Urban Urban Ecology

An International Perspective on the Interaction Between Humans and

John M. Marzluff · Eric Shulenberger University of Washington, Seattle, WA USA Wilfried Endlicher Humboldt University, Berlin Germany Marina Alberti · Gordon Bradley · Clare Ryan Craig ZumBrunnen University of Washington, Seattle, WA USA Ute Simon Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany Editors John M. Marzluff Eric Shulenberger University of Washington University of Washington Box 352100 3912 NE 127th Street Seattle, WA 98195 Seattle, WA 98125 Wilfried Endlicher Marina Alberti Geographisches Institute University of Washington Humboldt University Box 355740 Unter den Linden Seattle, WA 98195 10099 Berlin, Germany Gordon Bradley Clare Ryan University of Washington University of Washington Box 352100 Box 352100 Seattle, WA 98195 Seattle, WA 98195 Ute Simon Craig ZumBrunnen Humboldt University University of Washington Miningstrasse 46 Box 353550 12359 Berlin, Germany Seattle, WA 98195

ISBN: 978-0-387-73411-8 e-ISBN: 978-0-387-73412-5

Library of Congress Control Number: 2007929538

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987654321 springer.com For Herbert Sukopp, Urban Ecology pioneer and Marsha Landolt (Dean of the University of Washington’s Graduate School), Debra Nickel (first program administrator of the University of Washington’s Urban Ecology Program), and Bob Reineke (pioneer post-doc in the University of Washington’s Urban Ecology Program) who gave so much to our interdisciplinary graduate program in Urban Ecology, but died too young An introduction to Urban Ecology as an interaction between humans and nature

Urban Ecology is the study of that include humans living in and urbanizing - scapes. It is an emerging, interdisciplinary field that aims to understand how human and ecological processes can coexist in human-dominated systems and help societies with their efforts to become more sustainable. It has deep roots in many disciplines including sociology, , urban plan- ning, , engineering, economics, anthropology, climatology, , and ecology. Because of its interdisciplinary nature and unique focus on humans and natural systems, the term “urban ecology” has been used variously to describe the study of humans in cities, of nature in cities, and of the coupled relationships between humans and nature. Each of these research areas is contributing to our understanding of urban ecosystems and each must be understood to fully grasp the science of Urban Ecology. Therefore, in Urban Ecology: an international perspective on the interaction between humans and nature, we introduce students and practitioners of urban ecology to its roots, bases, and prospects by way of a diverse collection of historical and modern foundational readings. We editors are urban ecologists from the United States, Italy, and Germany who together view these readings as a fair representation of the importance of both natural and social sciences to Urban Ecology. In this book we collect important papers in the field of Urban Ecology that both set the founda- tions for the discipline and illustrate modern approaches, from a variety of perspectives and regions of the world. We do this by reprinting important publications, filling gaps in the published literature with a few targeted original works, and translating several key works originally published in German. Our hope is that this collection of thoughts will provide students, practitioners, and professionals with a rich background in some of the core facets of Urban Ecology. As you study these readings, it may be useful to consider the as a set of strongly interacting systems or spheres. The urban includes abiotic spheres (the atmosphere, , lithosphere, and or pedosphere) and biotic spheres (often viewed as an interacting of urban and animals plus the socio-economic world of people, the anthroposphere;Fig.1). The readings deal with each of these spheres, and also with the connections between and amongst them. These connections have been and continue to be viewed very differently by the authors of the articles in this collection. The relative importance of the spheres changes with one’s research bias, but more importantly the way and extent that authors have represented the connections among the spheres (or even the degree of isolation of the spheres) differs vastly. Look for these differences as you read the collection. Our view is that the interrelated processes among the subsystems (spheres) must be studied and understood to understand the ecology of a city. This is what modern Urban Ecology strives to do. We organize the readings in six related sections. Together they cover studies of the natural and anthropogenic aspects of urban ecosystems. As one moves forward in time, they increasingly focus on inter-relations of people and nature where they co-occur in urban places. In Section I: and Human Domination of Earth, four papers show why Urban Ecol- ogy is an important and growing discipline. They detail the trends of increasing human domination of Earth generally, and of urbanization, specifically. They review the extent of urbanization and its

vii viii An introduction to Urban Ecology as an interaction between humans and nature

