Red Chili Pepper Paste, Kimchi Is Considered to Have the Most Unique Taste Representing Korea

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KIMCHI

A Korean dish made of vegetables, such as cabbage or radishes, that are salted, seasoned, and stored in sealed containers to undergo lactic acid fermentation.

1. Overview

With its pungent taste and strong aroma, kimchi is a traditional fermented cabbage dish. The taste of kimchi is unique and comes from the fermentation process. Koreans have been eating fermented vegetables since prehistoric time, and kimchi has been an indigenous Korean food for centuries. A bowl of steamed rice and a dish of kimchi constitute a basic Korean meal. It is an integral part of our diet and a symbol of our traditional food. Through kimchi, Koreans feel a connection with their ancestors. It is indeed a symbol of Korean life.

Today, the staple Korean diet is gaining increasing popularity among consumers abroad. It is becoming a favorite dish of foreigners who have tried the taste of this pungent and spicy dish. It is entirely different from Japanese pickled vegetables. In fact, the organizers of the 1998 World Cup in France included kimchi as one of the official foods of the tournament. Kimchi has now become an international food.

Kimchi is known both for its taste and for being low in calories. Weight-watchers around the world are searching for tasty foods that are low in calories. Kimchi is made from vegetables, so it is also a good source of vitamins, minerals and dietary fiber. In addition, the organic acid produced during fermentation is believed to help prevent cancer. Usually, a variety of fish and radish are added to enrich the taste. Therefore, the kimchi consumed by modern Koreans is a nutritionally well-balanced food, with plenty of protein and calcium.

Kimchi is a part of Korea's cultural heritage and is very popular for its distinctive taste and dietary value as well as the creativity that housewives display in the kimchi-making process. This booklet reviews the function kimchi plays in the Korean diet, shows the role kimchi plays in Korean life, introduces its value in the Korean diet, shares the mouthwatering taste of kimchi and provides recipes for our readers.

2. Kimchi and Koreans

Kimchi is the most relished food in Korea. In Korean food culture, no other food has the importance kimchi has. For instance, a meal without kimchi is unthinkable, and even if such existed, the meal is not complete; it is considered to be lacking in style and grace.

Rice and kimchi constitute the basic meal for Koreans. The two alone suffice as a meal. Along with soy sauce, soybean paste and red chili pepper paste, kimchi is considered to have the most unique taste representing Korea. As is supported by much research, kimchi has had its place in the history of Korean food for quite a long time, and the methods of making it vary greatly.

There are more than a hundred known kinds of kimchi that, but it would be meaningless to figure out how many kinds there actually exist, since Korean women can make kimchi out of practically any edible material. They have made kimchi with all kinds of vegetables, including wild mountain and field herbs and cultivated vegetables. They have even made kimchi with shellfish and seaweeds. The kinds of kimchi vary according to the length of the fermentation period as well, some being edible instantly, while others require a longer fermentation period.

The use of kimchi varies also. Aside from kimchi's basic purpose as a side dish, kimchi can serve numerous purposes. The taste of any Korean food is complete only with the proper kimchi accompanying it. For example, sweet potatoes are always eaten with kimchi and rice cakes come with juicy kimchi of a fine tint. Kimchi is even used to wake up a drunk person and make him sober. When experiencing a headache or feeling heavy in the chest, one popular remedy is to get ice-cold dongchimi from a jar and drink it.

In the long winter of Korea, as long as there was kimchi left in the jar buried in the ground, one did not worry about side dishes. Kimchi's greatness lies in the fact that it can be modified in innumerable ways. There are kimchi stews, soups, pancakes, fried rice with kimchi, rice and kimchi rolled in sea laver, and so on.

Kimchi was also used to judge a woman's ability to make food. There is a saying that a good wife should be able to make twelve kinds of kimchi. Korean people believed that possessing the skill of making kimchi alone would guarantee the woman's ability as a cook, so Korean women took pains to learn how to make good kimchi.

Kimchi was created because Korean winters are cold and harsh. It was hard to find vegetables of any sort long ago, and kimchi provided Koreans with the vitamin C that was otherwise hard to get. Moreover, the freshness of the vegetables, the refreshing taste of the organic acids from the fermenting process and the intestinal regulation of the lactic acid all added to kimchi's nutritional value. After red chili pepper was introduced to Korea around the 15th century A.D., it was put into kimchi to add the hot taste and a fine tint, but the wisdom was that it prevented kimchi from becoming rancid as it aged and preserved the properly fermented taste and the fresh crunchiness of the vegetables.

Another value of kimchi is that it is not just a dish of vegetables. It is much more than that. One essential ingredient of kimchi is salted and fermented fish. Usually salted and fermented small shrimps and anchovies are a must, and fish such as hairtail, squid and pollack are widely used. Though it is not an ingredient itself, lactic acid bacteria plays an unique role in the fermenting process. All these combined make for a great kimchi. Kimchi is unequaled among the foods of the world as one that not only combines vegetables and animal food in the most harmonic proportions but also raises the nutritional value of both by a chemical process called fermentation. Kimchi also represents the national sentiment of Korea. Even before red chili pepper was introduced, leaf mustard of a violet color, cockscomb and safflower were used to give kimchi a delightful red color. Koreans put a special value on the color red, and the evidence of this tradition can be found in many places. For example, there is the belief that planting red cockscomb around the places where jars were could ward off evil spirits trying to ruin the food inside them and the practice of sprinkling red bean gruel just outside the front door on the winter solstice. Thus, the red color itself represents the spirit of the Korean people.

As we have seen, kimchi is more than just a food, it is a culture. It holds much of the secret of traditional Korean food and also the sentiment of the Korean people.

Kimchi has been around for a long time, and nowadays it is going through quite a metamorphosis, with new ingredients and methods undergoing new developments. It is also gaining popularity around the world. In Japan, where only the zukemono pickle existed, it is gaining wide popularity. In many other countries, the demand for kimchi as a health food as well as a delicacy has increased. In big international events like the Olympics and the World Cup, kimchi is a favorite item on the menu. Kimchi now has its own entry in the Encyclopedia Britannica.

3. The History of Kimchi

Kimchi, an fermented food unique to Korea, originated from the natural environment and the traditional food making skills of Korea. Korean people were an agricultural people, and they maintained a diet consisting mainly of grain, with side dishes mostly vegetables. In winter, to maintain this diet, they devised ways to preserve vegetables. On the Korean Peninsula, wild green herbs that grow in the mountains and the fields as well as cultivated vegetables are used to make kimchi. Thanks to the weather of Korea, the vegetables are generally tender and have an excellent flavor. The distinct four seasons contribute to the wide variety of vegetables, but in winter they were more or less nonexistent; therefore Korean people needed the special wisdom of preserving techniques such as drying or salting.

It is relatively easy to dry vegetables, but it is difficult to get the fresh taste of vegetables when they are cooked. On the other hand, if they are salted, they become tender, retain their crunchiness, and are available for long storage. If vegetables and fish are salted in diluted salt water, the maturing process involving self enzymatic process and the fermenting process of halophilic bacteria produce amino acids and lactic acids. These foods are the precedents of kimchi and salted and fermented fish (jeotgal). The salt, through a dewatering process and osmosis, prevents most microorganisms from growing and helps the beneficial fermenting process. Amino acids and lactic acids fermentation not only contribute to the foods preservation but also make a fermented food with a great taste.

As we have seen, the origin of kimchi was salted vegetables, and it was for much of humanity in the way of food development. But its transformation from simple salting to fermentation is by no means an easy feat, but one that stands out in the world is history of food processing. Korea's kimchi, with its soaking of vegetables in brine and with all the spices and the salted and fermented fish plus the red chili pepper, has become an unique fermented food without equal in the world.

Kimchi in ancient times (before A.D. 918)

Koreans have enjoyed vegetables for a long time. Considering the use of salt and the making of soybean paste and other fermented foods, it seems that in Korea kimchi was made even before the Samguk (Three Kingdoms) period from the 4th to the 7th century A.D.

The types of kimchi made in the early days included: those only salted and those dipped in paste, vinegar, grain gruel, or leftover grain from wineries. The vegetables used in early kimchi consisted of turnip, eggplant, gourd, wild leek, royal fern, bamboo shoots, deodeok (codonopsis lanceolata) and roots of Chinese bellflower. The pickling method used mainly is today's jangajji method, and it can be understood that even at that time there existed two groups of early kimchi, one being the jangajji group and the other the sikhae group (in which grains and vegetables are added to the main ingredient of salted fish, such as flounder, and allowed to ferment).

In Mireuksa Temple (founded around A.D. 600) site in Iksan, earthen jars dating from the Baekje period were excavated. They were large jars, some over a meter tall and were found near where Buddhist monks lived. Since they were large and found in good condition, it is highly possible that they were buried in the ground and used. These large jars are thought to have served the same purpose as today's gimjang jars: the winter storage of kimchi. These are the sole artifacts of early kimchi. There is a theory that a stone-made casket that was made in the Silla period (A.D. 553), and even today stands in Beopjusa Temple, was also used to store kimchi (This Jar is rebuilt in A.D. 720 due to fire damage). The storage of kimchi in such a container naturally leads to the origins of gimjang.

Kimchi in the Goryeo period ( A.D. 918-1392)

In the early Goryeo Dynasty the followers of Buddhism suppressed meat consumption, and vegetables were preferred. The vegetables used in kimchi became much more diverse: turnip, white radish, eggplant, cucumber, wild leek, watercress, royal fern, hollyhock, gourd, bracken, taro, garlic, bamboo shoots, white gourd, wild mustard leaves, lettuce, green onion and ginger roots. Also, juicy kimchi became popular, and the differentiation between juicy kimchi and plain kimchi occurred. Garnished kimchi also appeared, meaning kimchi now had garnishes such as garlic, and spices like Chinese pepper, ginger roots and tangerine peels added to the simple pickle-type kimchi.

In Gapoyugyeong of Donggukisanggukjip it is written that they dip the leaves of white radish in paste to prepare for summer and salt them to prepare for winter. This implies the differentiation between kimchi and the jangajji group. Also, in the phrase prepare for winter we can assume that the custom of gimjang had begun. The kimchi here is similar to today's juicy radish kimchi and juicy kimchis like nabakji and dongchimi.

In Yi Dal-chung's Sanchonjabyeong, which is a 14th century collection of poems, there is a verse saying I added water chestnuts to the yeogwi and made kimchi out of them, from which we can assume that wild herbs were used to enhance the taste of kimchi. In Yi Saek's Mogeunjip the word chimchae, the Chinese character form of kimchi, appears for the first time in history. Jangajji was also introduced for the first time in a book. In Yeji of Goryeosa, there is mention of such kimchis as geunjeo (watercress kimchi), gujeo (wild leek kimchi), cheongjeo (slightly desalinated juicy radish kimchi), and sunjeo (bamboo shoots kimchi). Since only the kimchis associated with the royal sacrificial rite are mentioned, the actual number of kimchis enjoyed by ordinary people must have been far more numerous.

