Attitudes Toward Perpetrators and Victims of Child Sexual Abuse Bailey Rector University of North Florida

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2007 Sexual Tutor or Sexual Predator, Instigating Provocateur or Innocent Victim? Attitudes Toward Perpetrators and Victims of Child Sexual Abuse Bailey Rector University of North Florida

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Suggested Citation Rector, Bailey, "Sexual Tutor or Sexual Predator, Instigating Provocateur or Innocent Victim? Attitudes Toward Perpetrators and Victims of Child Sexual Abuse" (2007). All Volumes (2001-2008). 41. http://digitalcommons.unf.edu/ojii_volumes/41

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the The sprO ey Journal of Ideas and Inquiry at UNF Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in All Volumes (2001-2008) by an authorized administrator of UNF Digital Commons. For more information, please contact Digital Projects. © 2007 All Rights Reserved Sexual Tutor or Sexual Predator, Child Sexual Abuse Child sexual abuse is a heinous act Instigating Provocateur or endured by 100,000 to 500,000 children in Innocent Victim? the United States every year (Maes & Attitudes Toward Perpetrators Baum, 2001). Child sexual abuse is defined as any act on an individual 18 years or and Victims of Child Sexual younger by an adult that includes, but is not Abuse limited to, attempted and or completed intercourse, inappropriate touching or kissing, photographing a child sexually, or Bailey Rector by exhibiting sexual body parts to a child (Fieldman & Crespi, 2002). The prevalence of cases of child sexual abuse varies to Faculty Sponsors: some degree because individuals define sexual abuse differently. Consequently, Dr. Christopher Leone, some instances of child sexual abuse may Professor of Psychology not be identified because the victims did not consider the behaviors perpetrated upon LouAnne B. Hawkins, RN, MA, them to be abusive and interviewers’ Coordinator, Undergraduate Research questions were not specific enough (e.g., about a behavior) to eliminate interpretation (Finkelhor, Hotaling, Lewis & Smith, Jessica Lunsford’s father awoke on 1990). February 24, 2005 to discover his nine-year-old Child sexual abuse has many daughter was missing. John Couey, Jessica’s consequences for those children involved. neighbor, had entered their home at 1:00 AM One of the most common consequences is the previous night and abducted the little girl. posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) After sexually assaulting her, he dug a hole and including symptoms such as hypervigilance, buried her alive. A forty-nine-year-old sleep disturbances, flashbacks, and homeless man, Brian Mitchell, abducted restricted affect (Kendall-Tackett, Williams, fifteen-year-old Elizabeth Smart at knifepoint & Finkelhor, 1993). In addition to from her bedroom in an affluent district of Salt symptoms of PTSD, children show Lake City. She was found after nine months of withdrawn behavior, self-injurious sexual abuse, deprivation, and threats to her behavior, and age inappropriate sexual life. The scruffy drifter was arrested and awaits knowledge and behavior (Kendall-Tackett trial. et al., 1993). These consequences are more In recent months, newscasters have prevalent in some age groups than in other brought the images of these unshaven, dirty age groups. PTSD is the most common predators and their fair, sweet victims into our consequence for pre-school age children. households. Now imagine that these predators Fear, nightmares, and school issues are the are attractive young women in business suits most common consequences for school age and heels and their victims are rowdy little boys children. Depression and suicidal or self- in baggy clothes. Impossible? Perhaps most injurious behavior are the most common people think so. Why is it that we envision the consequences for adolescents (Kendall- prototypical child molester as one of the men Tackett et al., 1993). More severe forms of represented above? Why is that we envision the sexual abuse, such as incidents that include prototypical sexual abuse victim as a fragile penetration, tend to be extremely damaging little girl? to a child and extremely likely to be associated with psychopathology (Kendall- Tackett et al., 1993).

Severity of child sexual victimization is a female perpetrates (Maynard & defined by three primary characteristics Wiederman, 1997). Another general belief (Kendall-Tackett et al., 1993). First, instances is that victims are nearly always girls. A in which a child is penetrated vaginally or belief that girls will most often be victims anally are considered more severe than are may result in a lack of response from instances in which there is no penetration. outsiders when a boy is victimized Second, instances in which the perpetrator is (Maynard & Wiederman, 1997). College psychologically and socially close to a child are students, for example, tend to believe that more severe than are instances in which the when a male child and female adult interact perpetrator is not psychologically and socially sexually, the interaction is not child abuse close to a child. Third, instances in which force (Denov, 2003; Maynard & Wiederman, or threat of force is used are more severe than 1997). College students reported that they are instances in which force or threat of force is believed that a male child is not scarred by a absent. Consequently, the severity of child sexual encounter with a female adult sexual victimization may range from least (Maynard & Wiederman, 1997). In general, severe (e.g., a child is coerced into letting an college students rated same sex sexual adult neighbor see her naked) to most severe interactions to be sexual abuse more than (e.g., a child is forcibly sodomized by his step- they rated opposite-sex sexual interactions father who threatens to kill him if he tells to be sexual abuse (Maynard & Wiederman, anyone). Victims of longer durations of sexual 1997). abuse also tend to have more consequences Individuals also tend to believe that (Kendall-Tackett et al., 1993). females do not possess the potential to be In addition to the previously mentioned sexually aggressive (Denov, 2003). psychopathology, victims of child sexual abuse Clinicians perpetuate this belief when they are more likely to become perpetrators of child report female sexual aggression as rare sexual abuse than are individuals with no (Denov, 2003). In fact, it is written in history of child sexual victimization. Wilcox, several state laws that a female cannot Richards and O’Keeffe (2004), for example, commit an act of rape (Denov, 2003). noted that 72% of sexually aggressive pre- Idaho’s statute on rape, for example, reads teenage children had themselves been sexually “rape is defined as the penetration, however abused. Researchers have found that 75% of slight, of the oral, anal or vaginal opening females who are sexually abusive were sexually with the perpetrator’s penis …” (Denov, abused as children (Wilcox et al., 2004). 2003, p. 309). Given that a woman does not Researchers have also found that 40% of males have a penis, it is virtually impossible for a who are sexually abusive were sexually abused woman to be charged with rape even if she as children (Wilcox et al., 2004). Perpetrators has sex forcibly or if she penetrates her who sexually victimize children are more likely victim’s orifices with an object. As a result to have been abused themselves than are of these beliefs and laws, victims are fearful perpetrators who sexually victimize adults of reporting sexual abuse perpetrated by a (Wilcox et al., 2004). Transmission of sexually female because victims feel that they are abusive behavior from one generation to the less likely to be believed or protected next is not, however, an inevitable consequence (Denov, 2003). of being sexually abused (Cicchetti & Rizley, Although perpetrators may be male 1981). or female, perpetrators do tend to differ in There are many misconceptions about terms of their relationship to a victim. who perpetrates child sexual abuse. One general Individuals known to a victim (e.g., belief is that males are nearly always biological relatives, family friends, and perpetrators (Maynard & Wiederman, 1997). A adults living in the female victim’s home) belief that males will most often perpetrate may are most often perpetrators in cases where result in a lack of response from outsiders when penetration takes place with a female victim

