Supplementary Notes

INDIAN CULTURE

What is Culture? Culture refers to a human-made environment which human groups, including their embodiment as artifacts. includes all the material and non- material products The essential core of culture thus lies in those finer of group life that are transmitted from one generation ideas, by means of which people communicate, to the next. These may be transmitted through perpetuate and develop their knowledge about and symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of express their attitudes toward life.

Dance

• Dance in has an unbroken tradition of over very important feature of Indian classical dances 2,000 years. Its themes are derived from is the use of the mudra or hand gestures by the mythology, legends and classical literature, two artists as a short-hand sign language to narrate a main divisions being classical and folk. story and to demonstrate certain concepts such • In traditional Indian culture the function of dance as objects, weather, nature and emotion. Many was to give symbolic expression to religious ideas. classical dances include facial expressions as an The figure of Lord Shiva as represents integral part of the dance form. the creation and destruction of the cosmic cycle. Classical Dance • denotes codified art forms These dance forms are based on ancient dance rooted in Natya, the sacred Hindu musical theatre discipline and have rigid rules of presentation. styles. The term "classical" ("Shastriya") was Important among them are , , introduced by SangeetNatakAkademi to denote , Manipuri, and . the NatyaShastra-based performing art styles. A GS SCORE (1) Features • The movements include intricate footwork accented by bells worn around the ankles and • Mudra or hand gestures are used by the artists as stylized gestures adapted from normal body a short-hand sign language to narrate a story and language. to demonstrate certain concepts . • The advent of Islamic rule in the 13th century • Many classical dances include facial expressions greatly influenced the Indian culture, having a as an integral part of the dance form. direct impact on Kathak.(It was introduced as a • Nartanam:Dances performed inside the sanctum form of entertainment in the courts and of the temple according to the rituals developed its own distinct and individualistic style).Lucknow, Banaras and Jaipur are recognized • Carnatakam Dances performed in royal courts as the three schools. Classical dance forms are discussed below: • Instruments use in Kathak are Pakwaj, , 1. BharataNatyam (Tamil Nadu) Harmonium, Sarengi and Talam (cymbals). • The AbhinayaDarpana by Nandikesvara is one 4. Manipuri (Manipur) of the main sources of textual material, for the • The most striking part of Manipur dance is its study of the technique and grammar of body colorful decoration, lightness of dancing foot, movement in BharatnatyamDance.It traces its delicacy of abhinaya (drama), smooth and origins back to the Natyashastra, an ancient treatise on theatre written by the mythic priest graceful movements. Bharata. • The Manipuri dance form is mostly ritualistic • The style was kept alive by the devadasis, who and draws heavily from the rich culture of the were young girls 'gifted' by their parents to the state of Manipur. temples and who were married to the gods. • Among the important feature of the Manipuri • The dance movements are characterized by bent repertoire are the Sankirtana and the Raas Leela, legs, while feet keep rhythm. Hands may be used based on the devotional theme of Krishna and in a series of mudra. Radha. • Instruments use in BharatnatyamareMridangam, • Another vibrant feature of Manipuri is the Violin, , Flute and Talam. PungCholam or dance, in which dancers play on the drum known as Pung . 2. Kathakali () • The Lai Haroba, a ritualistic dance depicting the • The word Kathakali literally means "Story-Play". Creation, is considered the precursor of Manipuri • Kathakali is known for its heavy, elaborate as seen today. makeup and costumes. • Instruments used in Manipuri are Pung and • The dancers wear large head dresses, and the cymbals. different colors of the face are extended with 5. Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh) moulded lime. • Kuchipudi exhibits scenes from the Hindu Epics, • Kathakali dance presents themes derived from legends and mythological tales through a the , the and other Hindu combination of music, dance and acting. epics, mythologies and legends. • Traditionally the dance was performed by men, • Kathakali is traditionally performed by boys and even the female roles, although now it is men, even for female roles predominantly performed by women. • Instruments use in KathakaliareChenda, • Taranagam is the main unique piece of kuchpudi Maddalam, Cymbals and Ela taalam. repertoire, also known as plate (made by brass) 3. Kathak () dance. In that the dancer must dance upon a brass plate, placing the feet upon the raised edges. • Katha, meaning "the art of storytelling." • Instruments used in KuchipudiMridangam, • It is performed by both men and women. Violin, Veena, Flute and Talam. GS SCORE (2) 6. Odissi (Odisha) century ruler who was a great patron of the arts. Under Swati Tirunal, Mohiniattam established • Originating in the Devadasi tradition,It is as a solo dance tradition with musical predominantly a dance for women, with postures compositions set to the Carnatic style of music that replicate those found in temple sculptures. and a distinct repertoire. Later, in the twentieth • Like other Indian classical dance forms, Odissi century, the great poetVallathol established the has two major facets: to promote the arts of Mohiniattam and Kathakali. • Nritta , in which ornamental patterns are created • Apart from mythology, Mohiniattam perform on using body movements in space and time the themes from nature. Mohiniattyam was • Abhinaya, or facial expressions are used to female orientated art form only female were interpret a story or theme. supposed to perform but at present male also practicing and performing too. • Tribhangi, (thrice deflected posture) in which the body is bent in three places, the shape of a helix. • Instruments use in OdissiarePakwaj, table, Indian folk dances are practiced in the rural areas and harmonium, flute and cymbals. performed during the religious or seasonal festivals. These dances are also considered to be auspicious by 7. (Assam) many of the tribal communities in the country. Many folk dances are dedicated to the presiding deity of • SattriyaNritya was usually performed in the the specific community. The most interesting part of Sattras (Assam monasteries) in a highly ritialistic a folk dance is the attire required for its performance. manner by male dancers alone. Every folk dance has its own specific costume and • The core of SattriyaNritya has usually been jewelry, which differs from dance to dance. They are, mythological stories. in general, very bright and colorful, with traditional jewelries that give a folk touch to the performance. • Dressed in white costumes and turbans, head These dances are not only the exclusive art of a gears, they include -patital, boratal- cymbals particular community, but also an asset of India's playing, performing dance, creating soundscapes, cultural heritage. floor patterns and choreographic designs. Some of the most popular folk dances region-wise • Both solo and group numbers enrich its performed across the Indian villages and cities are presentation.The dresses are usually made of pat, given below: a type of silk produced in Assam. S.No. Dance form State 8. Mohiniattam (Kerala) 1. Odisha, Jharkhand and • The dance form of Mohiniattyam was nurtured West Bengal in the region of Kerala in southwestern India. 2. Kalbella • The name Mohiniattyam literally means ' ance 3. Dumhal Jammu and Kashmir of the Enchantress,' and it does have a mesmerizing quality. 4. Hikat&Namagen Himachal Pradesh • The white and gold costume, the hairstyle and 5. the highly graceful movements in medium tempo 6. Bangra Punjab bring out the aesthetic effect. 7. Gaur • Mohiniattyam is characterized by swaying movements of the upper body with legs placed 8. Karma Dance Chattisgarh in a stance similar to the plie position. Theeyes play an important rolein the direction of the 9. Kerala movement. 10. and Tamil Nadu • Mohiniattyam is found in some eighteenth Kolattam century texts, but the practical style was revived in the time of Maharaja Swati Tirunal, a 19th 11. Naga Dances Nagaland GS SCORE (3) 12. Bihu Assam 15. Lahoor Haryana 13. Nongkrem Meghalaya 16. DolluKunitha Karnataka 14. Thang-ta & Manipur 17. Lava Dance Lakshadweep -Cholom 18. Lavani Maharashtra Music