In Goryeo society, the most common kimchis were probably simple, pickled ones consisting of the vegetables mentioned above. Secondary were the jangajji, nabakji, and the garnished kimchi. But there is no record of cabbage being used as the main ingredient of kimchi. In Hyangyakgugeupbang there is mention of cabbage as a sort of medicine, but since there is no record of cabbage kimchi, it can be concluded that cabbage kimchi were not popular at that time.

Kimchi of the early Joseon period (A.D. 1392-1600)

In the early Joseon Dynasty, there was a renaissance of culture, a boom of agriculture, typography and astronomy as well as other industries. Thus, cultivated vegetables became much more abundant. Thanks to typography, books on agriculture could be distributed more widely and the methods of growing vegetables could easily be passed on. During this period many foreign vegetables were introduced to Korea and the ingredients became more varied. The methods of making kimchi progressed as well. In old recipes of this period, the main ingredients were turnip, radish, cucumber, eggplant, white gourd, wild mustard leaf, bamboo shoots and green onion. Also, pheasants were used to make kimchi, which means a type of kimchi with meat was being developed.

The kimchi in this period came in a wide variety, from the simple pickled type, jangajji, of earlier times to the singgeonji which was desalinated and then garnished, to the juicy nabakji which could be eaten instantly, and dongchimi, which is also juicy but needs time to ferment. When coloring the juicy kimchis, cockscomb and safflower were used to give a fine tint. During this period, the number of spices used in kimchi increased greatly, and the main ingredient was clearly differentiated from the secondary ingredients.

Kimchi after the mid-Joseon period (after A.D. 1600)

In the latter half of the Joseon Dynasty and onwards, there was an unprecedented growth of trade, and as a result the growth of cash crops became active. Various traditional vegetables, fruits, horticultural byproducts and herbs were made popular and these became kimchi's main ingredients as well as secondary ones.

During the Joseon Dynasty many kinds of vegetables were introduced from other countries. Pumpkin, red chili pepper, sweet potato, white gourd, apple, and watermelon were a few. Red chili peppers, especially, brought about many changes, in the Korean diet. From the previously humble and fresh taste of kimchi, there came to be a more complex yet harmonious tasting kimchi as red chili pepper became one of the main ingredients. The number of vegetables used as main and secondary ingredients of kimchi widened as well. Records of red chili peppers were first found in Jibongyuseol, and their first use in kimchi was recorded in Sallimgyeongje. As red chili peppers were used in kimchi, many kinds of salted and fermented fish came to be used. The combined use of animal foods as well as vegetables in kimchi resulted in a great combination of taste and nutrition. The savory taste of kimchi was made even better.

It was also in this period that Korean cabbage and white radishes became the main ingredients of kimchi. The most popular kind, baechu tongkimchi (whole cabbage kimchi), resulted from plant breeding in the 19th century A.D., which meant the cabbages that were firmer and denser appeared. The ways of making kimchi became diversified, such as jangajji (simple pickling), mulkimchi (juicy), sobagi (stuffed), sokbakji (mixed), and so on. The kimchi making process was improved to incorporate two steps, which included the desalinating process.

Garnished kimchi was at its beginning stages in the late Goryeo period, a mere mixing of ingredients with the pickle-type kimchi of that time, but from this period the garnish in kimchi became of central importance. In Eumsikdimibang Chinese pepper is recorded to have been used in garlic kimchi, and it is also recorded that pheasant had been used with cucumber in saengchae kimchi.

In Jeungbosallimgyeongje, about 41 kinds of kimchi are listed, and thus it is an invaluable document in the history of kimchi. In this book the most popular kimchi of today, baechu tongkimchi (whole cabbage kimchi) appears under the name of sungjimchu, and it is worth noting that this kimchi had meat and fish as ingredients. Many other kimchis were introduced in written form for the first time in history. One is chonggak kimchi (ponytail radish kimchi) which was made with all its leaves. Ancestors of today's oisobagi (stuffed cucumber kimchi), sokbakji (radish and cabbage in mixed form), dongchimi (juicy radish kimchi) also made their first appearance.

In the book mentioned above, the kinds of kimchi that appear are quite varied. To name a few, there are suk kimchi (cooked kimchi for the elderly, considering their difficulty in eating hard foods), sikhae kimchi (vegetable, grains, and fish mixed and salted), jeotgal kimchi (using salted and fermented fish), chojeori kimchi (pickled in vinegar), and jjanji (simply salted). It is important to note that for the first time it was recorded that red chili peppers were used in kimchi. The book also shows a realistic picture of kimchi as it fermented, buried in the ground, stored tightly in jars, from which we can put together kimchi's past.

In Gyuhapchongseo, which is considered the first home encyclopedia of the Joseon Dynasty, sokbakji-type kimchi was introduced. It was produced with lots of ingredients with clear distinctions on which is main and which is secondary, and much of which was salted and fermented fish. Contrary to the methods of making kimchi up to that time, the process involved soaking the radishes and cabbages properly and then making the kimchi. For secondary ingredients small octopus, abalone, and turban shells were used. Salt-fermented fish such as yellow croaker, oysters and pilchard were used in season. Also mentioned were the new methods of using rusted coins and rice straw to prevent the cucumbers from yellowing.

In Imwonsimnyukji a wide variety of kimchi was introduced, and one interesting point was that the use of red chili peppers was recommended in kimchi. From this it can be inferred that they had discovered that the red chili peppers kept the vegetables fresh and played an important role in the fermenting process, and thus they were able to recommend its use. The origins of the same tongbaechu kimchi (whole cabbage kimchi) can be found in Siuijeonseo (written around A.D. 1800), and the origins of jang kimchi (kimchi soaked in paste) in Dongguksesigi (written in A.D 1849).

In this process, pickle-type kimchi from ancient times became jangajji, a separate group of food, and it has been enjoyed as a side dish since it became independent from the kimchi group in the mid- Joseon period.

Roots of the word Kimchi

The old Korean word meaning kimchi was "mihi" or "ai". Of the two, ai is still used to indicate a certain type of kimchi. In many books there were similar words like jeo that were used to point out that it was kimchi or similar thing. Jeo meant a type of kimchi that had salted vegetables and was allowed to ferment in rather cold places. In Imwonsimnyukji, which was written in the early 19th century, there are explanations of jeo as well as introductions of many types.

The word kimchi supposedly came from the Chinese word chimchae, or soaked vegetables; it must be kept in mind that Chinese characters were widely used to write things down (there were no written characters in Korean until King Sejong devised Hangeul in the 15th century A.D.). The word does not exist in China, so it must have been devised in Korea.

The origin of gimjang seems to be in the Chinese word chimjang.

In Donggukisanggukjip by Yi Gyu-bo , he mentions that the paste-soaked turnips pickles are good for summer and the salted turnips are eaten all during the winter, which hints of early gimjang practices. In volume 7 of Sambongjip it is written that there existed a Yeomulgo which was for processed vegetables.

In Joseonwangjosillok it states that in 1409 there was a separate chimjanggo for the storage of kimchi. From these we can see that there was an independent storage place for gimjang kimchi and that gimjang originated from chimjang.

Gimjang

The time of gimjang and the way in which it is done differ according to the regions climate and traditions, but usually it was from Ipdong (beginning of winter, middle of November) to Soseol (around the 23rd of November by the solar calendar), but the radical difference of climate in Korea sometimes makes the gimjang time differ by even a month.

The peculiarities of gimjang also differ according to region, since traditions vary. In the cold northern parts of Korea, the seasoning is lightly added to the kimchi and the kimchi tends to be more juicy, so the resulting taste is mild and cool yet it retains the tangy taste of carbonated water (due to the gases produced during the fermenting process). On the contrary, the kimchi in the southern parts of Korea, if they are mild, ferment far too quickly due to the hot weather, so the kimchi in the south has a much stronger taste. The abundant use of salted and fermented fish and spices in southern kimchi therefore pursue the two goals : the deep taste and long preservation. Gimjang kimchis are made by different methods according to their various uses. Usually, they are eaten all during the winter and till the next spring, but some gimjang kimchis are meant for consumption till the next summer. The kimchi is made by combining cabbages and radishes with much salt and no other seasoning and burying them deep in a dark corner of the earth. This pickle-type kimchi has no seasoning, so the taste is quite mild, but it is quite salty. After desalinating it, it can be used in kimchi pancakes and the stuffing of kimchi wontons. Their white color makes them visually beautiful still on the table as well. This kimchi resembles the old, pickle-type early kimchi, and is used today.

Besides cabbages and radishes, many kinds of salted and fermented fish, fresh fish, and fresh vegetables are used as ingredients in gimjang kimchi. If only one of them is missing, it can still bring about the loss of the certain taste of kimchi, so choosing the ingredients must be done with utmost care. As with any food, good ingredients make good food, and it is no less so in kimchi.

The really cold weather sets in as gimjang starts. In the past, no matter how cold it was, gimjang was done outside. And this had some logic to it. As we have seen, gimjang requires almost perfection from choosing the ingredients to storage, and a sudden change of temperature can ruin the process, spoiling the kimchis taste as the fermenting process is interrupted.

The Storage of Kimchi

Kimchi represents processed vegetable foods for storage. Kimchi is not only a way of keeping vegetables a long time, it is also a fermented food that has a characteristic taste due to the actions of microorganisms that produce a unique flavor and some organic acids. Since Korea's weather changes quickly, the storage of kimchi caused quite a headache in the old days, as in winter when the lactic acid is not active kimchi was prone to freezing and in hot summer kimchi could become far too fermented in just a day.

Therefore, long before the age of refrigerators, Koreans thought up ways to keep kimchi at a relatively stable temperature in order to eat it for a long time. In the summer they put the kimchi jar in a well or a stream, and in winter they buried the jar in the ground, using the heat of the earth. The right storage was vital, especially in gimjang kimchi, and the jar was oftentimes insulated with rice straw. To prevent the kimchi from becoming rancid, kimchi was put tightly in the jar, leaving little space, and old leaves of cabbage or other vegetables used in the kimchi were put on the top of the kimchi in the jar to minimize direct contact with the air. Also, the juice of the kimchi did not rise above the leaves put on the top. Before kimchi was put in the jar, stems of red chili peppers, red chili pepper seeds, and mulberry paper were burned, so that the smoke would prevent the growth of unwanted microorganisms.

The jars differed according to the kind of kimchi and the season of their being eaten. Women chose among the different shapes according to different regions to best keep the kimchi. They even went as far as to take the season when the jar was made into consideration; some believed the elaborately made jars produced the best kimchi. The first jars made just after Usu (about the 18th of February) and Gyeongchip, when the earth melts, were considered the best, being able to keep the taste of kimchi for a long time.

It was because Korea had such wonderfully glazed pots that great fermented foods could be produced in Korea. What we could call the basic fermented foods of Korea - kimchi, soybean paste, soybean sauce, red chili pepper paste, salted and fermented fish, vinegar, and wines were all stored and matured in big pots called dok or in small pots called danji. These foods acted as seasonings in many foods and were themselves the main supplier of proteins, vitamins, and minerals. Since the pots themselves allowed only a minute amount of gas particles to pass through, and not the air itself, the foods in them did not go bad easily even during long periods of storage. As we have said, the jars themselves provided the basis for the importance of the fermented foods such as kimchi, paste, and salted and fermented fish in our food culture.