Fig. 1 Basic components of the ; some examples (arrows, width denotes relative magnitude) of relationships among them; and its global footprint (shaded area). The urban ecosystem, like other human-dominated systems, is characterized by the large direct and indirect of effects of the anthroposphere upon other biotic and abiotic systems and upon those systems’ interactions relation to other human endeavors that have changed the face of Earth. Together the papers examine the impacts of humans on basic ecological and evolutionary processes. In Section II: Conceptual Foundations of Urban Ecology, five recent review articles report on the interdisciplinary synthesis that is modern Urban Ecology. Cities are viewed quite differently by early social ecologists like Burgess, by European pioneers like Sukopp, and by more recent emerging interdisciplinary American urban ecology teams. Again, as we move forward in time, cities are increasingly viewed as emergent phenomena with a new level of organization whose macroscopic and behavior are poorly predictable from knowledge of the properties of their constituent parts. This strongly suggests that cities are, in fact, an entirely new type of ecological entity - an entirely new level of complexity and organization - and that they must be studied as integrated systems. Precisely how these emergent phenomena have been studied has differed somewhat along disciplinary and geographic boundaries. Two major approaches in modern studies can be called “ecology in cities” and “ecology of cities” (Fig. 2). In , we see a strong tendency to study the ecology of individual species or other taxa (but seldom Homo sapiens) within a city. The early An introduction to Urban Ecology as an interaction between humans and nature ix

Fig. 2 An example of relationships in a typical study of ecology in the city (left) and ecology of the city (right)

American view championed by Burgess and others in Chicago focused on social processes and used ecological concepts to understand socio-economic dynamics in cities. On the other hand, early European urban ecology had been dominated by geographically constrained, traditional, autecolog- ical studies. It is only recently that urban ecology in both the USA and in Europe has expanded to include more complex interactions between human and natural systems across many scales. In Section III: The Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, and Pedosphere, we present seven readings on the physical underpinnings of urban ecosystems. They cover the influence of urbanization on , , and , illustrate the effects of these changes on global climate and , and consider various effects on human health. Section IV: The Biosphere provides fourteen readings on specific environmental and ecological aspects of urban ecosystems. The studies cover ecological patterns, processes, and impacts, and link human effects on the abiotic environment to their effects on aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Research on birds in urban environments is highlighted because studies on the effects of urbanization on birds have a long and rich history in many parts of the world. We synthesize similarities and differences in how various animals and environments respond to urbanization while pointing out the importance of vegetative structure and composition (and therefore of soil formation and nutrient cycling) in helping to determine the structure of urban animal communities. The selections show how most studies in urban ecosystems focus on individuals, populations, or communities of plants and animals, while studies of urban ecosystems typically focus on ecosystem-level processes like nutrient cycling and flow. Section V: The Anthroposphere–Human Dimensions explores the socio-economic aspects of urban ecosystems and links human settlement to ecosystem function, human health and well-being, and social justice through nine papers. Some important approaches are illustrated as the included authors investigate human decision-making and patterns of human settlement. Some articles explicitly consider of urban development at local and global scales. Our selec- tions have been guided by our intent to synthesize social and economic drivers of various settlement patterns and to appraise the economic, ecological, and social sustainability of urban systems. Section VI: The Anthroposphere– and Policy presents eleven papers that together review the practical application of urban ecological knowledge to , conservation in and of urban ecosystems, and policy formulation. The suite of papers introduces the complexities of human urban institutions and the difficulties of managing them for local . They also present basic planning strategies intended to conserve or promote biological diversity in urbaniz- ing areas. To help in making decisions at the policy and planning levels, these papers also discuss modeling strategies for appraising change in ecosystem function resulting from such decisions. Our synthesis builds on the readings to suggest general principles that would help increase the inclusion and use of urban ecological knowledge in the social arenas of planning and policy making As we study the foundations of Urban Ecology, rarely do we see the various scholars in our field stand back and attempt to place cities into a larger ecological context. That larger-scale vision is now rapidly developing, and is the direction in which Urban Ecology, as a field, is clearly headed. x An introduction to Urban Ecology as an interaction between humans and nature

