chemistry textbooks5 and high school syllabi were examined to determine what was offered at those levels, and to form the basis of items for a questionnaire; (3) a questionnaire on concepts from the content of chemistry offerings in high school and college was constructed and adminstered to experts to determine what was being taught, and the degree of emphasis to be placed on concepts at both levels. 5
Definition of Terms
A number of terms have been used in this report which are often
subject to different interpretations. They are defined in this section
to clarify their meaning.
Articulation. In this study articulation has been used to
describe sequential coordination of content from' grade to grade as
repealed by the Joint Commission of Teachers of Science and Mathematics
in its report which saids
The science curriculums of.American Schools are too often non- developmental and repetitive. Science programs should aim at a soundly articulated growth in understanding and deepening of knowledge by v.v students as they move from the lower grades through secondary school and into college.® ' >
CBAe In this report OBA refers to the Chemical Bond Approach.7
Checklist. This term was. used in the way in which it has been
defined by Goods
A checklist is a prepared list of items that may relate to a person, procedure., building, and so on, used for purposes of observa tion and/or evaluation, and on which one may show by a check mark or other simple method the presence, absence, or frequency of occurence of each item on the list.®
^The Joint Commission on the Education of Teachers of Science and Mathematics, Improving Science and Mathematics Brograms in American Schools, ■ p. o/Tl^bO.
fStrong, Laurence E*, and-Wilson, M. Kent, “Chemical Bondss A Central Theme for High Sqhool Chemistry," Journal of Chemical Education, Vpl. 35,- p. 56, February, 1958.
8, Good, Carter T., of Education,' pp. 87- 88. 6
GHEMo When seen- in the abbreviated fGrrn5 GHEM represents a contrac tion for Chemical Education Material Studye ^
Goncepto From Webster's dictionary ^ a concept is a thought5 an opinion,, or a mental image of a thing formed by generalization from particulars^ a thought; an opinion,
.Curriculumo For the purpose of this report, the following definition of Bossing was used:
Western civilization has come to think of-, the school curriculum as, a collection of subject matter‘that the pupil is to study in some order of sequence toward some general'goal, though such goal may be vague or poorly defined.
Syllabus. Good's definition was used in which he defined a ■ m ta m n p.ii— m i rPBi a i syllabus as a condensed outline or statement of the main points of a course of study or of books or other documents."
Topic. This investigation used Thorndike's^3 interpretation of a topic as being represented by a short phrase or sentence with reference to a subject used in an outline. .
Questionnaire. Webster^ designated a questionnaire as a set of questions for submission to a number of persons to get data for evaluating.
^Seaborg, Glenn T., "The Chemical Education Material Study," in Chemical Education Material Study Newsletter. 7ol. I, p. !4, November, i960.
-^Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, p. 171.
^Bossing, Nelson L., Principles of Secondary Education, p. 362.
12Good,-og. cit., p. 5I4I4. 3Thorndike, E. L,, and Barnhart, Clarence I . , p. 99l|. I) jj4Webster, og. cit., p. 693, Limitations of the Study
!here were two limitations to this study: (I) The content deter mination of syllabi and textbooks prepared for both high schools and colleges were limited as much as possible to the last 10 years for recency in areas^ topics, practices, and trends, with older studies used only for comparison, and (2) 35 experts were used in determining the amount of emphasis given various topics in high school and college general chemistry
The first step in the investigation was to determine from the literature the different approaches used in the selection of topics for course content in high school chemistry. The results of this review are presented in Chapter TI. 8
CHAPTER H
BASIC TOPICS H HIGH SCHOOL CHEMISTRY
The determination of the topics basic to high school chemistry is not
a new problem. This is evidenced by the fact that the Committee on Chemical
Education of the American Chemical Society in 192h published a report on a
"Standard Minimum Course in High School Chemistry" to meet the criticisms
and suggestions of chemistry teachers at large,
In determining the basic topics included in a general chemistry
syllabus ,for high school, four sources were considered: (l) syllabi and
new trends in subject matter revealed in the literature, (2) syllabi from
state departments of education, (3) the table of contents of high school
chemistry textbooks, and (it) a random geographical sampling of syllabi
from local communities throughout the United States.
Topics Taken From Various Organizational Types of Syllabi Revealed in the Literature
An examination of the literature revealed seven very distinct types
of organized approaches to the teaching of chemistry. They are the (I)
traditional, (2) college preparatory, (3) major topics, (it) functional,
(5) modern, (6) GHEM5 and (?) GBA approaches. The literature was examined
not for a study of the method used, but to find the topics stressed in
the content of a course in chemistry for high school,
. !^Rational Society for the Study of Education, A Program for Teaching Science, in Thirty-First Yearbook of the Society, part"l^pT~2^8, 1932, 9
The traditional approach. Host high school texts with few exceptions still use the traditional approach to chemistry5 that is,, typical content is descriptive in nature and reads like a classic. According to Summers, the topical headings in most instances read as follows$
1. Chemical and physical changes
2. Oxygen and its oxides
3 0 Water
Iu Hydrogen
3. Simplified gas laws
6, Solutions
70 Theory and laws of the atom
8« Equations
9 0 Stoichiometric relationships^
Eater in this chapter, a list of topics by Summers for a modern . course in high school chemistry is also given'and may be of interest to those who have taught chemistry by the old traditional approach.
College preparatory. Among several college preparatory outlines to be discussed, the HeW England Association of Chemistry Teachers reported one, "A Minimum Syllabus for a College Preparatory Course in' Chemistry,18 in 19-56 that was divided into three parts, namely, descriptive, general
^Summers, Donald B., "Are High School Chemistry Texts Up^to=Date?" Journal of Chemical Education, Vdl. 37, p» 236, May, i960. 10
supplementary«, The report stipulated further that every teacher must feel free to decide when and how each topic was to be studied. It also indicated that individual laboratory work should include preparation of gases3 quantitative exercises, and ionic reactions, and that laboratory exercises should be a part of every course. No less than, one double period was to be set aside for laboratory work and four single periods a week for class room discussions arid demonstrations. The course, as outlined, (Consisted of three partsg
1. "Descriptive chemistry
a. Chemistry of some nonmetals and their common compounds
b. Composition of air
c. Water
d. Chemistry of sodium, aluminum, iron, and their compounds
e. Industrial'processes of Haber, Ostwald, and the contact process for sulfuric acid
2. General chemistry
a. Physical properties of solids, liquids, and gases
b. Chemical changes
c. Solutions
d. Structure of matter
e. Nucleonics
3« Supplementary topics
a. Organic chemistry
b. Equilibrium 11
C0 Molecular weights
do Equivalent weights and normal solutions
e, Balancing equations by electron transfer
fe Metals
g. Nonmetals
h e Applied chemistry-^
The supplementary topics are designed for gifted students or, as designated,
for teachers who have additional time or may wish to select certain materials
for their courses. Some teachers of high school chemistry become disturbed
at this point that the gifted are the only students who might go beyond
descriptive and general chemistry under this particular college preparatory
approach. One could suggest Gifford’s article^ relative to the importance
of teaching students to "think" and pursue research projects of interest
to the individual, rather than to be concerned about memorization of
meaningless facts as well as the covering of all the material in the book.
Brandwein, Watson, and Blackwood presented three college preparatory
courses in chemistry as they appeared in the western, midwestern and ■ eastern section of the country. The common content materials' covered in
^ N e w England Association of Chemistry Teachers, "A Minimum Syllabus for"a"College Preparatory Course in Chemistry," Journal of Chemical Education, Vol. 3b, p. 307-308, June, 1937.
18 .Gifford, Dorothy W., "Trends in High School Chemistry," Journal of Chemical Education, Vol. 32, p. Ij-PO5 September, 1933. the western high schools follows2
1. History of chemistry
2. Oxygen
3 0 Hydrogen
It. Formulas and equations
■ 5. Sodium
6. Sodium compounds
7. Chlorine
8. Problems (Avogadrots hypothesis)
9« . Sulfur
10. Ionization
11. Reactions-reversible and nonreversible
12. Nitrogen
13. Halogens
lU. Carbon
lS. Calcium and its compounds
l6* Metals
17. Important mineral substances
18«i Activity of metals, electrochemical series
19® Compounds of carbon^
yBrandwein9 Paul F., Watson, Fletcher Q., and Blackwood, Paul E. Lng High School Sciences ' A Book of Methods, p. 262* 13
The authors merely listed the topics without using the three areas as was done in the preceding topical outline*.- As is true of different ■ listss there were soke variations and much is left for the reader to infer; for instance, it was found that compounds of carbon may or may not infer organic chemistry.
The western schools also listed history of chemistry as a separate topic, rather than having it integrated throughout the context of the course. Regardless of the manner in which history of chemistry is taught, a report by the Joint Commission on the Education of Teachers of Science and Mathematics^ indicated- little is being done to acquaint high school students with the philosophy, history, and methods of science.
High schools of the Midwest indicated additional areas that were similar which may be ascertained from the following lists
1. Oxygen
2. Hydrogen
3. Water
It. The structure of Water
5c Formulas and equations
6.- Chemical calculations
7» Acids, bases, and salts
. A Report of the Joint Commission on the Education of Teachers of Science and Mathematics, Improving in American Schools- p. 7« 111.
8„ The halogens
9« Sodinm5 potassium,, and compounds
10. Sulfur
11. Nitrogen (the atmosphere)
12. Carbon and compounds
13* Fuels
Ilj.. Calcium and its compounds
• 15. Metals
16. Iron and steel
17. Copper5 zinc5 tin, and lead
18. Aluminum and magnesium
19. Mercury5 silver, and other metals
20. Colloids
21. Organic chemistry
22. Textiles, dyes, and plastic's
23. Foods, drugs, and cosmetics
2k• Nuclear chemistry^
The high Schools in the western and midwestern section of the
United States differed in their choice of topics. The midwestern Section began with oxygen, hydrogen, and Water, sometimes called the historic-
Brandwein, Watson, and Blackwood, og. cit., p. 262. 15
systematic^ type of chemistry course, while the West preferred not to
treat water as a topic by itself. Both the west and midwest programs in
troduced metals but an extended treatment of related topics that followed was. differentj and although both listed halogens as a topic? the West
introduced chlorine earlier, probably as a background for the problems
on AvogadroeS hypothesis that followed. Again, they were,different
inasmuch as ionization and reversible-nonreversible reactions were listed
in the western outlines for high school chemistry, while only the Midwest
listed fuels, colloids, organic chemistry^ textiles, dyes, plastics, foods,
drugs, cosmetics, and nuclear chemistry.
The preceding list of topics in chemistry, though similar to each
other, appear to show still different organization, from the topics in the high schools of the East.
1. Introduction
2. Solutions and water
3* Chcygen and hydrogen
it. Atomic structure
5. Chemical nomenclature, formulas, equations, and problems
6. Periodic table, metals, nonmetals, and inert elements
7. The halogens and their compounds
8. Sodium and calcium compounds
'Ibid, p. 26o« 16
9® Ionization
10. Sulfur and its compounds
11. Nitrogen and its compounds
12. Carbon and its oxides
13. Nuclear energy
ill. Organic chemistry
15>o Metallurgy
16. Principles of reaction^
Brandwein3 Watson3 and Blackwood selected the preceding topics from course outlines typical of the eastern section of the country in high school chemistry. Several topics were combined into related areasj for example3 chemical nomenclature, formulas, equations, and problems were included under one heading. The same was true of the periodic table, metals, nonmetals, and inert elements. Formulas, equations, and the elements of the halogen family, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, calcium, potassium, and sodium and their compounds appeared as a common core of topics throughout the United States.
Major topics approach. Organization of the content by major topics has also undergone some changes with popularity lessening for the tight or non~flexible units. The organization seemed logical enough but created difficult situations with regard to learning and teaching for the pupil and beginning teacher respectively. Difficult concepts now appear
23Ibid, p. 262. 17
Interspersed throughout the content to prevent discouragement for the
Iearner0^
Thurber and Collette presented the following outline of a chemistry
course organized by major topics;
1. Early chemistry
2. Pioneers of_chemistry
3« Physical and chemical changes5 elements, compounds, and mixtures
li-o Units of measurement| temperature and heat
5« Oxygen
6e Atoms and symbols
7. Hydrogen
8» Valencej formulas, equations
9« "Water
10, Chemical calculations
lie Carbon and carbon dioxide
12» Carbon monoxide and fuels
13e "Molecular motions and their effects
H u Combination by weight and "volume
U?e Ionization in solution
' 2^Jaffe, Bernard, "Trends in High School Chemistry,» National Association of School Principals Bulletin, p„ 72, January, 1953, 18
1.6.. Acids5 bases, and salts
17® Snlfur5 hydrogen sulfide, and sulfides
18'; Oxides and .oxygen acids of sulfur
19. Chlorine and hydrogen chloride
20. The halogen family
21. Nitrogen and the atmosphere
22. Compounds of nitrogen
23® Sodium and its compounds
2k» Typical metals and their compounds
25. Organic chemistry ^5
The materials in each block of related areas lend themselves very well to the problem-solving approach that provides for the development of important knowledge and skills if the teacher will allow ample time for applications of commonplace things and utilize facilities to the fullest extent.
A functional approach. Renner- lamenting about the obesity of the chemistry curriculum, implied there was a need for related areas to be studied together in order to show a whole picture with functional parts®
The major areas given in his functional approach are;
I. 88The Tools of Chemistry81 -the characteristics of matter and energy
2« Atomic structure
3« Understanding the periodic chart
25 Thurber, Walter A.® and Collette, Alfred T®, Teaching Science in , p. 39%. 19
Iu The gaseous state of matter
5» Oarbon and organic chemistry
6, The metals
Renner also emphasized the value of presenting the periodic chart and its use while the idea of the structure of the atom is still vivid, He also felt that carbon should not be divorced from organic chemistry. The same assumption would likewise hold true for gases as well as metals.
The modern approach* Summers advocated the following as a distinct ly modern approach to topics that should be in every syllabus $ I 1, The method of classification of matter according to Hildebrand and Powell
2, The mole , concept -Avogadro1 s, number of particles, 6,023 'X I O ^
3, Bbhdihg -correlate reactivity and crystal structure with experimental observation
Iu Mater and solubility - water recognized as a "bent" molecule and dipole
3« Acid-base theory-— Bronsted-Lowry concept of proton-donor and accept or
6, Equilibrium - greater emphasis given to "equilibrium position,” to pH and the buffers
7* Atomic structure - Bohr energy levels used, but not "circular" orbits
8, Symbols and nomenclature - texts not up-to-date with revision of 1957s for -example, Ar for A for Argon and Iron (II) in preference to ferrous
Renner, John W,, "A High School Chemistry Curriculum," School Science and Mathematics, Vol, h2, pp. 263-265, May, I960, 20
9. Atomlc9 molecular and ionic geometry - spatial arrangement of ions in ionic Compounds9 spatial structure9 varying sizes of atoms and Ions9 and packing to help explain properties
10» Mathematical problem solving - stressing the "common sense" or "factor-IabeI" method instead of the "proportion" method
11. Complex ions - used in explaining certain types of chemical reactions
12» Valence concepts - electrovalence, covalence, coordination number and oxidation-number . .
13» Electrochemistry - Faraday1s laws are explained, use mole concept, predict simple oxidation-reduction and electrolytic reactions are explained^'
The preceding 13 items are not new to high school chemistry, but the
depth of treatment given each item or topic determines whether it is label- ... ed modern or not; for example, the topic of equilibrium goes into a treat ment of buffers tljiat had been ignored much of the time in the past in high school chemistry,
A modern course should also contain recent information and ideas, such as is given under ther atomic structure where Bohr1S energy levels are to be used instead of the old circular orbits.
The GBA and CHEM study approaches that follow, while n6t labeled modern chemistry, are recent and still in the experimental stage.
The chemical- bond approach. From a summer conference of college and high school teachers of chemistry at Reed College^ in 1937, came a.new
2^Summers9 £ g e cit., pp. 263-261n / 28 Committee on College Teaching, "The Council at Work: Chemistry," in The Educational Record, Vol. 39, pp. 389-390, October, 1938. 21
proposal for teaching chemistry, the Ohemical Bond Approach, that may com
pletely revolutionise the conventional methods of the paste As a result of
the interest at Reed, a follow—up conference was held at Wesleyan University
during the summer of 1958» ' This group developed with its pilot studies
and summer conferences what it considered by 1963 would be the desirable
high school chemistry course* They proposed to teach the basic first year
chemistry without memorization of hundreds of seemingly unrelated facts by
placing emphasis on' the making and breaking..of the bonds between atoms»
This approach to chemistry would correlate the idea that properties of a
substance are also determined by breaking of the bonds between the atoms.
