THE UNIVERSITY OF HULL RELIGIOUS CONFLICT IN NIGERIA: A ROLE FOR RELIGIOUS EDUCATION Being a Thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the University of Hull by Adebisi AKINDE, B.A., M.A. (Ed.) DECEMBER 1989 This work is dedicated to the Glory of God, to my mother Mrs. Abusat Akinde and to my wife Florence Akinde for her moral and financial support. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to express my profound gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. D.H. Webster, who did not limit his supervisory role to academic matters but was caring and supportive throughout the duration of the programme of study for this degree. I am also grateful to Mr. Alan Reese of the Computer Centre, Hull University for his critical comments and suggestions on the empirical work. Thanks are happily acknowledged for the support given throughout my research by the Library staff of the Institute of Education, Hull University; the School of African and Oriental Studies, London University; the Theological Library, King's College, University of London; the University of Lagos; and the University of Ibadan. They were generous with their time and allowed me full use of their facilities. My deep appreciation also goes to Mrs. Audrey Rusling for typing this manuscript so expertly. List of Tables Page 1. Nigeria: Foreign Trade Sector - Exports 14 2. Share of Agriculture in G.D.P. & Exports (1971-80) 15 3. Cereal Imports 1970-83 16 4. Crude Oil Production 1958-70 18 5. Petroleum Production 1970-84 18 6. Foreign Reserves 1950-83 19 7. Oil Exports as per cent of Total Exports 1950-83 19 8. Population among the main Nigerian Ethnic groups 22 9. Local names of God in some tribes of Nigeria 65 10. The Major Divinities in the Yoruba and Ibo 72 tribes of Nigeria 11. A model of Igbo Morning Prayer 83 12. Some names of God in the Quran 127 ) 13. Names of Prophets mentioned in the Quran and 134 their Biblical correlates 14. Religious Allegiances in the 151 Northern States of Nigeria 15. Religious Allegiances in the 155 Mid-West States of Nigeria 16. Religious Allegiances in the 155 Eastern States of Nigeria 17. Religious Allegiances in the 156 Western States of Nigeria 18. Statistics of Divine Enquiries brought before 205 Prophet Wobo 19. Analysis of Maitatsine followers 225 captured in 1980 20. Institutions of higher learning involved in 237 1876 Religious Disturbances of Nigeria 11 Page 21. Secondary schools involved in Religious 240 Disturbances of 1987 22. S.U.M. School Statistics 1912 259 23. Differential Development of Western Education 262 in Southern and Northern Nigeria 24. Muslim Secondary Grammar Schools and Colleges 266 in the Southern States of Nigeria 25. Cases of Irregularity on Bible Knowledge 270 (from the Nov/Dec. 1972 School Certificate/ G.C.E. '0' Level) Examinations in Nigeria 26. Result of West African School Certificate 272 Examinations May/June 1978 27. Result of West African School Certificate 273 Examinations May/June 1979 28. Statistics showing Teachers of Religious 274 Education in some schools in Ibadan area in May 1974 29. Cut-off Points for Admission into Federal 281 Govt. Colleges, 1988 30. Selected Secondary Schools for the 298 Administration of Questionnaire 31- Analysis and Results of the Students' 308 46 Questionnaire 47- Analysis and Results of the Teachers' 319 72 Questionnaire iii List of Maps Page 1. Mean Annual Rainfall of Nigeria 6 2. Vegetative Zones of Nigeria 8 3. Ecological Zones and Principal Commercial Crops 9 4. Ecological Zones and Principal Food Crops 10 5. Nigeria - Major Linguistic and Ethnic Groups 21 6. The Hausa States 24 7. Yoruba of South-Western Nigeria 27 8. The Ibo Tribe of Nigeria 29 9. Niger Delta Oil Market in the Nineteenth Century 31 10. The Growth of British Influence in Nigeria 32 11. Nigeria as three Regions 38 12. Nigeria: The Twelve States of 1967 41 13. Nigeria: The Nineteen States of 1976 41 14. Nigeria: The Twenty-one States of 1987 42 15. Map of Arabia showing the Cave at Hira 116 16. The Battle of "Badr" 119 17. The Muslim Conguestsin the twenty years 121 after the death of Muhammad 18. Main Battles of the Jihad (1804-1805) 148 19. Main Battles of the Jihad (1806-1812) 149 20. A map of the Fulani Empire showing the 152 "Pagan" Area 21. Map showing the main stations of Niger Mission 195 22. Map of Northern Nigeria showing the Christian 200 Missions (1905-1959) 23. Map of South-Western Nigeria showing Ogun State 296 as a mixed religious community 24. Map of Ogun State showing the ten Local 299 Government areas iv List of Figures Page 1. Mean Monthly Rainfall from Lagos to Nguru 7 in relation to Latitude in Nigeria 2. The major elements in ATR 63 3. Religions in Nigeria 93 4. Genealogical Chart of the Prophet Muhammad 112 List of Appendices Page 1 Treaty with Lagos, 1852 