• Music in Indian subcontinent is the reflection of • A is a melodic scale, consisting of notes the diverse elements - racial, linguistic and from the basic seven known as sa, re, ga, ma pa, cultural. It plays a vital role in the religious, social dha, and ni. and artistic life of the heterogeneous population • Formal compositions (songs or instrumental of the country. compositions in a fixed meter) are juxtaposed • The oldest music, which possessed a grammar with the improvised portion. was the vedic. Of course, the Rig-Veda is said to • There are many musical instruments that are be the oldest: nearly 5000 years old. associated with Hindustani sangeet. The most famous are the tabla and . Other less well • The psalms of the Rig-Veda were called the richas. known instruments are the , santur, and TheYajur Veda was also a religious chant. the . NatyaShastra of Bharata is another important landmark in the history of Indian music. • Gharanas of Hindustani Music: In Hindustani music, a gharânâ is a system of social organization • Today there are two systems of classical music: linking musicians or dancers by lineage or the Hindustani and the Carnatic. Carnatic music apprenticeship, and by adherence to a particular is confined to Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil musical style. A gharana also indicates a Nadu and Kerala. The classical music of the rest comprehensive musicological ideology. This of the country goes under the name, Hindustani ideology sometimes changes substantially from Classical Music one gharana to another. • The development of two distinct streams is Types of Hindustani Music and its meaning usually attributed to the fact that northern India Dhrupad Effort from vocal chords and lungs absorbed the impact of Muslim rule in its culture while South India did not. Hindustani classical Dhamar Play of Krishna during holy music was greatly patronised by the Muslim Khayal Delicate, romantic and based on rulers of northern India, particularly by the imagination. Mughal and Awadhi (Lucknow) courts. Thumri Romantic religious literature • Classical music in India is elevated to the states of science and this can be gauged from the Tappa Quick turn of phase description of it as ShastriyaSangeet, or 'scientific Bhajan Religious devotional songs music'. Central to the classical music tradition in India is what is known as the guru- Tarana Syllables stung together to set a rhythm shishyaparampara, literally the teacher-pupil Sabadas Sikh religious songs tradition. Qawali Indo- Muslim repertories of songs in Classical Music groups. Hindustani Music Ghazal Independent couplets on love and • Hindustani Sangeet is usually considered to be a devotion mixture of traditional Hindu musical concepts Carnatic Music and Persian performance practice. • Carnatic sangeet (karnatiksangit), is the South • Hindustani music is based on the raga system. Indian system of classical music. GS SCORE (4) • It has a rich history and a very sophisticated but can be rendered in the two distinctively system of theory. different Carnatic and Hindustani styles. • Carnatic Sangeet is found in the South Indian • Unlike Hindustani music, Carnatic music does states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and not adhere to Time or Samay concepts and instead of Thaats, Carnatic music follows the Melakarta Andhra Pradesh. concept. • Purandardas is considered as the father of Folk Music Carnatic Music Cultural traditions from various regions of the country • Carnatic music acquired its present form in the reflect the rich diversity of Regional . 18th century under the " trinity" of Carnatic Each region has its own particular style. music, Thyagaraja, Shamashastri, and MuthuswamiDikshitar composed their famous • Tribal and folk music is not taught in the same way that is taught. There songs. is no formal period of apprenticeship where the • It is also based upon a system of ragam (rag) student is able to devote their entire life to learning and thalam (tal). the music, the economics of rural life does not permit this sort of thing. The musical • There are a number of musical instruments used practitioners must still attend to their normal in South Indian classical music. The most duties of hunting, agriculture or whatever their common ones are the veena (vina), violin, chosen profession is. , , and the tavil. • Musical instruments are often different from • The dominant element of Karnatic music is the those found in classical music. Although instruments like the tabla may sometimes be ' riti'; a form of composition with three parts. found it is more likely that cruder such as Similarities & Differences Between 'Hindustani' and daf, , or nal are used. The sitar and sarod 'Carnatic' Music which are so common in the classical genre are absent in the folk music. One often finds • Both the styles are monophonic, follow a melodic instruments such as the ektar, dotar, rabab, and line and employ a drone () with the help santur. of one or two notes against the melody. Examples of Folk Music of India • Both the styles use definite scales to define a • RasiyaGeet: Uttar Pradesh: raga but the Carnatic Style employs Shrutis or semitones to create a Raga and thus have many • Pankhida: Rajasthan more than the Hindustani style. • Lotia: Rajasthan • Carnatic ragas differ from Hindustani ragas. The • Pandavani: Chhattisgarh names of ragas are also different. However, there are some ragas which have the same scale as • Mando: Goa Hindustani ragas but have different names; such • Hori: Uttar Pradesh as Hindolam and Malkauns, Shankarabharanam and Bilawal. • Kajri: Uttar Pradesh • There is a third category of ragas like • Tappa: Punjab Hamsadhwani, Charukeshi, Kalavati etc. which • Daskathia: Odisha are essentially Carnatic Ragas. They share the same name, the same scale (same set of notes) • Bihu songs: Assam Musical Instruments

• The history of Indian musical instruments can models). Most of the Indian musical instruments be gathered from various sources such as remain still in use. Literature (folk, general, music), Visual representations (paintings, sculptures, reliefs, • Types of Musical instruments are:

GS SCORE (5) A. String Instruments e. played with palms as well as fingers, such as Tabla, Dholki, Dholak. The string instruments produce sound from vibrating strings. - by friction with a bow like the violin, sarangi, dilruba, , etc (Ravanastram is one of the earliest known bowed instrument) - by plucking the string like the veena, rudraveena, gotuvadyam, sitar, sarod, guitar, mandolin, harp, (tambura, ektar -drone instruments) etc. - by striking with a hammer or a pair of sticks like gettuvadyam, swaramandala B. Wind Instruments - those where wind is supplied by some mechanical means, commonly bellows - e.g. organ, harmonium - those where the wind is supplied by the breath of the performer, which can be further classified as mouth blown & nose blown. C. Percussion Instruments (AvanaddyaVadya) Avanaddya means "to be covered", therefore, an instrument wherein a vessel or a frame is covered with leather is an AvanaddhaVadya. They are of drum D. Solid Instruments (Ghana Vadyas) species. The instruments of this group are usually played with a. played with stroke of fingers such as Khanjira, a striker or hammer. Duff, Dimdi These instruments are further classified in 3 groups. b. played with stroke of a stick such as Dhol, They are as follows: Sambal, Nagada a. played with contact, such as Chipli, c. played with the palms of both the hands, such as b. played with a stick or hammer, such as JalTarang, Pakhawaj, Mridangam, KaashthaTarang, Ghanta d. played with a thread attached at the middle c. played with rotation or free movement, such as portion with holding at centre point, such as Ghunghroo, Ghantika, Rattle, Kabas, etc. Damroo. Puppetry

• Puppetry throughout the ages has held an • Silappadikaaram is earliest reference to the art important place in traditional entertainment. of puppetry is found in Sangam literature. Puppetry has been successfully used to motivate Several types of Puppet forms are available in our emotionally and physically handicapped students diverse culture of India: to develop their mental and physical faculties. Awareness programmes about the conservation A. String Puppets of the natural and cultural environment have also proved to be useful. Characteristics: • The puppets are believed to be around since the a) It has jointed body and limbs that allow time of Harappa and Mohenjodarocivilisation movement. dating back to 2300 BC. Several dolls with strings b) Puppets are made of wood, or wire, or cloth are found in some of the harappan cities. stuffed with cotton, rags or saw dust. GS SCORE (6) c) The puppet is suspended from a hand held control b) The main holding rod that supports the puppet strings that are attached to different parts of the may be hidden by a robe or costume of the puppet's body. puppet.

d) The puppet is manipulated by operating the c) The action rods are usually connected to the control as well as by loosening or pulling the hands of the puppet and manipulated by the relevant string(s). puppeteer to show action. e) For the convenience of manipulation and support, two rods are attached to the hands of the puppets. d) The body and hands have a bamboo base covered and plastered with hay and rice husk mixed and Examples: moulded into required shape.

i. Kathputli (Rajasthan) : these are made by Bhatt e) Due to the absence of legs the puppets are draped community, which performs in Jaipur and in a sari or dhoti as per the character. Jodhpur. f) The puppet movements are highly dramatic. ii. Kundhei (Orissa) Examples: iii. Gombeyatta (Karnataka) iv. Bommalattam (Tamil Nadu) i. PutulNautch (West Bengal) B. Shadow Puppets ii. Yampuri (Bihar) Characteristics iii. KathiKandhe (Orissa) a) Shadow puppets are flat puppets that are operated D. Glove Puppets against the rear of a tightly stretched white cloth screen. Characteristics b) They are cut out of leather, which has been treated a) The glove puppets are worn on hands just like a to make it translucent. glove. c) Shadow puppets are pressed against the screen b) The middle finger and thumb act as hands of the with a strong source of light behind it. puppet and the index finger acts as the head.