Cities are both drivers of, and driven by, ecological processes within and beyond their boundaries. It is no longer acceptable Ð indeed, it is highly counterproductive - to separate human and natural components in urban ecological studies. Cities are complex human phenomena, but they must be understood in new contexts: First Ð cities should be studied both as social and biophysical phenomena. Like other complex phenomena, cities have generalizable and definable internal structures, functions, and processes that produce cities’ emergent properties. Many of those internalities are not yet identified, much less understood. Second Ð cities have incredibly large impacts on Earth’s ecological processes, at all spatial scales yet studied, and with temporal scales yet to be determined. Cities have huge ecological “footprints” caused by their needs for goods, energy and services and their capacity to import natural from, while exporting their emissions and wastes to, distant regions. For these same reasons cities also have the potential to offer unique opportunities for conservation and environmental impact mitigation. Our collection of writings suggests that there are at least three views of Urban Ecology as a field: (1) ecology and evolution of organisms that happen to live within city boundaries; (2) biological, political, economic, and cultural ecology of Homo sapiens in urban settings; (3) cities as emergent phenomena of coupled human and natural processes with implications for evolution and survival of our own and other species. We believe that the third view Ð to which we ourselves subscribe Ð is the direction that the field can and must go. This view allows various aspects of the human enterprise and nature to be seen as interacting forces that shape measurable patterns and processes. Human factors are not isolated from other biotic or abiotic factors - together, as coupled human-natural systems, they both drive and are affected by the patterns and processes they create (Fig. 3). Ultimately our ability to build more resilient cities depends on a better understanding of the mechanisms that govern these interactions.

Fig. 3 A view of Urban Ecology that emphasizes the coupled relationships between humans and nature. Abiotic and biotic (anthropogenic and otherwise) drivers cause patterns and processes that urban ecologists measure. But these patterns and processes themselves affect interacting human and natural drivers by their effects and changes to the urban ecosystem An introduction to Urban Ecology as an interaction between humans and nature xi

This is a productive time for the field of Urban Ecology. Groundwork by the many scholars represented in this reader has set the foundations for the development of new hypotheses about the similarities and differences of urban ecosystems and non-human-dominated ecosystems. There are many challenges and exciting discoveries to be made along this journey. Travelers will bring with them varied backgrounds, including theoretical and applied interests in the natural and social sciences. The field will advance as new theories are conceived, data are collected, simulation mod- els are developed, and knowledge is used to inform planning and policy-making. We encourage theoreticians to fully conceptualize and model the complex web of interactions between humans and our ecosystem. Empiricists can test theory and document the dual nature of feedbacks amongst human health, economies, and cultures and the biotic and abiotic components of their ecosystems. Understanding coevolved relationships that often emerge from long-standing interactions between people and nature will be a special challenge that must be accomplished if a full understanding of the evolutionary aspects of urban ecology is to develop. Linking this basic knowledge to informed practice is perhaps the greatest challenge for Urban Ecology. Doing that will require a full inte- gration of the natural and social sciences, careful distillation and application of complex ecological knowledge, and dedicated practitioners. These practitioners include planners, engineers, architects, landscape architects, and policy makers. Their actions quite literally shape our urban ecosystems. However these practitioners are also shaped by the responses of the ecosystem. We feel strongly that those who find this field interesting and who choose to participate in it through research or practice will benefit from understanding where the field has been and how it got to where it is today. Only then can we intelligently participate in moving the field forward. Providing that knowledge, and illustrating the theory, implications, and application of Urban Ecology is the purpose of this book.

John M. Marzluff, Eric Shulenberger, Wilfried Endlicher, Ute Simon, Craig ZumBrunnen, Marina Alberti, Gordon Bradley, and Clare Ryan University of Washington, Seattle, WA USA and Humboldt University, Berlin Acknowledgments

We thank all our students and colleagues in Urban Ecology for stimulating our thoughts about this collection of readings. We are especially indebted to Dr. Maresi Nerad for originally suggesting that our American and German Urban Ecology graduate programs interact. The American Ornitholo- gists’ Union granted us the right to freely reprint articles from THE AUK. Financial support for our international exchange program that facilitated this compilation of articles was provided by the U.S. National Science Foundation (IGERT-0114351), the DFG’s GRAKO program, and the University of Washington’s College of Resources, particularly its Rachel Endowed Graduate Program.

xiii Contents

Section I Urbanization and Human Domination of Earth

Human Domination of Earth’s Ecosystems ...... 3 Peter M. Vitousek, Harold A. Mooney, Jane Lubchenco, Jerry M. Melillo