(Carlstedt, Forsman & Soderstrom, 2001; experiences with child sexual abuse. Of the Finkelor et. al., 1990). Individuals unknown to 1,145 men and 1,481 women that were a victim (e.g., a neighbor, a bus driver, and a called, 16% of the men reported total stranger) are most often perpetrators in experiencing child sexual abuse and 27% of cases where penetration takes place with a male the women reported experiencing child victim (Caelstedt et al., 2001; Finkelor et al., sexual abuse. The average age that males 1990). The older a child is, the more likely it is reported being victims of child sexual abuse for a perpetrator to be a stranger (Caelstedt et was 9.9 years old. The average age that al., 2001). females reported being victims of child Females play an important role as sexual abuse was 9.6 years old. Twenty-two perpetrators. The general public often likes to percent of the males and 23% of the females deny that females are also perpetrators of child who had been abused reported having been sexual abuse (Denov, 2003). In a study of 348 abused before the age of 8 (Finkelor et al., convicted male rapists, 106 of these men had 1990). been victims of child sexual trauma (Denov, However, the actual incidence of 2003). Of these 106 inmates, 42% of them sexual victimization of males may in fact be reported that their perpetrator had been female even higher than that reflected in court and (Denov, 2003). In a study of male college medical records. Finkelhor et al. (1990) students, Fritz, Stoll and Wagner (1981) found found that 42% of males who had been that 60% of the male students who reported sexually abused had never previously being sexually abused as children reported that disclosed this fact to anyone. The higher the perpetrator was a female. Taken together, percentage of female victims than male these and other researchers suggest that females victims may be due both to a higher rate of may account for approximately half of the sexual abuse of females than males as well perpetrators of sexual abuse against male as the underreporting by male victims that victims. reduces the prosecution of perpetrators There are misconceptions that against male children. individuals hold as well about children who are Clearly there are many disparities sexually abused. Individuals tend to deny that between the actual incidence of child sexual sex between an adult and an older child abuse and the perceived incidence of child constitutes abuse. Child sexual abuse is often sexual abuse. Additionally, perceptions of seen as less abusive when a victim is an perpetrators and victims of child sexual adolescent than when a victim is a pre- abuse do not reflect the realities of these pubescent child (Maynard & Wiederman, situations. The percentage of sexual 1997). Sex of the child also plays a role in molestation perpetrated by females is higher whether a child or an adult is held responsible than that estimated by individuals, and the for the sexual encounter. Sexual interactions percentage of sexual molestation between a male child and a female perpetrator perpetrated against males is higher than that are seen as less abusive than are sexual estimated by individuals. The consequences interactions between a female child and a male of under estimating cases in which females perpetrator (Maynard & Wiederman, 1997). perpetrate and males are victimized lead to Misconceptions about prevalence and inequitable treatment of perpetrators and harmfulness of child sex abuse may be related victims. Why then is it that individuals are to the fact that perceptions of sexual abuse do unable or unwilling to acknowledge cases not reflect the actual incidence of sexual abuse. that involve female perpetrators and male Finkelhor, Hotaling, Lewis and Smith (1990) victims? One reason may be people’s conducted a national survey collecting data on reliance upon stereotypes. child sexual abuse. A random sampling was conducted through phone interviews in which individuals were asked about their views on and

Stereotyping Thus a person hearing an account of an Stereotyping is an act of grouping event is more likely to stereotype people into categories based on characteristics (Thompson et. al., 2000). such as sex, age, and race (Hilton & von Stereotypes also have greater impact Hippel, 1996). Inferences are then made about when they are believed by a majority of an an individual group member based on in-group than when they are not believed by preconceived notions of that group (Eagly & a majority of an in-group (Thompson et. al., Mladinic, 1989). Individuals categorize 2000). An in-group is any group to which a members of groups based on a number of person belongs. People are more likely to different characteristics. Because perpetrators believe a stereotype when the stereotype and victims of child sexual abuse may be either comes from a person in their in-group male or female, sex stereotyping may play a (Thompson et. al., 2000). significant role in how perpetrators and victims One reason people perceive of child sexual abuse are perceived. Males are, members of a group as possessing the same for example, typically perceived as more characteristic may be due to the out-group aggressive than are females (Prentice & homogeneity effect (See Fiske, 1998 for a Carranza, 2002). An individual holding this review). In contrast to an in-group, an out- stereotype of males may assume that a male is group is any group to which a person does more likely to victimize a child. This individual not belong. Differences in characteristics of might then assume that a male teacher is guilty out-groups as compared with in-groups are of having victimized a child when a child magnified and are relied upon to place makes an accusation of having been molested individuals into stereotyped categories (See by a teacher. Fiske, 1998 for a review). In-group There is a natural need to place people members are seen as having diverse into categories in the same way that people characteristics while out-group members are place other objects into categories such as seen as having similar characteristics. This knowing an object is a chair versus a car even if view of out-group members as similar in all cars and chairs don’t look the same (Allport, characteristics is known as the out-group 1957; See Fiske, 1998 for a review). Through homogeneity effect (Thompson et. al., the use of categorization, an individual can 2000). quickly determine the purpose of an object. The ability to recognize one’s own Likewise, through categorization or in-group can be very important to survival. stereotyping people, an individual can make By placing people in categories, individuals quick judgments about these people. can rapidly decide whether another person Individuals are not born holding specific is or is not a part of their in-group (See stereotypes. Instead individuals acquire Fiske, 1998 for a review). Thus, stereotypes by one of two means. Individuals categorizing people becomes an automatic develop stereotypes from first hand experience process (See Fiske, 1998 for a review). or from secondhand knowledge acquired from When statements fit a participant’s other people (Thompson, Judd & Park, 2000). stereotype they can quickly make a Receiving information about another person or judgment about the statements. The group of people seems to have a stronger effect advantage then of using stereotypes is that of creating a stereotype than experiencing an stereotyping reduces mental workload (See event first-hand. A person who hears an account Fiske, 1998 for a review). Stereotypes allow secondhand often has a stronger reaction to a people to focus on other items in their stereotype than a person who is recounting that surroundings without having to deliberate experience. A person hearing the story does not over the intentions, qualifications, or have all of the facts from the experience, but is attitudes of other people who are present instead basing judgments on the exclusively (See Fiske, 1998 for a review). negative information provided secondhand.