d) The manipulation between the light and the screen c) Head is made of either papiermache, cloth or make silhouettes or colourful shadows for the wood, with two hands emerging from just below viewers who sit in front of the screen. the neck.

e) The puppet shapes or cutouts are perforated and Examples: split bamboo or cane sticks are attached vertically to the puppet for handling and manipulation. 1. Pava-kathakali (Kerala)

Examples: 2. Kundhei nach (Orissa)

i. TogaluGombeyatta (Karnataka) In the past, traditional puppet shows were used to ii. Tholu Bommalata (Andhra Pradesh) convey religious messages in villages. Today, due to the influence of modern communication methods, the iii. Ravanachhaya (Orissa) traditional puppetry is at the cross roads in many iv. Tolpavakoothu (Kerala) states of India with most puppeteers taking to alternate source of livelihood. However, contemporary puppetry v. Chamadyache Bahulya (Maharashtra) has a tremendous scope in the field of education, C. Rod Puppets entertainment and awareness generation. Characteristics Pavai (Centre for Puppetry) explores and uses the art of puppetry for communication at various levels and a) These puppets have mostly three joints. The works towards its promotion and preservation with heads, supported by the main rod, is joined at the neck and both hands attached to rods are the help of children, youth and the teaching joined at the shoulders. community.

GS SCORE (7) Drama/Theatre

• Though the origin of Indian theatre is obscure, • Vishakadatta: Mudrarakshasa, Devichandragupta. dramatic performances can be traced back to prehistoric era. At Sitabena and jogimara in Folk Theatre Chhattisgarh structures have been discovered S.No. Theatre form State which are said to be world's earliest theatre.Toys with movable limbs found in Indus valley 1 BhandPather Kashmir civilization can be a form of theatre.Few hymns of Rigveda are in forms of monologue and 2 Swang Haryana dialogue. 3 Nautanki Uttar Pradesh • Bharata'sNatyaShastra was the earliest and most 4 Bhavai Gujarat elaborate treatise on drama written anywhere in the world. India has the longest and richest 5 Jatra Bengal tradition in theatre going back to at least 5000 years. The origin of Indian theatre is closely 6 Bhaona Assam related to ancient rituals and seasonal festivities 7 Madhya Pradesh of the country. The growth in drama took place with the introduction of "curtain" in the kushanas 8 Tamaasha Maharashtra era. 9 Dashavatar Goa • The great harvest of Sanskrit drama by pre- eminent play-wrights like Bhasa, Kalidasa, 10 Krishnattam, Mudiyettu, Kerala Shudraka, Vishakadatta, Bhavabhuti and Harsha started on 1st millennium. Classical Theatre 11 Yakshagaana Karnataka • Classical theaters followed some strict rules of 12 Therukoothu Tamil Nadu Bharata's natyasashtra. 13 Karyala Himachal Pradesh • Traditionally the theatre consisted of the Modern Theatre auditorium, stage and the backstage which is behind the stage. Curtain separates the stage and • The medieval period witnessed the emergence backstage. of regional language literatures which did not • The drama was performed without scenery and produce dramatic works comparable to ancient decorations. It was more of acting and gestures classics. Some innovations happened in religious by the actors. drama, thanks to socio-religious reform Bhakti Movements, which engulfed the subcontinent .Some important theatrical creations of Ancient India during the medieval era.Against the background of this rich tradition, Indian drama was reborn • Bhasa(4th BC): Urubhanga, Karnabhara, Harivamsa, Abhimaraka, swapnavasavadatta, during British colonial interregnum in 18th and Bhavabhuti. Many of the Bhasa's plays were 19th centuries. The impetus came from two staged in Koodiyatam like Pratijnayaugand sources: the rich heritage of Indian drama and harayana, Abhisekanataka. the exposure to Western dramatic classics through English. • Harsha: King Harshavardhana wrote Ratnavali, Priyadarshika, Nagananda. • Literary drama was the output of great Indian language writers in different parts of India. The • Kalidasa(4t-5th Ad): One of the "Navaratnas" most famous of such playwrights was in Vikramaditya's court.Poems like Rabindranath Tagore, who enriched the genre of Raghuvamsa,Ritusamhara, Kumaras- drama as much as he enriched poetry and fiction. ambhaba,Meghaduta.Malavikagnimitra is a Disillusioned with contemporary popular drama, comedy of love.Vikramorvashiya, Abhijnanasa- Tagore created his own drama and theatre with kuntalam. no precedents in East or West, though borrowing • Shudraka: Mrichakatika elements from both.Chitrangada and Post-office

GS SCORE (8) • The greatest poets on different languages Post Independence produced a rich harvest of drama: Samsa and • In Kolkata two important theatre stalwarts Kuvempu in Kannada, SubrahmanyaBharathiar emerged: UtpalDutt and ShambhuMitra. in Tamil, Sreekanthan in , BharatenduHarishchandra and Jaishankar Prasad • Acclaimed play-wrights like Vijay Tendulkar, in . BadalSarcar, DharmaveerBharati, Mohan Rakesh and GirishKarnad, Chandrashekhar Kambar, P • Socialist realism was associated with IPTA Lankesh and Indira Parthasarati, whose works (Indian Political Theatre Association) have been widely performed and discussed. experiments. Architecture

The earliest remains of Indian architecture have been • Stupas were built of huge mounds of mud, found in Harappa, Mohenjodaro,Ropar, Kalibangan, enclosed in carefully burnt small standard bricks. Lothal and Rangpur under Indus Valley Civilisation.The architecture and sculpture though • One was built at his birthplace Lumbini; the flourished in Indus valley and Vedic and Later Vedic second at Gaya where he attained enlightenment era but during this time sculpture and architecture under the Bodhi Tree, the third at Sarnath where was utilizing organic and perishable materials such as he gave his first sermon and the fourth at mud, mud brick bamboo, timber, leaves, straw and Kushinagar where he passed away attaining thatch, these have not survived the ravages of time. Mahaparinirvana at the age of eighty. Hence the knowledge about this period is not available. • Originally the stupa was made of bricks and Mauryan Art surrounded by a wooden railing. The existing stupa at Sanchi encloses the original stupa and • In the time of Chandragupta Maurya and his has been enlarged and enclosed within the stone son, brick and stone seem to have been used chiefly for the foundations and plinths of timber railing or balustrade, when stone was adopted in superstructures. the place of wood. Pillars: Famous Stupas • The Mauryan pillars are rock-cut pillars. BharhutStupa: Satna district of Madhya Pradesh, • Stone pillars were erected all over the Mauryan SanchiStupa: Sanchi town of Madhya Pradesh Empire with inscriptions engraved on them. Amravati Stupa: Andhra Pradesh • The top portion of the pillar was carved with DhamekStupa: (Sarnath) Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh) capital figures like the bull, the lion, the elephant, etc. All the capital figures are vigorous and carved Shanti Stupa: Dhaulagiri standing on a square or circular abacus. Abacuses are decorated with stylised lotuses. Stupa at Nagarjunakonda: Andhra Pradesh • Some of the existing pillars with capital figures Mahabodhi Stupa: Bodh Gaya were found at Basarah-Bakhira, LauriyaNandangarh, Rampurva, Sankisa and Rock-cut Architecture: Sarnath. • Ashoka's reign saw the firm establishment of the • The Mauryan pillar capital found at Sarnath rock-cut architecture for the monks to live in. popularly known as the Lion Capital is the finest • These caves also served the purpose of assembly example of Mauryan sculptural tradition. It is halls. They were built by cutting the hard & also our national emblem. refractory rocks. Stupas: • It consisted of Chaitya (prayer hall) and Vihara • The Buddhist Stupas were built at places where (monastery). Buddha's remains were preserved and at the major sites where important events in Buddha's life took • The internal walls of the caves were polished so place. nicely that they looked like mirrors.