Humans as the World’s Greatest Evolutionary Force ...... 15 Stephen R. Palumbi

Urbanization ...... 25 Brian J.L. Berry

Urban Ecology as an Interdisciplinary Field: Differences in the use of “Urban” Between the Social and Natural Sciences ...... 49 Nancy E. McIntyre, K. Knowles-Yánez, and D. Hope

Section II Conceptual Foundations of Urban Ecology

The Growth of the City: An Introduction to a Research Project ...... 71 Ernest W. Burgess

On the Early History of Urban Ecology in Europe ...... 79 Herbert Sukopp

Urban Ecological Systems: Linking Terrestrial Ecological, Physical, and Socioeconomic Components of Metropolitan Areas ...... 99 S.T.A. Pickett, M.L. Cadenasso, J.M. Grove, C.H. Nilon, R.V. Pouyat, W.C. Zipperer, and R. Costanza

Integrated Approaches to Long-Term Studies of Urban Ecological Systems ...... 123 Nancy B. Grimm, J. Morgan Grove, Steward T.A. Pickett, and Charles L. Redman

Integrating Humans into Ecology: Opportunities and Challenges for Studying Urban Ecosystems ...... 143 Marina Alberti, John M. Marzluff, Eric Shulenberger, Gordon Bradley, Clare Ryan, and Craig Zumbrunnen

xv xvi Contents

Section III The Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, and Pedosphere

Sealing of Soils ...... 161 Gerd Wessolek

Producing and Consuming Chemicals: The Moral Economy of the American Lawn ...... 181 Paul Robbins, Julie T. Sharp

Streams in the Urban Landscape ...... 207 Michael J. Paul and Judy L. Meyer

The Urban Climate – Basic and Applied Aspects ...... 233 Wilhelm Kuttler

Global Warming and the ...... 249 Maria João Alcoforado and Henrique Andrade

A Retrospective Assessment of Mortality from the London Smog Episode of 1952: The Role of Influenza and Pollution ...... 263 Micheile L. Bell, Devra L. Davis, and Tony Fletcher

Heat Waves, Urban Climate and Human Health ...... 269 Wilfried Endlicher, Gerd Jendritzky, Joachim Fischer, Jens-Peter Redlich

Section IV The Biosphere

The City as a Subject for Ecological Research ...... 281 Herbert Sukopp

Ecosystem Processes Along an Urban-to-Rural Gradient ...... 299 Mark J. McDonnell, Steward T.A. Pickett, Peter Groffman and Patrick Bohlen, Richard V. Pouyat and Wayne C. Zipperer, Robert W. Parmelee, Margaret M. Carreiro, Kimberly Medley

House Sparrows: Rapid Evolution of Races in North America ...... 315 Richard F. Johnston, Robert K. Selander

On the Role of Alien Species in Urban Flora and Vegetation ...... 321 Ingo Kowarik

Socioeconomics Drive Urban Diversity ...... 339 Diane Hope, Corinna Gries, Weixing Zhu, William F. Fagan, Charles L. Redman, Nancy B. Grimm, Amy L. Nelson, Chris Martin, and Ann Kinzig

Fauna of the Big City – Estimating and in Warsaw, Poland ...... 349 Maciej Luniak

Island for an Urbanizing World: How and Colonization May Determine Biological Diversity in Human-Dominated ...... 355 John M. Marzluff Contents xvii

A Long-Term Survey of the Avifauna in an Urban ...... 373 Michael Abs and Frank Bergen

Biodiversity in the Argentinean Rolling Pampa Ecoregion: Changes Caused by Agriculture and Urbanisation ...... 377 Ana M. Faggi, Kerstin Krellenberg, Roberto Castro, Mirta Arriaga and Wilfried Endlicher

Does Differential Access to Protein Influence Differences in Timing of Breeding of Florida Scrub-Jays (Aphelocoma coerulescens) in Suburban and Wildland ? . . . 391 Stephan J. Schoech and Reed Bowman

Creating a Homogeneous Avifauna ...... 405 Robert B. Blair

Towards a Mechanistic Understanding of Urbanization’s Impacts on Fish ...... 425 Christian Wolter

Bat Activity in an Urban Landscape: Patterns at the Landscape and Microhabitat Scale 437 Stanley D. Gehrt and James E. Chelsvig