Presentation' of this GBA material by Strong and Wilson2? began with what the authors considered a traditional, introduction followed by a brief presentation of stoichiometry. A strict analogy to the solar system of the Bohr atom is to be discarded. The various bondings were then presented: ionic or electrovalent in which bonding forces resulted from electrostatic attraction^ covalent in which bonding forces arisej from the mutual attraction of two nuclei for a pair of electrons| and metallic bonds in which there arises bonding from the mutual attraction of many nuclei for many electrons. The various properties of matter are a reflection of these bond types. The ionic bonds in general are formed by reaction of covalent compounds with metalsj thus metallic bonds are discussed along with the ionic bond and followed by a discussion of the first twenty elements and the periodic table. Acids and bases are then touched upon from the standpoint of the Lewis theory with emphasis
- 1 ■■ 1 f " T--I--I--TTI ■ I > ~ innini I in m • ~ 11 nr Ill m i 1 iimli 1 upon the experimental aspects. A non-mathematical treatment of chemical equilibrium precedes an illustration of solvent systems other than water. Oxidation of ammonia to yield nitric acid introduces the concept of poly atomic ions and those substances whose atoms may be linked by both covalent bonds and by ionic bonds. Other examples5 such as sulfqric .acid may be included if time permits. Because of its length, the proposed outline for a high school chemistry course based on chemical bonds as the central theme was placed in Appendix A. Seaborg-^ OHEM study was an outgrowth of a study committee set up in 1959 by the American Chemical Society at Ohio State University. It was intend ed that the, GHEM study be supplemental to, and in no sense competitive with, the Chemical Bond Approach. Pimental, editor of the text for the CHEM study, listed the following chapter titles5 I. Chemistry: an experimental science .2. Introduction to atomic theory 3. Atoms combined in substances Ij.. Chemical reactions and phase changes 5. The gas phases IriLnetic theory 6. Substances and solutions . -^0Seaborg, op. cit., p.2 23 7» Chemistry and the periodic table 8, Geochemistry: the earth as a source of material 9« A general view of chemical reactions 10. Energy effects in chemical reactions 11. The rates of chemical reactions 12» Equilibrium in chemical reactions 13. Ionic solutions and reactions . Hu Acids and bases 15. Oxidation-reduction' *V 16. Chemical calculations 17. Believing in atoms 18. Periodicity of chemical properties and electronic structure 19. Molecules and their structures 20* Structure in solids and liquids 21. The chemistry of carbon 22. The IialOgens 23. The transition elements 2lu The third row of the periodic table 25. The second column of the periodic tabled The editor of the GHEM study text went on to say that this course not only provides a basic understanding of science5 but places emphasis on the experimental nature of chemistry upon which succeeding courses can ■^Pimental, G® C „5 ttChemistry-An Experimental Science,", in Chemical Education Material Study newsletter, Vol. I, Humber I, p« 2, November, i960. 2k be 'builtian other trends in syllabi content. Buehring in a survey of 57 districts and 38 states reported five significant trends2 (I) blending a basic understanding .of principles with applications5 (2) creation of special content of a functional nature for those not intending to go on to college, (3) securing facilities' for teaching itncrochem techniques if funds I. were available, (ij.) preparation of own syllabi by chemistry teachers as well as (5) combining efforts' on part of high school and college science instructors toward creating a minimum syllabus. Colleges and universities have been arranging for (I) a summer ■ program for academically talented students that will supplement, not duplicate the high school chemistry courses, and (2),the provision by some large high schools for a multitrack or "honors program" for these gifted students. Still other trends are towards (l) giving! support to a national curriculum to bring together scholars, scientists, and school, people to do curriculum investigation, planning, experimentation and evaluation; 32jbid, p. 2. ^Buehring, Leo E., "Senior High Schools," The Nations Schools. Vole 65, pp.. 77-89, February, i960. 3k 'National Education Association, Administrations Procedures and School Practices for the Academically Talented Student pp. 70-TlT 35, Tyler, Ralph ¥,, "Do We Need a National Curriculum," The House, Vol. 3k, pp. Ikk-lk5, November, 1959 25 (2) the fulfilling of local needs of students by-including a unit such as ceramics that is pertinent to a certain locale536 and (3) the including of radioisotopes in classroom demonstrations»37 i n are trends that have received recent attention in the literature* Contents of High School Chemistry Syllabi from State Departments In order to determine state prescriptions of the contents of chemistry syllabi, a letter requesting this material -was sent to each of the .state departments of education in the fifty states. A Copy of this letter, as well as the follow-up letter, is to be found in Appendix B. Replies were received from all of the states except Arkansas. Gf those responding Alabama, Florida, Iowa, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Oregon, New York, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, and Texas had syllabi in either a tentative or completed form. Some stated they had plans for state devel opment of science guides. The states that had such plans were Kentucky, Mississippi, Utah, New Hampshire, South Carolina, Vermont, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. Others indicated they had no course outlines or else they left the matter of course outlines to counties and/or Cities as matters of local concern. 36orr, Robert J., "Teaching a Ceramics Unit in High School Chemistry," School Science and Mathematics, Vol. 5U5 pp« li.6l-li.62, January, 19Slu 37Goldsmith, George Je, "Demonstrations With Radioisotopes for the High School Chemistry Class," School Science and Mathematics, Vol* 555 p» 179, January, 1955* 26 The list of topics that follow were compiled from the syllabi re ceived from the cooperating states: 1» ' A brief history of the development of chemistry a. Early chemistry and chemists: alchemists be Chemists and chemistry of the 18th and 19th centuries C6 Recent developments in chemistry and the growing importance of science 2o The metric system a. Its importance as an international and scientific system of weight and measures b 0 Its importance in life 3o Basic concepts of matter and energy a e States of matter: properties b. Chemical and' physical changes C0 Atoms and molecules ko Chemical elements: mixtures and compounds 5* Symbols a e Valences definition; degrees; in radicals b0 Formulas Ce Equation writings 60 Atomic and molecular weights a» Law of multiple proportions be Chemical arithmetic 27 7« Laws of gases a. Correction of volume b, Diffusion 8» Air a„ Its composition. b„ Rare gases 9. Solutions and suspensions a. Colloids be- Osmosis IOe Acids5 bases and saltss relationships a o Acids 1) Oxides of non-metals that will combine with water 2) Essential characteristics 3) Tests ' !(.) Names b 0 Bases 1) The hydroxl radical 2) Some metals in combination with hydroxl .group or groups 3) Essential characteristics 1±) Tests " Ce Salts 1) Definition and essential characteristics 2) Names do Acidss bases and salts in living processes 28 lie Chemical families: periodic law a. Atomic number be Periodic changes in properties as atomic . C6 Mathematical function involved de Missing elements 12o Metals a* Methods of extraction b e Alloys 13e Organic chemistry a. Carbon in the economy of nature I) The carbon-dioxide cycle in living processes . 2) Complexity of carbon compounds: hydrocarbons, carbohydrates 3) Carriers of energy 1|.) Significance in complex molecule of living tissue be Foods Ce Fabrics II4.0 Radiations a. X-ray b e Radium C9 Radioactivity Sequence and arraugment in the syllabi was about1 as varied as the number of states, and there=was a tendency for most to follow the T 29 traditional approach. Some states preferred to teach an additional unit of special interest to those in the state, such as a unit on agriculture in Iowa, productivity of soils in Minnesota, and mineral resources in Pennsylvania. Chemistry Content of City Syllabi iIn order to find out the content of high school chemistry stressed it was necessary to study their syllabi. A letter was sent to several cities selected throughout the United States requesting copies of their syllabi. A copy of this letter, as well as the .follojtrap letter, has been placed in Appendix C. Of the 2$ cities contacted by Iqtter, 20 responded. They were« (I) Phoenix, Arizona; (2) Berkeley and Sap Diego;,’ California; (3) Denver, Colorado; (ij.) Miami, Florida; (j?) Chicago, Illinois; (6) Elkhart, Indiana; (7) Shawnee, Kentucky; (8) Wellesley Hills, Massachusetts;' (9) Kalamazoo, Michigan; (10) St. Paul, Minnesota; (11) Meridian, Mississippi; (12) Cleveland, Ohio; (llj.) Portland, Oregon; (15) Houston and Port Arthur, Texas; (16) Salt lake City, Utah; and (17) Spokane, Washington. Of the cities listed, Iij had syllabi and six did not. Of the six without a syllabi developed on the local level, one used a state guide, and another a state chemistry outline with plans to enrich the course with such things as valence and bonding, equilibrium, the acid- base theory, and quantitative analysis for the college bound student. Still 30 another used a Board of Regents* outline plus several other courses in advanced chemistry51 for example, a course in "both qualitative and quanti tative analysis using microtechniques in a n ’advanced placement program* Another city without a syllabus had planned to use the best from the recent CBA or CHEM studies. Of the two remaining, one had no guide, and while still another was without a guide, it did have plans for one* The following is a composite list of the topics contained in most 'of the .Syllabi on high school chemistry that were developed locallyj 1, Introductory chemistry a* History of chemistry and alchemists b, Chemistry a study of matter and energy c* Physical and. chemical changes d, Elements, compounds and mixtures ! &. Law of conservation of mass and energy f, Einstein* s equation g» The scientific method h* The metric system i* Laboratory techniques j» Chemical symbols and formulas ■ k. Formula weight (molecular weight) I* Law of definite composition m» Percentage composition 2. Gases and their behavior a. The atmosphere be Oxygen and oxidation Ce Speed and chemical reaction d. Allotropism and ozone e« Hydrogen fe Combining weights and equivalence g» Activity series he Diffusion and effusion of gases ic Boyle1s and Charles* law j. Absolute temperature and the Kelvin scale ke Standard conditions of temperature and pressure I, The kinetic molecular theory me Vapor pressure and vapor density n. Van der Waal*s forces 0« Density and specific gravity p e Law of Gay-Lussac and Avogadro q. Gram-molecular volume r. Gram-molecular weight 8, Avogadro*s number t. Chemical equations U e Stoichiometry: weight and volume problems V e Mole-fraction problem involving equations Electronic structure of matter a* Dalton* s atomic weight be Atoms' and atoBiic weight C 0 Structure determines properties and changes d, Electrical charges e„ Isotopeg f« Electrovalent3 covalent and coordinate bonding g. Polarization h e Determination of a formula io Simplestiand true'formula j e Electron shells and subshells (orbitals) k» Pauli*.s exclusion principle l . Ionization potential and energy m, Periodic table and periodicity n 0 Hetals3 nonmetals and amphoterism- Go Electron movements Po S 3 p3 d3 f energy levels and X-rays qe Magnetic fields: electron spin and revolution r 0 Radioactivity and transmutation S0 Nucleonics: a study of nuclear chemistry .to Fission and fusion Iu Solutions3 suspensions and colloids a 9 Waters analysis and synthesis b« Solutions: three states and nine types C6 Crystallization in solutions do Saturation3 unsaturation and super saturation ee Equilibrium and dissociation reactions 33 f. Determination of boiling and freezing points g® Vapor pressure he Solubility of gases i» Hydrogen peroxides medicine and rocket fuel j, law of multiple proportions k e Colloids: Brownian movement pnd Tyndall effect 1» Colloidal mill, peptization, emulsions and electrophoresis m, Cottrell precipitator 3e Ionization, acids, salts • and bases a. Theory of Arrhenius and ionization be Faradayts law of electrolysis C0 Cells and electroplating do Nomenclature of acids, salts and bases e* Solutions: mole, molar, molal and normal ' f o Titration in volumetric acids and unknowns go Electrochemical series he Chemical equilibrium and rate of reaction io Mass action j* Temperature, pressure and concentration effect ke Actions that go to an end I, Buffer salts and common ions 6«, Chemical families a. Halogen family and its compounds b. ■ Sulfur family and its compounds s, 3k Cs Nitrogen family and its compounds d« Boron5 silicon and glass 7« Oxidation-redaction reactions and oxidation numbers ae Direct combination b e Decomposition (simple) Ce Simple displacement de Ionic changes of Valences5 such as5 S n * to S n - W r 8e Metals a. Their compounds and alloys be Metallurgy Ce Activity series de Heat of formation x e. Conductivity f« Crystals ge light metals he Heavy metals 9« Carbon and its compounds a« Allotropic forms b e Goal Ce Carbon and its compounds de Fuels e. Petroleum f e Isomers g« Substitution products z 35 ho Hydrocarbons ie Chain and ring hydrocarbons jo Functional groups ke Foods and vitamins Io Medicines and drugs irio Textiles and paper . ne Rubber and plastics IOo Others of special interest to the instructor a» Soil chemistry: conservation^ fertilizers and insecti cides bo Geochemistry: the earth as a source of material Ce Chemistry of photography d» Qualitative analysis integrated with study of metals It was learned from the respondents who had developed their own syllabi for high school chemistry that in addition to an outline for general chemistrys some had developed guides for other types of chemistry* Some of these additional, types were: (I) a terminal course in applied chemistry, (2) a special chemistry course to be taught to selected juniors and seniors, and (3) an advanced chemistry course to be taught in the second semester to a student enrolled in chemistry who showed promise of success in a more challenging course. 36. Course Content from High School Chemistry Bopks 38 Lindahl? s thesis^ listed the ten high school chemistry textbooks used -most frequently in Montana. These were the chemistry textbooks examined to determine a list of content that was the basis for a major part of this Study, A checklist bearing the names of the preceding books, accompanied the letter of request fpr syllabi to the various stated and is a part of Appendix B, The returns on the checklists from state departments appeared' to confirm that the ten books were popular throughout the nation as a whole, A survey of the' ten most frequently used high school textbooks revealed the following 16 major topics in each book. Although the method of communicating the ideas of the contents were different, it was found that the texts covered all of the topics, but in different order and with varying degrees of emphasis, A list of the topics followss I* Chemistry in a modern world a, Chemistry-science of matter and energy b, Elements, compounds and mixtures c, Nature of matter and changes d, The metric system 2, Oxygen and hydrogen a. Oxygen ! Lindahl, Dean M,, 11A Status Study of Chemistry in Montana Public High Schools," (unpublished Master's thesis,, Montana State 'University, Missoula, 1957)? p® 12j5« 37 be Bydrogen e. Gas laws 3« Water and solutions a. Water b„ Solution and crystallization Iu Organization of chemistry a o Theory and structure of atoms be Molecules and valence Ce Chemical equations de Calculating chemistry formulas e« Molecular composition of gases fo Solving chemistry problems Carbon and its oxides a. Carbon b6 Oxides of carbon Ce Common fuels 6 0 Acids9 bases and salts a* The ionization theory bo Aeids9 bases and salts C0 Types of«chemical reactions 7o The atmosphere a. Composition of the air bo Compounds of nitrogen 8 o Sulfur and its compounds 38 a o S-Ulfuz1 and sulfides be Oxides and acids of sulfur 9« Grouping elements into families a« ■Halogens b e Phosphorus5 arsenic,, antimony and lead c. The periodic, law IOe Petroleum and petroleum products a e .The hydrocarbon series be Petroleum and petroleum products 11« Some common organic compounds ■ a« Hydrocarbons and substitution products be Foods9 vitamins and medicine Ce Textiles and paper d. Rubber and plastics e* Chemistry in agriculture 12. Colloids ae Colloidal suspensions 13e Boron and silicon a» Boron9 silicon and glass llu Nuclear fission a« Radium and radioactivity be Nuclear energy 15« Common light metals a. Extraction of metals 39 b, Alkali family C0 Magnesiw3 zinc and cadmium l6o Gommon heavy metals a e The iron family (Iron3 nickel and cobalt) b,. The copper family (cu3 ag and au) and mercury ce Tin and lead From the four sources - (I) syllabi and new trends as gleaned from literature on high school chemistry5 (2) syllabi from State Departments of Fducation3 (3) a sampling of syllabi from local communities throughout the nation, and (Ii) the table of contents from high school textbooks on chemistry- the topics were tallied and reproduced as part of a question naire which appears in Appendix E. The two first steps in the study were to determine content in high school and college chemistry offerings. This chapter has presented the nature of the content in high school chemistry. The content offering in first year college chemistry will be presented in Chapter III, ho CHAPTER H I BASIC TOPICS UJ COLLEGE GENERAL CHEMISTRY The main function of the part of the study reported in this chapter was to determine what topics should appear in the content of a course in college general chemistry. To determine the basic content of such a course5 the writer (I) gleaned the literature for syllabi on college general chem istry 5 and (2) examined the content of different college textbooks of general chemistry® A discussion concerning both sources follows. Variations in College Course Content as Revealed in the Literature It was found on examining the literature that the course content was not only Varied5 but that 'much less had been written on syllabi for general chemistry in college than for general chemistry in high school. The course content examined has been treated according to the traditional,, terminal5 and special approaches in the following sections with a part of the chapter devoted to new trends in college general chemistry content. Traditional college chemistry. Mysels and Copeland listed several topics for the beginner*s course in college chemistry that are represent ative of the traditional approach. The order in which topics are present-=* ed usually vary some with each instructor®» Both Mysels and Copeland recommended the following sequences I. Physical changes a. Substance ill b, Molecule 2e Chemical changes 3» Electrolytes Ue Atomic structure and bonding 5« Organic chemistry 6, Colloid chemistry 7. Applications^? , They' summarized their aims as follows$ (I) to demonstrate when ever possible that which is observable, (2) to point out the reasoning leading to conclusions, inductions, and hypotheses; (3) to use the approach whereby one proceeds from the familiar to the less familiarj and (U) to group together related phenomena for greater ease in learning® The terminal course® For some students in college the course in general chemistry will be their last in the area of chemistry® Alyea^ felt there was a great responsibility to this group of students since they are the future bankers, politicians, and businessmen, and as such, will make decisions of great importance to the future of chemistry® MyseIs, Karol J®, and Copeland, Charles 8., liThe Sequence of Topics in a Beginner®S ’Course, "Journal of Chemical Education, Vol® 28, pp, 165-166, March, 1951» -• — — — — it0Ibidfe, p® 165. Ui Alyea, Hubert N®, "The Terminal Course in Chemistry," Journal of Chemical Education, Vol® 29, p® 219, May, 1952® Three kinds of subjects were presented by Alyea for the terminal course, which he called n0. enormal, abnormal, and research topics.11 Being taught in every chemistry class were the normal topics, such as: orderli ness of the periodic table, ionic size as related)to atomic structure and its influence on chemical and physical properties, and principles of equi librium as applied to some important industrial processes. Abnormal top* ics are those peculiar to each teacher8s interest, and those topics upon which the teachers lecture with enthusiasm. He contended it was this spark that often times ignited a student*s interest in the field of chemistry.. The spirit of research could be injected into the course by refraining from cookbook assignments, by guiding the student into devis ing his own experiments, and by having the student keep a record of what he had read and done. These 'procedures would contribute much toward imbuing him with the idea of scientific research*^ Both the traditional and terminal approach used approximately the same content in their general college chemistry courses, except that the terminal approach appeared to place very little stress on organic chemistry, per se. The authors, in their articles on the two approaches, seemed deeply concerned because they feared that the students were not always having real and purposeful experiences. They placed emphasis on demonstrating that which was observable, and instilling the idea of scientific research into the students by having them think through, devise. h3 and conduct their own laboratory experiments. Special general chemistry. Perry showed how the Coast Guard Academy has developed a special first course in chemistry. It has been designated as a special general chemistry course since the course was developed for cadets who have had a minimum preparation of three years of mathematics and a year each of chemistry and physics in high school prior to entering the academy at New London. It has also been considered special due to the fact that while at the academy they had the equivalent of first-year college physics and mathematics through calculus before taking the first course in chemistry. The following chapter headings indicate the content of this special courses I. The elements and their classifications 2. Chemical combination and the atomic theory 3. Gas laws and the kinetic theory Iu Solutions 5. Fundamental chemical theory 6. Thermochemistry 7. Reaction velocity and equilibrium 8. Arrhenius* theory of ionization 9. Reactions according to the ionic theory 10. Quantitative applications of the ionization theory 11. Neutralization indicators 12. Electrical conductance 13. Electrode effects Il;. 