GS SCORE (9) • Sudama and Lomas Rishi caves are the two covered with a stone casing, topped with a notable hermitages, each consisting of a circular balcony and umbrella, and encircled with a stone cell with a hemispherical domed roof attached railing. to a barrel-vaulted anteroom with side entrances. • Four famous gateways, each about thirty-five feet • The series of rock-cut sanctuaries in the Barabar high, were carved during the first half of the first and Nagarjuni hills, near Gaya in Bihar, contain century A.D. Decorated with images of a number of inscriptions which show that they auspicious fertility spirits, known as yakshas and were donated for the habitation of certain Ajivika yakshis, the gateways also feature narratives ascetics, perhaps followers of the Jain religion. depicting moments from the past lives and final Sculpture existence of Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism. Motifs such as wheels, thrones, • Monumental images of Yaksha, Yakhinis and and footprints are used to symbolize the Buddha, animals formed the part of sculpture in Mauryan who is not represented in human form until later. Period. Contribution of Satvahanas • Large statues of Yakshas and Yakhinis are found at many places like Patna, Vidisha and Mathura. • The Satavahanas patronized Buddhism and Yaksha refer to the nature-spirits, usually Brahmanism. They built chaityas and viharas. benevolent also known as fertility spirits. A They also made grants of villages and lands to yakshini is the female counterpart of the male Buddhist monks. Yaksha. • VashishtaputraPulamayi repaired the old • These monumental images are mostly in the Amaravathistupa. Their architecture in standing position. One of the distinguishing Nagarjunakonda was also notable. Brahmanism elements in all these images is their polished surface. The depiction of faces is in full round was revived by the Satavahanas along with the with pronounced cheeks and physiognomic detail. performance of asvamedha and rajasuya sacrifices. • Terracotta figurines show a very different delineation of the body as compared to the • Art of Amaravati:The S?tav?hana rulers are also sculptures. remarkable for their contributions to Buddhist art and architecture. • Another example of sculpture is the rock cut sculpture of Elephant in Dhauli, near Contribution of Kushanas Bhubneshwar in Odisha (represents the fore-part of an elephant carved over the Edicts of After Alexander's invasion of Ashoka.) India in 326 B.C., the Indo-Greek, Indo Scythian and Kushan kings Architecture and Sculpture in Post Mauryan Period ruled over its north-western From the second century BCE onwards, various rulers territories and under their established their control over the vast Mauryan patronage emerged a distinct style Empire: the Shungas, Kanvas, Kushanas and Guptas of sculpture, popularly known as in the north and parts of central India; the Satvahanas, the Greco-Roman, Buddhist or Ikshavakus, Abhiras, Vakataks in southern and Western Gandhara art and Mathura Art. India. Gandhara Art Contribution of Sungas • It was a combination of Hellenistic, West Asiatic • The period saw a flowering of the visual arts, and native elements. Greek and Roman including small terracotta images, larger stone techniques, modified according to Indian sculptures, and architectural monuments such as requirements, were employed in fashioning the the chaitya hall at Bhaja, the stupa at Bharhut, Gandhara sculpture which truly represents Indian and the renowned Great Stupa at Sanchi. culture in a Western garb. • Under Shunga patronage, the core of the Great • Its area extended from Takshila in India to the Stupa, thought to date from the era of the Swat Valley in Pakistan and northwards to areas Mauryan emperor Ashoka (r. ca. 273-232 B.C.), in Afghanistan. was enlarged to its present diameter of 120 feet,

GS SCORE (10) • The Gandhara sculptors made images of Lord stress was given to the inner beauty and facial Buddha in the Greco-Roman style. The images emotions rather than bodily gesture. of Buddha resembled Greek God Apollo. It gave • Under the Mathura Art images of Vishnu and more stress to the bodily features and external Shiva, Buddha, Yakshas, Yakshinis, Shaivite and beauty. Vaishnavite deities were found. • In all the Buddha depicted in the Gandhara Art • In these sculptures, Buddha was depicted as is shown making four types of hand gestures and Human and the main theme was Buddha and this is a remarkable feature in this art. The Bodhisattavas. Both sitting and standing posture gestures are as follows: of Buddha's statues were carved out in the a) Abahayamudra : Don't fear Mathura school. b) Dhyanamudra : meditation • The art of Mathura also featured sexual imagery. c) Dharmachakramudra: a preaching mudra • The characteristics of the idol of the Buddha are: d) Bhumisparshamudra: Touching the earth. (a) Buddha sitting under a Bodhi tree with right hand in Abhaya posture, (b) Dharma Chakra andTriratnachiselled in palms and at the bottom of the feet, and (c) Except for one lock, the entire head is shaven.

Mathura Art The Amravati School of Art • Mathura School of art is purely indigenous style. • The Amravati school of Art evolved during Mathura art developed during post Maurya period Satavahna period. (mainly during Shunga period) and reached its • This school of art developed at Amravati, on the peak during the Gupta period (AD 325 to 600). banks of the Krishna River in modern Andhra • The traditional centre, Mathura, remained the Pradesh. main art production site whereas SarnathandKosambi also emerged as important • This school of art had great influence on art in Sri Lanka and South-East Asia as products from centres of art production. Spotted red sandstone here were carried to those countries. has been used in this school. • It is Completely indigenous in nature. • Themes in the Mathura Art vary from Buddhist to Brahmanical to sometimes secular. More • Lord Buddha is depicted in the form of `Swastika`