Stereotyping includes several different also inclined to process stereotype cognitive processes including information consistent information more easily than processing, memory, perceptions, judgments, stereotype inconsistent information. and behaviors (see Fiske, 1998 for a review). Individuals presented with stereotype Individuals utilize previously acquired inconsistent information need to utilize information that has been assimilated into cognitive effort to make sense of that categories (e.g., sex, race, age) to make sense of information. They may discount or newly acquired information (Macrae & somehow alter the meaning of stereotype Bodenhausen, 2000). When exposed to a new inconsistent information (Hilton & von person or object, individuals rely upon their Hippel, 1996). Confronted with a man who established stereotypes or categories to make is tearful, for example, an individual may judgments about a new person or object (Hilton discount the possibility that this man is & von Hippel, 1996). Individuals might, for crying (i.e., being emotional) and assume example, hold a stereotype of women as this man has something in his eye. By so communal, nurturing, and kind. When doing, an individual has made stereotype individuals encounter a woman they have not inconsistent information (i.e., an emotional met before, individuals may perceive and judge man) stereotype consistent (i.e., an injured this woman’s behavior to be communal, man). nurturing, and kind. Individuals are inclined to Just as individuals relying upon attend to, perceive, and categorize behaviors stereotypes are inclined to attend to and about a person that are consistent with their process information differently, individuals stereotypes (see Fiske, 1998 for a review). relying upon stereotypes may recall Individuals relying upon stereotypes are information differently (see Fiske, 1998 for inclined to attend to stereotype confirming a review). Individuals relying on stereotypes information about a person and disregard recall stereotype consistent information stereotype disconfirming information about a more easily than they recall stereotype person (See Fiske, 1998 for a review). People inconsistent information (Hilton & von are then seen as more similar to a stereotype Hippel, 1996). Suppose, for example, than they may in fact be because individuals fail individuals held a stereotype of soccer to process individual differences (Hilton & von coaches as demanding, loud, aggressive, Hippel, 1996). Individuals, for example, may and insensitive. If these individuals tend to focus on an individual woman’s witnessed the interactions between a soccer nurturing behavior because nurturing behavior coach and his team they might recall is consistent with their stereotype of women as instances in which a coach yelled at his nurturing. Individuals also tend to disregard players on the field and might fail to recall information that is inconsistent with their instances in which a coach was consoling a stereotype. Individuals, for example, may tend player. In other words, a coach yelling is to ignore an individual woman’s harsh behavior consistent with stereotypes about soccer because harsh behavior is inconsistent with coaches and therefore is recalled. A coach their stereotype of women as nurturing. By consoling a player is inconsistent with attending to stereotype consistent information stereotypes about soccer coaches and and failing to process stereotype inconsistent therefore is not recalled. information, individuals’ stereotypes are Individuals also rely upon reinforced. The nurturing stereotype of women, stereotypes when making judgments about for example, may become increasingly enduring people (see Fiske, 1998 for a review). (See Fiske, 1998 for a review). Because individuals relying upon Individuals relying upon stereotypes are stereotypes process and recall stereotype not only inclined to attend to stereotype consistent rather than stereotype consistent information more readily than inconsistent information when faced with a stereotype inconsistent information, but they are new person, individuals will make stereotypic judgments about a new person. housewives or being employed in typically Individuals, for example, when witnessing from female jobs (e.g., nursing or teaching), are afar a soccer coach consoling a female player often viewed negatively (See Fiske, 1998 may be more inclined to attribute this coach’s for a review). Men who choose roles that do behavior to inappropriate intimacy with the not fit stereotypical roles, such as being the child (i.e., a stereotype consistent behavior) breadwinner or being an athlete, are also rather than to attempts to comfort the child (i.e., viewed negatively. a stereotype inconsistent behavior). A person’s sex stereotypes may Individuals also rely on stereotypes affect views about perpetrators and victims when determining how to behave with other of child sexual abuse. A belief that males people (see Fiske, 1998 for a review). are most often perpetrators and that girls are Individuals relying upon stereotypes make most often victims is one way a person’s judgments about out-group members that justify sex stereotypes may influence attitudes discriminatory behavior. People who are toward child sexual abuse (Maynard & stereotyped are therefore frequently the targets Wiederman, 1997). These stereotypes may of discrimination. Because individuals may result in a person placing less blame on a stereotype an adolescent boy as obsessed with female perpetrator than on a male sex, for example, they may judge an adolescent perpetrator. Similarly, these stereotypes boy who has been involved sexually with his may result in a person being less teacher as being a willing participant rather than sympathetic toward a male victim than victimized by an adult. They may then justify toward a female victim. There is also a their discriminatory behavior in failing to strong stereotypical belief that females do intervene or report this case of sexual abuse. By not possess the potential to be sexually engaging in these prejudicial judgments and aggressive. This belief may result in a lack discriminatory behaviors, individuals are able to of prosecution of females who do commit “dismiss, ignore, or otherwise detach acts of child sexual abuse because law themselves from the targets of these attitudes officials believe females are unable to and actions” (Snyder & Miene, 1994, p. 47). In commit such acts (Denov 2003). other words, prejudice and discrimination serve Consequently, victims of a female as detachment functions. perpetrator are less likely to report sexual Stereotypes that are specific to this abuse because they feel they will not be study of perceptions about sexual encounters believed. between an adult and adolescent involve sex Not all individuals rely upon stereotypes. There are several stereotypes that stereotypes to the same degree. Some are generally believed about males. Males are individuals are more likely to process thought to be more agentic, competent, stereotype inconsistent information than are adventurous, and independent than are females others. One characteristic that may (Deaux, 1995; Eagly & Mladinic, 1989). There influence reliance upon stereotypes is are also several stereotypes about females. individual differences in the need for Females are thought to be more emotional, cognition. communal, nurturing, and sentimental than are males (Deaux, 1995; See Fiske, 1998 for a Need for Cognition review). Additional stereotypes that exist about Need for cognition is a person’s men and women are the perceptions that tendency to participate in and enjoy women are kind but not competent while men effortful thought (see Cacioppo, Petty are seen as competent but perhaps not as kind Feinstein & Jarvis, 1996 for a review). (See Fiske, 1998 for a review). Both men and Individuals who are high in need for women are affected by these stereotypes in their cognition tend to want to think longer about everyday lives. Women who choose roles that a problem (Good, Hepper, Hillenbrand- do not fit stereotypical roles, such as being Gunn & Wang, 1995). They are inclined to seek and critically evaluate information. cognition may be swayed by the group Individuals high in need for cognition also tend opinion (Areni et al., 2000). Individuals to rely upon central cues (e.g., logic of a who are high in need for cognition are more message) when evaluating information (Perlini likely to look for a complex explanation & Hansen, 2001). Individuals who are low in than are individuals who are low in need