'Electromotive force If). Applications of electrode potentials 16. Modern theories of electrolytes:U3 P e r r y ^ also believed thats (l) a first course stressing principles and understanding of chemistry is far better than one primarily occupied, with teaching descriptive chemistry, ranch of which is repetitious of material covered in high school; (2) the course, while essentially physi cal chemistry, has been successful; (3) students with only one high school course in chemistry have been successful; (I;) the course presented enough, material to challenge students with previous college experience; and (5) this course was not necessarily unique., but was indicative of one of the new trends in teaching first-year college chemistry. Trends in college general chemistry. If the honors course in high school, designed for the advanced student, is a significant trend, it must be recognized as such by the colleges. Meyer confirmed the thinking of secondary people when he referred to their desire for greater recognition of high school^ chemistry in the following statements "Those latter press for what they call *more recognition5 of high school chemistry by excusing students who' have had it from the apparently corresponding courses in ■ ^Perry, Raymond J., 11A Re-evaluation of Methods of Teaching First Tear College Chemistry,V Journal of Chemical Education. Yol. 22, p. k913 October, 19hS<. ■ ^Ibid.-, p. 500. ■ college. . Mhlle the idea of an honors course or advanced placement in the first year of college appears to be the trend on a national scale, it is neverthe less interesting that Haverford College at Haverford, Pennsylvania, for nearly twenty years has been admitting students, mostly freshman, direct ly to a second course in college chemistry on the basis of their previous - learning in chemistry.^ ■ Be !drum, in discussing a trend for the inclusion of electrochemistry as a main theme in college general chemistry, held that at the freshman level it is of greater value to develop principles than to memorize facts. This was done in the course labeled, ’’Inorganic Chemistry and Qualitative Analysis.” Systematic qualitative analysis using semimicro methods chiefly comprised the laboratory work with electrochemistry as the thread Winding throughout 90 per cent of the course. The major topics given by Meldrum in his special, course were* 1. The fundamental chemical theory 2. Telocity and equilibrium 3. Solutions of nonelectrolytes and electrolytes Uo The ionic theory5 applications of ^'Meyer, Martin, ”A Case Study of College General Chemistry, ” Journal of Chemical Education, Tol. 22, pp. 323- 327, July,. 19U3-. ^Meldrum, William B., ’’Electrochemistry in the Freshman Course,” Journal pf Chemical Education, Tol. 28, p. 282* 5» The periodic law 6. Radiations 7. The theories of atomic and molecular structure; applications of^ The idea of building an entire course around a single theme, such as electrochemistry^ is a good indication of a trend to get away from the old stereotyped traditional approach to teaching college general chemistry. King briefly described such a course in the college catalogue at Northwestern University ass nA two-quarter course equivalent to general chemistry and qualitative analysis, [sic] Intended for superior students who have had a superior high school chemistry course."4^ The class is the - academic responsibility of a single faculty member who advanced rapidly over areas that are well understood. Gas laws with related problems and purely descriptive materials are examples of some of the content of such a course, whereas equilibrium, acid-base theory and the more subtle aspects of structure, periodic classification, and valence are covered with as mtieh detail as needed. About one-sixth of. all freshman are selected for this course. 47:Xbid9 pp. 282-283 48 King, L» Carrol, 11 A Special Course for Superior Students," Journal of Chemical Education, Vol. 35, pp. 649-650, May, 1958. hi G o r m a n ^ submitted the topic of isotopes as a thread to be interwoven throughout general college chemistry in a manner similar to that of Meldrum5 who used electrochemistry. Cognizant of living in an atomic age, Gorman recommended -continued emphasis upon isotopes■in freshman chemistry. He proposed accomplishing this goal by giving some consideration to the name, and to the nuclear structure, and to the stability of an isotope from one element in each periodic group, starting with the isotopes of hydrogen somewhere near the beginning of the course and giving an advanced lecture toward the end. An article by Leo^O on modification of college chemistry for industry revealed the recommendations for the following changes in contents (1) in view of industry8s objective of a better product at a lower cost, students should be able to make an estimate of the cost of preparations^ (2) more calculations, particularly stoichiometric, with engineers* units should be given5 (3) chemical behavior, with equations, should be ■;X , ' ' ' ' stressed more than memorization^ and (I4.) development of the research attitude should receive direct consideration in classwork. Brother' Leo8-S ^Gorman, Mel, “Isotopes in the General Ohemistry Course," School Science and Mathematics, Vol. £>0, pp. 61|.9“65q , November, 1950. ■ ^ Leo, Brother. I., "Modifications of the First Two Tears,of College Chemistry as Suggested by Practicing Chemists,V Junior College Journal, Vol. Si, p. 88, October, 1950. survey revealed a trend indicating that colleges pay more attention to the need for using and developing knowledge and skills useful to industry in . chemistry from the freshman year and beyond than they formerly did. The. trend toward dissemination of instructional material by means of television is well illustrated by the National Broadcasting Gompany8S Continental Classroom, a televised course in'modern chemistry. In this course the textbook was written by,Baxter and Steiner and the following topics were selected for the content of the courses 1, Introduction 2. Atoms and atomic theory 3o Atoms and moleculesj some quantitative relations Uo Oxygens an important element 3o Atomic structure 6, Chemical bondings the formation of compounds 7„. Structures of compounds and solids 8, The behavior of gases 9« Liquids 10, Polar substances and water 11, Sodium chloride and other ionic compounds 12, Hydrogen chloride and acids 13, Acid-base reactions U u Concentrations and titrations 3iu Chemical equilibrium 16, Equilibrium in solutions k9 17o Energies and rates of reaction 18. Carbon chemistry 19« Organic reactions 20. Large molecules and organic polymers 21. The structure and size of atoms and ions 22. The alkali and alkaline earth families 23« Solubility reactions and equilibritim 2ho .Compounds of the alkaline earth elements 25« Reactions of some common compoundssuch as sodium carbonate 26. Reactions of aquo complex ions 27« The transition metals and typical complexes of their ions 28. Reactions of complex ions 29« Chemical nomenclature - - 30. Oxidation-reduction • ■ 31« Electric cells and cell reactions 32. Application of oxidation-reduction and of cells 33« The halogens 3Iu The sulfur family . 35« The nitrogen family 36. Silicon3 boron, germanium, and glasses 37« Chemistry of the metallic elements 38. Reactions and alloys of iron 39. Radioactivity and radiochemistry >1 5o 1|.0. Biochemistry-^^ In this television course the lecturer reserved,the teacher's tradi tional prerogative of deviating from the text from day to day in order to discuss chemistry in the light of new knowledge being constantly revealed and not merely to consider chemical facts in terms of earlier, more limited information. History, too, is interwoven in order to show the develop ment 'of fundamental theories and to show how ,views have changed and will continue to change in a rapidly developing field such as chemistry. Concepts from Textbooks of College General Chemistry The contents of 18 college general chemistry textbooks were examined to discern what concepts were presented to the freshman through these media. Only those textbooks copyrighted or revised within the past ten-years were selected, so as to include new concepts and the more recent developments in the field of college general chemistry. A list of the chemistry textbooks examined have been placed in Appendix D. An examin ation of the textbooks revealed certain broad topics were either integrat ed throughout the confines of the content, discussed as separate entities, or else omitted entirely in some Instances. ------— ______i______51 ■ ^ Baxter, John F., and Steiner, Luke E., Modern Chemistry, Vol. I, p. vii 52 Ibid, Vol. I, p. v. 51 From the 18 college general chemistry textbooks examineds the follow ing common,topics were selected: 1« The scienoes-chemistry 2. Matter and energy 3» Physical measurement ij.a The particle theory of matter 5c Gases and the kinetic-molecular theory of matter 6* The gas laws 7c Molecular attraction; change of state 8« Physical properties of liquids and solids 9. Solutions IOa Chemical substances and chemical change lie Molecular and atomic weights 12, Electrons and ions 13e Chemical formulas; equations and calculations Ilia Radiant energy and its applications; crystal' structure ' l5e Atomic nuclei 16, The periodic law ,J7e Atomic structure; chemical bonds 18, -Electron configurations and the periodic law 19« Water 20, Some important types.of chemical change 21; Oxygen and the oxides 22« Oxidation and reduction 52 23e Acids and bases$ neutralization 2lu Chemical equilibrium 25» Salts and their reaction with water 26, Properties of solutions 27» Ifydrbgeni equivalent weights' 28, The atmosphereI the inert gases 29« The halogens 30, Compounds of the halogens 31, The sulfur family 32» Reaction rates; the law of mass action 33» Nitrogen 3lu Phosphorus? arsenic, antimony, and bismuth 35« Carbon, silicon, boron, and titanium 36. Fuels and combustion 37» Ionic equilibria 38, The metals, I 39. The metals, TL 1|.0» Electrochemistry hi. Complex ions h2« Oxides and hydroxides of the metals il3c Carbonates and bioarbonates. of the ineials hh. Halides of the metals il5» Sulfides, sulfates, and sulfites of the metals U6» Silicates and borates of the metals 53 bl° Higher oxidation states of the metals ItSe Mineral chemistry k9o The colloidal state 50. Photochemistry 51. Radiochemistry 52. Organic chemistry; the hydrocarbons 53« Derivatives of the hydrocarbons 51u Organic compounds of more complex structure In nine-tenths of the textbooks examined the topics of physical measurement; the particle theory of matter; oxides, hydroxides, halides, carbonates,, bicarbonates, sulfides, sulfates, sulfites, silicates, borates, and higher oxidation states of the metals are integrated or discussed in various selections within the book instead of confined solely to a single chapter. Radiant energy with its applications,,crystal structure, the treat ment of water, important types of chemical, change, the atmosphere and the inert gases, ionic equilibrium, and the colloidal state were integrated in anywhere from one-third to approximately one-half of the' texts studied, . Most of the authors ignored mineral chemistry almost entirely; one- third paid little or no attention to higher oxidation states of metals, and to fuels and combustion; and one-half omitted electron configuration with regard to the periodic law. Biochemistry received considerable treatment under such headings as food) enzymes,, metabolism.) ■vitamins, and hormones. One text gave singular treatment to qualitative analysis within the appendix, whereas others integrated the various groups of anions and cations within the chapter, or chapters, in which this material was first introduc ed. Topics such as logarithms and proportion were covered briefly in the appendix of one text, while still another text included a series of lecture demonstrations in its appendix. : - Finally,.some authors had a special chapter for consideration of such topics as thermochemistry, common dangerous materials, and stoichiometry. Summary The information contained in this chapter shows that while there is still in many courses the old traditional approach to college general chem istry, the■trend is toward providing courses for those who will terminate their training in chemistry with the course in general chemistry. Special courses are new being taught for such groupd as the Coast Guard Academy, advanced groups, and honor students. Too, the trend is toward expanding the cqurse content to give more emphasis to such topics as electrochemistry, isotopes., and so oh, with provision being made for greater dissemination of current information through the media of television. While the topics list ed in this chapter are representative of old as well as new ideas regarding what should be included in the content of a course in college general chemistry, the topics themselves were made a part of a comprehensive quest ionnaire. Information concerning the organization and administration of that questionnaire is given in the next chapter.; 55 CHAPTER-H ' CONSTRUCTION AND ADMINISTRATION OE QUESTIONNAIRE ON BASIC TOPICS EOR A COURSE IN HIGH SCHOOL CHEMISTRY The purpose of the questionnaire was to obtain the opinions of high school and college teacher-experts with regard to whether certain topics in a general chemistry course should or should not be taught in high school and c o l l e g e a n d should or should not be repeated in college. Details of the construction and administration of the questionnaire are given in the following sections. Construction of the Questionnaire Care was excercised in the construction of the questionnaire so that > it would serve the purpose for which it was intended, be simple to under stand, easily checked, and complete. The topics in the questionnaire were obtained from the various syllabi, textbooks examined, and literature reviewed in Chapters H and III. This questionnaire, with a composite list of topics, was mailed to selected teachers of high school and college chemistry for their opinions regarding the teaching of the topics listed. A copy of the questionnaire appears in Appendix Ee The title of the questionnaire, "Topics f o r 'a Minimum Course in High School Chemistry" suggested that not all topics listed had to be taught, nor 56 that the instructor had to confine himself only to the topics given* General directions were given for checking the columns in response to the four questions in the questionnaire* For a more valid result, it was sug gested to. the respondents that each column be checked in its entirety be fore going on to the next. Space was allowed at the end of the question naire to encourage.comments and suggestions. These comments are dis cussed. in Chapter V* In the questionnaire, the basic topics for a high, school chemistry course are found under ten major headings,, ,among which are "Introductory chemistry," "Gases and their behavior," and "Electronic -structure of matter." The major areas or units of the high school chemistry course were not organized as topics,' such as "oxygeny" but by conceptual schemes such as the "Electronic structure of matter," or fields such as "Metals." Even though the qontent of chemistry courses is organized by conceptual schemes or fields, Brandwein, Watson, and Blackwood indicated there seemed to be no 53 rhyme or reason for organizing topics in chemistry in such a manner. Hence, the order in which the topics appeared in the questionnaire was not intended to be a suggestive sequence for classroom procedure. The major areas, headings or units u s ^d in ■ organization of the ques tionnaire was not intended to.be a suggestive sequence for classroom : , Ko 9^Brandwein, Watson, and Blackwood, op, cit., p, 522. 5? procedure. The major areas, headings or units used in organization of the ques tionnaire are similar to those used by the Board of Education in Chicago The areas added were "Oxidation-reduction reactions and oxidation numbers, " and "Otherd 'of special interest to the instructor.I' Administration of the Questionnaire The administration of the questionnaire required that careful at tention be given to the selection of the respondents and that diligence be exercised in the several communications made in order to obtain an adequate response. Selection of the respondents. In selecting respondents it seemed necessary that those of great interest and repute^ be enlisted for judging the nature of course. content in general chemistry, as well as the degree of repetition found in general chemistry as taught in high school and college. The respondents were selected from those attending a summer institute for high school and college teachers of chemistry sponsored by the National " ^ B o a r d of Education of the City of Chicago, Chemistry A Supplement to Teaching Guide for Sciences A Tentative Program for the Secondary Schools, p. vii. Rice, Robert, Chairman National Science Teachers* Association, and Science Department Chairman, Berkeley High School, Berkeley 9, California; Bereit, Arnold; member of Chemical Bond Approach Committee and chemistry instructor. Central High School, Phoenix, Arizona. 58 Science Foundations-^ The members of this group were restricted even further by selecting, insofar as possible, only those who during the session displayed unusual interest and enthusiasm for the teaching of chemistry. Because of the method of their selection they were deemed experts, which one group of authors^7 said could be found by looking in the school or school system for chairmen of departments, senior teachers, consultants in science or within state departments of education. Fifteen teachers of chemistry in high school and 20 college'instruc tors were selected as respondents in order to obtain information from both groups, with regard to (l) what topics are being taught (2) what topics should or should not be taught, (3) what topics should be repeated, and (If.) what topics should not be. repeated in high ,school or college general chemistry. ' . Questionnaires were sent to those who responded favorably to the letter that solicited their cooperation in this study. A separate letter and a postcard were used as a followup for those who did not respond to the x ’ first inquiry. The number who replied and their general promptness in co operating in the survey tended to remove any doubt that they lacked interest. Copies of the communications used in securing these responses have been placed in Appendix E. ^Chemistry Summer Institutes, Montana State College, Bozeman, • Montanaj and Oregon State College, Corvallis, Oregon, sponsored by the National Science Foundation, 1959. ^Brandwein, Watson, and Blackwood, op. cit., p. 522. 