GS SCORE (11) mark. This has been carved out onthe cushioned • cave no 11,12 are more than one story. seat over a throne that is situated under the Bodhi tree. • Brahmanical caves: Ravankikhai, Durga, Lakshmi, Varaha, Dashavatar cave.Kalidas temple is • They used white sandstone to construct the dedicated to Shiva.scenes from Ramayana, images. Shiva's bull,Indra sabha, Jagannath sabha. • At a later stage the Amaravati School depicted • Seated Mahavira, images of 24 tirthankaras, Buddha in the human form. Parasnath. • The figures of Amaravati have slim blithe features Elephanta Caves and are represented in difficult poses and curves. • The Elephanta Caves are a network of sculpted Cave Architecture in Ancient India caves located on Elephanta Island, or Gharapuri (literally "the city of caves") in Mumbai Harbour. The cave architecture in India is believed to have begun in the third century BC. These caves were used • The island, located on an arm of the Arabian by Buddhist and Jain monks as places of worship and Sea, consists of two groups of caves: the first is residence. Initially the caves were excavated in the a large group of five Hindu caves, the second, a western India. Some examples of this type of cave smaller group of two Buddhist caves. structure are Chaityas and Viharas of Buddhists • The Hindu caves contain rock cut stone sculptures, Ajanta Caves representing the Shaiva Hindu sect, dedicated to the god Shiva.The Ganesh gumpha is one of the • The Ajanta Caves (Maharashtra India) are 29 earliest example of brahmanical caves. rock-cut cave monuments which date from the 2nd century B.C. • The rock cut architecture of the caves has been dated to between the 5th and 8th centuries, • The caves include paintings and sculptures although the identity of the original builders is considered to be masterpieces of both Buddhist still a subject of debate. The caves are hewn religious art (which depict the Jataka tales) as from solid basalt rock. All the caves were also well as frescos which are reminiscent of the originally painted in the past, but now only traces Sigiriya paintings in Sri Lanka. remain. • The caves were built in two phases starting around • Other important features:Three faced /trimurti, 200 B.C, with the second group of caves built marriage of Shiva parvati, , around 600 A.D. ardhanariswara. • Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang and FaHien refer Kanheri Caves to ajanta in accounts of their travel. • The Kanheri Caves constitute a group of rock- • the caves are unique in that they combine 3 forms cut monuments that are located to the north of of art-architecture, sculpture, painting. Borivali on the western outskirts of Mumbai, Ellora Caves India. • One hundred and nine caves have been carved • The Ellora caves are carved into the sides of a from the basalt. Most of the caves are used as basaltic hill. The caves at Ellora contain some of the Buddhist viharas, meant for living, studying, the finest specimens of cave-temple architecture and meditating. and exquisitely adorned interiors. • The larger caves were chaityas, or halls for • Structures in the Ellora caves represent the three congregational worship; are lined with intricately faiths of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism and were carved during 350 AD to 700 AD. carved Buddhist sculptures, reliefs and pillars; and contain rock-cut stupas for congregational • The nobility, serenity and grace of Buddha are worship. visible in the Buddhist caves of Ellora. Bhaja Caves • Ellora caves also contain images of Vishwakarma, the patron saint of Indian craftsmen. The • Bhaja Caves or Bhaje caves a group of 22 rock- cut caves dating back to the 2nd century BC Kailasha temple in Cave 16 is indeed an located in Pune, near Lonavala, Maharashtra. It architectural wonder, the entire structure having been carved out of a monolith. belongs to the Hinayana Buddhism sect in GS SCORE (12) Maharashtra.The caves have a number of stupas, • Phamsana: Their roofs are composed of several one of their significant features. slabs that gently rise to a single point over the centre of the building, unlike the latina ones which • Prince seated on an elephant, dancing couple. look like sharply rising tall towers. Phamsana Temple Architecture roofs do not curve inward, instead they slope upwards on a straight incline. During Gupta era Free Standing temple Architecture came into existences. • Valabhi: These are rectangular buildings with a roof that rises into a vaulted chamber. The basic form of the Hindu temple comprises the following: (i) A cave-like sanctum (garbhagriha literally 'womb- house'), which, in the early temples, was a small cubicle with a single entrance and grew into a larger chamber in time. The garbhagriha is made to house the main icon which is itself the focus of much ritual attention; (ii) The entrance to the temple which may be a portico or colonnaded hall that incorporates space for a large number of worshippers and is known as a mandapa; (iii) From the fifth century CE onwards, freestanding temples tend to have a mountainlike spire, which can take the shape of a curving shikhar in North India and a pyramidal tower, called a vimana, in South India; B. South Indian Temple Style (iv) The vahan, i.e., the mount or vehicle of the • Unlike the nagara temple, the dravida temple is temple's main deity along with a standard pillar enclosed within a compound wall. The front wall or dhvaj is placed axially before the sanctum. has an entrance gateway in its centre, which is Different style of Temples known as a gopuram. A. North Indian Temple Style • The shape of the main temple tower known as vimana in Tamil Nadu is like a stepped pyramid • The Nagara style temple is a square with a number that rises up geometrically rather than the curving of graduated projections (rathakas) in the middle shikhara of North India. of each face which gives it a cruciform ground shape in the exterior. • In the South Indian temple, the word 'shikhara'is used only for the crowning element at the top of • In elevation, it exhibits a tower (Shikhara), the temple which is usually shaped like a small gradually including inwards and capped by a stupikaor an octagonal cupola- this is equivalent spheroid slab with ribs round the edge to the amlak and kalasha of North Indian (amalaka).The entire temple to be built on a stone temples. platform with steps leading up to it. • Whereas at the entrance to the North Indian • The earliest temples had just one tower, or temple's garbhagriha, it would be usual to find shikhara, later temples had several. The images such as mithunasand the river goddesses, garbhagriha is always located directly under the Ganga and Yamuna, in the south you will tallest tower. generally find sculptures of fierce dvarapalas or the door-keepers guarding the temple. There are many subdivisions of nagara temples depending on the shape of the shikhara. • It is common to find a large water reservoir, or a temple tank, enclosed within the complex. • Rekha-Prasada: The simple shikhara which is square at the base and whose walls curve or slope • Subsidiary shrines are either incorporated within inward to a point on top is called the 'latina' or the main temple tower, or located as distinct, the rekha-prasada type of shikara. separate small shrines beside the main temple.

GS SCORE (13) • Temples became the focus of urban architecture. • Motifs were also painted on or carved in stone. Kanchipuram, Thanjavur or Tanjore, Madurai and These motifs included varieties of flowers, both Kumbakonam are the most famous temple towns from the sub-continent and places outside, of Tamil Nadu, where, during the eighth to particularly Iran. twelfth centuries, the role of the temple was not limited to religious matters alone. Temples • Walls were also decorated with cypress, chinar became rich administrative centres, controlling and other trees as also with flower vases. vast areas of land. • In the fourteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth centuries tiles were also used to surface the walls and the domes. • Popular colours were blue, turquoise, green and yellow. Subsequently the techniques of tessellation (mosaic designs) and pietradura were made use of for surface decoration particularly in the dado panels of the walls. At times lapis lazuli was used in the interior walls or on canopies. • Other decorations included arabesque, calligraphy and high and low relief carving and a profuse use of jalis. C. Deccan Temple Style The Vesara style is a hybrid style that borrowed from the northern and southern styles. So, it is a mixture of both Nagara and Dravida styles of temple architecture. Temples built in the Deccan under the later Chalukyas of Kalyani and Hoysalas are considered examples of this style. Characteristics of Vesara Style of Temple • The Vesara style reduces the height of the temple towers even though the numbers of tiers are retained. This is accomplished by reducing the height of individual tiers. • The semi circular structures of the Buddhist chaityas are also borrowed in this style, as in the Durga temple of Aihole. • The plan of shrine, subsidiary shrine, panchayatan style bears similarity to Nagaraschool. • It has two or more than two entrances. Modern Architecture Indo-Islamic Architecture For public buildings three broad architectural styles were used. Two of these were direct imports from Indo-Islamic architecture begins with the Ghurid fashions prevalent in England. occupation of India at the close of the 12 century A.D. The first was called neo-classical or the new classical. Its characteristics included construction of geometrical Decorative forms structures fronted with lofty pillars It was derived • The designing was done on plaster through from a style that was originally typical of buildings in incision or stucco. ancient Rome, and was subsequently revived, re- • The designs were either left plain or covered with adapted and made popular during the European colours. Renaissance. It was considered particularly appropriate

GS SCORE (14) for the British Empire in India. The British imagined Another style that was extensively used was the neo- that a style that embodied the grandeur of imperial Gothic, characterised by high-pitched roofs, pointed Rome could now be made to express the glory of arches and detailed decoration. The Gothic style had imperial India. its roots in buildings, especially churches, built in northern Europe during the medieval period. The neo- Gothic or new Gothic style was revived in the mid- nineteenth century in England.

Another architecture form was Graeco-Roman architecture. It made innovative use of covered arcades at ground level to shield the shopper and pedestrian from the fierce sun and rain of Bombay. Indian Paintings

• The origin of Indian painting goes back to 8000 The paintings are divided as: years and an account of its development is Mural Paintings inextricably meshed with the development of Indian civilization. • Indian Mural Paintings are paintings made on walls of caves and palaces. • Hunters and gatherers who made primitive tools and lived in the rock shelters of central India, • These pieces of art are symbolic of the life, made exaggerated linear figures of wild animals, culture and traditions of the people of the contemporaneous periods. To us now, they are such as the bison, the elephant and the stag in reminiscent of the great civilisations and empires red and yellow ochre on the rock surfaces of that flourished in India in the past and of the cave walls. great kings, warriors and saints who by their efforts glorified this land of ours. • In the prehistoric paintings Rocks were scratched • The caves of Ajanta, Ellora and Elephanta also using stone & then natural colors are applied for on the Bagh caves and Sittanvasal are vivid painting. The natural colours used were ochre red, reminders of great art that flourished centuries yellow earth color, soot black, green, white. ago.

• Theme of painting: Hunting theme (group • In a wall painting or mural, the ground is the wall or the stone of the cave. Paint is applied on Hunting scenes); Figures of animals & birds; to the wall plaster. To bind the paint to the plaster Battle Scenes; Dancing Scenes. Example; the colours are often put on wet plaster so that Bhibetka Caves (MP). it fuses with it.