The pots were introduced into our lives even before the Three Kingdoms period and through the Goryeo and the Joseon Dynasties they came to be of the utmost importance in the everyday lives of Koreans. Their shapes and their patterns vary according to the region where they are made; the sizes also vary with some taller than a human. In the Gangwon-do Province, lack of proper soil to make the pots caused people to use wood. The wooden jars were made out of willow, as it was considered a clean tree, and space was made by digging out the insides of the trunk of the tree. A support board was placed to make the jar stand firmly. Sometimes Korean paper with oil was pasted inside the jar to make it more waterproof. The wooden jars, although they were difficult to make, were light, easy to carry, and more durable since they did not break easily. They were widely used as substitutes for glazed pots.

People made a storehouse for kimchi in the backyard with logs arranged like tepees and rice straw put over it, resembling a dugout mud hut. Kimchi jars were placed inside. It was devised to keep snow and rain away and to be relatively consistent with the temperatures of the earth. The hut was usually made in the backyard, close to the kitchen.

Nowadays, it is much more popular to store kimchi in refrigerators than in jars or in storage places. Many Korean refrigerators are equipped with spaces reserved for storing kimchi. They are not big enough to store large amounts of kimchi, but since the amount of kimchi made is less, there does not seem to be much difficulty. As we can see from the above, the technique for storing kimchi has changed in the 20th century. New containers using state-of-the-art technology are being developed, and the amount of kimchi made has lessened due to the increase in the number of smaller families, the growth of the restaurant business, and the mass production of kimchi. Thus, the importance of the storage of kimchi is not as great a problem when kimchi is being bought at stores year-round, but it is sad to note that the tradition of eating well-fermented gimjang kimchi all during the winter and the sight of kimchi jars in the backyard are disappearing.

Local Kimchi

Korea has a subarctic climate zone, with the characteristics of both the arctic and tropical zones. In the winter the temperature can go down to below minus ten degrees centigrade, while in the summer it can go upwards to 30 degrees. Winter tends to be dry, and summer is very humid. The winter in the northern part of the peninsula is much longer than in the south. Such contrasts in the climate have led to the formation of many different climate zones in a country which is smaller than 220,000 square kilometers.

The cultivation of crops and vegetables and the techniques of processing marine products and fermented foods are not free from the influence of the natural environment, and this has resulted in the development of local cuisines with distinctive tastes.

Distinctive regional foods have developed all being influenced by the natural, historical, and social environments of the regions. Korea, with many climate zones, various topography and the conditions of the sea, and the rise and fall of many kingdoms in different regions, was able to give birth to a tradition of distinctive regional cooking in almost every region. Gyeonggi-do Province - Glamorous and rich

Gyeonggi-do Province lies in the heart of the Korean Peninsula. The eastern and southern mountain areas are at the end of the Charyeong Mountains and many herbs can be found there. The western coast is abundant in sea products. The plains, named Gyeonggi, Gimpo and Pyeongtaek, are quite fertile, producing various crops. Crops such as rice, barley, peanuts, corn, herbs from the mountains and the plains, and cultivated vegetables and fruits such as pears, peaches, and grapes are abundant.

Seoul, being the capital of Joseon, has traces of the foods of the aristocratic class in many places. In kimchi, salted and fermented yellow croaker and baby shrimps are generally used, and the mild taste of baechupogi kimchi is famous. There are also jang kimchi made with soy sauce, gamdongjeotmu kimchi with very small shrimps, nabak kimchi, baek kimchi, ssam kimchi and oi kimchi.

The typical Gyeonggi-do province food tends to be glamourous and extravagant, since the region had been the center of trade. This includes susam nabakji, with ginseng, which is a local specialty of Gaeseong, misam kimchi, and ssam (wrapped) kimchi, Other kimchis are hobak yeolmu kimchi, bineul kimchi, Yongin oiji, sunmu kimchi, chae kimchi, sseumbagwi kimchi, pheasant kimchi, dongchimi, and baek kimchi.

Chungcheong-do Province - Mild and fresh

Chungcheong-do Province is located in the middle of Korea. This region has a relatively mild climate and fertile land, so it is suitable for farming. The Nonsan plain is one of Korea's three biggest rice growing areas, and many crops besides rice are abundant. The southern part of this province meets the Yellow Sea, so seafoods such as oysters, shrimp, hairtails, gray mullets, stingrays, yellow croaker and crabs are caught. The eoriguljeot (salted oysters with red chili pepper) of Ganwoldo Island and the saeujeot (salted and fermented small shrimps) are famous local specialties.

The northern part of this province does not face the sea, so seafoods are hard to obtain, but there are famous freshwater varieties like freshwater shrimp, freshwater eel and mandarine fish. In the central part of Chungcheong-do, mountain herbs and mushrooms are abundant, and many local foods are prepared with them. There, spices are used in small amounts and people can enjoy a mild and frugal taste. People use mainly salted and fermented baby shrimp, which are a local specialty, for salted and fermented fish. Gul kkakdugi, hobak kimchi, neulgeunhobak (pumpkin) kimchi, sokbakji, spinach kimchi, eggplant kimchi, and Dolnamul (Sedum) kimchi are popular in this region.

Gangwon-do Province - Frugal yet delicious

Gangwon-do Province is located on the eastern side of Korea. The northwestern part of it forms the border of Hwanghae-do Province and Hamgyeong-do province. Gangwon-do Province, with its borders facing many provinces, can be divided into two unofficial parts, Yeongseo (the western part) and Yeongdong (the eastern part). The western part produces crops like potatoes, corn, beans, and buckwheat. The eastern part has seafoods like pollack, squid and sea mustard, and also processed forms like dried Alaskan pollack, salted and fermented eggs from pollack, salted and fermented intestines of pollack, dried squid, and dried sea mustard. Acorn, arrowroot, and similar mountain herbs, and medicinal herbs give the kimchi a frugal yet delicious taste. Seafoods such as clams and anchovies are preferred to meats.

Cuttlefish and Alaskan pollack produced in the East Sea are widely used as ingredients for kimchi. Particularly well-known is sikhae, made with dried pollack mixed with grains and vegetables. Changnan (salted and fermented pollack innards), kkakdugi and dried squid mumallaengi (dried sliced radish) kimchi are also famous.

Jeolla-do Province - Intense and savoury

Jeolla-do Province is in the southwestern part of Korea. This province is abundant with all sorts of grains and seafood. The northern part of this region produces most of the grains in Korea. On the plateau between the Noryeong Mountains and the Sobaek Mountains, vegetables like ginseng, red chili peppers, medicinal herbs, mountain herbs, bracken and various mushrooms are produced. Since this area faces the sea, an abundance of seafoods from the cultivation of oysters, sea laver and sea mustard exist. High quality ginger, persimmons and citrons are also produced.

From past times, the well-to-do native aristocrats have lived affluently and inherited a variety of fine foods. Foods in this region are not only tasty, but also refined. As the climate is relatively mild, the kimchi's seasoning is strong; a hot pepper and pungent taste are conspicuous.

To cope with the warm weather of the southern region, spices such as red pepper powder and pickled sea foods are used in large quantities for the kimchi's proper storage. The various kinds of kimchi include godeulppaegi (a kind of lettuce) kimchi, gat (Indian mustard leaf) kimchi, and cabbage head kimchi, and they are normally prepared with pickled raw anchovies; by putting in sufficient amounts of spices, as well as a glutinous rice paste a rich taste is produced. Also, citrons, which are abundant in the region, are added to dongchimi (juicy radish kimchi) to make yuja (citron) dongchimi which has a distinctive citron flavor. The unique taste of godeulppaegi kimchi, or gat kimchi or parae (green laver) kimchi becomes remarkably better after the kimchis mature. Gyeongsang-do Province - Strong and hot

Gyeongsang-do Province is situated in the southeastern part of Korea. The people there tend to have simple tastes rather than preferring a flavorful and a wide variety of foods. The kimchi is characterized by pickled sea foods such as pickled anchovy, hairtail or mackerel pike. There is also sesame-leaf kimchi, soy bean-leaf kimchi, leek kimchi, sliced green onion kimchi, persimmon kimchi, garlic stalk kimchi, crown daisy kimchi, and deodeok (codonopsis lanceolata) kimchi.

Hwanghae-do Province - Generous and delightful

Hwanghae-do Province is situated in the west-central part of the peninsula and is renowned for its hospitality; the food is characteristically plentiful. The kimchi is neither salty nor flat, but has a clear taste, and uses spices called gosu and bundi. The kimchi flavors are not too pungent nor refreshing. In preparing dongchimi, kimchi juice using pickled shrimps or salted croakers or fermented crushed fish is poured in to mature. During the winter, wheat noodles are eaten after putting them into dongchimi (a refreshing watery turnip kimchi). There is also dongchimi, gosu (a plant grow in that province) kimchi, and squash kimchi.

Pyeongan-do Province - Progressive and mild

Pyeongan-do Province is situated in the northwestern part of Korea. As it is cold in winter, fermentation of kimchi is slow, and it has a characteristically flat taste and is not pungent. Spices and other materials are not used much for kimchi so that its taste is light and flat, but its juice is refreshing. Dongchimi is prepared with meat soup made by boiling beef ribs and taking the fat out, and cold noodles, called naengmyeon, are eaten after putting them into the soup. There is also naengmyeon kimchi, eggplant kimchi, and dongchimi.

Hamgyeong-do Province - Bountiful and bold

Hamgyeong-do Province is located in the northeastern part of the peninsula, and it is the coldest and most remote region in Korea. Its kimchi has plenty of juice and tastes slightly flat as not much salt and little red pepper powder is used. Indigenous fish products are widely used. Flat-fish punch which is made by fermenting a mixture of vegetables, grain rice, and fish, is well-known. There is also bean sprout kimchi and codfish kkakdugi (pickled radish).

Jeju-do Province - Marine and varied Jeju-do Province, the country's largest island, is situated southwest of the peninsula. As sea resources are abundant, a variety of sea food kimchis is produced. Abalone kimchi, mixed sea food kimchi and nabak (radish-cabbage water) kimchi are famous.

Thus, the regional nature inherent in kimchi comes from the combination of vegetables cultivated in distinctly different climates, the production of diverse pickled sea foods, and the temperature during fermentation.

Special Kimchi

- Kimchi in the Royal Palace

Royal culinary culture was developed and refined over the years from the ancient past to the recent Joseon Dynasty. It was the epitome of Korean food culture, as the best ingredients presented to the king as a tribute were used and, naturally, cooked by the best chefs. The chefs were divided into two groups, female and male. The female chefs, called jubangsanggung, managed the everyday meals of the king and the queen, whereas the male executive chefs, called daeryeongsuksu, specialized in the numerous feasts and banquets held in the royal palace. The food made in the palace was therefore very scientific and logical in the mixture of the ingredients and the use of seasonings.

With the absence of the royal family, the royal cuisine also vanished. But the tradition of marrying outside the royal family, contrary to European custom, allowed the foods of the palace to be passed on to the families of the aristocrats who were related to the royal family by marriage. Such influence on the foods of aristocratic families kept alive the foods from the royal palace.