for need for cognition tend to want to think as little cognition (Areni et al., 2000). For example, as possible (Good et al, 1995). They are not an allegation of child sexual abuse is made inclined to seek and critically evaluate about a young male teacher of fourth information. Individuals low in need for graders. In a PTA meeting a group of cognition also tend to rely upon peripheral or parents, relying upon their stereotype of superficial cues (e.g., attractiveness of a males as sexually aggressive, wants to fire message source) when evaluating information the teacher without investigating the (Perlini & Hansen, 2001). allegations. Individuals in the PTA meeting Individuals high in need for cognition who are low in need for cognition are likely are more likely to pay attention to the logic and to agree with this group decision that was quality of an argument than are individuals low arrived at by relying upon heuristics. in need for cognition. Conversely, individuals Individuals high in need for cognition, low in need for cognition are more likely to pay however, are likely to disagree with this attention to heuristic cues than are individuals group decision and seek more information high in need for cognition (e.g., Perlini & that they can analyze. Hansen, 2001). Need for cognition, for In addition to the complexity of an example, is a strong indicator of whether males argument, individuals differing in need for will or will not believe rape myths. Males who cognition are affected differently by the are low in need for cognition believe rape quality of an argument (Cacioppo et al., myths more often than males who are high in 1996). Individuals high in need for need for cognition (Good et al, 1995). Males cognition tend to enjoy thinking about and low in need for cognition would attend to such analyzing an argument. They therefore heuristic cues as stereotypes of females as would be influenced by the quality of an provocative instigators of rape. Males high in argument. Individuals low in need for need for cognition would attend to such logical cognition tend to avoid thinking about and arguments as no woman deserves to be raped. analyzing an argument. They therefore This difference in attention may therefore would not be influenced by the quality of an contribute to why males low in need for argument. In fact, researchers have cognition are more likely than males high in consistently found a relationship between need for cognition to believe myths about rape. need for cognition and argument quality Individuals’ need for cognition such that individuals high in need for propensity affects how group opinions will alter cognition are more affected by the quality their attitudes as well (e.g., Areni, Ferrell, of a persuasive argument than are &Wilcox, 2000). Group opinions are often individuals low in need for cognition (see formed using non-complex arguments (Axsom, Cacioppo, Petty, Feinstein, & Jarvis 1996 Yates & Chaiken, 1987). Since many group for review). Individuals low in need for opinions are formed in this manner, group cognition use less cognitive energy when opinions are more appealing to an individual considering the merits of a recommendation who is low in need for cognition than to an than do individuals high in need for individual high in need for cognition. An cognition (Cacioppo, Petty, Kao, & individual who is low in need for cognition is Rodriguez, 1986). Individuals low in need therefore likely to be swayed by the majority for cognition are therefore more likely to opinion of a group. When group opinions are, rely upon stereotypes when considering the however, derived through complex analysis of a merits of a recommendation. Recall the situation, an individual high in need for previous example of the male teacher accused of child sexual abuse. Suppose that the Individuals low in need for child accusing this teacher has given cognition are more likely than individuals contradictory information that can easily be high in need for cognition to rely on refuted. Individuals low in need for cognition peripheral cues such as trustworthiness, are more likely than individuals high in need for attractiveness, or expertise of the source of cognition to be persuaded by the discredited an argument (e.g., Petty & Cacioppo, 1984; argument because it fits their stereotypes that a Petty, Cacioppo, & Goldman, 1981; Petty, male is sexually aggressive. Individuals high in Haugtvedt, & Smith, 1995). When an need for cognition are less likely than individual is presented with a trustworthy individuals low in need for cognition to be source, that source is more likely to be persuaded by the discredited argument because believed. Specifically people low in need they will have enjoyed analyzing the argument. for cognition are more likely to believe an In addition to being influenced honest, trustworthy source than an differently by the quality of an argument, untrustworthy source. Knowing that a individuals high and low in need for cognition source is trustworthy allows a low in need are influenced differently by the source of an for cognition individual to believe an argument (Cacioppo et al., 1996). Individuals argument without evaluating the quality of low in need for cognition are more likely than an argument and relying solely on the are individuals high in need for cognition to trustworthiness of that source thereby rely on news sources that require little cognitive expending minimal cognitive energy (e.g., effort to process. Individuals low in need for Petty, Haugtvedt & Smith, 1995). When a cognition, having heard a new law has been principal, for example, assures parents that a passed requiring a background check for teacher accused of child sexual abuse is not virtually every person who enters a school, may a threat to students, individuals low in need watch a television news cast to find out about for cognition may be convinced that a the purpose of the law. They would find out the teacher is not a threat simply because law was enacted in order for school officials to individuals low in need for cognition would make certain no construction workers or other think that the principle is trustworthy and individuals working in proximity to the students therefore believable. has a criminal history. The individuals low in Individuals low in need for need for cognition might approve of the law cognition are also more likely to rely on given the reported purpose of the law. extrinsic persuasion cues than are Individuals high in need for cognition, having individuals high in need for cognition heard a new law has been passed requiring a (Axsom, et. al, 1987). Reliance on extrinsic background check for virtually every person cues by individuals low in need for who enters a school, may look for news cognition may be because extrinsic magazines and newspapers to read about the persuasion cues require minimal cognitive purpose of the law. They would find out the law processing. In the domain of child sexual was enacted in order for school official to make abuse, an individual low in need for certain no construction workers or other cognition is likely to accept extrinsic individuals working in proximity to the students persuasion cues to evaluate what is has a criminal history. But they might also acceptable behavior (Axsom et al., 1987). analyze other factors such as the cost of the Some of these extrinsic cues may come required background checks, the limited access from cultural stereotypes. Males, for to schools for parents who may not have had a example, are stereotypically viewed as background check, the difficulty in enforcing pursuers of females in sexual relationships. the law. Individuals high in need for cognition Females are stereotypically viewed as the might disapprove of the law because, having object of males’ pursuits in sexual analyzed the impact of the law, they might find relationships. By using cultural stereotypes, it impractical. an individual low in need for cognition may conclude that males are more sexually prefer simple information, consider aggressive than are females. peripheral cues, avoid analyzing Individuals low in need for cognition information, and in general expend minimal tend to be disengaged from issues that do not cognitive effort, it is likely that they also directly affect them. Individuals high in need generate a minimal number of thoughts for cognition tend to be involved in issues that (Cacioppo et al., 1996). Individuals high in do not directly affect them (Thompson & need for cognition tend to generate more Zanna, 1995). Consequently, individuals