GS SCORE (15) Paintings Themes Ajanta paintings The themes of most of these paintings revolve around the life and teachings of Lord Buddha. This includes the Jataka stories related to the various lives and incarnations of Buddha. Ellora Paintings The rock paintings of Ellora were painted in two different series. The first series, which were done when the caves were carved, revolve around Lord Vishnu and Goddess Lakshmi. The second series, painted centuries later, illustrate procession of Shaiva holy men, Apsaras, etc. It also included Jataka tales and Jain text. Bagh Paintings Paintings are both secular and religious (Buddhism is main inspiration ). Painting style is influenced by Ajanta. Sittanavasal Paintings The themes of these paintings include animals, fish, ducks, people collecting lotuses from a pond, two dancing figures, etc. Apart from that, one can also find inscriptions dating back to the 9th and 10th century. Jainism is main inspiration. Badami Paintings Patronised by Chalukyas. It was inspired by Vaishaivism. Paintings in this cave depict palace scenes. Pandyas paintings Jains texts, female figures, etc. Pallavas paintings Beautiful lotus pond and flowers, dancing figures, lilies, fish, geese, buffaloes and elephants. Chola paintings The paintings celebrate Lord Siva. Vijayanagara Paintings The paintings about the life and times of the Vijayanagara court. Nayaka Paintings Depicting the story of Mucukunda, a legendary Chola king.

Miniature Paintings

Miniature paintings are executed on books and albums, A. PALA SCHOOL and on perishable material such as paper and cloth. The P?las of Bengal were the pioneers of miniature • It belongs to the late 8th or mid 9th century of painting in India. The art reached its zenith during the the P?la period in eastern India Mughal period and was pursued by the painters of • They are representations of Buddhist yantras, different Rajasthani Schools of painting, like Bundi, graphic symbols which were visual aids to the Kishangarh, Jaipur, Marwar and Mewar. The R?gam?la mantras and the dh?ra??s (types of ritual speech). paintings also belong to this school, as do the Company paintings produced during the British Raj. • The Buddhist paintings were drawn in red and white, forming colour planes. The inspiration The different schools of the Miniature paintings of came from the metal images, giving an illusion India include: of relief.

GS SCORE (16) B. WESTERN INDIAN SCHOOL E. PAHARI SCHOOL • The Western Indian style of painting prevailed • The Pahari region comprises the present State of in the region comprising Gujarat, Rajasthan and Himachal Pradesh, some adjoining areas of the . Punjab, the area of Jammu in the Jammu and Kashmir State and Garhwal in Uttar Pradesh. • The motivating force for the artistic activity in Western India was Jainism. Jainism was • The important centres of the Pahari School were patronised by the Kings of the Chalukya Dynasty at Basholi, Jammu, Guler and Kangra. who ruled Gujarat and parts of Rajasthan and • The Pahari School was lively and romantic, Malwa from 961 A.D. to the end of the 13th technically superior with soft tonal shading, century. exquisitely created backgrounds that merged with the theme, and attitudes and postures highly • The human figure was represented in the simplest evocative of the moods they were to convey. and most visible manner. Against a background of rich colour stood out thick, boldly drawn F. DECCANI SCHOOLS figures. The paintings were harmonized with the enclosing script. • Deccani painting, style of miniature painting that flourished from the late 16th century among the C. MUGHAL SCHOOL Deccani sultanates in peninsular India. • It is synthesis of the indigenous Indian style of • Deccani painting developed at Bijapur, painting and the Safavid school of Persian Ahmadnagar, Golkonda and Hyderabad, the painting. former states that formed the region known as Deccan. • The subjects depicted were scenes of warfare, hunting and trials of strength. • Tanjore paintings are of popular Hindu deities and scenes from Hindu epics. The painting are • In Akbar's period, there was a greater attempt to done on cloth stretched over wood, style is portray reality as well as distance and horizontal decorative and is marked by the use of bright perspective. colours and ornamental details. • The Mughal School saw an amalgamation of G. COMPANY SCHOOL OF PAINTINGS many influences: landscape details of Far Eastern • Colonial rule introduced several new art forms, art; clouds out of Chinese paintings; mountains styles, materials and techniques which were and water of Central Asian art. creatively adapted by Indian artists for local • It was primarily aristocratic and secular. patrons and markets, in both elite and popular circles. • Tuti-nama - first work of the Mughal School. • European artists brought with them the idea of • Hamza-nama( illustrations on cloth)- more realism. This was a belief that artists had to developed and refined than Tuti-nama. observe carefully and depict faithfully what the eye saw. D. RAJASTHANI SCHOOL • European artists also brought with them the • Rajasthani paintings were deeply influenced by technique of oil painting. Oil painting enabled the Mughal style of painting while some deviated artists to produce images that looked real. from the archetypal style of Mughal miniature. • One popular imperial tradition was that of • The themes of the paintings were mostly religious picturesque landscape painting. and love subjects, based on Lord Rama and Lord Krishna. Court scenes were depicted as also royal • Another tradition of art that became immensely popular in colonial India was portrait painting. portraits. Unlike the existing Indian tradition of painting • The painting developed individual styles portraits in miniature, colonial portraits were life- in Bundi, Kota, Jaipur, Jodhpur and Kishangarh. size images that looked lifelike and real. This Each Rajasthani school of painting has its distinct new style of portraiture also served as an ideal and unique style whilst representing the hills, means of displaying the lavish lifestyles, wealth colours and palaces of Rajasthan. and status that the empire generated.

GS SCORE (17) • There was a third category of imperial art, called country, the explosive communal tension, and "history painting". This tradition sought to other urban issues became the themes or subject dramatise and recreate various episodes of British matter of their works. imperial history, and enjoyed great prestige and • The Madras School of Art under Debi Prasad popularity during the late eighteenth and early Roy Chowdhury and K.C.S Paniker emerged as nineteenth centuries. an important art centre in post independence H. MODERN SCHOOL OF PAINTINGS period and influenced a new generation of modern artists. • The essential characteristics of the modern or contemporary art are a certain freedom from • Some of the artists who made their mark as invention, the acceptance of an eclectic approach modern Indian artists are Tyeb Mehta, Satish which has placed artistic expression in the Gujral, Krishan Khanna, Manjit Bawa, K.G. international perspective as against the regional, Subramaniyan Ram Kumari, Anjolie Ela Menon, a positive elevation of technique which has Akbar Padamsee, Jatin Das, Jehangir Sabavala become both proliferous and supreme, and the and A. Ramachandran. emergence of the artist as a distinct individual. Folk Paintings of India • Oil paintings of Raja Ravi Varma of Travancore Some of the Folk paintings are discussed below: depicting mythological and social themes became highly popular at this time. He provided a vital a) Madhubani painting : It is practised in the Mithila link between the traditional Indian art and the region of Bihar. Themes revolve around Hindu contemporary art. deities and epic tales, especially tales of Lord Krisna, and scenes of social events like weddings. • Rabindranath Tagore, Abanindranath Tagore, E.B. Havell and Ananda Kehtish Coomaraswamy b) Phad: scroll paintings (Rajasthan): Phad is a played an important role in the emergence of painted scroll, which depicts stories of epic the Bengal school of Art. The Bengal School dimensions about local deities and legendary had a great flowering at Shantiniketan where heroes. Rabindranath Tagore set up the Kala Bhavan. c) Warli Paintings: Warli tribals of Thane district • Talented artists like Nandalal Bose, Binod Behari in Maharashtra decorate their house walls with Mukherjee and Ramkinkar Baij rendered training paintings depicting their lives: planting saplings, to aspiring artists. carrying grain, dancing, travelling to market and other routine activities of their daily lives. • Gradually some deeper changes took place in the thinking of the English educated urban d) Mithila Paintings: Mithila painting, popularly middle class which began to be reflected in the known as Madhubani art is from the district of expressions of the artists. Increasing awareness the same name in Bihar and is now well-known about British rule, ideals of nationalism and the all over the world. desire for a national identity led to creations e) Patachitra: The patachitra of Orissa depicts which were distinct from earlier art traditions. stories from the famous poem, the Geet Govind, • Another significant development was the and devotional stanzas by ancient poets, singers formation of the Progressive Artists Group in and writers. Bombay in 1948 under Francis Newton Souza. f) Kalamkari : Kalamkari or "pen craft" of The group also included S .H. Raza, M.F. Hussain, Srikalahasti, is executed with a kalam or pen, K.M. Ara, S.K. Bakre and H.A. Gode. This group used for free hand drawing of the subject and broke away from Bengal School of Art and filling in the colours, entirely by hand. Paintings represented the modern forceful art of are usually hand-painted or block-printed on independent India. cotton textile. • In the 1970s artists began to critically survey g) Kalighat paintings: The figures were located in their environment. Daily encounters with poverty picturesque landscape settings, with mountains, and corruption, the political morass of the lakes, rivers and forests.

