Reviews Demystifying

Hypnosis: The Cognitive-Behavioral Perspective. Edited by Nicholas P. Spanos and John F. Chaves. Prometheus Books, 1989. 511 pp. Cloth $34.95.

Lewis Jones

f I tell you what I'm thinking or in all, and the text is backed up by feeling, how do you know I'm speak- about 1,500 references. I ing the truth? For centuries philo- What is hypnosis? Spanos and sophers have chewed over the Chaves point out that for most Problem of Private Events, and it has laypeople and many research workers been tackled from the isolation of the and health-care providers, it involves philosopher's study, by sittin' and a trance, or at least an altered state thinkin'. of conciousness that is brought on by And then the experimental psy- repetitive verba! rituais, known as the chologist came along, took the prob- induction procedure. The person lem away from the philosopher, and hypnotized allegedly becomes a pas- shook it by the scruff of the neck. sive automaton and comes under the Take statements like these: "I don't control of the hypnotist. remember where I heard that"; "I've The vogue began with the German forgotten the word"; "I don't know physician Anton Mesmer in the late why I did that"; "It doesn't hurt"; "I've eighteenth century. At that time, his gone deaf"; "I can't see it"; "It's red." "' was investigated There are two ways of finding out by the Royal Commission in France. whether these statements are true. Their experiments led them to the One is to simply ask the speaker and conclusion that the patient's "imagi- believe whatever he says. The other nation and expectant desire" were is to sit down and figure out independ- sufficient to account for Mesmer's ent ways of getting at the truth. On results. the face of things, many of these Not that this stopped the march of statements may seem to be beyond mesmerism. It became entwined with investigation, but tackling them has a range of other occult beliefs and got produced some of the most ingenious a new lease on life. And now here we testing procedures devised by exper- are toward the end of the twentieth imental psychologists. (Yes, I'm afraid century with the American Psycho- the word experimental is necessary.) logical Association sheltering a full- Hypnosis is a case in point, and fledged Division of Psychological Hypnosis, a collection of essays and Hypnosis (are there other kinds?). studies edited by Nicholas Spanos and It is about 40 years now since John Chaves, is well stocked with the T. R. Sarbin (one of this book's results of tests. There are 19 papers contributors) threw out the long-held

302 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 14 belief in an "altered state of conscious- ness." And in the 1960s, T. X. Barber finally unsheathed the simple weapon that had been the death of so many groundless belief systems—the con- trol group. One group was given a procedure, a second group was asked to just imagine whatever was suggested to them, and a third group was simply urged to do their best to respond to . "Hypnotized subjects responded to suggestions for age regression, hallu- cination, amnesia, pain reduction, and so forth—but so did the controls. And those who were simply told, "Do your best," did just as well as those who were "hypnotized." (I'm afraid the word hypnotized often has to go about with quotes acting as bodyguards.) Other researchers soon found that nonhypnotic subjects also did as well in producing "so-called immoral, self- goal is "to behave like a hypnotized destructive, or criminal behavior." It person as this is continuously defined turned out that all subjects knew by the operator and understood by the perfectly well that they would be safe subject" (R. W. White). For many from harm since they were aware they subjects, merely defining the situation were taking part in experiments in an as hypnosis results in their classifying academic setting. everyday behaviors like arm-raising as The subjects who did best in tests "involuntary." And T. X. Barber and of were those D. S. Calverley made the amusing who had been asked to pretend to be discovery that when a group of hypnotized. And hypnotic perfor- subjects were told that hypnosis was mance could be noticeably improved a test of gullibility, "hypnotic respond- with some training. In other words, ing was virtually nullified." what had been thought of as a genet- When a subject is told that he will ically endowed susceptibility was in perform a certain action on cue after fact a skill that could be learned. "waking up," is that action really Some fairly recent work has sug- beyond his control? Thirteen subjects gested that hypnotic susceptibility were told to scratch their ear when might be related to the trait of they heard the word , and "absorption." ("Do you become com- they all did so. The hypnotist gave the pletely absorbed and 'lose yourself in impression that the experiment was watching a film, reading a book, over and had an informal conversation listening to music?") But this too has with a colleague in which the cue word now fallen by the wayside. was used: Nine of the subjects failed The fact is that hypnotic subjects to respond. When the hypnotist then know how hypnotic subjects are intimated that the experiment was still supposed to behave, and their general in progress, seven of those nine began