59 In determining just what an adequate response to a questionnaire survey is, several authorities were consulted* Good and S e a t e s in dis cussing the percentage of returns on questionnaires, stated that the person doing the research should strive for 90 to 100 per cent returns. In a study of the mean percentages of questionnaire returns from a large number of investigations it was found that 170 masters* theses at Indiana State Teachers College ha,d a mean return of 71*75 per cent and 20U doctoral dissertations at Teachers College, Columbia University, 70.65 per cent. Shannon^ in a report of 59 research studies obtained'a mean percentage of 80.71 on questionnaire returns. The adequacy of response to the questionnaire, on the basis of an 86.7 per cent return from the high school and a 90.0 per cept return from the colleges was satisfactory according to these sources consulted. The fact that follow-up letters reached some of the respondents at a new address would tend to indicate that some of the people not respond ing may have moved to another location. The interpretation of the results of the questionnaire follows ip the next chapter. £%ood. Carter Y., and Scates, Douglas Ee, Methods of Research, pp. 626-627. ^Shannon, J. R., "Percentages of Returns of Questionnaires in Reputable Educational Research," Journal of ^Educational Research, Vol. 52, p. 150, October, 1958. " ; I 60 CHAPTER V . OPINIONS OF HIOH SCHOOL AND COLLEGE EXPERTS CONCERNING THE PLACEMENT OF TOPICS IN VARIOUS AREAS OF GENERAL CHEMISTRY The opinions of high school and college experts^ concerning the placement of topics in various areas of chemistry were obtained from the responses to the questionnaire described in Chapter IV and placed in Appendix E. The purpose of the questionnaire was to elipit the opinions of the experts in order to determine four things$ (I) topics submitted in the questionnaire that were taught by the experts in their general chemistry courses, (2) topics submitted in the questionnaire to the experts to indicate what shduld be taught in a course in high school general phemistry, (3) topics in the questionnaire submitted to the experts for designation of what should he repeated in college for greater mastery and further expansion, and (Ij.) the topics in the questionnaire for the experts to indicate which may create disinterest or be boring if repeated. The opinions of the experts were summarized and expressed in percentages. Their opinions with regard to the four preceding questions are discussed under each of the ten major areas given in the question naire. These areas are: (I) introduction to Cheraistryj (2) gases and their behaviorj (3) electronic structure of matterj (U) solutions, suspensions, 60 See' explanation of an expert on page 38', 61 and colloidsj (5) ionization, acids, salts, and basesj (6) chemical families5 (7) oxidation-reduction reactions and oxidation numbers3 (8) metals; (9) carbon and its compounds; and (10.) others of special interest to the instructor.. A discussion of the first of these areas follows. Opinions of Experts Concerning the Area of Introduction to Chemistry The opinions of the experts concerning the area of Introduction to Chemistry^l are contained in Table I. Topics taught in high school and college. A l l of the topics listed in Table I were Indicated by the experts as being .taught in their general chemistry Coufsesi Only one topic, "History of chemistry and alchemists," ^3 was taught by less than one-half of the college experts who responded to the questionnaire.. Topics that should be taught in high school. O v e r 80 per cent of the high schools agreed that all of the topics should be taught in high 6l The title of the area will appear as part of - the center heading; for example, Introduction to Chemistry. ^Topics taught in high school and college will be used as a brief condensation of the first thing determined from this questionnaire and numbered as (I) on page 58. 6] Topic in the questionnaire experts were asked to check. In the discussion of this and remaining sections each topic will be set off in quotation marks. . Zl ^Topics that should be taught in high school will be used as a brief condensation of the second" timing being ■ determined from this questionnaire and numbered as (2) on page 58. / TABLE I. OPINIONS OF 13 HIGH SCHOOL AND 18 COLLEGE EXPERTS ON BASIC TOPICS TM AN INTRODUCTORY UNIT IN HIGH SCHOOL.CHEMISTRY TO BE, OBL-NOT .TQ BE REPEATED AT. THE COLLEGE. LEVEL PER CENT OF EXPERTS INDICATING TOPIC - — ... - ... • • ; ■ - ■ .. — Is Taught Should be Be Repeated If Repeated Area As Introduction To Cheraistry Ir Taught In College In College Their IrI . For Mastery May Create Schools High School & Expansion Disinterest Basic Topics in High,.School,Qhernistry. H.S. Col. H.S. Col. H.S. Col. H..S. Col. " I. History of chemistry and alchemists ' 92.L "UU.lj. 100.0 61.1 " 0.0 22.2 ' 77.0 38.9 2. Chemistry a study of matter and energy 100.0 77.8 100.0 88.9 33.8 I1I1.U ll6.2 33.3 3. Physical and chemical changes 92.U 83.3 100.0 9li.il 7.7 #.6 69.2 27.8 Ii. Elements5 compounds and mixtures 100.0 77.8 100.0 88.9 7.7 $0.0 69.2 16.7 5.„ Law of conservation of mass and energy 100.0 83.3 100.0 77.8 38.li $$.6 23.1 11.1 6„. Einsteinr s equation 100.0 72.2 92.b 27.8 8I4.6 $$.6 7.7 5.6 7. The scientific method 8Lu6 66.7 92.Ii 77.8 15.U '66.7 I16.2 16.7 8. The metric system 100.0 83.3 92.Ii 33.3 33.8 kk.k 33.8 38.9 ”9. Laboratory techniques 100.0 72.2 92.1i 72.2 69.2 66.7 l$.li 16.7 10. Percentage of error 69.2 77.8 BA.6 72.2 61.5 61.1 33.8 16.7 11. 'Chemical symbols and formulas 100.0 66.7 100.0 9li.li 38.1i Ii2i.li 1*6.2 27.8 12. Formula weight (molecular weight) 100.0 77.8 100.0 83.3 33.8 6l.l I16.2 16.7 13. La w "of definite _ composition 100.0 77.8 100.0 9li.li 23.1 72.2 I16.2 16.7 lL. Percentage composition 100,0 83.3 100.0 83.3 I16.2 $$.6 15. Ii 22.2 ON r\3 63 school, but this was not the opinion of the college experts with regard to "Einstein8 s equation" and the "Metric system, ” It would appear that, since all of the high school experts did teach the "Metric system" they should, continue to do so, inasmuch as not all of the college experts indicated they taught it. Less than half of them showed a desire to have this topic repeated in college, The treatment given "Einstein8 s equation" in most of the college textbooks of general chemistry that were examined was rather superficial and that of high school textbooks was even more so. This statement may account for the small percentage of college respondents who were in favor of "Einstein8 s equation" being taught in the high school. Topics to be repeated in college for mastery and expansion,^ Over . one-half of the high school respondents would have very little of the introduction to chemistry repeated, other than "Einstein8 s equation," "Laboratory techniques" and "Percentage of error," The college respondents elected to repeat all of the introductory chemistry except “History of chemistry and alchemists," "Chemistry a study of matter and energy," "The metric system," and "Chemical symbols and formulas,” Thus it would appear that the high schools are expected to give their students a thorough understanding of "Formula weight," "Law of definite composition," and "Percentage composition” before enrolling in college chemistry. Only 22.2.per cept of those experts teaching the "History of chemistry and alchemy" in college thought this topic should be repeated. 65n Lcs- ito; be repeated in college for mastery and expansion will be used as a bridf condensation of the third thing being determined from the questionnaire and mjmbered as (3) on page 'v* 6b and. this percentage is in close agreement with the 6l,l per cent of college respondents that indicated they Tapuld'rather have it taught in high school. Topics repeated in college that may create disinterest. ^ The college and high school experts were of. the. opinion that most of the topics in an introduction to chemistry could be repeated without creating boredom. The only exception was "History fef chemistry and alchemists" in which 77 per cent of the high school specialists objected to this topic being repeated in college, yet the high schools are doing very little to acquaint their students with the philosophy, history, and methods of science.^7 Gases and Their Behavior The opinions of the specialists in general chemistry who responded to the questionnaire concerning the area "Gases and Their Behavior" were tabulated in Table 2. Topics \aught in high school and college. The percentages in Table 2 indicate that a majority of those who responded were teaching the material under the area "Gases and Their Behavior” in their general Repeating in college may create disinterest will be used as a brief condensation of the fourth thing being determined from tii» questionnaire and numbered as (U) on page -V8 Report of the Joint Commission on the Education of Teachers of Science and'Mathematics, jog. cit., p. 7« . TABEE 2. OPINIONS OF 13 HIGH SCHOOL AND 18 COLLEGE EXPERTS ON BASIC TOPICS IN AN AREA IN HIGH SCHOOL CHEMISTRY CAIIED GASES AND THEIR BEHAVIOR TO BE OR NOT TO BE REPEATED AT THE COLLEGE IEVEL EXPERTS INDICATING TOPIC" Area Bs Gases and Their Behavior If Repeated In College May create Disinterest Basic Topics.in High School Chemistry 1. The atmosphere 2. Oxygen and oxidation 3. Speed "of chemical reaction. Iu Allotropism, and ozone 5u Hydrogen 6. ,Combining" weights. and equivalence 7. Activity series 8» Diffusion and effusion of gases 9« Boylesr and Charles* law 10. Absolute temperature and Kelvin scale 11. Standard" conditions oftemperature=-pressure 12. The Kinetic molecular"theory 13. Vapor pressure and vapor density liu' Van der Waalts forces 15. Density and specific gravity" 16. Law of Gay-Lussac and Avogadro 17. Gram-molecular volume 18. Gram-molecular" weight 19. Avogadrb8S number 20. Chemical.equations 21. Stoichiometry: weight and volume problems 22. Mole-fraction problems involving equations. 66 chemistry, courses. In certain instances experts indicated that although certain topics were not being taught in the high school presently^ they should be. The first topic in Table 2 is an example. There were 8U«6 per cent of the high school experts who indicated they were teaching "The atmosphere," but more thought it should be taught. "Oxygen oxidation," "Speed of chemical reaction," "Allotropism and ozone," "Hydrogen," and "Absolute temperature and the Kelvin scale,” are similar examples, #iy more topics wers not being taught in the high school chemistry course may have been due to the volume of material that the instructor had to assimilate. Topics that should be taught in high school. It may be of interest to note that ip some instances a higher percentage of the experts in the high schools indicated they were teaching certain topics' than were actually in favor of those topics being taught in the high school chemistry course. Such topics "Combining weights and equivalence," "Vapor pressure and vapor density,” and "Van der Waal1S forces," are examples. The purpose of teaching these should be carefully considered before being added as topics to be taught in high schools. ^ A report of the Joint Commission of the Education of Teachers■of Science and Mathematics, op. cite, pp. 6-7. 67 The fact that 6l.5 per cent of the high school experts- were teach ing "Van der Waal* s forces," but that only £>3.8 per cent thought they should, left some doubt as to whether it belonged in the high school general chemistry course. College specialists in general chemistry, with a response of only 22.2 per cent in favor of ^he high school* s teaching "Van der Waal* s forces," concurred with the high school minority who were in doubt about teaching the one topic. A similar situation . appeared to exist with respect to” teaching "Diffusion and effusion of gases." Only half of the college experts were in favor of the topics "Speed of chdmical reaction" and "Mole-fraction problems involving equations" being taught in high school chemistry. The Organization for European Economic Cooperation,^ in its seminar on the "Status and Development of the Teaching of Chemistry," suggested that some of the topics in high schcol chemistry be moved down into a general science course in the junior high school in order to make room for other topics that would give depth to the course * Topics to be repeated in college for mastery and expansion. Most general chemistry experts from both the high schools and the colleges agreed that in college there was no need for repeating or expanding upon topics as "The atmosphere" and upon "Density and specific gravity." There was lack of agreement on some topics. For example, the high ^Koelsche, Charles. L., "The Course in Chemistry," ip The Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals. 68 school experts did not' recommend repeating. "Oxygen and oxidation" nor "Standard conditions of temperature and pressure" while the experts from the colleges recommended they be repeated. These examples could be interpreted to mean that the high school experts thought these topics were covered sufficiently well in high school to eliminate need for further expansion in college. Then again, it should be assumed the college experts are in a better position than the high school teachers to know to what extent those topics may be enlarged or expanded upon in college„ Topics repeated in college that may create disinterest. Two topics that high school experts thought should not be repeated in college because they would be boring were "The atmosphere" and "Hydrogen." The majority of the college experts appeared to feel that none of the topics repeated in college general chemistry should be boring. Only half of the college experts seemed to think "Hydro gen," "Absolute temperature and the Kelvin scale," and "Hole fractions problems involving equations" shotild be repeated in college. Complete agreement on the part of all respondents that "Speed of chemical reaction" and "Van der Waal* s forces" would not be boring if repeated in college was indicated with zero percentages in the last two columns to the right in Table 2. Electronic Structure of Matter The opinions of the experts on the area of Electronic Structure of Matter were deduced from Table 3® 69 Topics .taught in high school and college. All of the topics in the table on the Electronic Structure of Matter are taught in general chemistry courses in high school and college, but "Electron spin and revolution of magnetic fields" and "Precession and shifting of orbital planes" are taught by a minority of the college experts. Readers may be surprised to find that Slj.. 6 per cent of the high school experts and only $0 per cent of the college experts were teaching the "Stock' system of nomenclature,” when in reality it would seem'more plausible, if the percentages were in the reverse order since most high schools 70 do look to the colleges for leadership in this respect.1 Topics in high school. The high school experts contended that the majority of the topics should be taught in their high school course in chemistry except for "Electron spin and revolution within the magnetic field" and "Precession and shifting of orbital planes." College experts for the most part agreed that in addition to the two topics just mentioned, high schools should not teach "Polarization," "Pauli1s exclusion principle," "Ionization potential and energy," "Electron movements," "S, p, d, f energy- levels and X-rays," and "Nucleonics" in their general chemistry courses 5Jaffe, Bernard, op. cit., p. 67« TABES 3. OPINIONS OF 13 HIGH SCHOOL AND 18 COLLEGE EXPERTS REPORTING ON BASIC TOPICS IN AN AREA ■ IN HIGH SCHOOL CHEMISTRY CALLED ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF MATTER TO BE OR NOT TO BE REPEATED AT THE COLLEGE LEVEL PER GENT OF'EXPERTS.INDICATING TOPIC Area Cs Electronic Structure of Matter Is Taught Should be Be Repeatedllf Repeated In Taught In College In College Their In . For MasteryjMay Create .Schools High School k Expansion!Disinterest Basic Topics in .High School- Chemistry. Ho.Se - -Col. ■" H.S-. ■■ Col.. H.S. Col. H.S. ,Col. i; DaltonrS atomic theory 100.0 72.2 92.4 '83.3 7.7 44.4 53.8 22.2 2. Atoms and atomic" weight 100.0 83.3 100.0 94.4 15.4 6i.i 53.8 11.1 3: Structure■determines properties and charges 81u6 88.9 100.0 61.1 53;8 83.3 • 7.7 0 k: Electrical charges 92.4 77.8 100.0 55.6 46.2 55.6 23.1 11.1 Isotopes ioo. p 83.3 100.0 72.2 38.4 72.2 23.1 .11.1 6. Electrovalentj covalent and coordinate bonding ' 100.0 88.9 100.0 77.8 92.4 94.4 ■: 15.4 0 7. Polarization 84.6 77.8 92.4 33.3 77.0 66.7 7.7 0 8. Determination of a formula 100.0 83.3 100.0 72.2 53.8 88.9 22.1 5.6 9. Simplest and true formula 100.0 83.3 100.0 72.2 53.8 77.8 33.8 n.i .10. Stock system of nomenclature 84.6 5o.o 92.4 55.6 46.2 53.3 15.4 16.7 11. Electron" shells and 'subshells (orbitals) . 100.0 77.6 92.4 5o.o 84.6 83.3 7.7 0 12. Pauli1s"exclusion "principle 53.8 66.7 61.5 n.i 100.0 66.7 0 0 13. ■Ionization potential and energy 70.0 72.2 69.2 16.7 92.4 55.6 0 5.6 ilu Periodic table and periodicity 100.0 88.9 100.0 72.2 77.0 77.8 15.4 16.7 15. Metals, nonmetals and amphoterism 92.4 83.3 100.0 72.2 33.8 66.7 23.1 5.6 16. Electron movements " 77.0 61.1 77. G 22.2 69.2 6l.l 7.7 0 17. S/'p, d, f "energy levels and ""X-rays 92.4 72.2 84.6 22.2 100.0 6l.l 0 0 18. Magnetic fields: Electron spin and revolution " 33.8 38.9 38.4 5.6 92.4 55.6 0 0 Precession and, shifting" of orbital planes 23.1 22.2 23.1 0 • 92.4 33.3 0 ' 0 ... : - V v - ' -x TABLE 3. • (Continued) -PER' CENT OF EXPERTS INDICATING TOPIC Is Taught Should be Be Repeated I Area C? Electronic Structure of Matter In Taught In College I College Their Ir For Mastery- T Create Schools High School & Expansion I Basic Topics in High Sdhool Chemistry H.S. Col. H.S. Col. H.S. Col. H.S* B Col. 20. Radioactivity and transmutation 92.U 9 81;.6 ' # . 6 69.2 72.2 " O 5.6 21. Nucleohicss ' A study of nuclear chemistry 77.0 72. 2 81;.6 38.9 77.0 72.2 OO 22. Fission and fusion 8I1.6 77. 8 8 L 6 ^ . 6 69.2 66.7 O 5.6 -■j H 72 College experts may have been of the opinion that the topics mentioned are far too difficult to be taught in the high school general chemistry Course9 since consensus were that these topics be repeated in college freshman chemistry. The college experts were divided in their opionion of whether "Electron shells and subshells (orbitals)" should or should not be taught in the high school course, but a majority would repeat this topic in college general chemistry. Topics to be repeated in college for mastery and expansion. At both levels of instruction agreement was indicated that "Dalton's atomic theory" and "Stock system of nomenclature" should not be repeated in college general chemistry. College experts would have "Atoms and atomic weight," "Electrical charges," "Isotopes," and "Metals, nonmetals, and- amphoterism" repeated in college, while high school experts were opposed. and probably thought there was not room for further expansion of these concepts within the same course when taught to college freshman. The very fact that only a third of the college experts would have "Precession and shifting of orbital planes" taught in the regular college freshman chem istry course, could lead'to the assumption that this topic should be re served for an advanced or honors course. Topics repeated in college that may create disinterest. If most of the high school experts had not been of the opinion that "Dalton's atomic theory" and "Atoms and atomic weight" would be boring or disinteresting if repeated, there would have prevailed an opinion in t h e ■ main that the topics listed under the area of Electronic Structure would 73 maintain sufficient interest for greated depth and study for collegei freshmen. Solutions5 Suspensions, and Colloids The experts’ opinions concerning solutions, suspension, and colloids are indicated in Table Topics taught in' high school and college. The area of Solutions, Suspensions, and Colloids as tabulated in the table showed that no less than one-half of the college experts were teaching all of the topics in this area, and that only . "Osmotic pressure" had a low of less than 50 per cent popularity with the high school experts which indicated the extent to which these topics were taught in both high school and college general chemistry, , . . Topics that should be taught in high school. The high school experts indicated they should teach all of the topics other than "Rauolt’s law and vapor pressure" and "Osmotic pressure" but the majority of the college experts indicated in addition to the two preceding topics "Henry’s law and solubility of gases," "Colloidal mill, peptization, emulsions and electrophoresis," and the "Cottrell precipitator" should not be a part of high school chemistry. One-half of the college experts gave the same opinion with regard to "Equilibrium and dissociation reactions," The majority of the college experts preferred having the remainder of the topics introduced in the high school course. Topics to be repeated in college for mastery and expansion. Both high school and college experts responded favorably toward not repeating (TABES U. OPINIONS OF 13 HIGH SCHOOL'AND 18 COLLEGE EXPERTS REPORTING ON BASIC TOPICS IN AN AREA IN HIGH SCHOOL CHEMISTRY CALLED SOLUTIONS5 SUSPENSIONSs AND COLLOIDS TO BE OR .NOT TO BE REPEATED AT THE COLLEGE LEFEL PER CENT OF EXPERTS INDICATING TOPIC Should Be Be Repeated If Repeated Area Ds Solutions5 Suspensions5 and Is Taught In Taught In College In College Colloids Their ■ In For' Mastery May Create Schools High School & Expansion Disinterest Basic Topics in High School Chemistry H.S; Col. H.S. jCol. H.S. Col. ■H.S. Col. ' I. Waters Analysis and synthesis"' 8L.6 6l.l " 92.4 77.8 " 23.1 Ilfl 53.8 5o.o 2. Solutibnss 'Three states and nine types ■100.0 66.7 92.4 6l.l 53.8 38.9 33.8 22.2 3'. Crystallization in solutions . 