GS SCORE (18) Buddhism and Jainism

Buddhism • Right Speech: Avoiding slander, gossip, lying, and all forms of untrue and abusive speech. Gautam Buddha founded Buddhism and is known as Supreme Buddha. He was born in Lumbini, a little • Right Conduct: Adhering to the idea of principality of Kapilvastu in modern day Nepal. nonviolence (ahimsa), as well as refraining from any form of stealing or sexual impropriety. Buddhahood or Buddhatva is the state of perfect enlightment attained by a Buddha. This refers to the • Right Means of Making a Living: Not universal and innate property of absolute wisdom. slaughtering animals or working at jobs that force you to violate others. Symbols of 5 great events of Buddha's Life: • Right Mental Attitude or Effort: Avoiding • Buddha's Birth: Lotus & Bull. negative thoughts and emotions, such as anger and jealousy. • The Great Departure (Mahabhinishkramana): Horse. • Right Mindfulness: Having a clear sense of one's mental state and bodily health and feelings. • Enlightment (Nirvana): Bodhi Tree. • Right Concentration: Using meditation to reach • First Sermon (Dhammachakraparivartan): Wheel. the highest level of enlightenment. • Death (Parinirvana):Stupa. Buddhist Literature: Four Noble Truths: Tripitaka: Tripitaka or Three Baskets is a traditional Four noble truths were taught by Buddha in term used for various Buddhist scriptures. It is known Dhammachakraparivartan. They are the core teachings as pali Canon in English. The three pitakas are of Buddhism. SuttaPitaka, VinayaPitaka and AbhidhammaPitaka. • Sorrow: The world is full of sorrow and a) SuttaPitaka: It contains over 10 thousand suttas everything from birth to death brings sorrows in or sutras related to Buddha and his close life. companions. This also deals with the first Buddhist council which was held shortly after • Cause of Sorrow: The cause of sorrow is desire. Buddha's death, dated by the majority of recent It is the un-fulfillment of human desires which scholars around 400 BC, under the patronage of leads him to the vicious cycle of births and rebirths. king Ajatasatru with the monk Mahakasyapa presiding at Rajgir. • Prevention of Sorrow: It is possible to prevent sorrow. Man can get rid of sorrow by triumphing b) VinayaPitaka: The subject matter of VinayPitaka over the desires. is the monastic rules for monks and nuns. It can also be called as Book of Discipline. • The path of Prevention of Sorrow: Man can avoid sorrow by avoiding extremes of life and c) Abhidhammapitaka: It deals with the philosophy following middle path or MadhyamPatipada. The and doctrine of Buddhism appearing in the suttas. life of moderation and self control along with However, it does not contain the systematic pursuance of 8 fold path is essential to prevent philosophical treatises. There are 7 works of the sorrow. AbhidhammaPitaka which most scholars agree that don't represent the words of Buddha himself. The Eightfold Path of Buddhism: Some Terminologies Associated with Buddhism: They are also called the Middle Path and is the system of following these eight divisions of the path to • Nirvana: achieve spiritual enlightenment and cease suffering: The concept of Nirvana in Buddhism is entirely • Right Understanding: Understanding that the different from the Hinduism. Buddhism denied the Four Noble Truths are noble and true. concept of Moksha, however it defines Nirvana has • Right Thought: Determining and resolving to to getting rid of Cycle of Death and birth. It is practice Buddhist faith. achieved in the lifetime itself and not after death. To

GS SCORE (19) achieve nirvana one should follow Moral Code of "Great Vehicle") and the existence of Buddhas Conduct. and Bodhisattvas embodying Buddha Nature.

• Jatakas: d) It allows salvation to be alternatively obtained Jatakas are very much close to folklore literature and through the grace of the Amitbha Buddha by they contain the tales of previous births of Buddha having faith and devoting oneself to mindfulness in poems. The Jataka have also been mentioned in of the Buddha. This sect believes in Mantras. the KhuddakaNikaya. There are 547 poems. e) The main Mahayana sects include Pure Land, • Buddha Charita: Zen, and Vajrayana (or Tantric) Buddhism. Buddha Charita is an epic style Sanskrit work by Jainism Ashavaghosa and was compiled in second century A Jain is a follower of Jina. A Jina is a victor or BC. Dharmaraksa who is known to have translated many works of Buddhism in Chinese, translated this Conqueror. The Jains are followers of certain ascetics work in Chinese in 420AD. It mainly deals with who obtained omniscience and who preached a Buddha's Life. Asvaghosa also wrote a Sanskrit Drama doctrine which promises a super mundane bliss of "SariputraPrakaran" which deals about Sariputta or eternal salvation. Jainism originated centuries before Sariputra the disciple of Buddha. Buddhism, but revived by Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankar of Jainism. • Bodhi Vamsa: There are 24 Tirthankaras of Jainism. The first Bodhi Vamsa is a mix Sanskrit Pali text which was Tirthankara was Rishabhdev and Last 24th composed by Upatissa under the rule of Mahinda IV Tirthankara was Mahavira. of Sri Lanka in 10th century AD. It describes the arrival of branch of Bodhi tree in Sri Lanka and many Mahavira other things which mentioned in Mahavamsa. Kundagrama where Mahavira was born is located in • Hinayana: Muzaffarpur Bihar. a) Hinayana is the orthodox, conservative schools The most notable text about Mahavira is Kalpasutra of Buddhism by AcharyaBhadrabahu I. The first Sanskrit biography b) It don't believe in Idol Worship and try to attain of Mahavira was Vardhamacharitra by Asaga. individual salvation through self discipline and 3 jewels of Jainism meditation. 1. Right faith c) Asoka patronized Hinayana. 2. Right knowledge d) Pali, the language of masses was use by the Hinayana scholars. 3. Right conduct e) It is the dominant form of religion in Cambodia, The principles of Jainism as preached by Mahavir Laos, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Burma, 1. Rejected the authority of Vedas & Vedic rituals. • Mahayana: 2. Did not believe in the existence of god. a) Mahayana Buddhism, also known as the Great 3. Believed in karma & the transmigration of soul. Vehicle, is the form of Buddhism prominent in North Asia, including China, Mongolia, Tibet, 4. Lead great infancies on equality. Korea, and Japan. Around 300 century B.C Jainism was divided into 2 b) This sect believes in the heavenliness of Buddha parts: and believes in Idol Worship. 1. Shwetambara: c) Fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine Svetambara (white-clad) is a term describing its ascetics were based on the possibility of universal practice of wearing white clothes, which sets it apart liberation from suffering for all beings (hence the from the Digambara (sky-clad) Jainas, whose ascetic