Spring 1990 303 responding again. Another experi- Furthermore, most amnesics will menter found that all post-hypnotic confess to remembering more and responding stopped when he left the more of the "forgotten" material room, apparently to attend an under adequate pressure, "to the emergency. extent that they have nothing left to In a similar experiment, Spanos and remember when amnesia is lifted." his associates found that subjects all Coe's conclusion on the result of dutifully coughed when they heard post-hypnotic amnesia studies: the word psychology in the experimen- "Responsive hypnotic subjects can be tal situation. But Spanos had arranged viewed as engaged in strategic enact- for a confederate to pose as a lost ment to fulfill the role of a good student asking for the psychology hypnotic subject as they perceived it." department. None of the subjects Hypnotic deafness? If you get responded to the cue word. someone to read or speak into a I. F. Hoyt and J. F. Kihlstrom have microphone and feed back the sound concluded that "post-hypnotic of his voice into headphones after a information-processing is no different momentary time lag, his speech will from nonhypnotic information- become seriously disrupted, with processing." slurring, hesitations, and stammering. Subjects are sometimes given a Hypnotic subjects claiming to be deaf post-hypnotic that they show the same disruptions. will not remember certain key words. "High-susceptible" subjects and Do they really forget these words? "low-susceptible" subjects have been According to their verbal reports, they told that they are deaf in one ear. Then do. But according to their galvanic skin pairs of words have been presented resistance, they don't. simultaneously, one member of the In another example, subjects are pair to each ear. Subjects should only given a list of words to learn. They be able to hear words presented to are then "hypnotized" and given their "good" ear. In fact, both groups another list to learn. This second list show the same number of intrusions has been constructed so as to interfere from the "deaf" ear. with the recall of the first list. Some Color-blindness? When hypnoti- subjects are then given a post- cally color-blind subjects are shown hypnotic amnesia suggestion to forget the Isihara "malingering" card, they the second list. Other subjects are report that they can't see the number given no suggestion. When recall is that in fact can be seen by all genuinely tested later, subjects in both groups red/green-blind individuals. recall the first list at the same level. Post-hypnotic negative hallucina- William C. Coe asks simply: "Is their tions? Hypnotically blind subjects amnesia credible?" continue to process the visual infor- Spanos and others found that mation they claim not to see. between 40 and 63 percent of their There are a number of standard "amnesic" subjects later admitted that ways of reducing the effects of pain they had suppressed their reports. (e.g., self-distraction, placebos, relax- Coe writes: "Perhaps we should ation, cognitive re-interpretation, wonder how many did not confess?" positive imagery). Does hypnosis do And he comments: "The 'skill' they a better job? employ is not reporting." Not surpris- Perhaps the best-known (and most ingly, simulators are just as successful often quoted) person to use mesmer- in employing this "skill." ism for surgical pain was the

304 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 14 nineteenth-century physician John Esdaile. He reported thousands of minor surgical procedures. Medical 'Hypnotized' subjects workers in Austria, in France, and in responded to suggestions for the United States tried to replicate his successes. They all failed. age regression, Like the acupuncture miracle- hallucinations, amnesia, pain workers of China, Esdaile plied his reduction, and so forth—but trade in a distant clime (in his case, India)—"far from the din of skeptical so did the controls. And those colleagues" in the polite phrase of John who were simply told 'Do Chaves. your best' did just as well. When the time came to investigate Esdaile's achievements, the Bengal government appointed a commission. childbirth "hypnotic procedures have Esdaile selected only ten patients for failed to meet the grandiose claims observation. Three were discarded that have sometimes been made for because they appeared to be unre- them." Without the counter-check of sponsive to his techniques. One case a control group, it is all too easy to was "inconclusive." Three showed attribute an easy birth to the use of "convulsive movements of the upper hypnosis, because "anywhere from 9 limbs, writhing of the body, distortion to 24 percent of women experience of the features, giving the face a relatively painless childbirth without hideous expression of suppressed any intervention." agony. . . ." The remaining three But—sadly again—"it is unlikely showed no outward sign of pain, that any psychological techniques, though two of them showed erratic whether labeled 'hypnosis' or 'pre- pulse rates. This was hardly the pared childbirth training,' will be wonder anesthetic that everyone had entirely effective in reducing the pain been led to expect. in childbirth for most women." Esdaile's tiny (and selective) sample Richard F. Q. Johnson asked 42 did not take into account the wide prominent researchers if they had variation in different people's ability ever tried to produce blisters by to tolerate pain. More recent attempts hypnotic suggestion. Seven said they to use hypnotic analgesia have suf- had obtained positive results. But fered the same flaws that have ruined none had published their results, and the claims for acupuncture analgesia: they were very skeptical of their the treatment has almost always been findings. They suspected that highly accompanied by chemical anesthetics, motivated subjects might secretly sedation, or local anesthesia. injure themselves to produce the In fact, suggestions for reducing results the hypnotist wanted. the perception of pain can be effective Nevertheless, further research is whether accompanied by hypnotic called for, especially comparing nor- induction or not. And, sadly, as mal subjects with those who have a Chaves points out, "a recent review sensitive skin. After all, anxiety is of significant developments in medical associated with the production and hypnosis over the past 25 years fails intensity of some skin ailments, such to cite a single report of hypno- as hives. analgesia. . . ." Nearly all cases of religious stig- Joyce L. D'Eon reports that in mata can be explained in terms of