low in thoughts as well as more task-relevant need for cognition are particularly likely to rely thoughts after controlling for task-irrelevant on peripheral cues when an issue being thoughts than do individuals low in need for considered is unrelated to them. In contrast, cognition (e.g., Lassiter, Briggs, & Slaw, individuals high in the need for cognition are 1991; Verplanken, 1993). It is likely then likely to focus on central cues when an issue that individuals high in need for cognition being considered is unrelated to them would generate more thoughts than would (Thompson & Zanna, 1995). It would be individuals low in need for cognition when expected then that individuals high in need for considering how to manage a case of cognition would be more personally involved in suspected child sexual abuse. a social issue such as child sexual abuse than If individuals high in need for would individuals low in need for cognition. cognition invest considerable cognitive People differ in how they engage in effort in processing and analyzing problem solving based on their need for information, then individuals high in need cognition (Petty & Cacioppo, 1984). for cognition would also be expected to Individuals high in need for cognition enjoy recall more information than would tasks that require them to think and to problem individuals low in need for cognition. In solve. Individuals low in need for cognition contrast, if individuals low in need for prefer tasks that do not require them to think cognition invest minimal cognitive effort in and to problem solve. Individuals high in need processing and analyzing information, then for cognition also prefer complex rules and tend individuals low in need for cognition would to avoid activities that do not have complex be expected to recall less information than rules. Individuals low in need for cognition would individuals high in need for prefer simple rules and tend to avoid activities cognition. In a meta-analysis, Cacioppo, that do not have simple rules (Petty & Petty, and colleagues determined that Cacioppo, 1984). Individuals high in need for individuals high in need for cognition did in cognition also tend to engage in personal fact recall more of the information to which problem solving more often than do individuals they had been exposed than did individuals low in need for cognition (Cacioppo et. al, low in need for cognition (Cacioppo et al., 1986). Individuals high in need for cognition 1996). Individuals high in need for are therefore more likely than individuals low cognition in contrast to individuals low in in need for cognition to consider how they can need for cognition would therefore be address such complex social issues as child expected to recall more information about sexual abuse even when this issue does not an incident of child sexual abuse. directly affect them. If individuals high in need for If individuals high in need for cognition cognition expend substantial cognitive are engaged in issues, prefer complex energy processing and analyzing information, consider central cues, critically information and they are also able to recall a analyze information, and in general expend significant amount of this information, it substantial cognitive effort, it is likely that they stands to reason that individuals high in also generate a significant number of thoughts need for cognition would have an extensive (Cacioppo et al., 1996). If individuals low in knowledge base. If individuals low in need need for cognition are disengaged in issues, for cognition expend minimal cognitive energy processing and analyzing information for cognition would be likely to have a and they are also able to recall a sparse amount small knowledge base as well as an aversion of this information, it stands to reason that to analyzing information when making individuals low in need for cognition would judgments about a perpetrator, a victim, and have a small knowledge base. When it comes to an interaction. In other words, individuals politics, individuals high in need for cognition low in need for cognition would be more were more knowledgeable about presidential likely to rely upon stereotypes when making candidates (Cacioppo et al., 1986), more judgments about child sexual abuse than knowledgeable about consequences of electing would individuals high in need for specific candidates (Ahlering, 1987), and more cognition. knowledgeable about reasons for supporting specific candidates (Condra, 1992) than were Hypotheses individuals low in need for cognition. Wolfe After reviewing the literature on and Grosch (1990) also found that individuals child sexual abuse, stereotyping, and the high in need for cognition were better able to need for cognition, several hypotheses were perform on a trivia quiz than were individuals proposed. First, participants were expected low in need for cognition. It stands to reason to report more negative attitudes toward then that individuals high in need for cognition male perpetrators than female perpetrators will be more knowledgeable than individuals of child sexual abuse. Second, participants low in need for cognition about other issues were expected to report more negative such as child sexual abuse. attitudes toward male victims than female Given that individuals high in need for victims of child sexual abuse. Third, cognition expend substantial cognitive effort participants were expected to report less processing and analyzing information, rely on negative attitudes toward a sexual encounter central cues, and tend to have a broad between a female perpetrator and a male knowledge base about many issues, it is victim than toward sexual encounters reasonable to expect that individuals high in between a male perpetrator and a male need for cognition will make judgments based victim, a male perpetrator and a female on the recall and analysis of existing as well as victim, or a female perpetrator and a female new information. In contrast, given that victim. Finally, differences in attitudes individuals low in need for cognition expend toward perpetrators and victims of child minimal cognitive effort processing and sexual abuse were expected to be moderated analyzing information, rely upon peripheral by the participants’ individual differences in cues, and tend to have a small knowledge base need for cognition. In other words, about many issues, it is reasonable to expect participants low in need for cognition were that individuals low in need for cognition will expected to express more stereotypical make judgments based on heuristics such as attitudes about perpetrators and victims of stereotypes. In fact, judgments by individuals child sexual abuse than were participants high in need for cognition tend to be correlated high in need for cognition. with thoughts generated by these individuals. Judgments by individuals low in need for Method cognition tend to be uncorrelated with thoughts Participants generated by these individuals (Haugtvedt, One hundred and seven participants Petty & Cacioppo, 1992). When considering a were recruited to participate in an social issue such as child sexual abuse, experiment titled Adult-Adolescent Sexual individuals high in need for cognition would be Encounters. Participants were recruited likely to have a broad knowledge base as well through the psychology department from as a desire to analyze information when making undergraduate psychology classes. judgments about a perpetrator, a victim, and an Participants voluntarily signed up to interaction. In contrast, individuals low in need participate and were given a location and time to appear. Participants were given an Participants were given one of four possible opportunity to receive extra credit in their scenarios depicting a scene involving an courses for participating in this study. The only eighth-grade adolescent (male or female) restriction on participants was that they must and a teacher (male or female) in which the have been eighteen years old or older. adolescent was asked to perform and accept This sample of participants consisted of sexual acts. An example of a scenario 69 female (64.5%) and 36 male (33.6%) involving a female victim and a female participants. Participants came from a range of perpetrator is as follows: racial backgrounds including White/Caucasian (72.9%), Black/African American (13.1%), Mary, an eighth grader in Ms. Jones Hispanic/Latino (5.6%), Asian/Pacific Islander class, stayed after school for help with (2.8%), or other (3.7%). The majority of her homework. Ms. Jones asked Mary to participants