8U.6 88.9 92.4 55.6 38.4 55.6 23.1 0 it. Saturation, unsaturation and supersaturation 100.0 83.3 92.4 83.3 15.4 22.2 53.8 38.9 5. Equilibrium and dissociation reactions 100.0 77.8 100.0 5o.o 100.0 66.7 0 5.6 6. Determination.of■ boiling and freezing ■points 92.4 77.8 84.6 55.6 69.2 33.3 15.4 22,3 7. Rauqlt1 s law and vapor pressure 61.5 66.7 46.2 27.8 92.4 44.4 7.7 0 ' 8„ Osmotic pressure 33.8 55.6 38.4 33.3 69.2 38.9 7.7 11.1 9: Henry's law and solubility of gases 84.6 66.7 84.6 38.9 46.2 38.9 33.-8 16.7 10. Hydrogen peroxides Medicine and rocket ■ fuel 69.2 50.0 69.2 55.6 33.8 27.8 33.8 27.8 11. Law of multiple proportions 100.0 83.3 100.0 66.7 46.2 72.2 33.8 16.7 12. Colloidss Brownian movement and Tyndall effect 92.4 66.7 61.5 6l.l 46.2 38.9 7.7 33.3 13. Colloidal mill', peptization, emulsions and electrophoresis ' 53.8 5 o.o 61.5 5.6 61.5 38.9 7.7 16.7 l L Cottrell precipitator .69.2 6l.l 6i.5 38.9 15.4 33.3 38.4 44.4 75 "The synthesis and analysis of water," "Saturation, unsaturation, and supersaturation," "HenrytS law and solubility of gases," "Hydrogen perdride as a medicine and in rocket fuel," and "The Cottrell precipitator" in college. College experts appeared to be reluctant to give up "Crystallisation in solutions" and the "Law of multiple proportions," even though most of the high school experts did assume it was not necessary to expand these topics beyond what had already been covered in the high schools. Experts from the high school and colleges were also indifferent ' about further expansion regarding the following topics, "Solutionss three states and nine types,” "Determination of boiling and freezing points,” "RauolttS law, and vapor pressure," "Osmotic pressure,” and the. "Col loidal mill, peptization, emulsions, and electrophoresis." With the high school experts in favor of the colleges going into greater depth, it appears the high school experts may be inclined to think their students have not mastered the topics. The Joint Commission on the Education of Teachers' of Science71 suggested high school and college personnel get together and determine who would teach what. ;e that may create disinterest. Half.of the college specialists replying in general chemistry and 53.8 per cent of the high school specialists responded in such a manner as to leave little doubt that "Water: analysis and synthesis" would be boring or disinteresting if repeated in college chemistry. Approximately 55 per A report of the Joint Commission on the Education of Teachers of Science and Mathematics, ojc. cit., p. 6. 76 cent of the high school respondents designated "Saturation, nnsaturation, and supersat'oration" as being a topic that approached boredom when repeated in college. But the experts agreed most of the topics in general chemistry lend themselves to greater depth of study without the danger of boring the majority of the college students taking the course. Ionization, Acids, Salts, and Bases The data in Table $ show the opinions of the experts on the topics under the area of Ionization, Acids, Salts, and Bases,. Topic's taught in high school and college. The data in the table showed that only 15.U per cent or a minority of the high school experts taught "Faraday*s law of electrolysis," but encouraging was the 77 per cent that thought it should be taught in the high school. Otherwise, a majority of both college and high school respondents indicated the re maining topics are being taught. Topics that should be taught in high school. All of the high school experts who. cooperated in this investigation were inclined to think that all of the topics listed should be considered a part of the high school chemistry curriculum. The percentages given by the college specialists indicated that the high schools should teach the "Theory of Arrhenius and ionizations," the "Nomenclature of acids, salts, and bases," "Solutions$ mole, molar, molal, and normal," "Titration in volumetric acids and unknowns," "Chemical equilibrium and rate of re action," "Le Chatelier*s principles temperature, pressure, and TABES 5. OPINIONS OF 13 HIGH SCHOOL AND 18 COLLEGE EXPERTS REPORTING ON BASIC TOPICS IN AN AREA IN HIGH SCHOOL CHEMISTRY CALLED IONIZATION, A C H E , SALTS, AND BASES TO BE OR NOT TO BE REPEATED AT THE. COLLEGE LEVEL . PER CENT OF EXPERTS INDICATING TOPIC .. 11 *. ' ' I ‘ Area Es' 'Ionization, Acids, Salts, Is Taught Should be Be Repeatedjlf Repeated and Bases In" Taught In College In College Their H i For MasteryJMay Create .Schools High School & ExpansionjDi1Sinterest Basic. Topics . In High School .,Chemistry H.S<: Col.. H.S. . Col. H.S. Col. H.S. Col. 1. Theory"of Arrhenius and" ionization " 92.lt'88; 9'92.1; 72.2 ' 77.0 77.8 7.7 5.6 2. FaradayrS law"of electrolysis l5.lt 72.2 77.0 38.9 85.6 55.6 7.7 Bs 6 3. Cell's and electrolysis 8lt.6 77.8 77.0 38.9 .5318 55.6 7.7 ll.l it. Nomenclature of acids, salts and bases 100.0 77.8 100.0 88.9 15.5" 6l.l 38.5 27.8 3« Brohsted theory of acids and bases 81;. 6 77.8 85.6 55 .’5 92.5 83.3 7.7 0 6". Lewis-concept of acid and bases 61.5 66.7 53.8 16.7 92.5. 55.6 0 5.6 7. Solutionss Mole, molar, molal and normal 100.0 83.3 100.0 77.8 77.0 77.8 7.7 ll.l 8. Titration in volumetric acids and unknowns 100.0 83.3 77.0 5o.o 92.5 72.2 15.5 5.6 9. Electrochemical series 77.0 83.3 85.6 55.5 77.0 6l.l 15.5 5.6 10. Chemical equilibrium and rate of reaction ; 81;,6 77.8 92.5 5o.o 85.6 83.3 0 11. Guldberg'"and Waager s mass action 69.2 6l.l 69.2 33.3 92.5 66.7 0 0 12» Le Chatelier6S principles temperature, _" pressure' and- concentration effect 69.2 72.2 61.5 61.1 92.5 66.7 0 11.1 13. Actions that go to an .end ■ 92.lt 6l.l 100.0 55.6 38.5 33.3 23.1 27.8 ill. . Buffer salts and common ions 77.0 77.8 92.5 22.2 92.5 55.6 0 0 - j 78 concentration effect5" and "Actions that go to an end." Summers called the the "Theory of Arrhenius" out-of-datti.7,2„ • -■ Topics, repeated in college '.for mastery and expansion. Of the llj. topics listed in Table S ithe high school respondents were of the opinion that all but "Nomenclature of acids, salts, and bases/' and "Actions that go to an end" should be repeated for mastery and expansion. College respondents agreed that the latter topic, that is, "Actions that go to 'an end," need not be repeated in college. Topics repeated in college may1 create disinterest. Neither high school nor college experts in general chemistry committed themselves as a majority toward a statement that declared the topics in Table 5 r as lending themselves toward monotony; instead, they felt in general that all of the topics should be repeated for mastery. Chemical Families The halogens, sulfur, nitrogen, and their compounds with boron, silicon, and glass were treated as families, and as such were considered descriptive chemistry and placed in Table Si- Topic's taught in high school and college. All topics were taught by the majority of the respondents that cooperated in this survey, with only one exception being noted, and this exception occured in an area where 50 per cent of the pollege respondents showed they taught "Boron, silicon, and glass." ^Summers, op. clt., p. 263« TABEB 6. OPINIONS OF 13 HIQH SCHOOLdND 18 COLLEGE EXPERTS REPORTING .ON BASIC TOPICS. IN AN AREA' IN HIGH SCHOOL CHEMISTRY CALLED CHEMICAL FAMILIES TQ BE CR NOT TO: BE REPEATED AT THE COLLEGE LEVEL . .... - PER.CENT OF EXPERTS INDICATING TOPIC Is Taught Should be Area Fa Chemical Familied Be Repeated If Repeated In Taught In College In College Their In For Mastery May Create Schools High School & Expansion Disinterest Basic .Topics in. High ,School. Chemistry HcSe Col. H.S. Col/ HoS0 Col. H.S. Col. I.* Halogen family- and its compounds 100.0 77.8 100.0 9lt.lt' ’ ,7.7 50.0 69.2 33.3 2. Sulfur"family and its compounds 100.0 77.2 92.lt 88.9 7.7 5o.o 69.2 33.3 3. Nitrogen family and its compounds 100.0 77.2 100.0 88.9 l5.lt 5o.o 69.2 38.9 I. Boron, silicon, and glass : 53.8 50.0 53.8 66.7 i5.it 33.3 38.lt 38.9 -c NO 80 that should be taught in high school. A majority of all those responding indicated that the high school teacher of chemistry should introduce or teach the descriptive part of general chemistry. ' Topics to be repeated in college for mastery and expansion. Experts from high school and college were of similar opinions with regard to the ■ value of repeating the chemical families in the general college chemistry Course5 inasmuch as no more than 50 per cent indicated any need for trying to expand or develop any further what the high school chemistry teacher had already done. Topics repeated in college that may create disinterest. Except for "Boron5 silicon, and glass" the specialists in high school chemistry declared all other topics would tend to be disinteresting. The college specialists seemed to be as dedicated as ever to the fact that most chemistry was not boring, even if repeated at the college level. Oxidation-Reduction Reaction and Oxidation Numbers The ppinions of the respondents with regard to the area on Oxidation-Reduction Reactions and Oxidation Numbers was placed in Table 7. Double decomposition is■sometimes erroneously included among these reactions, involve no change in oxidation number of any of the elements 73 school and college. High school and college 75King, G. Brooks and Caldwell, William E., The Fundamentals of College Chemistry, p. 266.■ ' .ITTftlil I imLUWIIMINlirm I * * m B E E 7 O OPINIONS OF 13 HIGH SCHOOL AND 18 COLLEGE EXPERTS REPORTING ON BASIC TOPICS IN AN AREA IN HIGH SCHOOL CHEMISTRY CALLED OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTIONS AND OXIDATION NUMBERS TO BE OR NOT. TO. BE REPEATED AT. THE COLLEGE LEVEL PER CENT OF EXPERTS INDICATING TOPIC Area Gt Oxidation Reduction Reactions "Is Taught* - Should Be Be-Repeated If Repeated and Oxidation Numbers I n ” Taught. In College In College Their ” In For Mastery May Create • Schools High School & "Expansion Disinterest ■E.S.. !Col. H.S.' Col... H.S., Col. H.S. Col. I., Direct combination :•92.U 72.2! 92.lt 88.9 33.8 Itlt.U 93.8 27.8 2. Decomposition (simple) 92.lt 66.7 92.lt 83.3 l9.lt 33.3 69.2 33.3 3. Simple displacement ' 92.lti 66.7 92.lt 88.9 23.1 33.3 61.5 33.3 Iu- Ionic changes of valences, S n ^ 'to S n -*4* : 92.ltI 88.9 100.0 83.3 -77.0 77.8 23.1 11.1 82 experts indicated they were all teacbihg the four types of oxidation-reduction reactions' .,and oxidation numbers in general chemistry. Topics that should be taught in high school. All of the respondents were in accord, inasmuch as they thought "Direct combination," "Simple ■ decomposition," "Simple displacement," and "Ionic changes of valences" reactions should all be taught in the high school general chemistry course. Copies to be repeated in college for mastery and expansion. The, opinions of the experts' were that the first three reactions, namely "Direct combination," "Simple decomposition," and "Simple displacement," not be duplicated, but that "Ionic change of valence" had a definite place in college general chemistry. ■Topics repeated in college that may create disinterest. ' High school, experts thought the first three reactions, when covered in "'college freshman chemistry would be needlessly repetitious and boring, but the latter reaction should be repeated. College experts again saw no reason for disinterest if they were taught in a comparable course in the college freshman,,year. Metals The results of the experts opinions on the topics under the area of Metals were placed.in Table 8. The data in this table covered metals and many of its more recent aspects, for example, "Hume-Rothery ratios" dis cussed in the course on CBA chemistry®^ 7k ChemLpal Bond Approach Committee, Chemistry, Vol. I, pp. 237-238. TABLE 8. OPINIONS OF 13 HIGH SCHOOL AND 18 COLLEGE EXPERTS REPORTING ON BASIC TOPICS IN AN AREA IN HIGH SCHOOL CHEHSTRI CALLED METALS TO BE CR NOT TO BE REPEATED AT THE COLLEGE LEVEL PER CENT OF EXPERTS INDICATING TOPIC . Is- Taught Should: "Be- "Be -Repeated If" Repeated Area Hsi 23*5689 Metals Ir Taught. In College In College . Their - Iri For Mastery May Create . Schools High School & Expansion Disinterest - Basic' Topics' In High School Chemistry H.S. Col. H.S. Col. H.S. Col. HaS.. C o l . . 1. Their compounds and'alloys 100.0 ' 77.8 92.t: 6l.l 23.1 38.9 38.1) 16.7 2. ' Hume-Rothery ratios i$.H 22.2 : 33.8 0 53.8 22.2 0 0 3. Metallurgy. ' 77.0 61.1 81)..6. 55.6 . 1)6.2 38,9 15.1), 27.8 Uv Activity' series 100.0 83.3 100.0 77.8 1)6.2 77.8 23.1 5.6 5. Heat of formatidn 100,0 55.6 92.k' 11.1 77.0 1)U.U 15.1) 5.6 6. Conductivity ; 92.t: 72*2! 81)..6, 5o.o 77;0 55.6 0 16.7 7„. Crystals 77.0 72.2 69.2 1)1). I) 77.0 6l.l 0 0 8, Light metals 8k.6 55.6 81).6 77.8 7.7 38.9 38.Ir 38.9 9. Heavy metals : 8t.6 5o.o 81).6 72.2 7.7 38.9 38.1) 38.9 Topics taught in high school and college,' About half of the college experts who cooperated in this study indicated that they taught nHeavy metals but only a small minority of both groups of experts taught "Hume-Eothery ratios”. Other topics on metals: llTheir compounds and alloys, ” "Metallurgy, "Activity series, ” "Heat of formation, " "Conductivity,11 "Crystals, " "light metals," and "Heavy metals," were taught by both high school and college experts, Topics that should be taught in high school. None of the respondents thought the "Hume-Eothery ratios" should appear in high school chemistry. It would appear that only time and more research will determine whether it shpuld be taught in the high schools or in the colleges. College experts were not in favor of the high school teaching "Heat of formation" and "Crystals, ” Because most high school general chemistry texts that were examined ’gave only a very brief treatment of both of these topics', the thinking' of the college experts is evidenced in the content of these text books, Only one-half of the specialists in college .chemistry advocated that "Conductivity" be taught to high school students in chemistry,' even though 92,U per' cent of the experts taught "Conductivity" in high school chemistry. Topics, to be repeated in college, for mastery and expansion. The high school specialists in chemistry indicated that "Compounds of metals and their alloys," "Metallurgy," the "Activity series," and "Light and heavy mptals” should not be repeated in college, At the same time most of the high school experts were in favor of "Hume-Eothery" ratios," "Heat of V. 85 formation,» "Conductivity," and "Crystals" being taught in college for mastery and for further expansion of material,. Topics repeated in college that may create disinterest. Most of the experts from both groups concurred that duplicating and giving latitude to the study of the topics considered under metals would not be offensive to the average college student in general chemistry. • Carbon and its Compounds The opinions of the experts are contained within Table 9 as percent age responses to the topics in the questionnaire. Topics taught in high school and college, "Foods and vitamins," "Medicines and drugs," "Textiles and paper," and "Rubber and plastics" according to information contained in the table were not being taught by .. school and college specialists in chemistry under the area on Carbon and its Compounds. However, most of the high school texts that were examined did have some information on these topics. Some of the college textbooks examined gave ample space to a discourse on the same topics. Not much emphasis was placed on "Goal" and "Fuels" in the college texts as compar ed to the chemistry texts for the high school. The trend is toward moving such topics down into junior high school science.75 Topics that ,should be taught in high school. The fact that both the high school' and college.groups agreed that "Foods and Vitamins," "Medicines and drugs," "Textiles and paper," and "Rubber and plastics" should not be 75 "Aoelsche, Charles L., op. oit. p. 118. TABLE 9. OPINIONS OF 13 HIGH SCHOOL AND 18 COLLEGE EXPERTS REPORTING ON BASIC TOPICS IN AN AREA IN HIGH'SCHOOL CHEMISTRY CALLED CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS TO BE OR NOT TO BE REPEATED AT THE COLLEGE LEVEL. PER CENT OF EXPERTS INDICATING TOPIC Area Ig Carbon and Its Compounds Is Taught Should Be Be Repeated If Repeated In'" Taught In College In College Their" ""' In ' For Mastery May Create Schools High School & Expansion Disinterest Basic Topics in High ,School ChemLstT] I h .s . Col. K.S. -Col. H.S. Col. H.S. Col. l V " AHotropic forms I 92.lt 72.2 92.lt 77.8 23.1 33.3 33.8 22,2 2. C o a l " 8U.6 33.3 77.0 66.7 0 5.6 61,5 38.9 3. Carbon and itss oxides 100.0 • 77-8 92.4 77.8 15.4 38.9 53.8 33.3 U. Fuels 77.0 38.9 77.0 77.8 7.7 0 46.2 38.9 5. Petroleum 92. U ' 55.6 69.2 83.3 46.2 27.8 33.8 27.8 6. Isomers . 100.0 '66.7 84.6 66,7 69.2 5546 0 5.6 7. Substitution products 92,It 66.7 69.2 5o.o 69.2 55.6 0 5.6 8 o Hydrocarbons - 100.0 66.7 77.0 77.8 77.0 5o.o 7.7 0 9, Chain and ring•hydrocarbons■ 100.0 6l.l 69.2 55.6' 77.0 55.6 7.7 Ot- 10. Functional' groups'' 81t.6 , 55.6 53.8 55.6 77.0 55.6 7.7 0 Ile Foods ' arid vitamins 38.4 38.9 33.8 44.4 53.8 27.8 0 11.1 12. Medicine's and drugs- 33.8 27.8 33.8 38.9 38.4 22.2 • 0 11.1 13. Textiles and paper 15.4 27.8 33.8 38.9 38.4 16.7 0 16.7 ill. Rubber and plastics 23,1 27.8 33.8 44.4 53.8 33.3 0 . 11.1 co Ox 87 taught by the high school was reason to believe that students should delay studying them until they take organic chemistry in college, or else give ■ these topics superficial treatment in a terminal course, such as applied chemistry for either high school or college students who may be taking this chemistry as their last course. This is the thinking of Brandwein, Watson, and Blackwood. Topics to be repeated in college for mastery and expansion. Most experts in high school chemistry responded negatively about the value to be gained by repeating in college such topics as "Allotropic forms," "Goal," "Carbon and its oxides,” "Fuels," "Petroleum," "Medicines and drugs," and "Textiles and paper." College experts were not in favor of an extended study of "Foods and vitamins" and "Rubber and plastics" in addition to the preceding topics. Topics repeated in college that may create disinterest. "Coal" and "Carbon and its oxides" were classified as boring by the high school respondents when repeated in college. Instructors of college chemistry reacted positively indicating that these topics were not necessarily boring. Others of Special Interest The. respondents for the most part ignored this area of special interests, but the results of those who were interested is shown in Table 10. ?^Brandwein, Watson, and Blackwood, op. cit..; p. 26^« TABLE 10. OPINIONS QF 13 HIGH SCHOOL AND 18 COLLEGE EXPERTS REPORTING ON BASIC TOPICS IN AREAS OF SPECIAL INTEREST TO THE’ INSTRUCTOR - OF . HIGH SCHOOL CHEMISTRY TO BE QR NOT TO BE REPEATED AT THE COLLEGE LEVEL PER CENT OF EXPERTS INDICATING TOPIC Be'Repeated JIf Repeated Area'Jt "Special Interest to the' ‘IS"Taught" 'Should B e - In College In College Instructor of High School Chemistry In Taught Their “ In For Mastery May" Create Schools High School & Expansion Disinterest Basic Topics.in High.School Chemistry H.S. Col. H.S. Col. H.S.- Col. H.S. Col. 1. Soil chemistry: Conservation^ fertilizers and insecticides 7.7 27.8 33.8 38.9 33.8 5.6 0 16.7 2. Geochemistry: The earth as a source of material l$.h 33.3 38. U UU.!+' U6.2 16.7 0 22.2 J oo 89 Topics taught in high school and college. There is very little evidence to show that such special topics as "Soil chemistry," and Geochemistry" ever received very much attention from the experts in the general chemistry courses they taught. Topics that should be taught in high school. According to infor mation in Table 10 a greater percentage of the specialists in general chemistry were in favor of "Soil chemistry," and "Geochemistry" being taught in the high school even though very few indicated they taught these topics. Topics JjO'he repeated in college for mastery and expansion. Neither group of experts, indicated any enthusiasm for expanding or for furthering mastery of the two topics; but other areas, for example, ceramics, may be of special interest to the instructor so that he would want to supple ment the course with more than the usual brief exposition fon clay. Topics r epeated in college that may create disinterest. The re action to "Soil chemistry," and "Geochemistry" according to the informal- tion presented in Table 10 was clearly negative, but both groups indicat ed the topics would not necessarily be boring hut might well he given further emphasis. Comments and Suggestions by Respondents Some of the respondents made additional comments and suggestions in the space provided at the end of the questionnaire. These were of interest to the investigator and seemed worth sharing. 