Urbanization and Spider Diversity: Influences of Human Modification of Structure and ...... 455 E. Shochat, W.L. Stefanov, M.E.A. Whitehouse, and S.H. Faeth

Section V The Anthroposphere: Human Dimensions

Social Science Concepts and Frameworks for Understanding Urban Ecosystems ...... 475 Carolyn Harrison and Jacquie Burgess

The and the Titanic: Human Economic Behavior in Ecological Models ...... 485 Jane V. Hall

Forecasting Demand for Urban Land ...... 493 Paul Waddell and Terry Moore

Characteristics, Causes, and Effects of Sprawl: A Literature Review ...... 519 Reid H. Ewing

Urban Ecological Footprints: Why Cities Cannot be Sustainable—and Why They are a Key to Sustainability ...... 537 William Rees and Mathis Wackernagel

Health, Supportive Environments, and the Reasonable Person Model ...... 557 Stephen Kaplan, Rachel Kaplan

Relationship Between and Physical Activity, Obesity, and Morbidity . . . . . 567 Reid Ewing, Tom Schmid, Richard Killingsworth, Amy Zlot, and Stephen Raudenbush

Megacities as Global Areas ...... 583 Frauke Kraas xviii Contents

Why Is Understanding Urban Ecosystems Important to People Concerned About ? ...... 597 Bunyan Bryant and John Callewaert

Section VI The Anthroposphere: Planning and Policy

The Struggle to Govern the ...... 611 Thomas Dietz, Elinor Ostrom, Paul C. Stern

Modeling the Urban Ecosystem: A Conceptual Framework ...... 623 M. Alberti

Scientific, Institutional, and Individual Constraints on Restoring Puget Sound Rivers ... 647 Clare M. Ryan and Sara M. Jensen Toward Ecosystem Management: Shifts in the Core and the Context of Urban Forest Ecology ...... 661 Rowan A. Rowntree

What Is the Form of a City, and How Is It Made? ...... 677 Kevin A. Lynch What Should an Ideal City Look Like from an Ecological View? – Ecological Demands on the Future City ...... 691 Ruediger Wittig, Juergen Breuste, Lothar Finke, Michael Kleyer, Franz Rebele, Konrad Reidl, Wolfgang Schulte, Peter Werner Planning and Maintenance: Guidelines for Conserving Wildlife in an Urban Landscape ...... 699 Michael E. Soulé

Terrestrial Design at the Urban/Rural Interface ...... 715 Craig L. Shafer Restoration of Fragmented Landscapes for the Conservation of Birds: A General Framework and Specific Recommendations for Urbanizing Landscapes ...... 739 John M. Marzluff, Kern Ewing

Steps Involved in Designing Conservation Subdivisions: A Straightforward Approach. . . 757 Randall G. Arendt Beyond Greenbelts and : A New Planning Concept for the Environment of Asian Mega-Cities ...... 783 Makoto Yokohari, Kazuhiko Takeuchi, Takashi Watanabe, Shigehiro Yokota

Index ...... 797 Contributors

*Abs - Michael Bergen - Frank Elssholzstrasse 8 Sölder Kirchweg 74 D-44287 10781 Berlin Dortmund, Germany [email protected] [email protected] *Alberti - Marina Dept. of & Planning *Berry - Brian J. L. Univ. of Washington School of Economic, Political Seattle, WA 98195-5740 USA and Policy Sciences [email protected] University of Texas at Dallas 2601 N. Floyd *Alcoforado - Maria João Richardson, Texas, USA 75080 Centre for Geographical Studies [email protected] Univ. of Lisbon, Portugal [email protected] *Blair - Robert B. Andrade - Henrique , Wildlife and Conservation Centre for Geographical Studies University of Minnesota Univ. of Lisbon, Portugal Saint Paul, MN 55108 [email protected] *Arendt - Randall G. Natural Trust Bohlen - Patrick 1031 Palmers Mill Road Institute of Ecosystem Studies (Box AB) Media, PA 19063 Millbrook, NY 12545 USA [email protected]

Arriaga - Mirta Bowman - Reed Universidad de Flores Archbold Biological Station Inst. de Ingeniería Ecológica PO Box 2057 Nazca 274 Lake Placid Florida 33862 1406 Buenos Aires ARGENTINA [email protected] *Bell - M. Dept. of Epidemiology Bradley - Gordon Bloomberg School of Public Health College of Forest Resources 615 North Wolfe Street (W6508-A) Univ. of Washington Baltimore, MD 21205 USA Seattle, WA 98195-2100 USA [email protected] [email protected]