Spring 1990 305 deliberate self-injury. The bleedings are brought to the attention of inves- tigators only after they have begun, The likeliest result of and it is almost impossible to keep a 24-hour watch on the subjects. allowing the police to use Warts? If they are left untreated, hypnotists would be 'the they will generally go away of their own accord after two or three years. confident reporting of In a controlled study, 17 patients with inaccurate information.' warts on both sides of their bodies were given hypnotic induction, then told that the warts would disappear of either hypnosis or cancer. It is from one side. Some warts did in fact crippled by a lack of sophisticated go away—from both sides of the body. research, weakened by the strongly But any treatment that the patient 'essentialist' preconceptions brought believes in is likely to produce results to the topic by the authors, and is just as dramatic as those claimed for doomed to obscurity by virtue of its hypnosis. post-hoc conclusion." There is no Johnson summarizes: "The skin support, Stam concludes, "for the may at times be strongly influenced claims that psychological techniques by thinking and suggestion. Never- actually reject or contain cancer or theless, the precise relationship otherwise lead to its regression." between verbal suggestion and Where does the law stand in all changes in the skin has yet to be this? In the case of K. Bianchi, the so- determined." called Hillside Strangler, the Los Hendrikus J. Stam reports: "The Angeles courts gave a curious solidity use of hypnosis for the treatment of to the spirit form known as hypnosis. cancer pain, like other psychological The law ruled that testimony from techniques for the treatment of this hypnotized witnesses was not problem, has remained largely admissible in court. As H. P. de Groot untested. The bulk of this literature and M. I. Gwynn conclude in their is in the form of case reports." His discussion of the case, "It makes little conclusions offer little hope: "Where sense to ask whether or not Bianchi does this leave the literature on the was 'really hypnotized,' because the treatment of cancer pain? More or less construct 'hypnosis' has little utility as where it began, unfortunately. The a scientific account of hypnotic lack of systematic studies and the responding." continued exaggerated claims made In Canadian law, hypnotic for this technique have left it in suggestion, along with such influences scientific and therapeutic limbo." as drugs and alcohol, is allowed as a As for the treatment of nausea and basis for the defense of "automatism." vomiting, "the available research data And the American Law Institute's have yet to indicate any advantage for Model Penal Code claims that anyone hypnosis over standard relaxation or following hypnotic suggestion is not systematic desensitization treat- acting voluntarily, and so can't be ments." considered criminally liable. But How about treatment of the cancer various American states offer itself? "This large and diverse litera- differing viewpoints. ture on hypnosis and cancer does not In England, a judge in Maidstone shed much light on our understanding has ruled that the testimony of four

306 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 14 witnesses was not admissible in court internal forces and a vocabulary more because they had been previously suited to occult mysteries? The "hypnotized." answer turns out to be the clinicians. By contrast, the cognitive- William C. Coe's study of hypnosis behavioral point of view takes the journals is revealing. "It seems that position that the actions of a "hyp- the vast majority of clinicians prefer notized" subject are voluntary. T. X. using special state concepts in vague Barber has made the point that ways, perhaps naively, or perhaps to explaining a hypnotic subject's behav- mystify purposely. It seems equally ior in terms of a trance or altered state clear that the vast majority of exper- of consciousness is like explaining a imental investigators avoid using shaman's behavior in terms of spirit special state concepts." possession. It appears that "the opaqueness and As for hypnotizing witnesses to get vagueness of special state concepts at the facts, "There is no conclusive allow the aura of mystery and power evidence, either anecdotal or experi- long associated with hypnosis and mental, to indicate that hypnosis can hypnotists to remain alive." act as a 'truth serum' " (G. F. Wag- From a scientific viewpoint, "Hyp- staff). There is not even any known notic induction rituals are viewed as method for detecting whether anyone historical curiosities that reflect is simulating "hypnosis" or not. outmoded nineteenth-century at- The likeliest result of allowing the tempts to conceptualize the behaviors police to use hypnotists would be "the associated with this topic as linked in confident reporting of inaccurate some way to sleep." information" (P. W. Sheehan and "In short," say Spanos and Chaves, J. Tilden). "clinical hypnosis as a research area All in all, "The kinds of experiences appears to be at roughly the same and behaviors that are elicited by point as experimental hypnosis re- hypnotic procedures can also be search before Barber began his sys- produced by placebos and other tematic controlled experimentation in expectancy-modification procedures." the late 1950s." As long ago as 1962, T. R. Sarbin Alas, this richly stocked tome proposed that the term hypnosis be provides no index to help readers refer stricken from the professional vocab- back to anything they've read. So be ulary of psychology. That day has still warned—youll need to make up your not come, although the cognitive skills own index as you go along. involved are being more often Nevertheless, this book, with its referred to nowadays by such terms hundreds of follow-up references, will as goal-directed fantasy or think-with tell you pretty much anything you suggestions. need to know about hypnosis and its Hypnosis was born at a time when standing in 1989. Outside the profes- theological explanations were just sional journals, it is now the definitive beginning to give way to the rational- source of information on the subject. ity rules of science. So in the late twentieth century, who is it who still hangs onto this concept of human Lewis Jones is a London-based writer and conduct as a function of strange editor.

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