The making of kimchi in the royal palace was basically the same as that of the Seoul area, but at the palace they were able to use the best ingredients. To give a unique flavor to dongchimi, they added citron, which was a rarity for ordinary people.

Seongnyu (pomegranate) kimchi, which is made by making slits in large radish blocks and stuffing them with seasonings, yuja (citron) dongchimi, tongbaechu kimchi (whole white cabbage kimchi), gamdongjeotmu kimchi, songsongi (royal name of kkakdugi) and jangkimchi, which were made by soaking them in old soy sauce instead of salt, are the most famous royal kimchis.

- Kimchi for Jesa (memorial service)

Jesa (memorial service) is a unique Korean tradition of remembering and paying tribute to the spirits of dead ancestors and invoking their blessings. In the ceremony, the foods are prepared and placed in particular places on the table. The kimchi used in the ceremony is usually nabak kimchi which is made with white radish.

The kimchis used in the memorial service are without exception all fresh, not yet fermented ones, and they have little juice in them. The contents are arranged so they stand up in the bowl to show courtesy. In baechu kimchi, only the middle parts of the cabbage are served, similar to those served the elderly. With nabak kimchi, which is rather juicy, vegetables without the juice are served.

The written records of kimchi for jesa can be found in the Wongujinseoljo part in the Yeji of Goryeosa and Goryeojo of Sejongsillok.

- Kimchi from the Buddhist temples

The importance of Buddhism can not be overlooked in Korea. Buddhism influenced virtually every part of the culture, including a considerable influence on Korea's foods. In Buddhism killing animals is strictly forbidden, and thus the food made in temples is strictly vegetarian. This tradition of avoiding meats has much to do with the development of many vegetarian recipes, and the tradition of making kimchi out of virtually any vegetable was probably related to this custom.

The foods at Buddhist temples are not very different from the traditionally enjoyed foods of ordinary people. But each temple has unique cooking methods and the ingredients are mainly vegetables and herbs harvested from the mountains around the temples. In addition to animal foods, osinchae (the five hot vegetables: green onion, garlic, wild rocambole, wild leek and honggeo) and artificial additives are avoided. In the temples making foods is considered part of the ascetic practice.

Kimchi in temples is typically more varied and lighter in taste. The osinchae mentioned above are avoided in kimchi and no salted or fermented fish are used, since animal foods are thought to interrupt the thinking process by making one angry. Instead, various mountain herbs, herbs from the fields and cultivated vegetables are used. To supplement nutrition as well as to make the kimchi juice thicker, juiced pinenuts, juiced green perilla, juiced peanuts, steamed barley rice and boiled potato water are blended. This gives a peculiar taste to the kimchi as well as a lightness. In seasoning the kimchi, mainly salt, soy sauce, red chili pepper powder, ginger roots, and whole sesame seeds are used. Chinese pepper is used sparingly.

Yujeomsa Temple in Geumgangsan, Bohyeonsa Temple in Myohyangsan, and Daeheungsa Temple in Haenam are famous for dongchimi, the juice giving off a tangy taste like carbonated water. Godeulppaegi kimchi at Geumsansa Temple, minari (dropwort) kimchi at Seongnamsa Temple, and kkakdugi at Bongeunsa Temple are all famous Buddhist temple kimchi.

- Suk Kimchi (Kimchi for the elderly, Kimchi with filial piety)

Korea has long been called Dongbangyeuijiguk (The country of courteous people in the east). It is considered natural to honor the elderly, whether it be ones own parents or the neighbors. A good proof of this filial piety is the food designed especially for them. Old age makes the teeth weak, and it becomes harder to eat hard foods. When preparing a meal for the elderly, this was taken into consideration. In the case of kimchi, there are special kimchis like suk kkakdugi and suk nabakji for the elderly. These are made by boiling the radishes slightly to make them soft and then seasoning them with red chili pepper powder and salted and fermented young shrimps. Often kimchi with much red pepper powder is too spicy for them, so sometimes they are served mild baek kimchi. Women in past times used to sleep embracing a jar of kimchi to serve kimchi properly fermented to the elderly. An admirable tradition of honoring the elders can be seen through these preparations.

- Jeong Kkakdugi (Kimchi for pregnant women)

In the period of maternity, the shape and form of the food as well as the taste was considered. All the foods she ate were first-class, and this was also true with kimchi. In making baechu (cabbage) kimchi, much care was taken to the shape, and with kkakdugi, the radishes were cut into precise cubes, called jeong kkakdugi. Only kimchis with the straightest, and most even shapes were eaten, and here lay the wish that the child would have a straight and sound body and mind.

Tradition and Courtesy of Kimchi

Korea is traditionally an agricultural society, and social life was much valued, individual relations and love cherished. It was said that food tastes better eaten together rather than alone, and people said that sharing food easily brought people closer. People thought much of neighbors as well as family members, and they tried to make an abundant amount of food as possible to serve them.

As a people that valued etiquette, there were certain ways to eat the food: Manners and formality. For instance, one should not eat before the older people and should be careful not to make any sounds when eating. Leaving the place during a meal was considered impolite and too much talk was to be avoided, although light conversations were welcome. All the eating utensils, the spoon, chopsticks, rice bowl, soup bowl, plates and small dish for soy sauce had to be put in certain places on the table. The place of the dishes themselves was regulated according to a rule, with cold foods on the left side of the table and hot on the right.

In Sasojeol by the late Joseon scholar Yi Deok-mu, it is recorded that if kimchi was too big for a bite, the rest should be placed in the individual dish. Kimchi served to the elderly should be stood up, not down and the ends of the vegetables could not be served. In cabbage kimchi, only the middle part could be served to the elderly. On the individual table, as was standard in tradition, kimchi goes on the most upper part of the table, away from the person receiving the meal. There had to be at least two to three kinds of kimchi, including the juicy kind. With gruel or noodles as the main dish, the juicy kind of kimchi was a must.

Kimchi was used as a gift to the elderly to show filial piety. In the winter very good kimchi called gamdongjeotmu kimchi was given as gifts to the elderly in white porcelain jars along with homemade rice wine. Such courtesy is shown in more dramatic forms in the special kimchi in the coming chapters.

Utensils used in the preparation of kimchi

- Dark glazed pottery

Koreas pottery culture was developed to such an extent that Korea is called the country of ceramic ware or the country of jars and pots. Korea became known world wide as the leading nation for fermented food, only because there was this excellent storage utensil called glazed pottery from the early days. Koreas basic fermented foods such as kimchi, bean paste, soy sauce, red pepper paste, pickled sea foods, table vinegar, and rice wine were stored and matured in either big glazed pottery called dok or in small pottery called danji.

These stored and matured foods played the role of sweeteners to adjust the taste of food and also the role of the main nutritional food supplying protein, vitamins, and inorganic substances. Pots and jars were made in such a way that air can pass through and, thus, they breathe so that the fermented foods could be stored there for a long time without becoming sour or rotten. Such pottery functions provided a basis for our fermented foods of kimchi, sauce and pickled fish to occupy an important part in our dietary life.

Pottery was introduced to our life well before the period of the Three Kingdoms, and passing through the Goryeo and Joseon periods, became the most essential utensil for Korean dietary life. The looks, designs, and sizes differ by region. Among the receptascles made from baked soil, the Korean pot is the biggest in size in the world's history of pottery.

- Whole log kimchi pot from Gangwon-do Province

As Gangwon-do Province is a mountainous region, pots made from wood were remarkably well-developed. As the soil in Gangwon-do Province did not have the good quality necessary to bake pots, wood abundantly available was used to make pots. Mostly willow was used as it has no toxicity. The inside of a whole log was dug out to acquire space and then fixed with an under support. It was used as a pot immediately, or after pasting the inside with oil-soaked Korean paper to prevent the juice from leaking out. It was used widely as a substitute for glazed pots as it had the advantage of being light and easy to move, unbreakable, and durable.

Mortar for spices Mortar for spices: A big mortar is for pounding grains such as barley, but a small mortar is especially used for pounding spices such as a small quantity of sesame, garlic, and ginger. Gourd bowl: An object to measure such spices as salt and red pepper powder. Spice jar: A jar storing such spices as salt-mixed powdered sesame and red pepper powder. Maja: A spice grinding utensil which has a hole through which a finger is put to grind the rough surface of spices. Gangpan: A utensil used as a support in grinding spice. Jabaegi: A deep round pottery bowl used for mixing salted cabbage or radish with spices.

4. The Ingredients for Kimchi and their Characteristics

The ingredients used in kimchi are numerous. The reason kimchi came to be an unique food not easily found in other countries is because a wide variety of vegetables and salted and fermented fish had been available.

The different flavors and textures of the vegetables provide kimchi with a unique taste. The enzymatic reaction of the microorganisms in different vegetables, seasonings and salted and fermented fish combined to affect the maturing of kimchi. Thus, the ingredients are the most important factor in making good kimchi.

The leaves, roots and fruits of the vegetables are used in a variety of ways according to the region and season. The seasonings are used to accent the taste of the other ingredients. The most commonly used ingredients are Korean cabbage and white radish, and vegetables such as cucumber, green onion, Indian mustard leaf, perilla leaf, dropwort, wild leek and ponytail radish are used as the main ingredients or seasoning.

The ingredients determine the speed of the fermentation process. The change of proportion of nutritional components is caused by the combination of the ingredients and the length of the maturing process. Of the secondary ingredients in kimchi, green onions, garlic and red chili peppers make the content of the lactic acid, succinic acid, acetic acid and carbon dioxide higher than using only cabbage and they affect much of the taste of the kimchi. Kimchi with garlic is high in carbon dioxide and alcohol and tastes better. Red chili peppers produce much lactic acid and also speed up the fermenting process. Too much ginger can cause browning of the ingredients, so it should be used sparingly.

The salted and fermented fish contain many sources of nitrogen like protein and amino acids. This accelerates the fermentation process, and, among them, baby shrimps speed it up more than anchovies. In doing gimjang, kimchi intended for long storage has more salt, and less salted and fermented fish and red chili pepper powder is put into it.

Cucumbers as a secondary ingredient accelerate the fermentation which is high in Vitamin B complex. Wild leeks are said to delay the souring of cucumber kimchi. Korean cabbage

A good cabbage has an abundance of greener leaves and the leaves themselves should be thin. It should be tightly packed and fresh looking. Cabbage produced in the fall for gimjang should be of medium sized, tightly packed, and heavy for its size.

White radish

Radish is a vegetable grown in a cool temperature and is used frequently in kimchi and in other dishes. There is the traditional and introduced variety. Different kinds of radishes are harvested in autumn, spring, and summer (grown in the highlands). The traditional variety is shorter in length and is firm, whereas the introduced variety is longer and softer.

The radish is usually tender and has a sweet and rather spicy taste. There are radishes for kimchi, danmuji, and ponytail radish, and they all have different uses. If the harvest is delayed, the white radish gets pulpy and soggy, so it should be harvested as soon as it is ready, The pulpiness of a radish indicates that the radish is getting soft in the inside and dying. Spring radish gets pulpier more easily than autumn radish.

A good radish should be large and even in size, and it should be smoothly shaped. The flesh should be firm and tender, the taste not too pungent and delightful.