* Senior authors indicated by “*”

xix xx Contributors

Breuste - Juergen Costanza - R. Geobotanik und Pflanzenökologie Center for Environmental & Estuarine Studies Botanisches Institut Univ. of Maryland J. W. Goethe-Universität Solomans, MD 21804 USA Siesmayerstr. 70, D-60054 [email protected] Frankfurt am Main, Germany Davis - Devra L. Heinz School of & Mgt *Bryant - Bunyan Carnegie Mellon Univ. School of Natural Resources and Environment Pittsburgh, PA 15213 USA University of Michigan [email protected] Ann Arbor, MI 48109 [email protected] *Dietz - Thomas & Policy Program *Burgess - Ernest W. Michigan State Univ. Univ. of Chicago East Lansing, MI 48824 USA deceased [email protected] *Endlicher - Wilfried Burgess - Jacquie Institute of Geography Dept. of Geography, University College London Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany 26 Bedford Way [email protected] London WC1H 0AP England [email protected] *Ewing - Reid H. National Center for Cadenasso - M. L. Preinkert Field House Institute of Ecosystem Studies Univ. of Maryland, Millbrook, NY 12545 USA College Park, MD 20742 USA [email protected] [email protected] Ewing - Kern Callewaert - John College of Forest Resources School of Natural Resources and Environment Univ. of Washington University of Michigan Seattle, WA 98195-2100 USA Ann Arbor, MI 48109 [email protected] Carreiro - Margaret M. Faeth - S. H. Calder Center, Fordham Univ. (Drawer K) Dept. of Biology 53 Whippoorwill Road Arizona State Univ. Armonk, NY 10504 USA Tempe, AZ 85287-1501 USA [email protected] Castro - Roberto Fagan - William F. Universidad de Flores Dept. of Biology, Univ. of Maryland Inst. de Ingeniería Ecológica College Park, MD 20742 USA Nazca 274 [email protected] 1406 Buenos Aires ARGENTINA *Faggi - Ana M. Chelsvig - James E. Universidad de Flores Conservation Dept. Inst. de Ingeniería Ecológica Forest Preserve District of Cook County Nazca 274 536 N. Harlem Avenue 1406 Buenos Aires ARGENTINA River Forest, IL 60305 USA afaggi@uflo.edu.ar Contributors xxi

Finke - Lothar *Harrison - Carolyn Geobotanik und Pflanzenökologie Department of Geography Botanisches Institut University College London J. W. Goethe-Universität London WC1E6BT Siesmayerstr. 70, D-60054 [email protected] Frankfurt am Main, Germany *Hope - Diane Center for Fischer - Joachim Arizona State Univ. Dept. of Computer Science Tempe, AZ 85287-3211 USA Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany [email protected]. Jendritzky - Gerd Fletcher - Tony Institute of Meteorology London School of Hygiene & Tropical Univ. of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany Medicine Jensen - Sara M. London, United Kingdom College of Forest Resources tony.fl[email protected] University of Washington Seattle, WA 98195 *Gehrt - Stanley D. *Johnston - Richard F. McGraw Wildlife Foundation Museum of Natural History Dundee, IL 60118 USA Univ. of Kansas [email protected] Lawrence KS 66045 USA [email protected] Gries - Corinna Center for Environmental Studies Kaplan - Rachel Arizona State Univ. School of Natural Resources & Environment Tempe, AZ 85287-3211 USA Univ. of Michigan, 430 E Univ., [email protected] Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1115 USA [email protected] *Grimm - Nancy B. *Kaplan - Stephen Dept. of Biology, Arizona State Univ., Dept. of Electrical Engineering & Tempe, AZ 85287 USA Computer Science [email protected] Univ. of Michigan Ann Arbor MI 48109-1115 USA [email protected] Grove - J. Morgan USDA Forest Service, NE Research Station Killingsworth - Richard South Burlington, VT 05403 USA Active Living By Design [email protected] Univ. of North Carolina Chapel Hill, NC 27599 USA Groffman - Peter Kinzig - Ann Institute of Ecosystem Studies (Box AB) Dept. of Biology, Arizona State Univ. Millbrook, NY 12545 USA Tempe, AZ 85287-1501 USA [email protected] [email protected] Kleyer - Michael *Hall - Jane V. Geobotanik und Pflanzenökologie Department of Economics Botanisches Institut California State University J. W. Goethe-Universität Fullerton, CA 92634 Siesmayerstr. 70, D-60054 [email protected] Frankfurt am Main, Germany xxii Contributors