90 .Among those respondents who' were teachers of high school general chemistryone was of the opinion that the good student in college would be bored by a "rerun" of materials previously covered in high school general chemistry; and, therefore, should be screened by the college into an accelerated group. A second teacher thought a partial solution to avoid boredom would be to cover those parts on high school fundamentals rapidly in the first course in college chemistry. A third firmly believed struc ture and bonding should form a basis for any good course in general chemistry and could well be repeated in college. A fourth stated some high school chemistry should be repeated in college for the sake of emphasis, boring or not, and that descriptive chemistry was a luxury relative to efficient use of time that high schools could no longer afford. A fifth teacher, in view of saving time, suggested moving the following topics into the junior high: "History of chemistry and alchemists," "Chemistry a study of matter and energy," "Physical and chemical changes," "Formula ■ weight," "The atmosphere," "Oxygen and oxidation," "Hydrogen," "Standard conditions of temperature and pressure," "GranMiidlecular volume and weight," "Dalton*s atomic theory," "Atoms and atomic weight," "The Stock system of nomenclature," "Periodic table and periodicity," "Metals, .non-% metals, and amphoterism," "Waters analysis and synthesis," "Solutions: three states and nine types," "Saturation; unsaturation, and supersatura tion, " "Henry*s law and solubility of gases," "Hydrogen peroxides medicine and rocket fuel," "The halogen family and its compounds," "Metals: their compounds and alloys," "Coal," "Carbon and its oxides," and "Fuels." 91 A sixth person commented that time was so essential that it prevent ed the following topics from being taught in a course in general chemistry in high schools- "Van der Waal*s forces," "Pauli*s exclusion principle," "Magnetic fields: electron spin and revolution," "Precession and shift ing of orbital planes," "Colloids: Brownian movement and Tyndall effect," "Colloidal mill, peptization, emulsions and electrophoresis," "Cottrell precipitator," "Lewis* concept of acids and bases," "Boron, silicon, and glass," "Hume-Rothery ratios," "Crystals," "Fuels," "Functional groups," "Foods and vitamins," "Medicines and drugs," "Textiles and paper," "Rubber and plastics," "Soil chemistry: conservation, fertilizers, and insecticides," and "Geochemistry: the earth as a source of material*" Others indicated they would save time by covering some topics briefly in chemistry and in more detail in courses such as biology, earth science, and physics. Comments from another high school instructor indicated none of the topics covered briefly ‘in high school should be boring if repeated with greater depth in college,. A most interesting comment was received from an instructor whose students received advanced placement or college credit for courses’ taken in high school* He indicated, that M s students go much more deeply into theories and the mathematical approach instead of learning individual reaction, that they covered concepts pertaining to species in a physical chemical approach, and the descriptive work was used only to illustrate laws or theories. The following topics were suggested for the M g h school courses classification methods, greater use of factor^label method of 92 doing, problems, use of the mole concept, eliminating the Arrhenius theory, and other methods of classifying Reactions than direct combination, simple decomposition, simple displacement, and ionic changes of valence. College respondents had varied but interesting opinions about both high school and general college chemistry as well as the type of instruc tion students received. On the basis of 18 years of high school teach ing with added college teaching, one instructor indicated equations, formulas, and mathematics as the areas in which the incoming freshmen 1 ■students in college chemistry were weakest. The same respondent said if college is a rehash of high school it is boring. Two other comments appeared somewhat contradictory to previous statements given. One.said repeating material covered in high school chemistry in a general chemistry class in college need not be boring due to the fascinating depth to which a topic may.be pursued in college, as well as the quantitative treatment the topic may be given. The other went on to say there was no. point in a student* s memorizing of facts when he has no feeling for chemistry and is bound to a solitary method for solving problems. ■ Two more instructors of college chemistry thought freshmen stu- , dents should be sectioned into two groups, general and advanced. Those with adequate background in, high school mathematics, physics, and qhemistry would be sectioned into qualitative analysis or an advanced course. Another felt he was able to teach much of the first year of col lege chemistry with a great deal of emphasis on physical relationships. The same instructor recommended that historical aspects, description, and uses of elements and their compounds be taught at the high school level* Three of the 18 college experts specifically stated there was a need for a review of the high school fundamentals in general chemistry for those taking such a course in college. One•statement of a college instructor on content of high school chemistry was directed toward deletion of the less desirable topics from the course. He stated that the law of multiple proportions "is incongru- ent and superfluous," that there was. a need to "shift from descriptive to conceptual treatment" of topics, and "stoichiometric problems should only be taught as mole-fraction" since "The other approach is meaningless juggling to most students; yet, once, indoctrinated, it*s worse than morphine»" The varied comments and suggestions just given indicate the necessity for high school and college teachers to get together in order, to reach some decision on a common core of content for general chemistry ■instruction and the extent of the emphasis the high schools and colleges are to give each of the topics. Summary ■ The results from the survey as given by the experts seemed to point. to the following summary statements regarding the course content of general chemistry. per cent or more of the experts indicated they taught most of the topics . ■ submitted in the questionnaire in their general chemistry course. Nine exceptions were noted. They ares I. Precession and shifting of electrons in orbital planes (23.1, 22.2) 2« Magnetic fields: electron spin and revolution (33.8, 38.9) 3. tHume-Rothery ratios of metals (l^.U, 22*2) ho Foods and vitamins 08.li., 38.9) 5. Medicines and drugs (33.8,27.8) 6. Textiles and paper (l5.«l|-, 27.8) 7. Rubber and plastics (23.1, 27.8) 8. Soil chemistrys conservation, fertilizers, and insecticides . (7. 7, 27. 8) 9. Geochemistry: the earth as a source of material ( 25. 1., 33. 3) Percentages are an indication of the interest in those topics just listed by the experts in general chemistry in high school and college, and it appeared that due to the lack of interest in the preceding topics that considerable thought should be given to a topic before including it in a general chemistry course. The first three items in the preceding list are in modern chemistry and should not be discarded, while the last.six items did not have the interest of the majority of the experts consulted. Interest on the part of the high school and college in the follow- . ing topics is shown by the figures in parentheses which, respectively, indicate the extent to which each topic .'is taught. This interest would warrant the inclusion of most of the items in the general chemistry • course. 1. History of chemistry and alchemists (92.li 14i.li.) 2. The Stock .stsyem of nomenclature (81;.65. $0.0) 3. Osmotic pressure (33.8, $$.6) ll. Hydrogen peroxides',;,; medicine and rocket fuel (69.2, $0.0) $. Colloidal mill, peptization, emulsions, and electrophoresis ($3.8, $0.0) 6. Faraclayt s law of-electrolysis (1$.U, 72.2) 7. Boron, silicon, and glass ($3.8, $0.0) 8. Hea-Vy metals (8I1.6, 33*3) 9. Goal (8I1.6, 33.3) 10. Fuels (77.0, 38.9) ■ The percentages given in the preceding list show that a majority of the high,'school experts have indicated that the high schools are justified in retaining all of the topics except "Osmotic pressure" and "Faradayts law. of electrolysis" in their course content. Likewise, colleges are justified in eliminating '"History of chemistry and alchem ists," "Goal," and "Fuels." try that should be taught in high school, According to expert opinion and information taken from the ten tables just presented, the following topics should be taught in high school general chemistry. The topics are: I. Introductory chemistry .-A, 96 a. History of chemistry and alchemists (IOOeO5 6l,l) b, Chemistry a stacty- of matter and energy (IOOeO9 88*9) c» Physical and chemical changes (IOOoO9.9^.^) do Elements9 Compounds9 and mixtures (IOOeO9 88e9) e» 'Law of conservation of mass and energy (IOOeO9 77®8). f» The scientific method (92elt9 77®8) ge Laboratory techniques (92»I|.9 72.2) h. Percentage of error (Slud9 72.2) ie Chemical symbols and formulas (IOOeO9 9luU) j® Formula weight (molecular height) (IOOeO9 83=3) ke Law of definite composition (IOOeO9 83.3) Ie Percentage composition (IOOeO9 83.3) 2. Gases and their behavior a. The atmosphere (92elt9 9luU) be Oxygen and oxidation (IOO0O9 88.9) Co Speed of chemical reaction ■ (IOO0O9 30.0)^ d, Allotropism and ozone (IOOeO9 6l.l) e, Hydrogen (IOOeO9 9U«U) f, Combining weights and equivalence (81j.,69 66,7) go Activity series (IOO0O9 77.8) h e Boyle*s and Charles* law (IOO0O9 77.8) ^Only those topics that were selected by 30 per cent or more of the experts were used in 'this list, and the percentages are given for the high school and college experts respectively. Percentages, when near by, will eliminate thumbing through the tables for this information. 97 i. Absolute temperature and Kelvin scale (100.0, 83.3) j. Standard conditions of temperature-pressure (100.0, 83.3) k. The kinetic molecular theory (100.0, 83.3) l . Vapor pressure and vapor density (69.2, 6l.l) m. Density and specific gravity (100.0, 88.9) n. Law of Gay-Lussac and Avogadro (100.0, 66.7) . o. Gram-molecular volume (100.0, 77.8) p. Gram-molecular weight (100.0, 83.3) q. Avogadro1s number (100.0, 77.8) r. OhemLcal equations (100.0, 88.9) s. Stoichiometry: weight and volume problems (100.0, 77.8) t. Mole-fraction problem involving equations (92.Ij., 30.0) 3. Electronic structure of matter a. Dalton1 s atomic theory (92.1]., 83.3) b. Atoms and atomic weight (100.0, 91].it) c. Structure determines properties and changes (100,0, 61.I) d. Electrical charges (100.0, 35.6). . e. Isotopes (100.0, 72.2) f . Electrovalent, covalent, and coordinate bonding. (100.0, 77k8) g. Determination of a formula (100.0, 72.2) h. Simplest and true formula (100.0, 72.2) i. Stock system of nomenclature (92.1], 55.6) j. Electron shells and subshells (orbitals) (92.Ij., 50.0) k. Periodic table and periodicity (100.0, 7'2a2) 98 l , Hetals5 nonmetals5 and amphoterism (IOOeO5 72,2) m, Radioactivity and transmutation (81u65 5i?e6) n, Fisgion and fusion (81j.e65 55.6) ho Solutions, suspensions, and colloids a. Waters' analysis and synthesis (92eh<, 77.8) b 6 , Solutions? three states and nine types (92eh> 6l,l) c. Crystallization in solutions (92.U 9 55.6) d. Saturation5 unsaturation, and super saturation (92,U9 83.3) e. Equilibrium and dissociation reactions (100.0, 50.0) fe Determination of boiling and freezing (8U.6, 55.6) g. Hydrogen peroxides medicine and rocket fuel (69.2, 55.6) h. Law of multiple proportions (100.0, 66.7) i. Colloids: Brownian movement and Tyndall effect (6l.59 6l.l) 5. Ionization, acids, salts, and bases a. Theory of Arrhenius and ionization (92.U9 72.2) b. Nomenclature of acids, salts, and bases (100.0, 88.9) c. Solutions: mole, molar, molal, and normal (100.0, 77.8) . d. Titration in volumetric acids and unknowns (77.0, 50»0) e. Chemical ‘equilibrium and rate of reaction (92.U9 50.0) f. Le Chatelier1S principles temperature,- pressure and concentration effect (6l.59 6l.l) g. Actions that go to an end (100.0, 55.6) 6. Chemical families a. Halogen family and its compounds (100.0, 9U.U) b. Sulfur family and its compounds (92.U9 88.9) C 0 Nitrogen family and its compounds (100*0, 88e9) d» Boron, silicon,- and glass (53.8, 66.7) 7. Oxidation-reduction reactions and oxidation numbers a* Direct combination (92*1)., 88.9) b; Decomposition ('simiple) (92.li, 83.3) c. Simple displacement (92.li, 88.9) d. Ionic changes of valences, Sntt to Sn*+t (100.0, 83.3) 8. Metals a . ■ Their compounds and alloys (92.U 5 6l.l) b. Metallurgy (81t.6, 55.6) c. Activity series (100.0, 77.8) d. Conductivity (8I1.6, 50.0) ■ * ' Light metals (81).6, 77.8) f. Heavy metals (81).6, 72.2) 9. Carbon and its compounds a. Allotropic forms (92.1), 77.8) b. Carbon and its oxides (92.U5 77.8) c. Petroleum (69.2, 83.3) ' f- O 'il'slV: Oil I; .d. Isomers (81).6, 66.7) e. Substitution products (69.2, 50.0) f. .Hydrocarbons (77.0, 77*8) g. Chain and ring hydrocarbons (69.2, 55.6) h . ■ Functional groups (53.8, 55.6) Of the 119 topics in the questionnaire the experts were of - the- opinion that all but 35 of the items should be included in the course content of high school general chemistry. .Over one-half of those cooperating in this study agreed that the following topics should not be taught in a course in high school general chemistry. I. Magnetic fields: electron spin and revolution (38.1|., 5.6) ■ 2. Precession and shifting of orbital planes (23.1, 0) ■ 3. Rauolt*s law and vapor pressure (!4.6.2, 27.8) Iu Osmotic pressure (38.I4., 33.3) 5. Foods and vitamins (33.8, IjluH) . 6. Medicines and drugs (33.8, 38.9) 7. Textiles and paper (33.8, 38.9) 8. Rubber and plastics (33.8, Ii.!;.!;) 9. Soil chemistry: conservation, fertilizers,. #id insecticides (33.8, 38.9) 10. Geochemistry: the earth as a source of material (38.1;, I;!;.I;) There were those topics upon which the experts in general chemistry disagreed as to whether or not they should be included in a course in high school general chemistry. They are: 1. Einstein's equation (92.1;, 27.8) 2. Speed of chemical reaction (100.0, 50.0) 3. Diffusion and effusion of gases (92.1;, I;!;.!;) I;. Van der Waal's forces (53.8, 22.2) 5. Mole-fraction problem involving equations (92.1;, 50.0) 6. Polarization (92.1;, 33.3) 101 7. ■ Electron shells and subshells or orbitals (92.lt, 50.0) 8. Pauliis exclusion principle (6l.£, 11.1) 9. Ionization potential and energy (69.2, 16.7) 10. Electron movements (77.0, 22.2) 11. S, p, d, f energy and X-rays (81t.6, 22.2) 12. Hueleonios * a study of nuclear chemistry (81t.6, 50.0) 13. Equilibrium and dissociation reactions (100.0, 50.0) lit. Henryis law and solubility of gases (81t.6, 38.9) 15. Colloidal mill, peptization, emulsions, and electrophoresis (61.5, 38.9) 16. Cottrell precipitator (6l.5, 38.9) 17. Faraday’s law of electrolysis (77.0, 38.9) 18. Cells and electrolysis (77.0, 38.9) 19. Bronsted theory . of acids and bases (81t.6, ltlt.lt) 20. Lewis concept of acid and bases (53.8, 16.7) 21. Titrations in volumetric acids and unknown^ (77.0, 50.0) 22. Electrochemical series (85.6, 55.5) 23. Chemical equilibrium and rate of reaction (92.5, 50.0) 25. Guldberg and Waagets mass action (69.2, 33.3) 25. Buffer salts and common ions' (92.5, 22.2) 26. Heat of formation (92.5, 11.1) 27. Conductivity of metals (85.6, 50.0) 28. Crystals of metals (69.2, 55.5) 29. Substitution products of carbon (69.2, 50.0) ' A. ■ The experts in-the high schools thought all of the topics should be 9 IG 2 taught, while those who taught college general chemistry were, in doubt about "Speed of chemical reaction,” "Mole^fraction problems, involving equations,” "Electron shells and subshells or orbitals," "Equilibrium and dissociation■ reaction," "Conductivity of metals," "and "Substitution products of carbon." The college experts were divided as to whether they thought this material should or shduld not be taught in high school. Topics that should be repeated in college general chemistry for mastery and greater depth. It is important that the high schools and colleges reach an agreement upon what is not to be repeated in college so that those involved in curriculum construction and teaching will know what the high school is expected to teach for mastery and further expansion. Topics that received less than 5>0.0 per cent rating by the experts were considered not worth being repeated for greater mastery and further expansion in college. They ares I. History of chemistry and alchemists (0, 22.2) 2» Chemistry a study of matter and energy (33.8, ItU.il) 3. The metric system (33.8, hkoh) i*. Chemical symbols and formulas (38,It, Itit.it) 5. The atmosphere !(7.7, 11.1) 6. Density and specific gravity (it6.2, '38.9) 7. Dalton*s atomic theory (7.7, itit.it) 8. Stock system of nomenclature (it6.2, 38.9) 9. Water analysis and synthesis (23.1, 11.I) 10. ■ Saturation, unsaturation, and super saturation (l5.it, 22.2) 103 H o Henryt s law and solubility of gases (1|.6.25 38.9) 12. Hydrogen peroxides medicine and rocket fuel (33.8,, 27.8) 13. Colloidss Brownian movement and Iiyndall effect (h6°2s 38.9) ill. Cottrell precipitator (l^.li, 33.3) 15. Chemical reactions that go to an end (38.1;5 33.3) 16. Boron5 Silicon5 and glass (l3.1i5 33.3) 17. Direct combination reaction? (33.S5 lili.li) 18. Simple decomposition reactions (l5.li, 33.3) 19. Simple displacement reactions (23.I5 33.3) 20. Compounds and alloys of metals (23.I5 38.9) 21. Metallurgy (1i6.25 38.9) 22. The light metals (7.75 38.9) 23. The heavy metals (7.75 38.9) 2li. Allotropic forms of carbon (23.15 33.3) 25. Coal (0, 5.6) 26. Carbon and its oxides (l5.U5 38.9) 27. Fuels (7.7, 0). 28. Petroleum (ii6„25 27.8) 29. Medicine and drugs (38.Ii5 16.7) 30. Textiles and paper (38.Ii5 16.7) 31. Soil chemistrys Conservation5 fertilizers5 and insecticides (33»85 5.6) 32. Geochemistrys the earth as a source of material (ii6.25 16'.?) Topics upon which the high school and college experts did not agree !Oil as to their repetitive value are listed as followsg Io Physical and chemical changes (7.7, 55.6) 2. 'Elementsj, compounds, and mixtures (7.7, 50.0) - 3« Law of conservation of mass and energy (38.Ii3 55.6) . It. The scientific method (l5.il, 66.7) 5. Formula or molecular weight (33.8, 6l.l) 6. Law of definite composition (23.1, 72.2) 7« Percentage composition (ii602, 55.6) 8. ■ Oxygen and oxidation (33.8, 72.2) 9. Allotropism and ozone (53.8, 38.9) 10. Hydrogen (7.7, 50.0) 11. Standard conditions of temperature and pressure (38.Ii., 6l.l) 12„ Atoms and atomic weight (l5.il, 6l.l) 13. Isotopes (38.ii, 72.2) Iiu Metals, nonmetals, and amphoterism (33.8, 66.7) 15. Precession and shifting of orbital planes (92.ii, 33.3) 16. Solutions2 three states and nine types (53.3, 38.9) '17. Crystallization in solutions (38.4, 55’ 18. Determination of boiling and freezing point (69.2, 33.3) 19. RauoltfS law and vapor .pressure (92.4, 44.4) 20. Osmotic pressure (69.2, 38.9) 21. Law of multiple proportions (46.2, 72.2) 22. Colloidal mill, peptization, emulsions, and electrophoresis (61.5, 38.9) 23. Nomenclature of acids, salts, and bases (15.4, 6l.l) 105 2k<, Halogen family and its compounds (7.7, 50„0) 25. Sulfur family and its compounds (7.7, 50„0) 26. Nitrogen family and its compounds (15.1*. 50.0) 27. Hume-Rothery ratios of metals (53.8, 22.2) 28. Activity series of metals (U6.2, 77.8) 29. Heat of formation (77.0, LL.L) 30. Foods and vitamins (53.8, 33.3) I Since 50 per cent, and sometimes more, of the experts in one or the other group Dfere not in agreement with regard to the value of repeating the preceding topics for mastery and expansion perhaps certain topics should be given some consideration by the college before incorporating them, in its general chemistry course. ' Topics which when repeated in college may create disinterest or boredom. The respondents agreed that most of the material could be repeat ed and not tend to create an adverse effect on student interest within the classroom, but the experts appeared to feel differently about the remaining topics. Their attitudes are reflected by the percentages after each topic. 