Garlic

Garlic grows well in mild weather. It is more susceptible to extreme weather than green onions. If the temperature goes up, the harvesting time for garlic is earlier. When the leaves are withered halfway, garlic should be harvested.

Typical traditional garlic has many cloves, more than 6 or 7. The ones with many cloves are hotter and preferred for gimjang, whereas the jangson garlic is used for pickling; its stems are also used.

The garlic cloves are 79 percent water and are an important seasoning that can be used year-round. the source of garlics hot taste, called allylsulfide, is 15 times stronger than the carbonic acid found in antiseptics. Allysulfide can activate the metabolism, and it can alleviate aches, prevent constipation, and detoxicate.

A good garlic bulb is even in size and shape and has six cloves. It should be grown in muddy soil, and the skin should be brownish to purplish. The number of cloves should be small, and each clove should be firm and tightly packed. The inner skin covering the clove should be hard to peel off. A good clove should be rounded and clean, and possess a unique hot taste.

The ones for eating fast should be well dried and the ones for long storage should be free of sprouts, hard, have a firm bulb, and have little change of color.

Ginger

Ginger is about 86 percent water and is rich in minerals. Ginger has a certain pungent flavor and a spicy taste, the latter coming from gingerone and shogoal, which have peptic powers, and the former having citral linalool in it.

A good ginger is even in size and shape; it should not have too much fiber. A traditional variety grown in yellow mud is preferred, with 6 to 7 buds, firm and thick in shape, and easy to peel. A strong flavor and taste are desired. A good ginger should weigh more than 80 grams for the traditional variety, and 150 for an improved variety.

Red Chili pepper

Red chili pepper is an annual vegetable that has a long growth period. It grows well in hot, dry weather. It can be stored for a long time, thus appearing all year. Green chili peppers are harvested around the year, red ones from the middle of June, and dried ones from the middle of July.

There are two kinds of peppers, and the hotter chili variety is generally smaller than its milder cousin. Naturally, Koreans prefer the hotter variety.

The marketability of chili pepper depends on the method of drying, size and color. The ones dried in areas with clean air, good ventilation, and sunshine, called "taeyangcho" are considered the best, but such methods are not suitable for mass production, and nowadays most are hot-air dried. If the chili peppers are dried within 8 to 9 hours, the growth of microorganisms can be prevented, so many growers have adopted this method.

A good pepper should be sun-dried, with smooth skin without wrinkles and have a fine luster and gloss. There should be no foreign substances. The stem should be firmly attached. The peppers should be even in size and shape and well dried.

Green onions

Green onions cannot be stored for more than a short period of time, and they are about 80 percent water. The green part is rich in Vitamin A and C. With the variety that has thin, tender leaves, mainly the leaves are used. With the kind that has thick leaves the stems are used. Usually, the ones harvested in winter are thicker, with longer stems, and the ones harvested in the summer are the opposite. A good green onion should have fresh green leaves that have a bounce and firm and flexible stems (the white parts). The ones that are straight as a whole, have a consistent color, and have orderly roots when peeled are preferred.

Cucumber

Cucumbers come from the same family as gourds. They are sensitive to the climate and temperature. The main components are carbohydrates and pentosan, and there is little protein, but a lot of potassium and phosphoric acids. They are not very nutritious, but the taste is fresh and there is a fresh scent that makes them easy to harmonize with other foods. They are especially good for relieving loss of appetite in the summer. Since in cucumber there is plenty of water, potassium, and a bitter component called ellaterin, they promote good digestion.

A good cucumber should be of even size and shape. The thickness should be consistent from end to end. The buds should be vivid in color, tender, and fresh. The flesh should be firm yet tender, with few seeds. A cool and juicy taste is preferred.

Wild lettuce (Godeulppaegi)

Wild lettuce is an annual vegetable that has a dark green to purplish color. The ends of these leaves are jagged. This was a plant that was growing in the wild, but it is cultivated nowadays. The ones grown in the mountains and fields are purplish in color with thick roots and small leaves, whereas the cultivated ones are dark greenish with large leaves and small, thin roots. To get the slightly bitter taste unique in wild lettuce, wild lettuce is better. Wild lettuce not only promotes the appetite, but also improves blood circulation and digestion and gives a refreshing feeling.

Indian mustard leaf

This vegetable belongs to the mustard family and there are two kinds of leaves : greenish and reddish. The greenish kind is rich in minerals, vitamin A and C. To prevent the shortage of greens, this kimchi using Indian mustard leaves was made during the winter. Red leaves have more flavor than green leaves. The former was used in cabbage kimchi to help keep the red color and the latter used in dongchimi and baek kimchi. As a whole, the leaves should be tender and have a fresh luster.

Watercress

Watercress is a perennial vegetable that grows well in wet places and is very hardy. It is rich in vitamins, an alkaloid food that lowers the blood pressure, lowers the temperature, and so on. This plant has an unique flavor not found in any other plant. In juicy kimchi, watercress is a must.

Wild leeks

Leeks are a perennial vegetable that grows in the mountains of western China, Korea, and Japan. Cultivated ones are common nowadays. They are nutritious and have a unique flavor; they also help the digestive system. The smell of the leek comes from a phosphoric compound like garlic and makes one healthy. Leeks are used as a seasoning in tongbaechu kimchi, oisobagi, and in various other kinds of kimchi. There is also a wild leeks kimchi.

Pyogo mushroom

These are the most famous of all native Korean mushrooms. The skin has a brown color, and it is rich in fiber. The flesh is white and dry, and it has an unique scent. Pyogo mushrooms are used widely in Korean cooking as well as in Chinese and Japanese foods.

MANNA lichen

This is a kind of mushroom that can be gotten on the surface of rocks deep in the mountains. Since they cannot be cultivated, the total amount of this mushroom is strictly limited. The scent and flavor are excellent, so it has been used for a long time.

Salted and fermented fish (Jeotgal)

This is a kind of fermented food convenient to store for a long period of time. During the fermenting period, the protein turns into amino acids and has a unique flavor. The bones are broken down into calcium which can be readily absorbed, and the fat turns into low-grade fat acids, providing the unique taste and aroma of the salted and fermented fish.

Jeotgal provides excellent protein, calcium and fat. It is especially high in calcium, thus making it an alkaline food, neutralizing body fluids. The most frequently used kind, salted and fermented small shrimps, is low in fat and light, and salted and fermented anchovies have the highest amount of fat and essential amino acids.

Anchovies are caught off the southern shores of Korea in masses. Salt is added to fresh anchovies and then they are allowed to ferment. After 2 to 3 months of fermentation, it is called myeolchijeot (salted and fermented anchovies); after 6 months it is called myeolchijeotguk (salted and fermented anchovies extract). To make it, wash fresh anchovies and add salt weighing 15 to 20% of the anchovies. Store in a jar. After putting in the anchovies, put a thick layer of salt on and seal. Allow to ferment at 15-20 degrees for 2-3 months. The extract used to make kimchi should be filtered after a fermentation period of more than 6 months. After that, mix, filter, and heat the remaining liquids.

Jogijeot (salted and fermented croaker) is made by salting whole croakers and allowing them to ferment. After 2 to 3 months fermentation, the structure of the croakers remains, and after a year of fermentation, it becomes salted and fermented yellow croakers extract. Salted and fermented yellow croakers extract has a unique fishy flavor and umami (especially delicious) taste. It is garnished with various spices and used as a side dish. To make it, choose fresh yellow croakers and wash them. Put them into a jar and add salt weighing 20 percent of the croakers and put the contents into a jar. Add a thick layer of salt and seal. This jeotgal reaches the right taste after allowing it to ferment at 15 to 20 degrees in a dark place for more than one year.

Salted and fermented hairtail (galchijeot) is made by salting the whole hairtail. As with the above, there is galchijeot which is fermented for 2 to 3 months and galchijeotguk which is an extract that is fermented for more than a year. Galchijeotguk has a deep brown color and is used in making kimchi. To make this, wash the hairtail and remove the innards. Stuff salt into the gills and the abdominal cavity, totaling about 20 percent the weight of the hairtail. Store the contents in a jar, put a weight on it, and allow to ferment for 2 to 3 months. When preparing kimchi, raw hairtail can be put in to ferment simultaneously with the vegetables.

Salted and fermented small shrimps are most commonly used in kimchi. This has an important place in Korean food culture. The shrimps used for salted and fermented small shrimps are mainly produced in the Yellow Sea and they come out in May, June, February, and October. To make it, add salt 20 percent the weight of the shrimps, put the contents into a jar and allow to ferment at 15 to 20 degrees for 2 to 3 months.

Oysters

Oysters are capable of adapting to different temperatures, so they can be obtained all throughout the Korea.

Oysters are called the milk of the ocean and are rich in calcium, iron, and such blood-forming substances, and they are good for children growing up and correcting growth retardation. They are low in calories and contain vitamins and essential amino acids; thus they prevent and alleviate heart disease, high blood pressure, constipation, and diabetes. Oysters are tender and soft in texture and are ideal for the health of children and the elderly.

Small octopus

It is used to give a fresh, cool taste. It goes well with other jeotgal and seafoods, yet does not lose its unique flavor in combinations. It is used mainly in juicy kimchis like mu kimchi and baek kimchi. A good small octopus should have strong tentacles. 5. Principles of Kimchi Production

After various vegetables are mixed with seasoning to make kimchi, the fermented kimchi has an unique taste and aroma, quite different from the taste of the ingredients used. It is known that the mechanism of kimchi making is a matter of exchange and discharge of water in the vegetable by osmotic pressure. In the process of fermentation, microorganisms and enzymes work on the vegetable and then the fresh vegetable flavor is changed into an unique aroma. The sophisticated aroma and flavor of kimchi are produced during the process. During the process not only for the seasoning but also for the action microorganisms on the fermentation are equally important.

Among various microorganisms, lactobacillus plays the most important role in kimchi fermentation. Sometimes low salt kimchi produces an undesirable mold and enzyme. However, the lactic acid produced by lactobacillus works on the organic component of the vegetables to produce flavor and prevent the growth of unwanted mold.

In the process of kimchi production, preserving the vegetable with salt is very important. It determines not only the taste and texture of kimchi but also the storage status of kimchi. At more than 20 percent the salt concentration reduces the water content of the vegetables and ceases microorganism activity, or at least reduces the activity level. At 8-10 percent salt concentration, decayed bacteria and fungus activity begin decreasing, whereas at this concentration level lactobacillus produces lactic acid better than any other microorganism. However, it is important to prevent the production of film yeast which consumes the lactic acid.

When the pH of kimchi is lower than 3.0, the activity of microorganisms ceases. The mechanism can be explained by the action of the hydrogen ion which coagulates the protein, since no microorganism can survive without protein as a nutrition source. Acid produced during fermentation also prevents the browning effect of vegetables due to the antioxidant effect. The production also stabilizes the seasonings used and keeps the pigmentation of the vegetables.

Kimchi used to be the major source of vegetables consumed by Koreans during the winter when no fresh vegetables were available.

The nutrient contents of kimchi vary according to the ingredients used and the condition of fermentation. The main ingredients of kimchi have few in calories, high water content, high fiber content, and various vitamins. Red chili pepper is a good source of vitamin A and C for Koreans. Garlic has a sterilization effect and contains a large amount of allylsulfide. Spring onions, especially the green part, are a good source of vitamin A and C, too. The bitter taste of cucumbers contains ellaterin, and this increases digestion. Potassium in cucumber has a diuretic function.