ranged in age from 18 to 24 years help stack some books in the closet. (73.8%). Approximately 76% of participants While moving the books, Mary and Ms. reported being single and never married. Jones began to talk. Ms. Jones told Approximately 81% reported having no Mary that she thought Mary was very children. Two participants failed to record any mature for her age. Ms. Jones said that demographic information. she thought Mary was very attractive. Of the 107 people who participated in The teacher placed her hand on Mary’s this study, 107 completed the survey except for leg and began rubbing Mary’s body. two individuals who did not provide Mary watched silently. Ms. Jones asked demographic information. All participants were Mary to lie down on the floor, telling randomly assigned to one of four conditions. her she would enjoy this, that it would Written informed consent was obtained from all feel good. Mary did nothing. The participants. All participants were treated in teacher continued rubbing Mary’s body accordance with the guidelines of Ethical and then slowly undressed her. When Principles of Psychologists and Code of Mary was naked, the teacher began Conduct (American Psychological Association, kissing Mary’s body, starting with 2002). Mary’s face and working her way down to Mary’s thighs. Ms. Jones performed Procedure oral sex on Mary. Then the teacher sat Participants completed this study in up and put Mary’s hand inside Ms. small groups of no more than ten individuals. Jones’ slacks and asked Mary to rub the Participants were informed of the purpose of teacher’s body as the teacher had done this study as well as the possibility that they to her. Then the teacher undressed and might find the topics of this study emotionally lay on top of Mary while she fondled distressing. Participants were informed of Mary’s buttocks. Ms. Jones brought alternative means of earning extra credit and Mary’s face down to her crotch and their right to withdraw from the study at any asked Mary to perform oral sex on the time without penalty. Participants were assured teacher. Mary did as she was asked. Ms. of complete anonymity and confidentiality of Jones fondled Mary’s genitals as she their responses. Participants’ questions were continued to caress Mary’s body. Then answered to their satisfaction. Each participant Ms. Jones got up and brought Mary her signed a written informed consent form that clothes and asked her not to tell her was collected prior to distributing the surveys. parents what had happened. The teacher Participants were told that they would asked Mary that their relationship read a scenario depicting a sexual interaction remain their secret. between an adult and an adolescent and then respond to statements about their perceptions of Participants were randomly assigned to this interaction and those people involved. read one of four versions of a scenario in which the sex of the adult and the sex of the Cronbach’s alpha of .91 for scores on this adolescent were manipulated: male adult/male scale. Peltier and Schibrowsky (1994) found adolescent, female adult/male adolescent, male a Cronbach’s alpha of .97 for scores on this adult/female adolescent, and female scale. Other researchers have found adult/female adolescent. Cronbach’s alphas of .87 or higher for Using a 5-point scale, participants then scores on this scale (e.g., Booth-Butterfeild responded to ten items from the semantic & Booth-Butterfeild, 1990; Furlong, 1993; differential (e.g., good/bad) (Osgood, Suci, & Kernis, Grannemann & Barclay, 1992). A Tannenbaum, 1957). Items were Cronbach’s alpha of .84 was found for counterbalanced such that for some items the scores on this scale in this study. negative descriptor was on the right pole of the Positive correlations have been scale and at other times the negative descriptor found between scores on the Need for was on the left pole of the scale. Scores for Cognition Scale and scores on scales of responses on items with the negative descriptor other constructs of theoretical interest. on the left were reverse scored so that higher There are positive correlations between scores on an item reflected more negative scores on scales measuring individuals’ attitudes about the encounter. After reverse need for cognition and individuals’ high scoring, scores were summed and higher total aptitude for college performance (e.g., scores reflected more negative attitudes than did Cacioppo & Petty, 1982) individuals’ desire lower total scores. In this sample, a Cronbach’s for new experiences that stimulate thinking α of .80 was obtained in this study for scores on (e.g., Pearson, 1970) and individuals’ low items from the semantic differential scale. apprehension regarding interpersonal After responding to statements about the communication (e.g., Wheeless, 1975). scenario, participants were given the 18-item Correlations between scores on the Need for Need for Cognition Scale (Cacioppo, Petty, & Cognition Scale and scores on these Kao, 1984). Participants responded to items in conceptually related scales are evidence of the scale with a 5-point Likert type scale: construct validity for the Need for strongly disagree, moderately disagree, Cognition Scale. Scores on the Need for uncertain/undecided, moderately agree or Cognition are not correlated with scores on strongly agree. Included in the scale were both Bem Sex-Role Inventory (e.g., Waters & negatively and positively worded statements. Zakrajsek, 1990), scores on the Need for Agreement with positively worded items Closure scale (e.g., Petty & Jarvis, 1996) indicated a high need for cognition (e.g., “I and scores on the Need to Evaluate scale would prefer complex to simple problems”). (e.g., Jarvis & Petty, 1996). The lack of Disagreement with negatively worded items correlation between scores on the Need for indicated a high need for cognition (e.g., “I Cognition Scale and scores on these prefer to think about small, daily projects to conceptually unrelated scales are evidence long-term ones”). of discriminant validity for the Need for Responses to statements where Cognition Scale. disagreement with these statements indicated a A series of manipulation checks high need for cognition were reverse scored. were included on the questionnaire to Scores for responses on individual items were ascertain whether participants correctly then summed and higher scores indicated a recalled the sex of the victim (Mark or higher need for cognition and lower scores Mary) and the sex of the perpetrator (Mr. indicated a lower need for cognition. Jones or Mrs. Jones) in the scenario they Participants’ scores on the scale were were given. Participants were also asked a dichotomized into high and low using a median series of demographic questions (e.g., age, split. race, marital status) as well as whether or Using the 18-item Need for Cognition not they had any children. Participants were Scale, Berzonsky and Sullivan (1992) found a also asked questions about their own experiences with child sexual abuse. Preliminary Analyses Participants were asked three questions about Descriptive Statistics. We performed their own sexual experiences before age 16 with a preliminary analysis of the data to obtain any individual five or more years their senior the mean, standard deviation, and range of (e.g., Another person, five or more years older scores for each of the measures (see Table than you, attempted oral sex, anal sex or vaginal 1). We evaluated scores on each of the intercourse.). measures for skewness and kurtosis. Scores Participants placed their completed on the Need for Cognition Scale had answer sheets in an envelope to ensure total skewness and kurtosis coefficients near zero anonymity. Envelopes were then placed in a indicating that scores on this scale did not box away from the researcher. Participants violate assumptions of normality received a debriefing sheet that provided them (Marcoulides & Hershberger, 1997). Scores with information about on campus and after on the ad-hoc measure of attitudes toward hour counseling services in the event that child molestation had skewness coefficient material from this study resulted in emotional of -2.44 and kurtosis coefficient of 8.11 distress for the participants. indicating that the scores on this scale did violate assumptions of normality. For this ad-hoc measure, the minimum possible score was 10 and the maximum possible score was 50. Actual scores for the scale Results were a minimum of 13 and a maximum of 50. The possible range of scores was 40, while actual range of scores was 37. Table 1