Knowles-Yánez - K. *Marzluff - John M. Liberal Studies Program College of Forest Resources California State Univ., San Marcos, Univ. of Washington CA 92096 USA Seattle, WA 98195-2100 USA [email protected] [email protected]

*Kowarik - Ingo *McDonnell - Mark J. Institut für Ökologie und Biologie Australian research Centre for Urban Ecology Technical University Royal Botanic Gardens Rothenburgstrasse 12 Victoria, Australia 12165 Berlin-Steglitz [email protected] Germany [email protected] *McIntyre - Nancy E. Dept. of Biological Sciences *Kraas - Frauke Texas Tech Univ., Dept. of Geography, Univ. of Cologne Lubbock, TX 79409-3131 USA Albertus-Magnus-Platz [email protected] 50923 Cologne, Germany [email protected] Melillo - Jerry M. Office of Science & Technology Policy Krellenberg - Kerstin Old Executive Office Building, Room 443 Institute of Geography Washington, DC 20502 USA Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany [email protected] Meyer - Judy L. Institute of Ecology *Kuttler - Wilhelm Univ. of Georgia, Dept. of Applied Climatology & Athens, GA 30602 USA [email protected] Univ. of Duisburg-Essen (Campus Essen) Essen, Germany Medley - Kimberly [email protected] Dept. of Geography, 217 Shideler Hall Miami Univ., Oxford, OH 45056 USA Lubchenco - Jane Dept. of Zoology, Oregon State Univ. Mooney - Harold A. Corvallis, OR 97331 USA Dept. of Biological Sciences [email protected] Stanford Univ., Stanford CA 94305 USA [email protected] *Luniak - Maciej Institute of Zoology Moore - Terry Polish Academy of Sciences ECONorthwest Wilcza 64, PL 00-679 99 West Tenth Avenue, Suite 400 Warsaw, Poland Eugene, OR 97401 [email protected] Nelson - Amy L. *Lynch - Kevin A. Alliance Data Systems Massachusetts Institute of Technology Gahanna, OH 43230-5318 USA Deceased Nilon - C. H. Martin - Chris Fisheries & Wildlife Dept. of Plant Biology, Arizona State Univ. Univ. of Missouri Tempe, AZ 85287-1601 USA Columbia, MO 65211 USA [email protected] [email protected] Contributors xxiii

Ostrom - Elinor Redman - Charles L. Center for the Study of Institutions, Population, Dept. of Biology, Arizona State Univ. and Environmental Change Tempe, AZ 85287-1501 USA Indiana Univ. [email protected] Bloomington, IN 47408 USA *Rees - William *Palumbi - Stephen R. School of & Dept. of Organismic & Evolutionary Biology Univ. of British Columbia Harvard University 6333 Memorial Road Cambridge, MA 02138 USA Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z2 Canada [email protected] [email protected]

Parmelee - Robert W. Reidl - Konrad Dept. of Entomology, Ohio State Univ. Geobotanik und Pflanzenökologie 1735 Neil Ave. Botanisches Institut Columbus, OH 43210 USA J. W. Goethe-Universität Siesmayerstr. 70, D-60054 Frankfurt am Main, Germany *Paul - Michael J. Institute of Ecology, Univ. of Georgia Athens, GA 30602 USA *Robbins - Paul [email protected] Dept. of Geography 1132 Derby Hall (154 North Oval Mall) Ohio State Univ., Columbus, OH 43210 USA *Pickett-S.T.A. [email protected] Institute of Ecosystem Studies (Box AB) Millbrook, NY 12545 USA *Rowntree - Rowan A. [email protected], Department of Plant Sciences University of California Pouyat - Richard V. Davis, California 95606 U.S.D.A. Forest-Service-NEFES [email protected] SUNY-CESF, 5 Moon Library Syracuse, NY 13210,USA *Ryan - Clare M. [email protected] College of Forest Resources Univ. of Washington Raudenbush - Stephen Seattle, WA 98195-2100 USA Dept. of Statistics and Survey Research Center [email protected] Univ. of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA Schmid - Tom Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Rebele - Franz NCCDPHP, DNPA Geobotanik und Pflanzenökologie Physical Activity and Health Branch (Mail Botanisches Institut Stop K-47) J. W. Goethe-Universität 4770 Buford Hwy, NE Siesmayerstr. 70, D-60054 Atlanta, GA 30341-3717 USA Frankfurt am Main, Germany *Schoech - Stephan J. Redlich - Jens-Peter Dept. of Biology, Univ. of Memphis Dept. of Computer Science Memphis, TN 38152 USA Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany [email protected] xxiv Contributors