GS SCORE (20) practitioners go naked. Svetambara, unlike activities like hunger, thirst, and sleep. Monks in the Digambaras, do not believe that ascetics must practice Digambar tradition do not wear any clothes. They nudity. carry only a broom made up of fallen peacock feathers and a water gourd. Svetambaras also believe that women are able to obtain moksha. They maintain that the 19th One of the most important scholar-monks of Tirthankara, Mallinath, was a woman. Digambara tradition was AcharyaKundakunda. He authored Prakrit texts such as Samayasar and The Svetambara tradition follows the lineage of Pravachansar. Samantabhadra and SiddhasenaDivakara AcharyaSthulibhadraSuri. The Kalpa Sutra mentions were other important monks of this tradition. some of the lineages in ancient times. The Svetambara monastic orders are branches of the Vrahada Order, Jaina Council: which was founded in 937 AD. The most prominent First Council was held at Patliputraby Suthabhandra among the classical orders today are the Kharatara in the beginning of 3rd century BC & resulted in the (founded 1024 AD), the Tapa (founded 1228 AD) compilation of 12 Angas. and the Tristutik. Second council was held at Vallabhi in the 5th century 2. Digambaras: BC under the leadership of Devardhikashmashravan& The Digambar sect of Jainism rejects the authority resulted in the final compilation of 12 Angas& 12 of the Jain Agama compiled by Sthulabhadra. They Upangas. believe that by the time of Dharasena, the twenty- India is the land of religions. India being a secular third teacher after Gandhar Gautama, knowledge of country does not recognise any religion as state only one Anga was there. religion. The Constitution allows freedom of faith, According to Digambar tradition, Mahavir, the last worship and religion. India is the birth place of four Jain tirthankara, never married. He renounced the of the world's major religious traditions, namely world at the age at thirty after taking permission of Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. The other his parents. The Digambara believe that after attaining religions in India are Christianity. Islam, enlightenment, Mahavirawas free from human Zoroastrianism, Judaism and the Bahai faith. Major Indian Religions

A. Hinduism C. Buddhism It is believed that Hinduism was the oldest religion to Though Buddhism originated in India, Now there is come into existence in India. Almost 80% of the less than 1% of the India's population 85 percent of population follows the Hindu religion in India. all the Buddhists in India are concentrated in Hinduism is world's third largest religion after Maharashtra, Arunachal Pradesh and the higher Christianity and Islam. Many aspects of Hindu Himalayan habitats of north western India too have philosophy like Yoga, Ayurvedic medicine, some Buddhist population. After originating in India, Vegetarianism, Karma and reincarnation have been Buddhism spread throughout the central Asia, Sri popularized in the West by Indian Spiritual figures. Lanka, Tibet, China, Mongolia, Korea, Japan and Hinduism has a profound philosophy. The sacred tasks Vietnam. of Hindus are the Vedas, Upanishads, the Gita, the Ramayana and the Mahabharatha. D. Sikhism B. Jainism About 2% of the total population of India form Sikhs In comparison to other religions, Sikhism is a younger Jains form less than one percent of the Indian religion. Sri Guru Nanak Devstarted the Sikh religion population. The states of Gujarat and Rajasthan have He was the first Guru of the Sikhs. Sikhism which the highest concentration of Jain population in India. emerged in the 15th Century tried to bridge the gap Jainism rejected the authority of the Vedas and Vedic between Hinduism and Islam. Though Sikhism is rituals. It did not believe in the existence of God, but dispersed widely over the entire India, their largest it believe in Karma and the transmigration of soul concentration is in Punjab, where they form the (Nirvana). The early Jains discarded the Sanskrit majority of the state's population. It stresses on the language and adopted Prakrit language. devotion of God. Service to mankind, hard work and

GS SCORE (21) dedication towards family life are also important Zoroastrianism is closely related to Judaism, principles of the religion. Christianity and Islam. Zoroastrians worship through prayers and symbolic ceremonies that are conducted E. Islam before a sacred fire which symbolizes their God. Their The second most dominant religion after Hinduism is sacred text is Avesta. Islam. In India, about 12% of the population follows the Islam religion. Though spread all over all parts of Fire plays a central fact in this religion. It represents India. The ratio of Muslim population exceeds the the realm of truth, righteousness & order. national average in Lakshadweep Islands, Jammu and Even Earth & Air are regarded as sacred; while death Kashmir, Assam and West Bengal. Though the is the result of evil. Muslims form only 12 percent of the total population of India, the influence of Islam on Indian society is They believe that dead matter pollutes all that it much stronger. The Muslim population in India is the touches & hence it is placed in the open to the eaten third largest in the world. The shrines of some of the by vultures. (ex: Silence Tower in Mumbai) However, most famous saints of sufism like MoinuddinChishti burial & cremation are also common nowadays. and NizamuddinAuliya are in India. India is also home to some of the most famous monuments of Islamic H. Judaism architecture like the TajMahal and the QutabMinar. Indian Jews are a religious minority of India. Judaism F. Christianity was one of the first foreign religions to arrive in India. According to the 1991 census there were about 5,271 Christianity is the third most dominant religion in Jews in India. Of the total Jewish population in India India. At present there are about 2.3 percent Christians about half live in Manipur and Mizoram and a quarter in India. They are highly concentrated in Goa, Maharashtra, Arunachal Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and live in the city of Mumbai. In Kerala a community Kerala. Christianity came to India with the coming of Jews are seen in the cities of Kannur of Portuguese. (Kodungalloor) and Kochi. G. Zoroastrianism Both Christianity & Islam are derived from Judaism. Zoroastrianism have an ancient history in India. Sacred Book (Set of 5 books) = Torah (1st 5 books Though the total number of Zoroastrains (Parsis) in of HEBREW BIBLE) Indian population is very less yet they continue to be In India, there are 2 Jewish Communities - one of the important religious communities of India. According to 2001 census, there are about 70,000 a) Malayalam Speaking codrinis; and Parsis in India. Most of them live in Mumbai and the b) Marathi Speaking Bene Israel rest in Gujarat. Martial Arts of India

Martial arts is a part of India's ancient culture and a Martial Art State traditional games.Originally a traditional form of Gatka Punjab martial art that started in South India, and now it has Paika Orissa different names and different forms in the culture of the regions in India. Khusti, the Indian Wrestling is Thag Ta Manipur also a part of Indian Martial arts found throughout Kerala the India. Indian martial arts has an important Choliya Uttaranchal influence in the development of modern Asian martial Pang Lhabosol Sikkim arts. Nowadays a sense of self-defense and for fitness lots of people are opting for martial arts. Silambam Tamil Nadu Musti yuddha Uttar Pradesh Mardani Khel Maharashtra Pari Khanda Bihar

GS SCORE (22) Classical Languages

Classical languages are those which are ancient, of an • The literary tradition be original and not borrowed independent nature and not a derivative of any other from another speech community; tradition. • The classical language and literature being distinct The criteria evolved by Government to determine from modern, there may also be a discontinuity declaration of a language as a Classical language is as between the classical language and its later forms under:- or its offshoots. • High antiquity of its early texts/recorded history Today six languages are included in the list of Classical over a period of 1500-2000 years; Languages: Tamil (since 2004) Sanskrit (since 2005) Telugu (since 2008) Kannada (Since 2008) Malayalam • A body of ancient literature/texts, which is (since 2013) Odiya (since 2014). considered a valuable heritage by generations of speakers; Printing, Weaving and Embroidery Styles in India India has a wide range of textiles of varied designs conditions, cultural influences and trade contacts. and manufactured by numerous techniques when The styles depend upon the location of the place, compared to other countries in the world. The styles climatic conditions, cultural influences and trade depend upon the location of the place, climatic contacts. Printing, Weaving and Embroidery Styles City/State Phulkari Punjab Baluchari Murshidabad (West Bengal) Kantha Embroidery West Bengal and Bihar Block Printing Rajasthan and Gujarat Resist Printing Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu Bandhni Gujarat Bhandej Rajasthan Pochampalli Andhra Pradesh Kota Rajasthan Zardozi Varanasi, Lucknow, Surat, Ajmer, Bhopal and Hyderabad Chikankari Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh) Jamdani Tanda (Uttar Pradesh) Ikat Andhra Pradesh and Orissa Kasuti Karnataka Kashmiri or Kashida Jammu and Kashmir Shamilami Manipur Traditional Sarees/Fabric of India Sarees/Fabric City/State Kanjeevaram Kanchipuram (Tamil Nadu) Zamdani, Tant West Bengal Paithani Maharashtra PattuSaree Kerala Pochampally Andhra Pradesh/ Telengana GotaSaree Rajasthan and UP Chanderi Madhya Pradesh Bomkai, Kotki, Sambalpuri Orissa Kota Rajasthan

* Note: The topic “Youth Affaris & Sports” will be covered in India Year Book.  GS SCORE (23)