Salted and fermented anchovies and shrimp used in kimchi as ingredients are good sources of protein, amino acids and fats that are lacking in the vegetables. Calcium in the salt-fermented anchovies and shrimp play a role as an alkali food and have a positive effect on the maintaining the homeostasis in blood. Oysters are the most commonly used seafood as an ingredient in kimchi and are well known as a good source of calcium, iron, glycogen and vitamins.

Glutamic acid and glycine in oysters also help to produce the sophisticated taste of kimchi.

Kimchi is a low-calorie food. It is low in calories and fat content but is high in fiber, vitamin A, ascorbic acid, calcium, phosphorus, iron and has a large amount of other minerals.

Lactic acid produced during the fermentation of kimchi is regarded as having a positive effect on preventing cancer. Cabbage, garlic, and red chili pepper have a large amounts of minerals as well as medicinal contents. Large amount of fiber from kimchi can not be used as nutrients but have a great effect on the peristalsis of the stomach and the intestines, thus preventing constipation and cancer of the large intestines. There is a plenty of scientific evidence that red pepper and garlic have the effect on lowering the blood cholesterol level, antithrombosis, as well as an antioxidant effect. Therefore, kimchi is recognized as a health food with a good nutritional balance.

Role of Seasoning

Vegetables and various seasonings are the main ingredients of kimchi, and when they are mixed together, various kinds of phenomena occur. For instance, when salt is added to green vegetables, glossy and fresh vegetables become soft and tender. It is because the fresh vegetable extracts water through the action of the salt. Not only salt, but also other seasonings used in kimchi production have the same effect of permeability to extract water from vegetables. By the action of permeability, the chemical components of the seasonings go into the vegetables while water in the vegetables comes out.

Vegetables contain billions of cells, and each cell is covered by a cell membrane with water and various components stored inside. Therefore, even if vegetables are torn apart, the basic cell structure of a vegetable is maintained for a while. Of course, since metabolism is not taking place, these cells are destroyed and dead sooner or later, destroyed by their enzymes or microorganisms in the air, but until then their activity continues. When these cells are forcibly destroyed by the permeability of seasonings before microorganisms can infiltrate, the vegetables lose freshness and the exchange of chemical components takes place in the cell.

It is extremely important for kimchi not to lose the freshness of its vegetables and to pro-duce a savory chewable taste. Even if there is a certain taste, if the sensitivity of the tissue turns bad, the taste of the kimchi is reduced. Therefore, if we want kimchi with a fresh vegetable texture, it should be prepared before the pectin flows out of the vegetables. Pectin is dissolved by an enzyme called pectinase and largely classified into pectinesterase and polygalacturonase. It exists within vegetable cells, and when cell membranes are destroyed under whatever conditions, it comes out and dissolves pectin. Therefore, kimchi should be prepared before pectin is dissolved, so fresh and not too mature vegetables should be chosen to make good kimchi. There are two ways to prevent the dissolving of pectin without destroying cell membranes. The first way is the dehydration method, and the second way is the method of curbing the action of pectin-dissolving enzymes. It is said that refined salt purchased at stores does not preserve vegetables well, so they do not become soft inside and crisp outside. That is because there is little brine in the refined salt. That is why bay salt is more commonly used since it has more impurities than refined salt, and these impurities contain calcium sulfate, which preserves vegetables in a condition with a soft inside and crisp outside.

Role of Salt

The role of salt in salted vegetables began when mankind discovered salt and used it to preserve vegetables. The salting process is essential for producing kimchi. It works on the taste and quality of kimchi, as well as the storage of kimchi through preventive action against putrefaction.

When vegetables are soaked with salt, salt penetrates the vegetables by osmosis, while dehydration occurs at the same time, and water is discharged from the vegetables. Salt on inside and outside of vegetables is dissolved by the discharged water and osmosis heightens its permeability and turns the salted vegetables into kimchi. Microorganisms in vegetables cease their activity through the osmotic action of salt and are destroyed through dehydration or lose their enzymatic ability. Although halophilie bacteria and enzymes are active in salt water, in general, most microorganisms stop activity in a less than 10 percent salt concentration and die. Lactic acid and film yeast can only be suppressed at 15 and 20 % concentrations respectively. When there is plenty of acid, things work out fine even if there is little salt. In other words, a tasty kimchi can be produced by utilizing the chain action of salt.

Role of Microorganisms

During the process of fermentation in the production of kimchi, the actions of microorganisms play an important role as seasoning. Kimchi preserved with little low salt easily produces mold and yeast while fermenting, due to the action of microorganisms. Growing mold affects kimchi very badly, because it leads to decomposition.

When kimchi is mixed with vegetables and seasoning, the water is discharged by the osmotic pressure of the seasoning. Then the microorganisms in the vegetables go into action as long as the concentration of the seasoning is not too high. Among those microorganisms, particularly energetic germs exist not only in the air, soil and water, but also in vegetables. These germs dissolve protein and starch, in particular protein into ptomain. And each of these actions - harmful and harmless or useful and useless - carries on the process of fermentation or decay. During kimchi fermentation, there is a large amount of lactic acid production by the action of lactobacillus. As a result, lactic acid accelerates the maturation of kimchi and produces the flavor. Lactic acid also combines organically with enzymes and a vegetable component to make a savory taste on the one hand, and to restrain growth of putrefactive bacteria or harmful fermentation on the other.

When mixing vegetables with salt, in an 8 to 10 percent salt concentration, the action of putrefactive bacteria and some other germs are suppressed. However, as lactic acid has a strong breeding power, the volume of lactic acid increases and thus putrefactive bacteria is more and more suppressed. But, film yeast, which is a noxious germ, grows fast at that salt concentration, and, as it is aerobic, it grows profusely on the surface of liquids in contact with air. At the same time, since it consumes lactic acid, the amount of lactic acid in the fluid declines while the putrefactive bacterias activities become more active, thus incurring great damage to the kimchi. Therefore, it is very important to prevent the growth of the film yeast for the sake of the useful activity of lactic acid.

Role of Acids

Acid, together with table salt, acts on kimchi production. When the pH is low, the growth of microorganisms weakens and below 3.0 pH most of the microorganisms stop activity. Of course, such microorganisms as film yeast and certain molds continue breeding below that level, but germs generally are unable to grow under 4.0 pH, but some yeasts can grow below 2.5 pH and molds are very strong against acid and are capable of breeding at 1.5 pH. However, microorganism's heat- resisting nature is lowered under acidity. Since acid increases the preservation effect, there is an effect even if the real pH value is not so low, through the combined use of preservation and the use of salt. Microorganisms cannot survive due to coagulating the cellular albumin action. Acid acts not only for preservation from decay, but also for flavoring and various other phenomena. For example, if vinegar is added to salted vegetables, it can prevent a browning reaction, as it has the effect of an antioxidant by deoxidizing unnecessary minerals in water. Some acids even prevent color change by altering the structure of pigment which triggers the color change in vegetables.

Effects of Other Ingredients

The speed of maturation of kimchi can be varied by the ingredients used. At the same time, the nutritional value varies according to the supplemental ingredients used and the stages of fermentation. Among kimchi's subsidiary ingredients, green onions, garlic and red pepper powder prominently heighten the amounts of lactic acid, succinic acid, acetic acid, and carbon dioxide. It has been observed that not only does the amount of such organic acid affect taste, but it also reduces the duration of time required for fermentation. Particularly, kimchi which uses large amounts of garlic has large amounts of carbon dioxide and alcohol, thus improving its taste much more than other subsidiary materials can. When red pepper powder is added, the fermentation of lactic acid is increased and this fact supports the idea that garlic and red pepper powder accelerate kimchi's maturation and fermentation. Ginger not only produces less flavoring elements than other subsidiary materials, but also triggers the browning reaction.

On the other hand, salted seafoods contain large amounts of nitrogen which are necessary for the growth of microorganisms. Such proteins and amino acids accelerate kimchi's maturation. Salted shrimps accelerate maturation more than salted anchovies. Therefore, when producing gimjang for the winter, which is to be stored for a long time until the next spring, the salt concentration has to be higher while the amount of salted seafoods and the red pepper powder supplement should be less than in the kimchi to be stored for a short period, since they accelerate maturation.

Cucumbers used as a subsidiary ingredient also accelerate its maturation. Alcohol-soluble elements in cucumber juice facilitate the growth of lactobacillus plantarum, since large amounts of the vitamin B group promote the growth of lactobacillus. Carrots are also used as a subsidiary ingredient in kimchi to give better color. But, since carrots contain enzymes which accelerate the oxidation of vitamin C, it is recommended that less than 10 percent be added to kimchi. On the other hand, large amounts of leeks are used for oisobagi (stuffed cucumber kimchi) as they are alleged to delay maturation, but the fact has not been proven scientifically. Leeks are used for cucumber kimchi as they are known to reduce the speed of fermentation.

Nutrient Composition of Kimchi

Kimchi is a fermented vegetable food and an important side dish. It supplies various nutritive substances for Koreans even during the winter time. Ingredients used for kimchi are diverse, and the nutritive elements also vary according to the stage of maturation. The characteristics of nutrients for kimchi are low in calories, but high in water, cellulose and vitamins.

Green leaves of cabbage, radish and leafy radish, contain considerable amounts of vitamin A. Therefore, it is desirable not to remove too much of the green part. Red pepper contains plenty of vitamin A, only slightly less than carrots, but carrots are not used as a kimchi ingredient because they have an enzyme of ascorbinase which destroys vitamin C, so red pepper powder has become an important source of vitamin A. At the same time, among kimchi's ingredients, red pepper powder contains a large amount of vitamin C. Garlic has a sterilization substance called allylsulfide which has a strong sterilization power and displays various other effects. The spring onion also has sterilization element like garlic, and its green part contains lots of vitamin A and C. Cucumbers contain an element of bitter taste called elaterin and help digestion and urination due to their calcium content. Salted shrimps or salted anchovies are a good source of protein, amino acid and fat which are deficient in vegetables. These salted seafoods are alkaline foods with a high calcium content and play the role of neutralizing body fluids. Oysters are the most commonly used ingredients for kimchi among seafoods; they are filled with calcium, iron and plenty of glycogen and vitamins. Oysters have essential amino acids for the human body. Glutamic acid and glycine in oysters produce a savory taste in kimchi.

Nutrient Changes during Fermentation

The fermentation process of kimchi with various subsidiary ingredients changes sugar to lactic acid and other organic acid products through the action of lactobacillus. However, after a certain period, an excessive amount of acid is produced, pectin which is dissolved due to the breeding of aerobic bacteria. Then an unpleasant odor is generated, and the quality is damaged. The taste of kimchi varies according to the concentration of salt and temperature during fermentation.