Descriptive statistics for independent and dependent measures

______

Scale M SD Skewness Kurtosis

Need for Cognition 60.94 9.80 -.14 .29

Semantic Differential 44.24 6.05 -2.44 8.11

Chi Square Analysis. We computed Manipulation Check. At the analyses for measures of Need for Cognition conclusion of the study, we asked and sex of participant to determine if there was participants to recall the sex of the adult and multicolinearity. Scores on the Need for the sex of the adolescent in the scenario at Cognition scale were not significantly related to the beginning of the study. If in fact the sex of participant, χ2<1, p not significant. manipulation of sex of perpetrator and sex Scores on the Need for Cognition Scale were of victim was effective, we expected not confounded with sex of the participant. participants to recall the sex of the perpetrator and the sex of the victim correctly. Participants did in fact recall and record the sex of the perpetrator correctly

94% of the time and the sex of the victim Therefore, there was support for the third correctly 94% of the time indicating that the hypothesis. manipulation of perpetrator and victim sex were effective. Table 2. Attitudes Toward Sexual Interaction Main Analysis The predictor variable was need for cognition as measured by the Need for Perpetrator/Victim M SD Cognition Scale (high vs. low). Other Female/Female 45.07 4.06 independent variables were sex of perpetrator Female/Male 41.70 8.18 (male vs. female) and sex of victim (male vs. Male/Female 44.27 6.14 female). This study was therefore a 2 (high vs. Male/Male 45.85 4.41 low need for cognition) x 2 sex of perpetrator (male vs. female) x 2 sex of victim (male vs. Finally, the effect of sex of female) factorial design. The criterion perpetrator and sex of victim was expected (dependent) variable was attitudes toward child to be influenced by participants’ need for molestation as measured by the semantic cognition. That is, individuals low in need differential scale. An alpha level of .05 was for cognition were expected to report more used for all statistical analyses. negative attitudes towards male perpetrators Recall the first hypothesis. Participants than were individuals high in need for would perceive male perpetrators more harshly cognition. Individuals low in need for than female perpetrators. That is, participants cognition were also expected to report more would express more negative attitudes about negative attitudes toward male victims than male perpetrators than female perpetrators. were individuals high in need for cognition. There was not, however, a main effect for sex Additionally, individuals low in need for of perpetrator on attitudes towards child sexual cognition were expected to report less abuse, F(1,106) = 1.49, p > .05. Therefore, negative attitudes toward a female adult and there was no support for the first hypothesis. male adolescent sexual encounter than were According to the second hypothesis, individuals high in need for cognition. participants would perceive male victims more There was a three way interaction harshly than female victims. That is, between sex of perpetrator, sex of victim, participants would express more negative and need for cognition of participant, attitudes toward male victims than female F(1,106) = 3.53, p < .06 (see Figure 1). victims. There was not, however, a main effect Participants low in need for cognition did for sex of victim, F(1,106) < 1.00, p > .05. not, however, express more negative Therefore, there was no support for the second attitudes overall about male perpetrators hypothesis. than did participants high in need for In the third hypothesis, participants were cognition. Participants low in need for predicted to view a sexual encounter between a cognition and participants high in need for female adult and a male adolescent less cognition expressed nearly equal negative negatively than other dyads. There was an attitudes about male and female victims. interaction of sex of perpetrator and sex of Participants low in need for cognition did, victim such that the encounter between the however, express less negative attitudes female perpetrator and male victim were about female perpetrators with male victims viewed less negatively than were the other three than did participants high in need for dyads, F(1,106) = 3.33, p < .07 (see Table 2). cognition.

High and Low Need for Cognition and Attitudes Toward Sexual Interactions by Perpetrator/Victim Dyads

44 Low Need for 42 Cognition

40 High Need for Cognition 38

34 Female/Female Female/Male Male/Female Male/Male Sex of Perpetrator and Sex of Victim

Figure 1. Mean attitude scores for high and low need for cognition participants as a function of perpetrator and victim dyads.

Discussion In the second hypothesis it was In the first hypothesis, it was predicted that predicted that participants would perceive male perpetrators would be perceived more male victims more negatively than female negatively than female perpetrators, this victims. This hypothesis was also not prediction was not supported. Males are supported. Previously, researchers have stereotypically seen as more aggressive than are obtained mixed results for the effect of sex females. Crimes in which behaviors are of victim on attitudes toward victims. stereotypical (e.g., males are more aggressive) Female victims have been stereotyped as are typically perceived as more likely to reoccur provocative instigators of their victimization and more deserving of harsh punishment than deserving of both sympathy and partial are behaviors that are not stereotypical responsibility (Glaser, 1993; Howard, (Bodenhausen & Wyer, 1985). Due to the 1984). In contrast, male victims have been nature of the sexual encounter in this current stereotyped as sexual aggressors in sexual study, participants may not have relied on this encounters deserving more of responsibility stereotype when assessing their attitudes than sympathy (Malamuth, Sockloskie, towards child sexual abuse. Participants may Koss & Tanaka, 1991; Koss, Gidycz & view a sexual encounter as less of an aggressive Wisniewski, 1987). It is possible that some act than they would view other types of assault. participants relied upon their stereotypes of Participants may instead view a sexual assault males as aggressive and other participants as more of a consensual act than an act of relied upon their stereotypes of females as aggression. If so, then participants would be instigators. Consequently, the effect of the less inclined to rely on their stereotypes of stereotypes may not have been apparent in males as aggressive than if the encounter had this study because the two effects may have been physical assault. In some previous studies, canceled one another out. In order to researchers have found attributions of capture participants’ reliance upon these responsibility for sexual molestation were not opposing stereotypes, it would be helpful to influenced by the sex of the perpetrator of have participants record their impressions of sexual molestation (Maynard & Weiderman, those victims. 1997).