Schulte - Wolfgang Stefanov - W. L. Geobotanik und Pflanzenökologie Center for Environmental Studies Botanisches Institut Arizona State Univ. J. W. Goethe-Universität Tempe, AZ 85287-3211 USA Siesmayerstr. 70, D-60054 Frankfurt am Main, Germany Stern - Paul C. Selander - Robert K. Social & Behavioral Sciences & Education Dept. of Biology, Pennsylvania State Univ. The National Academies University Park, PA 16802 USA Washington, DC 20001 USA [email protected] [email protected] *Shafer - Craig L. George Wright Society Takeuchi - Kazuhiko Hancock, MI 49930-0065 USA Graduate School of Agricultural & Sciences Selander - Robert K. Univ. of Tokyo Museum of Natural History, Univ. of Kansas Tokyo, Japan Lawrence, KS 66045 USA Sharp - Julie T. *Vitousek - Peter M. Dept. of Geography Dept. of Biological Sciences 1132 Derby Hall (154 North Oval Mall) Stanford Univ. Ohio State Univ., Columbus, OH 43210 USA Stanford, CA 94305-5420 USA sharp.153osu.edu [email protected] *Shochat - E. Center for Environmental Studies Wackernagel - Mathis Arizona State Univ. Global Footprint Network Tempe, AZ 85287-3211 USA 312 Clay Street, Suite 300 [email protected] Oakland, CA 94607-3510 USA Shulenberger - Eric Graduate School *Waddell - Paul Univ. of Washington Dept. of Urban design and Planning Seattle WA 98195-2100 USA Univ. of Washington [email protected] Seattle, WA 98195-3055 USA [email protected] Simon - Ute Humboldt Univ., Miningstrasse 46 12359 Berlin, Germany Watanabe - Takashi Graduate School of Policy & *Soulé - Michael E. Planning Sciences Division of Environmental Sciences Univ. of Tsukuba Univ. of California at Santa Cruz Ibaraki 305-8573, Japan Santa Cruz, CA 95064 USA [email protected] Werner - Peter *Sukopp - Herbert Geobotanik und Pflanzenökologie Institute of Ecology, Technical Univ. Berlin Botanisches Institut Schmidt-Ott-Str. 1 J. W. Goethe-Universität D-14195 Berlin, Germany Siesmayerstr. 70, D-60054 [email protected] Frankfurt am Main, Germany Contributors xxv

*Wessolek - Gerd Yokota - Shigehiro Prof. of Soil Sciences Graduate School of Agricultural & Life Technical Univ., Berlin, Germany Sciences [email protected] Univ. of Tokyo Tokyo, Japan Whitehouse - M. E. A. Australian Cotton Research Institute Zhu - Weixing Locked Bag 59 Dept. of Biological Sciences Narrabri, New South Wales 2390, Australia State Univ. of New York Binghamton, NY 13902-6000 USA *Wittig - Ruediger Geobotanik und Pflanzenökologie Zipperer - Wayne C. Botanisches Institut U.S.D.A. Forest-Service-NEFES J. W. Goethe-Universität SUNY-CESF, 5 Moon Library Siesmayerstr. 70, D-60054 Syracuse NY 13210 USA Frankfurt am Main, Germany [email protected] Zlot - Amy *Wolter - Christian Centers for Disease Control & Prevention Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology NCCDPHP, OIIRM Berlin, Germany Atlanta, GA 30333 USA [email protected] ZumBrunnen - Craig *Yokohari - Makoto Dept. of Geography & Program on the Institute of Policy & Planning Sciences Environment Univ. of Tsukuba Univ. of Washington Ibaraki 305-8573, Japan Seattle, WA 98195-2802 USA [email protected] [email protected]