360 2. British Consuls in Nigeria (1849-1900) 363 3. Treaty with Lagos, 1861 364 4. Treaty with Abeokuta, 1893 366 5. Treaty with Opobo, 1884 368 6. The Sharia Debate 375 7. The Aims and Membership of OIC 377 8. The Christian and the OIC 378 9. Islamic Welfare Foundation (IWF): 379 Beyond OIC Issue 10 Christian Council of Nigeria: Church Leaders' 380 Views on President Ibrahim Babangida's Broadcast Pronouncement on OIC 11. Christian United Front: Press Release 381 12. West African Examination Council: Examination 382 Irregularities 13. Curriculum Subjects of the Junior 383 Secondary School 14. National Association of Bible Knowledge Teachers 384 of Nigeria: Resolutions from National Conference 15. Junior Secondary School, Islamic Studies 387 Curriculum 16. Junior Secondary School, Christian Religious 392 Knowledge Curriculum 17. Communique of the International Islamic Seminar 396 on Education, 1977 18. Protest against Unjust Treatment of Muslim 398 Children in Public Educational Institutions in Oyo State 19. The Joint Action Committee on Religious Freedom 407 for Muslim Children in Oyo State Schools and Colleges vi Page 20. Council of Muslim Youth Organisations (COMY0) 410 Oyo State: Open Letter 21. A Letter addressed to the Permanent Secretary, 411 Ministry of Education, Kaduna State by the Muslim Students' Society of Nigeria, Bayero University Branch 22. The Teachers' Questionnaire 412 23. The Students' Questionnaire 418 24. Letter of introduction for the Oral Interview 421 vii GLOSSARY G.D.P. (at factor cost): Represents the net money value of output of goods and services produced within a country. Newswatch: This is a Nigerian weekly magazine established by a group of young journalists without any political interest. The information carried by the magazine is therefore reliable. OPEC: Is a cartel of oil producing nations set up in order to stabilise oil prices as well as formulating consistent petroleum policies that will safeguard their interests. Tribe: A tribal group is a distinct category of the population whose culture is different from the groups. The terms 'tribal' and 'ethnic groups' are often used interchangeably. UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation. Royal Niger Company: This was a quasi-military trading organisation, established by the Colonial Office. The Year of the Elephant: The year an Ethiopian army attempted to capture Mecca with the aid of a war elephant. Hadith: It is a collection of doings and sayings of the Prophet Muhammad. Sunna: Literally it means 'path or way'. In Islam, it means the custom of the Prophet Muhammad. Talmud: A collection of Jewish ceremonial Law and Wisdom probably dating from the fifth century to the early Christian era. Tannaim: A collection of oral interpretations and exposition of the Jewish Law given by the authoritative rabbis of the first two centuries. Bori: An indigenous religious cult among the Hausa people of Northern Nigeria. Christian Council of Nigeria: The Association was established in 1960. It comprises representatives from all Christian churches in Nigeria. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Acknowledgements i List of Tables ii List of Maps iv List of Figures v List of Appendices vi Glossary viii INTRODUCTION (i) Background to the Problem of Research 1 (ii) The Problem of the Research 1 (iii) The Scope of the Study 2 (iv) The Method of Investigation 2 (v) The Organisation of the Study 2 PART ONE : THE CONTEXT OF THE PROBLEM CHAPTER ONE : THE NIGERIAN BACKGROUND 1.1 Introduction 4 1.2 The Geography 5 1.2.1 Location and Size 5 1.2.2 Climate 5 1.2.3 Vegetation 11 1.3 An Overview of the Nigerian Economy (1900-1988) 12 1.3.1 Agricultural Sector 12 1.3.2 Petroleum Sector 17 1.4 Cultural History and Political Development 20 in Pre-Colonial Days Page 1.4.1 Origin of Hausa and Fulani Tribes 23 1.4.2 The Origin of Yoruba Tribe 26 1.4.3 The Origin of Ibo Tribe 28 1.5 Political Development from Colonial 30 to the Present Day 1.5.1 British Penetration 30 1.5.2 The Development of Nationalism (1920-1960) 35 1.5.3 Constitutional Evolution (1946-1963) 37 1.5.4 Post-Independent Nigeria 40 1.6 Analysis and Comments 43 1.6.1 Problem of National Unity 44 CHAPTER TWO : AFRICAN TRADITIONAL RELIGION IN NIGERIA 2.1 Introduction 54 2.2 Some Misconceptions Regarding 56 African Traditional Religion 2.3 The Nature of ATR 59 2.4 The Main Features of ATR 61 2.4.1 Belief in God 62 2.4.1.1 Names of God 64 2.4.1.2 Attributes of God 68 2.4.2 Belief in Divinities 69 2.4.3 Belief and Worship of Ancestral Spirits 75 2.4.4 Belief in Mystical Powers and Medicine 77 2.5 The Worship of God in ATR 82 2.5.1 Direct Worship 82 2.5.2 Indirect Worship 85 2.6 Moral Values in ATR 89 Page 2.6.1 Expression of Moral Values 91 2.7 The Present State of ATR in Nigeria: An Overview 93 CHAPTER THREE