The third hypothesis was supported in attending college might be expected to be that sexual interactions between a female higher in need for cognition than individuals perpetrator and male victim were perceived less in the general population. College students negatively than were sexual interactions involved in education must engage in between a male perpetrator and female or male cognitive endeavors in order to succeed. victim as well as a female perpetrator and a Consequently, a sample of college students female victim. In general, people tend to view a may be higher in need for cognition than sexual interaction between a female adult and people in general. It is unlikely that male adolescent as not being detrimental to that differences in college student’s need for “victim” (Broussard, Wagner, & Kazelskis, cognition and general populations need for 1991). An encounter between a female adult cognition, if they do exist, had an effect in and a male adolescent is typically not viewed as this study because a median split was used abusive (Maynard & Wiederman, 1997). The to dichotomize those individuals’ scores in widely accepted attitude toward a female adult need for cognition. Consequently, and male adolescent sexual interaction is differences in need for cognition were consistent with cultural stereotypes in that early relative to this sample. sexual behavior for males is condoned where as The results of this study could also early sexual behavior for females is condemned have been influenced by the effectiveness of (Belsky, Steinberg, & Draper, 1991). the manipulations. Sex of the perpetrator The fourth hypothesis received partial was subtly manipulated by changing only support in that low need for cognition the form of address (i.e., Mr. or Ms.) participants’ attitudes about the sexual Perhaps participants did not comprehend interaction were influenced by the sex of that the adult in the scenario was a male perpetrator and sex of victim whereas high need (Mr. Jones) or a female (Ms. Jones). Sex of for cognition participants’ attitudes about the the victim was subtly manipulated by sexual interaction were not influenced by the changing the name of the adolescent (i.e., sex of the perpetrator and the sex of the victim. Mark or Mary) Perhaps participants did not Specifically, participants low in need for comprehend that the adolescent in the cognition viewed a sexual interaction between a scenario was a male (Mark) or a female female perpetrator and a male victim less (Mary). This explanation is, however, also negatively than they did sexual interactions unlikely because 94% of the participants between a male perpetrator and a male or a recalled and reported the sex of the female victim as well as a sexual interaction perpetrator and the sex of the victim in the between a female perpetrator and a female scenarios correctly. victim. In contrast, participants high in need for Additionally, the results of the study cognition viewed a sexual interaction between a could have been influenced by the measures female perpetrator and a male victim equally employed. All of the measures used in the negatively as sexual interactions between a study were self-report instruments and were male perpetrator and a male or a female victim therefore subject to influences of social as well as a sexual interaction between a female desirability. No identifying information perpetrator and a female victim. was, however, recorded on any of the responses. Participants were assured of Limitations confidentiality (i.e., that no individual Although there was no support for the responses but only aggregate data would be first two hypotheses, results of this study could reported). Participants, upon completing the have been influenced in part by the sample. surveys, inserted their responses into a plain Participants may have been different from the brown envelope and deposited them in a general population in that participants were box. It is therefore unlikely that participants from a sample of college students. Because of felt they needed to answer in socially their desire to become educated, individuals desirable ways because participants’ responses were anonymous and confidential. perpetrators and victims may also warrant The Need for Cognition scale has investigation. previously been shown to be a reliable and valid Characteristics of the relationship measure (see Cacioppo, Petty, Feinstein, & between perpetrators and victims may also Jarvis 1996 for a review). In the current study, be valuable topics for future research. scores on the Need for Cognition scale Parents are most often perpetrators of child appeared to be internally consistent as well. physical abuse (Gelles & Straus, 1988). Consequently, it is unlikely that the way in Individuals may therefore believe that which need for cognition was measured parents are most often the perpetrators of influenced the results of the study. sexual abuse. Individuals’ perceptions of The ad hoc measure of the dependent child sexual abuse may also influenced by variable included a scenario modeled after a media attention focused on cases in which scenario that had been employed in a previous strangers have abducted and sexually study (Maynard & Wiederman, 1997). Attempts assaulted children. It would therefore be were made to use a measure that already had important to examine the influence of the been validated, but it was necessary to alter the relationship between perpetrators and scenario slightly to capture the information victims on people’s perceptions of child needed in this study. It is possible that the sexual abuse. scenario did not depict a plausible sexual Severity of the sexual abuse (e.g., encounter between an adult and an adolescent. use or threat of force, penetration) has been This is, however, unlikely because the shown by other researchers to impact the responses to items about the scenario resulted in victim (Kendall-Tackett et al., 1993). nearly a full range of scores. Perhaps individuals would have different The ad hoc measure of the dependent attitudes toward perpetrators and victims of variable, consisting of ten items from the severe sexual abuse versus victims of semantic differential scale, was created moderate or mild sexual abuse. Future specifically for this study. Therefore, the research examining the influence of abuse measure used may not have been valid. Scores severity on people’s perceptions of victims on the ad hoc measure of attitudes toward child and perpetrators may therefore be valuable. molestation were, however, internally In addition to the influences of consistent. It is therefore unlikely that the way characteristics of perpetrators and victims as in which attitudes toward child sexual abuse well as situational factors, individual was measured influenced the results of the differences in perceivers may impact study. attitudes toward child sexual abuse. In this study, research was centered on the Future Directions individual difference in participants’ need In the current study the sex of the for cognition. Differences in need for perpetrator and the sex of the victim were cognition did influence perceptions of child manipulated. A number of other characteristics sexual abuse in this study. Other individual of perpetrators and victims as well as difference variables may also be related to characteristics of their relationship may participants’ attitude towards child sexual influence people’s perceptions of sexual abuse. abuse. Need for closure, for example, is a Maynard and Weiderman (1997) noted that persons preference for order, predictability, individuals are more likely to blame a fifteen- and lack of ambiguity (Leone, Wallace & year-old victim than a seven-year-old victim. Modglin, 1999; Neuberg, Judice & West, Additional research exploring the impact of the 1997;Webster & Kruglanski, 1994). age of the victim on attitudes would be Individuals with a high need for closure valuable. Other characteristics such as race of desire stability and want knowledge to be perpetrators and victims, sexual orientation of consistent across situations and time perpetrators, and socio-economic status of (Webster& Kruglanski, 1994). A person who is high in need for closure is likely to be protect children from continuing to endure “closed minded” (Webster & Kruglanski, this heinous crime. 1994). This closed mindedness may be related to strong preconceived notions about what is References and isn’t child sexual abuse, which may in turn be related to individuals’ attitudes towards child Ahlering, R. F. (1987). Need for cognition, sexual abuse. attitudes, and the 1984 presidential Recall the cases of Jessica Lunsford and election. Journal of Research in Elizabeth Smart. Now in contrast consider the Personality, 21(1), 100-102. following cases. Mary Kay Letourneau, an attractive middle-aged woman, was arrested and Ajdukovic, M., Petak, O., & Mrsic, S. convicted of second-degree child rape and (1993). Assessment of professionals' sentenced to seven years in prison only to have and nonprofessionals' attitudes toward that sentence suspended. She managed to have child abuse in Croatia. 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