Production of Organic Acids

During fermentation there is the biggest change in organic acid. The quantity of organic acid products in kimchi varies according to the enzymes in vegetables or enzymes secreted by various microorganisms during fermentation. It also varies according to the combination of ingredients and temperature during fermentation, duration of fermentation and salt concentration levels. When organic acids are analyzed at different salt concentration levels, non-volatile organic acids such as lactic acid, oxalic acid, malonic acid, succinic acid, malic acid, and citric acid are produced, regardless of the salt concentration. But there is a difference in quantity of acid production according to the salt concentration. At high salt concentration levels kimchi produces less lactic acid and succinic acid and more citric acid than at low salt concentration levels.

At the beginning of kimchi fermentation, malic acid is mostly contained in cabbages, but in matured kimchi, lactic acid and succinic acid increase considerably. There is no difference in the citric acid concentration at high temperatures (22°C to 23°C) and at low temperatures (6°C to 7°C) during fermentation, but at a low temperature, lactic acid and succinic acid are reported to be high, while malic acid, oxalic acid, tartalic acid and malonic acid are reported to be low.

Kimchi's organic acid also changes according to the duration of fermentation. When kimchi is fermented at a low temperature (5°C), small amounts of lactic acid and citric acid are produced at early stages and increase as time passes by, while large amounts of malic acid at early stages decrease as time goes by. Other acids such as oxalic acid, malonic acid and succinic acid do not change according to the duration of fermentation.

Organic acid and carbon dioxide in kimchi are the two main elements which determine the taste of kimchi. The amount of organic acid and carbon dioxide varies according to the kind of microorganism, salt concentration and temperature, as has already been explained. Kimchi fermented at a low salt concentration and low temperature is found to have high acetic acid and carbon dioxide, and such a kimchi proves to be more tasty.

Production of Free Amino Acids

Kimchi's unique taste is formed not only through organic acid, carbon dioxide and seasonings, but also free amino acids. Such free amino acid is produced by protein sources such as salted oysters and meat. From the various kinds of kimchi, 17 kinds of amino acids are detected, and the total amount of free amino acid is great in kimchi with salted anchovies. Also, the kimchi's flavor appears to be far better in the case of kimchi containing large amounts of lysine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, valine, methionine, leucine, and isoleucine. On the other hand, matured kimchi shows large amounts of free amino acids, and in particular glutamic acid, alanine, threonine and serine. But arginine is found to be lower in matured kimchi than in raw kimchi.

Production of Vitamins

Generally vegetables such as cabbages and radishes have vitamin C and carotene, while the amount of the vitamin B group is much higher in marine products such as salted sea foods. It is observed that the major source of vitamin C from kimchi is red pepper and the vitamin B group from oysters. There is a variation of the amount of vitamin B1 and B2 production in kimchi according to the stage of fermentation. It is very low at an early stage, then increases to double at the third week when it tastes good, and then decreases again to the level of the early stage when it turns sour. Therefore, these vitamins are believed to be synthesized by microorganisms during the process of fermentation, or separated by the action of enzymes contained in kimchi ingredients. In the case of carotene, the quantity decreases continually to the level of half of the early stage as kimchi matures, when it starts to taste sour. On the other hand, niacin shows a similar pattern to vitamin B1 and B2, but it decreases in the early stage compared to those vitamins, and that is probably because it is consumed by another fermented fungus.

The amount of vitamin C is low at the early stage of fermentation, then increases a little bit and again decreases. Such a phenomenon is known to take place as vitamin C is synthesized by sugar from the dissolution of pectin contained in cabbage. The production is believed to be not by microorganisms but by the vegetables own enzymes. During the first week, vitamin B1 and B2 decrease to half of the early stage, but then increase rapidly to reach a maximum amount by the third week.

In summary, the nutrient levels of kimchi vary according to the ingredients, microorganisms and stage of fermentation. The amount of organic acid, free amino acids and vitamins show the highest value when kimchi is well-fermented and its flavor is good.

Prospectives in Kimchi

- From Korean Traditional Kimchi to World Health Food-

Kimchi is a traditional Korean fermented food, rich in healthy biochemical and microbiological properties, which contains various living microorganisms that provide the human body with well- balanced nutrients.

Kimchi is a low-calorie, low-cholesterol vegetable food which is an important source of dietary fiber and vitamins such as vitamin A, C, and vitamin B complex. Kimchi also contains a high level of many kinds of minerals including calcium. In addition, kimchi is known to have anticarcinogenic effect. The biosynthesis of various microbes and enzymes enhanced by lactic fermentation improve digestion and prevent constipation. Thus produced biochemicals also have antibacterial and antimutagenic functions and, therefore, prevent cancer. Studies proving such effects are reported in important papers such as Biochemical, Microbiological and Nutritional Aspects of Kimchi - Korean Fermented Vegetable Products - (Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 34(2) : 175¡203 (1994)). This shows that the study of kimchi as a health food is catching the attention of not only Korean researchers but the world as well.

Of course, pickled vegetables are not an unique food type that can be found only in Korea. In fact, according to regional differences such as natural conditions, and social and cultural backgrounds, different people have developed different kinds of pickled vegetables. For example, the Chinese have humchoy which is pickled cabbage or cucumber. Japanese zukemono uses salt, soy sauce, vinegar or rice bran to pickle vegetables. Other fermented vegetables known worldwide include pickles, olives, cucumbers and German sauerkraut. However, what distinguishes Korean kimchi from these fermented vegetables is that kimchi contains a rich amount of healthy living microbes produced during fermentation and maturation. Besides the nutritional aspects of kimchi, the various combinations of kimchi's raw materials, and its preparation methods offer the world a variety of types of kimchi that suit everybody's particular taste. Indeed, people from all over the world have been enjoying kimchi's unique flavor and aroma since it was selected as an official food in a number of international events such as the 1988 Seoul Olympics and the 1998 World Cup. To preserve kimchi's quality and reputation as a world-famous health food, the Korean kimchi industry is upgrading its production process to meet international standards. Currently, Korea exports kimchi to more than 36 nations, including Japan. But, considering that an average Korean consumes 100-150g of kimchi per day, we can safely assume that Korea's kimchi industry and the number of its importers will grow larger and larger in the near future.

6. Recipes

Standard procedure for Kimchi Production

* Salting down cabbage

Before preparing kimchi, cabbages are soaked in salt to reduce the water content so as to allow spices to easily soak into them and to prevent them from becoming soft during storage; this also prevents them from spoiling. When cabbages are adequately salted down, magnesium salt or calcium salt is combined with the cabbage to increase the crisp taste. However, if excessively soaked in a high salt concentration, a considerable quantity of water-soluble elements such as vitamin C as well as sugars are lost, while seasoning does not penetrate into the cabbages, thus failing to produce a good flavor. The appropriate method is soaking cabbages in three-percent salt water for five or six hours.

* Use of salted seafoods

Salted sea foods put into kimchi are generally salted croakers, salted shrimps, salted anchovies and pickled yellow croakers. In places with a low temperature, well-fermented raw salted fish juice is used to produce a good taste through the effect of enzymes. But in places with high temperatures, salted fish juice must always be used after boiling.

* Storage during fermentation

Kimchi's flavor is best when it is stored at a low temperature of around 4°C to 5°C. If it matures fast at high temperatures, the taste is not as good as less organic acid is created and fermentation can not be properly carried out. Kimchi must be kept at a constant temperature during fermentation and storage, and during storage. Kimchi must be firmly pressed down to be soaked in juice to prevent oxidation in the air.

Ordinary Kimchi

Baechu Kimchi (Korean Cabbage Kimchi) Baechu tongkimchi is the most common kind of kimchi, and when people just say “kimchi”they are usually referring to this one. It is made by halving the cabbage head and putting the stuffing between the leaves. Usually, this kimchi is made in gimjang form. The stuffings in kimchi vary depending on the region where it is made. The southern regional people use a liberal amount of salted and fermented anchovies, thus giving it a strong and spicy taste. On the contrary, in the colder northern region the use of salted and fermented fish and red chili pepper powder is subdued, so the kimchi there is milder and less salty. They also use pears and chestnuts in the stuffing. Kimchi wrapped in big leaves and with large blocks of radish with salt and red pepper powder put in between them gives a cool taste.

Ingredients

2.5kg Korean 100g salted and fermented yellow croaker cabbage 140g coarse salt 60g finely chopped garlic 500g white radishes 15g finely chopped ginger root 25g green onions 1 tablespoon pinenuts 50g green thread 1g dried red chili pepper threaded onions 60g Korean 1 tablespoon salt watercress 70g red chili pepper 1 tablespoon sugar 25g salted and fermented small shrimps

*Salted fermented small shrimps and salted or fermented croakers need not be used. Other salted fermented fish can be substituted

Preparation

1. Trim off the old leaves of the cabbage, cut the cabbage in half, inserting the knife a bit through the bottom of the cabbage head and splitting the rest of it with your hands. Prepare a 15 percent brine.

2. Soak the cabbages in brine for 6 hours. Then, rinse thoroughly in cold water and drain.

3. Wash and trim the radishes, green onions, green thread onion and watercress. Slice the radishes into julienne strips. Cut the white parts of green onions, green thread onion and Korean watercress into 4cm lengths.

4. Put red chili pepper powder in with the radishes; mix well. Add salted and fermented small shrimps, watercress, green onions, green thread onions, garlic, ginger root, pinenuts and dried red pepper threads; mix well. Season with salt. Add a little sugar.

5. Trim the roots of the cabbage prepared above. Pack the prepared seasoning between the layers of leaves.

6. Firmly wrap the stuffed cabbage with outer leaves and put them firmly in a container, minimizing contact with the air.

7. To make the kimchi properly ferment, store the kimchi at 20°C for 40 hours. After that period, as with all kimchis, store in a refrigerator to retain the flavor. The taste of good kimchi depends on the main ingredient, Korean cabbage. The cabbage should be of the proper size, weighing about 2.5kg. The cabbage should feel firm, and the green part of the leaves should be very green and the white part of it really white.

The basic combination of the ingredients varies according to individual taste as well as region. In general, though, if you set the amount of the cabbage at a hundred, 20 percent radish, 3 percent of green onions, 2-3 percent of red chili pepper powder, 1.5 percent garlic, 0.7 percent ginger, 3-5 percent salted and fermented fish juice, and 2-3 percent salt would be the standard.

1. Overview

2. Kimchi and Koreans

As we have seen, kimchi is more than just a food, it is a culture. It holds much of the secret of traditional Korean food and also the sentiment of the Korean people.

3. The History of Kimchi

Kimchi in ancient times (before A.D. 918)

The first records of early kimchi appear in Goguryeojeon of Weizdongyizhuan part in China's Sanguozhi. In the book it says, the Goguryeo people are very good in making fermented foods such as wine, soybean paste and salted and fermented fish, which supports the belief that fermented foods were widely enjoyed at that time. In Korea's Samguksagi it is written that King Sinmun (A.D. 683) gave presents, including soy sauce, soybean paste and salted and fermented fish to his bride's parents, so the use of fermented foods then is also proven. In Samgungnyusa also appear salted vegetables and salted and fermented fish, but there is no evidence of a desalting process nor the seasonings with which kimchi is made today. The types of kimchi made in the early days included: those only salted and those dipped in paste, vinegar, grain gruel, or leftover grain from wineries. The vegetables used in early kimchi consisted of turnip, eggplant, gourd, wild leek, royal fern, bamboo shoots, deodeok (codonopsis lanceolata) and roots of Chinese bellflower. The pickling method used mainly is today's jangajji method, and it can be understood that even at that time there existed two groups of early kimchi, one being the jangajji group and the other the sikhae group (in which grains and vegetables are added to the main ingredient of salted fish, such as flounder, and allowed to ferment).