1. History of chemistry (77.0, 38.9) 2. Physical and chemical changes (69.2, 27.8) 3. Elements,, compounds, and mixtures (69.2, 16.7) I*. The atmosphere (69.2, IfU0Ij.)' 5. Hydrogen (77.0, 27.8) 6, Dalton's atomic, theory (53.8, 22.2) 7. Atoms and atomic weight (53.8, 11,1) 106 8. Waters analysis and synthesis (53.S5 50.0) ■ 9. Saturation^ Unsaturation5 and supersaturation (53.S5 38.9) 10. The halogen family and its compounds (69.2, 33.3) 11. The sulfur family and its compounds (69.3, 33.3) 12. The nitrogen family and its compounds (69.2, 38.9) ■13. Chemical reactions involving direct combination (53.8, 2?.8) • lU. Chemical reactions involving simple decomposition (69.5, 33.3) 15. Chemical reactions involving simple displacement (6l.5, 33.3) 16. Coal (61.5, 38.9) 17. Carbon and its oxides (53.8, 33.3) With one exception, "Waters analysis and synthesis," over one-half of the experts in college were of thp opinion that all of the topics sub mitted in the questionnaire could be repeated in college without creating boredom and disinterest. This is in direct contrast to the opinions of the high school experts. In an article on reducing duplication Clapp78 presented some points of concern similar to that encountered by the writer. Clapp discussed the reaction of two groups., A and B, in regard to reducing the amount of dupli cation in the first year in college of material already covered in high school. Croup B was not seriously concerned about the danger of repetition for those pupils who go on to college. This lack of concern was in accord with the majority of the college respondents .in this search who' also felt • Clspp, Leallyn B., "Reducing Duplication in High School and First Year College Chemistry," Journal of Chemical Education, Yol. 32, pp. lUl~ Ili3, March, 1955. ------107 no need to worny about duplication, ' Likewise * Group A;. recognized that1 the subject matter of chemistry is so extensive that it should not be difficult to find material of value to both high school and college, Group A offered carbon chemistry with no inorganic chemistry to be introduced unless it were necessary for an understanding of the chemistry involved. Group A recognized several objections to such a course in high school. Briefly they were2 - (I) danger of fire, (2) costly apparatus unless microtech niques were used, (3) no quantitative work, (It) no suitable textbooks and manuals' are available, (3) teachers not qualified to teach such a course, (6) too much emphasis on carbon for a first course, (7) duplication would merely be shifted to a higher plane. Curriculum problems, such as duplication of "effort just discussed, may be solved as communication between high schools and colleges improves. I Hunt concurred when he said, "For too many years high schools and colleges- failed to communicate with each other. Happily they can now sit down together to discuss their mutual prqblems. ,?79 79. Hunt, Herold C,,."Problems of Articulation Between High School and College,"'The Education Forumi Vol. 18, p. 283, March, 195k* 108 CHAPTER VI SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS A review of the literature revealed there was great concern on the part of Individuals and various .groups over the lags and gaps in content of chemistry as it is being taught in high school, and over the unnecessary duplication in college of course material already taught by the high school.- Thus, the necessity for better articulation between the high schools and colleges with regard to curriculum content seemed quite evident, and it was this feeling of an apparent need for revision of high school general chem istry that created the desire to do this research. This study was based on the hypothesis that there is a need for better articulation in course content between high schools' and colleges that teach general chemistry. The major'concern in this research was to determine how duplication of effort by colleges that teach general chem istry. could be avoided# Concern as to what topics should or should not be included in the content of such a course provoked six questions that were . pertinent to the study. They are: (l) Whai are the topics in general chemistry that should be taught in high school? (2) Which of the topics' taught in high school general chemistry should be repeated in a comparable course in college to obtain further mastery and greater depth? (3) W L e h of the topics taught in high school general chemistry should or should not be repeated in a comparable course in college, presumably because it may create disinterest or be boring to the student? (U) What is being done to avoid unnecessary duplication? (5) What1 are the present trends with regard 109 to teaching high school general chemistry? (6) How might the findings of \ this survey assist those involved in curriculum research? The main results are presented in the summary, conclusion, recomn mendations, and suggestions for further investigation in the following sections. Summary To have summarized all of the findings with regard to the topical content that should or should not be taught in a high school and college chemistry course would be too extensive and too repetitious for this sun>- mary. This summary has been limited to statements of the major findings Vj of the research. For more detailed findings the reader is referred to Chapter' Trends in topical content in chemistry. From a review of the lit erature the following trends were founds 1. Much of the emphasis in high school general chemistry content ■is still on preparing the student for college. 2. Functional programs are being stressed for those not intending to go to college by stressing consumer chemistry, a unit such as ceramics and radioisotopes to care for Ideal needs and interests. 3. National and foundation support is being given to curriculum improvement in content of high school chemistry. The CBA (Chemical Bond Approach) and CHEM (Chemistry Education Material) studies sponsored by the National Science Foundation and American Chemical Society,,respectively. HO are examples of this support. I*. Emphasis on the use of "open-end" experiments in the laboratory, as sponsored by the American Chemical Manufacturers* Association and micro- chem techniques have done much to supplement the basic understanding of principles through application in laboratory experimentation. 5. There is emphasis on mulitrack or "honors programs" as well as the advanced placement program for the academically talented and better prepared high school students. '6. There is a strong movement toward giving support to a more uniform curriculum that would bring together competent and responsible people involved in the teaching of chemistry to cope with curriculum I research. Course content in general chemistry at high school, and college level. New findings are based on the responses of 31 of 35 experts in general chemistry at the high school and college level who were mailed questionnaires concerning topical content of general chemistry courses. The major findings follow: 1. Fifty per cent or more of the experts indicated that they taught most of the topics listed in the questionnaire in their general chemistry course. Cf the 119 topics only nine were listed as not being taught. They are: (a) precession and shifting of electrons in orbital planes, (b) electron spin and revolution in magnetic fields, (c) Hume-Rothery ratios, (d) foods and vitamins, (e) medicines and drugs, (f) textiles and paper, (g) rubber and plastics, (h) soil chemistry, and (i) geochemistry. 2. Fifty per cent or more of the experts agreed that nearly I 111 three-fourths of the topics in the questionnaire should be taught in the high school general chemistry course. A majority of the experts agreed that the following ten items should not be taught(a) electron spin and rev olution in magnetic fields, (b) precession and shifting of orbital planes, (c) R a u o l f s law and vapor pressure, (d) osmotic pressure, (e) foods and vitamins, (f) medicines and drugs, (g) textiles and paper, (h) rubber and plastics, (i) soil chemistry, and (j) geochemistry. These ten items are about one-tenth of the content presently being taught in high school general chemistry courses, yet which in the opinions of these experts has no place in such a course. 3« The majority of the experts felt that approximately one-fourth of the topical content of the questionnaire should not be repeated in college general chemistry, and they disagreed as to the value of repeating approximately an additional one-fourth of the content. Thus the experts have questioned the value of repeating one-half of the topical content of chemistry as listed in the questionnaire.^ Iu College experts in their comments indicated that all of the : topics in the questionnaire could be repeated in college general chemistry without creating disinterest or boredom and that this could be achieved by ^0Pages 9k-9$ gives a list of the topics the experts teach in high school and college general chemistry, and pages 95-101 gives a list of the topics the college and high school experts felt should and should not be taught in high school, 81 See the list of topics the experts thihk should and,should not be repeated in college general chemistry, pages 102- 105. 112 pursuing the topical content to a greater depth with added emphasis on mathematics and qualitative analysis, In contrast high school experts definitely felt that the 17 topics' listed on pages 107-8 would be boring if repeated in college general .chemistry. Thus the question of who will teach what and the value of duplication remains an arbitrary item for considera tion by those interested in.better articulation in course content between high school and college general chemistry.^^ ■ Conclusions. ■- ■ •' From the summary findings the following specific conclusions were drawn. 1. The topics included in the questionnaire submitted to the experts were typical of the course content of both high school and college general chemistry. 2. Nearly one-third of the present content of high school chemistry should hot' be included in such a course at the high school level. 3. One-half of the high school general chemistry content should be repeated in college general chemistry. The implications of the findings and the preceding conclusions sug gest two additional general conclusions. I. Since approximately one-half of the high school general chemistry content should be duplicated in college there is need for the better Dp A list of topics upon which the experts gave their opinions as to whether repeating would create disinterest or boredom may be found on pages 105-106. 113 prepared high, school student to be directed into different and more advanced chemistry courses in college„ 2, There is need for better articulation between high school and college level chemistry instruction. Such articulation will come about only when high school and college instructors of general chemistry become fully informed in the content, extent and desirability of duplication, and are willing to seek cooperatively, appropriate revisions and articulation of course content. Recommendations On the basis of the findings■the following recommendations are sub mitted for those, making curriculum revisionss • I. That those involved in curriculum planning or revision give some consideration toward possible use of those, topics which 50 per cent or more of the high schools taught, and which the majority of the high school and college respondents agreed should be taught in- a high school general chem istry course. 2. That college teachers of general chemistry observe those topics which the majority of the respondents felt should or should riot be repeated in college for more emphasis and greater mastery, 3. That, since the college and high school teachers are not in com plete agreement as to who will teach which topics, a list of all topics listed in the questionnaire should be used as an item on the agenda of a joint discussion of topics to be considered by both groups in revision of l i l t the high school general chemistry program. it. That5 since there is a tendency for the content of courses being taught to lag behind the developments in the field — this being especially true of science — the topics not indicated as being taught should still be given some study for possible inclusion as a part of modern chemistry or perhaps should be moved down into junior high science. 5. That college teachers of general; chemistry reconsider those items which high school teachers thought would be disinteresting to the student if repeated. 6. That high school and college staff members hold.annual or bi ennial science curriculum meetings5 whichever is feasible, and make nec essary curriculum revisions in their general chemistry courses in the light of new trends and curriculum research. 7. That in-service'training be given to those teachers who are •unable to participate in chemistry summer institutes,. OBA5 or OHBM train ing^ programs in order to acquaint chemistry teachers with new content and methods in their field of chemistry which will make for more effective classroom instruction. 8. That more schools investigate the possibility of partaking in the CBA or GHEM pilot study programs in their respective states. 9» That a minor in chemistry he established as a minimum require ment for teaching high school general chemistry. 10. That colleges and high schools cooperate to a greater extent on the Advanced Placement Program5 and "honors" courses be instituted for enter ing college freshmen, whose entrance examinations and high school records HS show that they have the necessary potential to participate in the accelerat ed college program. 11. That school districts take advantage of the provisions of the National Defense Education Act in order to obtain necessary supplies and apparatus with which to do a commendable job of teaching general chemistry. 12. That the State Department of Education in each state take the lead in developing general chemistry syllabi jointly with high school and colleges and that they serve only as guides, especially for the new teacher. 13 o That schools consider -microchem techniques in high school gen eral chemistry laboratories, inasmuch as they cut down on the cost of re placing chemicals, and are less conducive to "sloppy" laboratory tech niques. lU. That schools eliminate the "fill-in" type of laboratory manuals, and encourage instead the "open-end" type of laboratory experiments that encourage the use of the scientific method of reasoning. Some Problesns for Further Investigation As a result of this research two studies for further investigation are suggestsds 1« That a similar study be done- in each state which would incor porate such things as the improvement of laboratory instruction and other factors related to improving the status of high school chemistry^ 2. Thatrthe National Science Foundation conduct a similar survey each year of people participating in summer chemistry institutes for their 116 opinions with regard to the topics that.should be included in the content of high school and college general chemistry courses. Fihally5 it seems appropriate to call to the attention of those in volved in curriculum research four lines from Wayland in his book. What Shall the High Schools Teach?5 1. Some "old" courses may have "old" content. 2. Some "old" courses may have "new" content. 3. Some "new" courses may have "old" content. Ij.. Some "new" courses may have "new" content.^3 The words in these lines carry heavy impact and are indicative of a few of the complexities that only those who are involved in curriculum plan ing may encounter.and can fully appreciate. ^Wayland5 Sloan R. 5 "The Social Context and the Adolescent5" in What Shall the High Schools Teach? 5 p. 75«. 117 APPENDIX A CBA Approach 118 Proposed Outline for High School Chemistry Course Based on Chemical Bonds as the Central Theme A 0 Introduction I. Metric system B 0 "Elements and atoms . I0 Laws of chemical combination 2o Atomic weights and symbols 3«, Atomic structure a„ Electrons b, Electronic forcess coulombic, exchange c0 Atomic numberss protons and neutrons d0 Periodic table C 0 Chemical b onds— discontinuity of chemical change I* Bond typess Ionic5 Covalent5 metallic 2o Physical properties of substances a«r Gasess gas Iaws5 kinetic molecular theory b 0 Liquids Co SolLdss Grystals5 e.g.5 diamond; Sugar5 sodium chloride 3o Physical transformations and temperature a o Gas to liquid bo ■ Liquid to solid C0 Relation of mass to properties do Relation of transformations to bond types e* Classification of matter and physical transformationss mixtures; solutions, .compounds, elements 119 f„ Purification procedures Ite Discontinuities between elements and compounds D. Chemical change and covalent chemical bonds 1. Reactive systems go to unreactive systems a» Inert gases be Reactivity and structure 2. Methane5 hydrogen, chlorine, hydrogen chloride a0 Physical properties b, Substitution reactions$ formulas, equations, calculations Ge Ghloromethanes 3. Oxygen, water, and carbon dioxide a. Combustion be Chemical energy lie Chemical geometry Be Chemical change involving metallic and ionic bonds 1« Atomic structure of metals 2. Oxidation and reduction (metals plus non-metals yield ions) 3. NaCl, MgOl2, KC1, MgO ae Physical properties be Simple chemistry Ite Electrolysis to produce Na, Clg, Mg a* Main chemistry of electrolysis Fe Ibriodic table Ge Hydrogen, chlorine, hydrogen chloride 120 I* Relative attraction for electrons, e«g*, stabilities of NaH, NaGl and HGl 2o Polar covalent bonds 3o Properties of HCl Ho Properties of HgO 1. Physical properties' 2. Reaction Taiith HCl 3 o Reaction Tadth Na I. Acids and bases 1. Stoichiometry 2. Titration Je Nitrogen and NH^ system I. Equilibrium Ko Polyatomic ions I* Oxidation of NH3 to yield NO 2e Sulfuric acid I. Bonds between like atoms 1. Carbon chains 2. Multiple bonds 3. Functional groups A P P M D n B Gonrnranication with State Departments of Education 122 Letter Requesting Copy of Syllabus in High School Chemistry July I, 1958 State Department of Education Dear Sirs: I am interested in obtaining any information your department may M v e regarding requirements in your state for high school chemistry. A syllabus of high school chemistry and/or - a' list of suggested textbooks would be most helpful. We are conducting a study to determine as precisely as possible the areas of duplication of effort between high school chemistry and general college chemistry. It is our hope t M t the results of this study will enable us to plan a college IeVel course in general chemistry which will avoid unnecessary repetition. At the same time we anticipate t M t this study may be "of some value to those charged with the responsibility of plan ning high school courses. ■ Any additional information you may have which is pertinent to the problem!, will be appreciated, as well' as any comments you may wish to make. Thank you for your cooperation. Very truly yours. Lynn S. Stein 123 Enclosure of Ten Most Used High School Chemistry Textbooks in the State of Montana Listed below are the chemistry textbooks being used by various high schools in Montana. Please check those used in your state. "Basic Chemistry" by Boyles and Mills* . New Torks Macmillan Co., 19^7» "New World of Chemistry" by Jaffe. New Torks Silver Burdette Go., 19^5. "Elements of Chemistry" by Brownlee, Fuller and Whit sit. . New Torks Allyn and Bacon, I n c . 1954 . "Living Chemistry" by Ahrens, Bush and Easley. Bostons Ginn and Co., 1952. "Chemistry in Action" by Rawlins and StrUble. _ Bostons D. C. Heath and Co., 1952. "Modern Chemistry" by Dull, Brooks and Metcalfe. I New Torks Henry Holt and Co., 1954® "Chemistry for New Age" by Garleton, Carpenter and Wooline. Chicago: Lyons and Carnahan Go., 1949. "New Practical Chemistry" by Black and Gonant. New Torks The Macmillan Co., 1946 "Chemistry for Our Time" by Weaver and Foster.. New Torks McGraw Hill Book Co., Inc.,. 1954. "Chemistry Today" by Biddle and Bush. Chicago: Rand.McNally and Go,, 1954« Others: 12k Follow-up Letter January 19, 1959 Superintendent of Public Instruction Dear Sir: ■Enclosed please find a copy of a letter and checklist sent to the Depart ment of Education in each state in July, 1958* To date 52 states have replied. Many of the more recent replies had been misplaced during the summer holidays and then discovered at a later date. Perhaps you have not received the enclosed letter before and would wish to reply at this time. Yours very truly, Lynn S. Stein APPENDIX C Communication With Twenty-live Cities 126 Letter Requesting Copy of Syllabus in High School Chemistry August Il5 i960 Superintendent Dear Fellow Educator; Before the advent of another busy school year would seem like the logi cal time to request a favor. Do you have'a course outline or guide in high school chemistry that has been developed on a local level? If so, I would appreciate a copy. Ey study is to determine just what areas of liigh school chemistry are being duplicated in general chemistry by our colleges. Thus far I have had an excellent response from forty-nine of the fifty State Departments of Education with regard to their function in this program. With the added emphasis on an accelerated program in science in our schools there is a real need for information that will eliminate this wasteful duplication of effort in our colleges and make for a more interesting course in college chemistry to challenge the ability of the student. Tour prompt attention to this request will help expedite what may be a worthwhile study. Tours veryxtruly. Lynn S. Stein 127 'Follow-up Letter November' U?, i960 Superintendent Dear Sirs With the hustle and all of the new school term my inquiry of August <, i960 may have been misplaced or lost. Do you have a course outline or guide in high school chemistry that has been developed on a local level? If so,, I would appreciate a copy., The purpose of my graduate study is to determine just what areas of high school chemistry are being duplicated in general chemistry by our colleges. Thus far I have had ah excellent response from forty-nine of the fifty State Departments of Education with regard to their function in this program. Added emphasis on an accelerated program in science in our schools in dicates there is a real need for information that will eliminate waste ful duplication of effort in colleges: and make a more interesting and challenging course in chemistry. Tour expediting of this request will be greatly appreciated. Tours very truly3 Lynn S. Stein APPENDIX D College General Chemistry Textbooks Examined 129 A List of the 18 College Textbooks Examined For Topical Content 1. ’’General Chemistry” by Linus Pauling5 San Franciscos _ W. H. Freeman and Co,, 1953> second edition, 2. ’’College Chemistry” by Herman T, Briscoe, Bostons „ Houghton Mifflin.Co,, 1951, fourth edition, 3. ’’Basic Concepts in Chemistry" by George ¥. Watt, New Yorks .. McGraw-Hill Book Co,, Inc,, 1958, third edition, 4. ’’General College Chemistry” by M. Cannon Sneed, J, Lewis - Maynard^ and Robert C. Brasted, New Yorks D„ Van Nostrand Co,, The., 1954, second edition, 5. "An Introduction t o "Chemistry” by Charles Compton, Princeton, -_N. J.s 'D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc0, 1958, first edition. 6. "The Essentials of Chemistry” by R. P. Grahams and L. H. „.Cragg, New Yorks Reinhart and Co., Inc., 1959, first edition. 7« ’’Essentials of Chemistry” by Alfred Benjamin Garrett, Joseph ~ Frederic Hoskins, and Harry Hall SisIer, Bostons Ginn and Co., 1959, second edition. 8. ’’The Fundamentals of College Chemistry” by G. Brooks King and _.William E. Caldwell, New Yorks American Book Company, 1959, third edition. 9. "Chemistry” by James V. Qmgliano,-. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.s - Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1958, first edition. 10. "College Chemistry" by Paul R. Frey, Englewood Cliffs, N. J.s - Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1958, second edition. 11. "Chemistry” by Michael J. Sienko and R. A. Plane, New Yorks . McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1957, first edition. 12. "Introductory'Chemistry" by Otto W. Nitz, Princetons D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1956, first edition. 13. "General Chemistry” by L. E. Steiner and J. A. Campbell, New Yorks Macmillan Co., 1955, first edition. lUo '’Introduction to Chemistry"' by Howard L. Ritter5 New Torks , John Wiley and Sons5 Inc15 1955? first edition* 15. "General Chemistry" by"Edwin C* Markham and Sherman E, Smith5 Bostons Houghton Mifflin Co05 ISZh9 first edition* 16„ "Principles of Chemistry" by Le A. Hiller and R 0 H 0 Herber5 ...New Yorks McGraw-Hill-Book Go05 Inc05 I960, first edition* 17, "Chemlstrys The Element and Their Reactions" by Eric . Hutchihsoh5 Philadelphias W 0 B 0 Saunders Co,5 19595 first edition. 18, "Introduction' to Modern'Chemistry" by P 0 C, Gaines5 Laurence .. 0, Bihder5 ahd Ray Woodriff5 St; Louiss C 0 B 0 Mosby G o ,.5 19515 first edition. 131 I APPENDIX E Ihformatlon Relative to Questionnaire Survey . Afno l d f Mr's'. Thelmii E. ' Johnson, Bruce Tfill Rogefs High School Flathead County High School 3909' E. 5 PI. Kalispe11, Montana Tulsa, Oklahoma Lieske, William V. Befexi, Arnold's. Solomon Juneau High School ICehifal High School 7232 W. Mt. Vernon Ave. Phoenix,. Arizona Milwaukee 13, Wis. Billings, Tfalief H. Rice, Robert Crawford High School Science Department Chairman ltl91 55th St. Berkeley High School San Diego, Galifprnia lij-lit. Walnut Street Berkeley 9, California Finley, Albert Choieau High School Ritchie, Charles M. Choieau, Montana Santa Barbara Senior High 700 E. Anapamu St, Giandy, Miss Gail M. Santa Barbara, California Gamaliel Bradford Senior High School Sorensen, LaVar L. Rice Street Supervisor of Secondary Science Tfellesley Hills, Mass. IlilO East First South Salt Lake City 11, Utah Hoimquist, Donald Livingston High School Summers, Donald B. Livingston, Montana S. Orange Maplewood School Dist. Columbia High School Israel, Joseph Maplewood, N. J. Re N, Mandeville High School 102li ¥. Bristol Rd. Flint, Michigan A LIST OF COLLEGE CHEMISTRY TEACHERS USED AS EXPERTS IW THIS STUDY Dietman5 Burton De Woss, William Je Seattle Pacific College Cedar Crest College Seattle, Washington Allentown, Pennsylvania Dietmeier5 Roland E e Pennington, Frank Ge Clark College Goe College Vancouver, Washington Cedar Rapids, Iowa Dietz, Fred Ce Schimke, Harold Chemistry Department Pacific University Oakland City College Forest Grove, Oregon 5?lU Grove Street Oakland 9,.California Shearer, William W e Lewis and Clark College Eads, Ewin A. Portland 19, Oregon Tulane University Wew Orleans 18, Louisiana Snell, John A e Los Angeles Valley College Hicks, James R e 5800 Fulton Avee Coalinga Junior College Van Wuys, California Coalinga, California Swindell, Robert Hunt, Gilbert J e Indiana Technical College The College of Idaho 1600 E e Washington Caldwell, Idaho Fort Wayne,•Indiana Huntsinger, Ralph Ce Teates, Thomas G e Sacramento City College Wational College Sacramento 18, California 5123 Truman Road Kansas City 27, Missouri Johnson, Elmer South Dakota State College True, Robert Je Brookings', South Dakota Columbia Basin College 2600 W e Cbase Luchsinger, Perry O e Pasco, Washington Wisconsin State College Eau Clair, Wisconsin Woods, Harry B e Pasadena College Pasadena, California Letter Requesting Experts to Cooperate in the Study January 27, 196l Dear Sirs There is a real need for instructors of chemistry in high school and college to give some serious thought to what Mr. Harry F. Lewis meant when he said at the Institute of Paper Chemistry in Appleton, Wisconsin, “I would hope that in some way serious consideration be given to what should be covered, in the high school and what should be covered in the first year course in college chemistry so that the second is not just ah uninspired duplication of the first." My graduate research at Montana State College in Bozeman, is an endeavor to determine just what.these areas are that are being duplicated. Information thus far has been obtained fromg. The contents of the ten. most used high school chemistry textbooks5 available state syllabi in chemistry as revealed by a survey of forty-nine states responding; chemistry syllabi developed on a city or local level by thirteen of twenty respondents selected at random throughout the United States; and syllabi materials gleaned from the literature. The latter includes information available from the recent studies on the CBA or Chemical Bond Approach and CHEM or Chemical Education Materials Study. If you. can spare an hour from a busy schedule to check some materials that may improve the content of chemistry instruction please return the enclosed postcard. Tours very truly. Lynn S. Stein Card Signifying Intent to Cooperate I can spare some time in February and will check and return your research materials on chemistry curriculum content by March I in order for you to meet a graduation deadline® The following address is most convenient for me. Sincerely, 136 Cover Letter Accompanying Checklist February 7, 196l Dear Sir5 Thank you. for your promptness in indicating a willingness to check my research materials. You may recall from my previous communication that this information was gathered from state and city syllabi, high school textbooks, CBA and GHEM study materials and the literature. Obviously, the materials mentioned represents a maximum of what is being offered in our high schools today. It is the purpose of this study to present these topics as such, so that chemistry instructors in high school and college would independently evaluate the following. 1. The areas of duplication* 2. The areas that out of necessity, should be duplicated. 3. That certain areas tend to create disinterest and boredom when repeated, hence apjpear unnecessary. Iu The areas that should be taught in a course in high school chemistry. Before checking the materials on the following pages it ipight be well to read through the entire checklist, reflect upon the four preceding state ments, and then begin. Your sincerity in the matter of research is important to the problem at hand. Yours very truly, Lynn S. Stein Questionnaire-checklist of Basic Topics in High School General Chemistry Directions? , Please note that the numbers of the columns to the right corres pond to the instructions that follow. They ares A. Under column (l) check those topics you are teaching. B 0 Under column (2) check those topics you think should be repeated in college general chemistry for mastery and further expansion, C. Under column (3) check those topics which when repeated would tend to create disinterest and boredom. Do Under ■ column (ij.) check those topics which should be taught in a course in high school chemistry. It is felt that more valid results would be obtained if you would check column I throughout the entire checklist before proceeding to column and so on, At the end of the checklist space has been provided for additional comments, or suggestions you may wish to contribute5 for example, what your institution may be doing to avoid unnecessary duplication. 138 B0 Gases and their behavior i The atmosphere 2. uxygen and oxidation 3. Speed of chemical reaction Allotropism and ozone \ Hydrogen 6. Combining weights and equivalence" TT Activity series I —BT Diffusion.and effusion of gases ' I y9 IOT Absolute temperature and t'tie Kelvin scale ■ lie Standard conditions of temperature and pressure 12. The kinetic mqlecular theory 13 o Vapor pressure' and vapor density Van der Waal’s forces - — 3 T Density and specific gravity T . 16. Law of Gay-Lussac and Avogadro 17. Gram-molecular volume 16. Gram-molecular weight: 19. Avogadro1s number ■ 20. Ghemical equations 21. Stoichiometry* weight an T ‘Preces'sidq aml^il~and~gsyni ‘"Solutions a tl^ee'''states" and nine "^ry^aTliziatlon^in solutions" Saturations msattD^a^ToE^an^'sttpersatmatidn "IqTH^TFfituii' ancf'Hiss'ocjutTon'r'eactibns 6**aoea*w "EpierSnatlon' of boiling"’'and freezing" 'points" "^audWsSaiFanl Vapor pressure — ' Presstl^1e ...... "' \J 0 V W . U ± V V . 1 - V ^U. >-7 K-# «.< J. w ,----- soluBiSiy'SrgTEes ,...... "■ IQ, Hydrogen per oxides medicine and rocket 'luef '— TTrSaw'"dF'mH ---- I2T13oIimsT 5o Loidal m ■ eIectrophoresis "3i Cells and electroplating “^"'ST^Ndmencl^tufe' of'''acids%™______bases* '' Sronjted Iheo^SSaHidiSnHTiies . 57 LeSs' concepi ofScids______‘an jases 7„ Solutions; mole^ H n B T S l a l and normal ^pT^SlactrSheScal' series T p T Obemical equilibrium Ho Guldberg ...... 0______action 12. L e S h a t e T H H F T ^ i n H ^ e T ^ S H ^ r a t u r e 5 pressure & concentration effect -in o^ i^n TfTTnTTT r|-rnrilW lii-Tir~«»«'inO THlTirn-Tl'!! ri'ITII " >l ' I TT» I — Actions' that go to an end *B^f ef salt sand cdimdn Tons She3%aT%aj^lTeT . IliO Metals ' I. " oom^a^aZriTISys Hpme-Rotbery ratios 3o Metallurgy Tu XcH^ity serie s 3T^Heat^offwZSoE Gondx^tlva^' 7<. Crystals Caz’Don and rfcs oxides 'Fuels JZ ' SulstituSou ^oducts "8^1 By3roc^Eons' ' “lO. FunctiOnaT^groupFs m " *^Tir^TooHs°^iH^7a1E^Snsra~ and inseoticides U-SrOurce Space for acI33^ionaT"coEiEEEs' or IF A FOLLOW-UP LETTER February Iitjl 1961 Dear Sirs Because I have not received a reply to ngr letter of January 27, 1961, I assume you are busy. There is an old saying to this effect, "If you want to get the job done, have a busy man do it,". In this same vain and in re spect for your judgment, I am going to take the liberty to enclose the checklist for you to evaluate. I am sure when you review the enclosed material and recognize the contri- bution one hour of your time can make towards the solution of this prob lem of duplication of effort in our colleges, you will.not hesitate to respond. Because this research is in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a graduate degree at Montana State College in Bozeman, my thesis committee has established some deadlines for me to meet. It would be greatly appreciated if you could expedite the return of the enclosed checklist before March 1st. Tours very truly. Lynn S. Stein A FOLLOW-UP CARD February 23, 196l Dear Sirs This is just a friendly reminder in regard tq your complet ing my checklist on high school chemistry on or before March Iste I hope this card and the checklist pass each other in the mail. Tour help is needed and greatly appreciated. Sincerely, Lynn S. Stein BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIGGRAPHI Alyeaj Hubert N ej “The Terminal Course in Chemistry," Journal of Chemical Education, 29$ 219-221, May, 195»2e Baxter, John F e, and Steiner, Luke E e, Modern Chemistry, Vdle 1-2, Prentice—Hall, Xnc9, Englewood Cliffs, N e Je T959, 293 PPo Brandwein,. Paul F e, Watson, Fletcher G ej and Blackwood, Paul E e, Teaching High School Sciences A Book of Methods, Harcourt, 5^;^d ^,lf^T o rkT l9^8, SSETpp: Board of Education of the City of Chicago, Chemistry a S u ^ l e ^ n t to Reach ing Guide for Sciences A Tentative Program for the Secondary Bossing, Nelson L e, Principles of Secondary Education, Prentice-Hall, Inc0, Englewood Cliffs, 19^5, PP« Brinkman, William W e, "College Science Courses for Gifted Secondary Pupils," an editorial in School and Society, 86s 1*22, November 22, 1958. Buebring, Leo E e, "Senior High Schools," The Nations Schools, 65377*89, February, 1958,«, Chemical Bond Approach Committee, Chemistry, Vole I, Reed Institute, Portland, i960, 277 PP• • Clapp, Leallyn Be, "Reducing Duplication in High School and First Tear College Chemistry," Journal of Chemical Education, 32all|.l-ll*3, March, 1955. Committee on College Teaching, "The Council at Works Chemistry," V-he FdnoationaT Record. 39*382-395, October, 1958. A Committqe Report by Members of the Faculties of Andover, Exeter, Lawrenceville, Harvard, Princeton, and Yale, General Education in SobonT and College. Harvard University Press, Oambridge/Tl9%lh2 pp. Gifford, Dorothy W e, "Trends iti High School Chemistry," Journal of Chemical Education. 32si*90-I*9l*, September, 1955. Goldsmith, George Je, "Demonstrations with Radioisotopes for the High School Chemistry Class," School Science and Mathematics 55$179-189, January, 1955. ^ 5 Good5 Carter V.5 Editor with the assistance of Winiferd R. Merkel5 Dictionary of Education, under the auspices of Phi Delta Kappa5 McGraw-Hill Book Co„5 Inc05 New Tork5 195)95 676 pp. Good Carter V 05 and Scates5 Douglas E 05 Methods of Research. Appleton5 Century and Crofts5 Inc05 New Tork5 195)Il5 920 ppe Gorman5 Mel5 "Isotopes in the General Chemistry Course5" School Science and Mathematics. 50s61i9-65>15 November, 1950« Hunt5 Herold C05 "Problems of Articulation Between High School and College5" The Educational, gprim, l8s28l-2835 March, 1954. Jaffe, Bernard5 "Trends in High School Chemistry," in National Association of Secondary School Principals Bulletin, of the National Education Association, ppTloY-T^T Washington 6, D« C 05 January5 1953. The Joint Commission of the Education of Teachers of Science and Mathemtics5 Improving Science and Mathemtics Programs in • American Schools, American AssociatTon^^ CoTTeges■ for Teacher Education, Washington 6, D« C«, i960, Itl pp« Killian, James-R0 Jr05 "Education for. the Age of Science," Journal of the National Education Association, 49:10-13, February,’ "i960« King5 G 0 Brooks5 and Caldwell, William E,, Fundamentals of College Chemistry, American Book Co,, New Tork5' I959j"^92 pp. King5 L 0 Carroll, '"A Special Course for Superior Students," Journjal of Chemical Education, 35:250, May5 1958» Koelsehe5 Charles, L 05 "The Course in Chemistry,” in "Quality Science for Secondary Schools," The Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, of the National Education Association, ■ pp» 111-126, Washington 6, D 0 C 05 December, 1960o Leo5 Brother I 05 "Modifications of the First Two Tears of College Chemistry as Suggested by Practicing Chemists," Junior College Journal, 21s85-92, October, 1950, Lindahl, Dean M., £ status Gtady of Ctamistry in Motaam Public M g h Schools, Master® s Thesis5 Montana State University, Missoula, 1957. Meldrum5 William B 05 "Electrochemistry in the Freshman Course," Journal of Chemical Education, 28s 282-285i> May 1951. Meyer5 Martin5 "A Case Study of College General Chemistry5n Journal of 'Chemical Education5 22s325>*=327 and 336, July5 19h$» %-sels5 Karol J«, and Copeland, Charles S«5 "The Sequence of Topics in . a Beginner's Course," Journal of Chemical Education, 28s165-167, March, 1951. National Education Association, Administrations Procedures and School Practices for the Academically Talented Student in the Secondary ; ^s66T;''mmTnE5n3T%^:TmFr2n"pF:...... ^ National Society for the Study of Education, A Program for Teaching Science in Thirty-First Yearbook of the Society, Part I, Publ±c%cSooT^™^^ Publishing Go., Bloomington, Illinois, 1932, 370 pp. New England.Association of Chemistry Teachers., "A Minimum Syllabus for a College Preparatory Course in Chemistry," Journal of Chemical ' • : Education, 3^s307-308, June, 1957« : Orr, Robert je, "Teaching a Gbramios Unit in High School Chemistry," School Science and Mathematics, 5UsN6l~k62, January, 195k. Perry, Raymond J., "A Re-evaluation of Method? of Teaching First-year • College Chemistry," Journal of Chemical Education, 22sk97-500, October, 19k5. Pimental, G. G.,"Chemistry— A / Experimental Science," in Chemical Education Material Study Newsletter, Vol. I, Number I, November,! Renner, John ¥. "A High School Chemistry Curriculum," School Science and 57:1-6, January, 1957. Seaborg, Glenn T., "The Chemical Education Material Stucty-," in Chemical Education Material Study Newsletter. Vol. I, November, 195o7*T*PP® Shannon, J. R 0., "Percentages of Returns of Questionnaires in Reputable Educational Research," Journal of Educational Research. k2sl38-lkl, • October, 19k8. Strong, Laurence E., and Wilson M. Kent, "Chemical Bondss A Central Theme' for High School Chemistry," Journal of Chemical Education. 35$56 Summers, Donald B., "Are High School Chemistry Texts Up-to-Date?" Journal of Chemical Education, 37:263-26k, May, I960. Spencer, Lyle M.., "The Reasons for College Dropouts," in Guidance Newsletter, Science Research Associates, Chicago, March, 1957, k pp. Thorndike5 E«' L 0 and Barnhart5 Clarence L 05 High School Dictionary Scott Foresman and Co05 1957s1 1096 pp0 Thurber5 Walter A. and Odllette5 Alfred T05 Teaching Science in Today8S Secondary Schools, Allyn and Bacon5 Inc05 Boston5T G ^ 5 6Tf(T'"ppT Tyler5 Ralph W 05 "Do We Need a National Curriculum.?” The Clearing' House5 ■3lis lUl-Ilj-S5 November5 1959« Waterman5 Alan T 05 "The Problems Its Dimensions and What is Being Done 5" in The Growing Shortage .of Scientists and Engineers5 in Proceedings of the Sixrth Thomas Alva Edison Foundation Institirtie5 pp6 32*»355 New Tork University Press5 New Tork5 1956* Wayland5 Sloan R 05 "The Social Context and the Adolescent,"in What Shall the High Schools Teach?, Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, National Education Association, Washington 6, D0 G*5 1956, 230 pp. Webster, New Collepiate Dictionary, G 0 & C 0 Herrian Co.5 Springfield,• Massachusetts, 1 9 ^ 7 ^ ^ PP• 1 # BIOGRAPHICAL DATA Stein, Lynn S e Personal Data. Born at Killdeei', North Dakota, May 29, 1916, son of John' WillxamTand Emma Nancy Stein. Married Ariadne B. Boelter of Halliday, North Dakota on August 31, 19^0. Daughters: Sandra F., 19it2 and Mary L., 191+6. Education. Attended Oakdale and Mt. View rural schools. Grad uated from high school, Killdeer, North Dakota, 1933., B. A. with honors, at North Dakota State Teachers College at Dickinson in 1937® Majors: physical science and education. Minors: mathematics and English. M. A. from Montana State University at Missoula in 1952. Majors: H&PE' and educational administration. Attended Montana State College 1955-61. Major: science education. Experience. Was principal, coached athletics, and taught mathematics and science at Halliday, and Taylor, North Dakota; came to Montana in I9I4.O, coached and taught mathematics and science at Sweet Grass. Worked at Kaiser Shipyards, Vancouver, Washington, in 191+2 as materials expeditor, engineer and supervisor. Navy veteran of World War II. Following honorable discharge from service taught at Ft. Berthold Indian Reservation in North Dakota. ■ Returhed to Montana in 191+6 and over a period of years was an athletic coach, teacher of mathematics and science, -and principal.at North Toole County High School at Sunburst. Accepted teaching assistantship in chemistry at Montana State College at Bozeman in 1957, Assistant Professorship and Coordinator of Secondary Education at Northern Montana College at Havre in 1958, and Assistant Professorship at Pacific Lutheran Univer sity, Tacoma, Washington, commencing in 196I. Other Activities.' Member of American Lutheran Church, A.F. & A.M., American Council of Teachers of Mathematics, National Science Teachers Association, National Education Association (life member), Montana Education Association (life member), charter member of Mont ana Teachers of Mathematics and Science, Boy Scouts of America (scout and scouter), and past member of Phi Sigma Pi (National Honorary and Scholastic fraternity). MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES D37R St 34 cop.2 vuMLenc