Kimchi in the Goryeo period ( A.D. 918-1392)

Kimchi of the early Joseon period (A.D. 1392-1600)

Kimchi after the mid-Joseon period (after A.D. 1600)

Roots of the word Kimchi

The origin of gimjang seems to be in the Chinese word chimjang.

Gimjang

Gimjang is an event in which a large amount of kimchi is made for the long winter. As can be witnessed by the Songs of October (note: lunar calendars are, on average, a month and a half later than the Gregorian calendar) in Nonggawollyeongga , gimjang kimchi is made to last from late autumn to early spring, when fresh vegetables become available. In the October part of Dongguksesigi it says the making of paste in summer and gimjang in winter are the two most important events that a household keeps, this is the importance of making kimchi and paste in Koreas food culture. The time of gimjang and the way in which it is done differ according to the regions climate and traditions, but usually it was from Ipdong (beginning of winter, middle of November) to Soseol (around the 23rd of November by the solar calendar), but the radical difference of climate in Korea sometimes makes the gimjang time differ by even a month.

The Storage of Kimchi

In the Gangwon-do Province, lack of proper soil to make the pots caused people to use wood. The wooden jars were made out of willow, as it was considered a clean tree, and space was made by digging out the insides of the trunk of the tree. A support board was placed to make the jar stand firmly. Sometimes Korean paper with oil was pasted inside the jar to make it more waterproof. The wooden jars, although they were difficult to make, were light, easy to carry, and more durable since they did not break easily. They were widely used as substitutes for glazed pots.

Local Kimchi

Gyeonggi-do Province - Glamorous and rich

The food in Gaeseong has some luxurious and extravagant aspects remaining, since the city had been the capital of Goryeo. Seoul, which had been the capital of Joseon, has kept the royal culinary traditions passed on to the aristocrats and the middle class and has now distinguished itself for its regional cooking. The foods are somewhere in the middle, being neither salty nor hot, the serving portions small. The variety of dishes is numerous, and they all have high standards. The seasonings are used in small amounts, and they are carefully cut into small, fine pieces. Seoul, being the capital of Joseon, has traces of the foods of the aristocratic class in many places. In kimchi, salted and fermented yellow croaker and baby shrimps are generally used, and the mild taste of baechupogi kimchi is famous. There are also jang kimchi made with soy sauce, gamdongjeotmu kimchi with very small shrimps, nabak kimchi, baek kimchi, ssam kimchi and oi kimchi.

Chungcheong-do Province - Mild and fresh

Gangwon-do Province - Frugal yet delicious

Jeolla-do Province - Intense and savoury

Gyeongsang-do Province - Strong and hot

Hwanghae-do Province - Generous and delightful

Pyeongan-do Province - Progressive and mild

Hamgyeong-do Province - Bountiful and bold

Jeju-do Province - Marine and varied

Jeju-do Province, the country's largest island, is situated southwest of the peninsula. As sea resources are abundant, a variety of sea food kimchis is produced. Abalone kimchi, mixed sea food kimchi and nabak (radish-cabbage water) kimchi are famous.

Special Kimchi

- Kimchi in the Royal Palace

- Kimchi for Jesa (memorial service)

The written records of kimchi for jesa can be found in the Wongujinseoljo part in the Yeji of Goryeosa and Goryeojo of Sejongsillok.

- Kimchi from the Buddhist temples

Buddhism was introduced into Korea in 372 B.C. from China. The Hinayana Buddhists have no food culture, since they practice religious mendicancy, but the Mahayana Buddhists make their own food at the temple and give it to the poor and needy as well. The foods at Buddhist temples are not very different from the traditionally enjoyed foods of ordinary people. But each temple has unique cooking methods and the ingredients are mainly vegetables and herbs harvested from the mountains around the temples. In addition to animal foods, osinchae (the five hot vegetables: green onion, garlic, wild rocambole, wild leek and honggeo) and artificial additives are avoided. In the temples making foods is considered part of the ascetic practice.

- Suk Kimchi (Kimchi for the elderly, Kimchi with filial piety)

Old age makes the teeth weak, and it becomes harder to eat hard foods. When preparing a meal for the elderly, this was taken into consideration. In the case of kimchi, there are special kimchis like suk kkakdugi and suk nabakji for the elderly. These are made by boiling the radishes slightly to make them soft and then seasoning them with red chili pepper powder and salted and fermented young shrimps. Often kimchi with much red pepper powder is too spicy for them, so sometimes they are served mild baek kimchi. Women in past times used to sleep embracing a jar of kimchi to serve kimchi properly fermented to the elderly. An admirable tradition of honoring the elders can be seen through these preparations.

- Jeong Kkakdugi (Kimchi for pregnant women)

The child bearing process and the actual delivery were traditionally considered the happiest event of the family. So when a woman got pregnant, utmost care was taken to see that the mother-to-be did everything, from everyday deeds to the way of talking and eating, in a most virtuous way. This was due to the old belief that the mothers thinking and behavior directly affected the fetus. In the period of maternity, the shape and form of the food as well as the taste was considered. All the foods she ate were first-class, and this was also true with kimchi. In making baechu (cabbage) kimchi, much care was taken to the shape, and with kkakdugi, the radishes were cut into precise cubes, called jeong kkakdugi. Only kimchis with the straightest, and most even shapes were eaten, and here lay the wish that the child would have a straight and sound body and mind.

Tradition and Courtesy of Kimchi

Utensils used in the preparation of kimchi

- Dark glazed pottery

- Whole log kimchi pot from Gangwon-do Province

4. The Ingredients for Kimchi and their Characteristics

Cucumbers as a secondary ingredient accelerate the fermentation which is high in Vitamin B complex. Wild leeks are said to delay the souring of cucumber kimchi.

Korean cabbage

Korean cabbage is about 95 percent water, and, like other leafy vegetables, is low in calories. The inner whiter part has little or no Vitamin A, so too many of the outer leaves should not be removed. Cabbage with greener leaves retains quite a lot of vitamins even if made into kimchi. A good cabbage has an abundance of greener leaves and the leaves themselves should be thin. It should be tightly packed and fresh looking. Cabbage produced in the fall for gimjang should be of medium sized, tightly packed, and heavy for its size.

White radish

A good radish should be large and even in size, and it should be smoothly shaped. The flesh should be firm and tender, the taste not too pungent and delightful.

Garlic

Typical traditional garlic has many cloves, more than 6 or 7. The ones with many cloves are hotter and preferred for gimjang, whereas the jangson garlic is used for pickling; its stems are also used.

The ones for eating fast should be well dried and the ones for long storage should be free of sprouts, hard, have a firm bulb, and have little change of color.

Ginger Ginger is about 86 percent water and is rich in minerals. Ginger has a certain pungent flavor and a spicy taste, the latter coming from gingerone and shogoal, which have peptic powers, and the former having citral linalool in it.

Red Chili pepper

There are two kinds of peppers, and the hotter chili variety is generally smaller than its milder cousin. Naturally, Koreans prefer the hotter variety.

Green onions

A good green onion should have fresh green leaves that have a bounce and firm and flexible stems (the white parts). The ones that are straight as a whole, have a consistent color, and have orderly roots when peeled are preferred.

Cucumber Cucumbers come from the same family as gourds. They are sensitive to the climate and temperature. The main components are carbohydrates and pentosan, and there is little protein, but a lot of potassium and phosphoric acids. They are not very nutritious, but the taste is fresh and there is a fresh scent that makes them easy to harmonize with other foods. They are especially good for relieving loss of appetite in the summer. Since in cucumber there is plenty of water, potassium, and a bitter component called ellaterin, they promote good digestion.

Wild lettuce (Godeulppaegi)

Indian mustard leaf

Watercress

Wild leeks Leeks are a perennial vegetable that grows in the mountains of western China, Korea, and Japan. Cultivated ones are common nowadays. They are nutritious and have a unique flavor; they also help the digestive system. The smell of the leek comes from a phosphoric compound like garlic and makes one healthy. Leeks are used as a seasoning in tongbaechu kimchi, oisobagi, and in various other kinds of kimchi. There is also a wild leeks kimchi.

Pyogo mushroom

MANNA lichen

Salted and fermented fish (Jeotgal)

Oysters

Oysters are capable of adapting to different temperatures, so they can be obtained all throughout the Korea.

Small octopus

5. Principles of Kimchi Production

Kimchi used to be the major source of vegetables consumed by Koreans during the winter when no fresh vegetables were available.

Glutamic acid and glycine in oysters also help to produce the sophisticated taste of kimchi.

Kimchi is a low-calorie food. It is low in calories and fat content but is high in fiber, vitamin A, ascorbic acid, calcium, phosphorus, iron and has a large amount of other minerals.

Role of Seasoning

Role of Salt

Role of Microorganisms

Role of Acids

Effects of Other Ingredients

Nutrient Composition of Kimchi

Nutrient Changes during Fermentation

Production of Organic Acids

Production of Free Amino Acids

Production of Vitamins

Prospectives in Kimchi

- From Korean Traditional Kimchi to World Health Food-

Indeed, people from all over the world have been enjoying kimchi's unique flavor and aroma since it was selected as an official food in a number of international events such as the 1988 Seoul Olympics and the 1998 World Cup. To preserve kimchi's quality and reputation as a world-famous health food, the Korean kimchi industry is upgrading its production process to meet international standards. Currently, Korea exports kimchi to more than 36 nations, including Japan. But, considering that an average Korean consumes 100-150g of kimchi per day, we can safely assume that Korea's kimchi industry and the number of its importers will grow larger and larger in the near future. 6. Recipes

Standard procedure for Kimchi Production

* Salting down cabbage

* Use of salted seafoods

* Storage during fermentation

Ordinary Kimchi

Baechu Kimchi (Korean Cabbage Kimchi)

Baechu tongkimchi is the most common kind of kimchi, and when people just say “kimchi”they are usually referring to this one. It is made by halving the cabbage head and putting the stuffing between the leaves. Usually, this kimchi is made in gimjang form. The stuffings in kimchi vary depending on the region where it is made. The southern regional people use a liberal amount of salted and fermented anchovies, thus giving it a strong and spicy taste. On the contrary, in the colder northern region the use of salted and fermented fish and red chili pepper powder is subdued, so the kimchi there is milder and less salty. They also use pears and chestnuts in the stuffing. Kimchi wrapped in big leaves and with large blocks of radish with salt and red pepper powder put in between them gives a cool taste. Ingredients

*Salted fermented small shrimps and salted or fermented croakers need not be used. Other salted fermented fish can be substituted

Preparation

2. Soak the cabbages in brine for 6 hours. Then, rinse thoroughly in cold water and drain.

5. Trim the roots of the cabbage prepared above. Pack the prepared seasoning between the layers of leaves.

6. Firmly wrap the stuffed cabbage with outer leaves and put them firmly in a container, minimizing contact with the air.