CEU eTD Collection Second Reader: Prof. Viktor Karády Prof. Viktor Reader: Second Supervisor: Prof. András Ger Between Volk andStaat –TheHungarian Germanminority under Károlyi,Kun andBethlen, 1918-1924 In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Ę Central Central University European by Sebastian Garthoff by Sebastian History Department Budapest, Hungary Budapest, Master of Arts Submitted to Submitted 2008 CEU eTD Collection such instructions may no be made without the written permission of the Author. with in accordance made copies made.Further of such form any copies page mustapart This librarian. the from obtained be may Details Library. European Central in the lodged and Author bythe given instructions the with in accordance only made be may part, or Copyrightin the text of this thesis rests with the author. Copies by any process, either in full Statement ofCopyright i CEU eTD Collection Swabian problem in order to get away rhetoric.Swabian problemin victim-traitor togetaway from order short-sighted the Hungarian- of the the context widens paper this Moreover, seemedclear. already state, and minority sides, both on directions future the when regime, Bethlen the of consolidation the and Nationalities for Ministry the of abolishment the plebiscite, Sopron the till revolutions i.e.from lies1924, between Hungarian the My focusand time the period onthe of 1918 government. the against achieve with together or their to goals, tried awakening Swabians development. instate andminority rooted stoodbehind factors and– were time which this this both – sides 1930son inwhatfutureextent the radicalization the to answer thequestion In Iwill this leadership and sense, state. interaction between German Hungarian future the 1918 and 1919in regard to Germanthe minority and how thus show laidthis the basis for investigate is the time The main to paper of this of revolutions of Hungarian purpose the Abstract Beingboth boundto Volk and Staat , it is also of interest regarding how the political the how regarding interest of is also it , ii CEU eTD Collection Bibliography...... 76 Conclusion...... 72 5. Bethlen’s ...... 60 tactical moves 4. The metamorphosis ...... 50 of Jakob Bleyer 3. The long 1919...... 34 2. First steps...... 25 1. Nationalizing Hungary...... 12 ...... 1 Introduction Table of contents 5.3 The school problem...... 68 5.2 The Ungarländische Deutsche Volksbildungsverein...... 65 5.1 Dead end after Trianon...... 60 4.3 Opponents or united on one way ...... 56 – Bleyer and Gratz 4.2 Between ...... 53 state and people 4.1 For ...... 50 state and people 3.4 Trianon and the ...... 45 Sopron plebiscite 3.3 Bleyer in Jászi’s ...... 40 footsteps 3.2 Communism ...... 36 and nationalities 3.1 Post-war Hungary from ...... 34 Germany’s point of view 2.2 ...... 30 Jászi’s legacy 2.1 Károlyi, Jászi and ...... 25 the minority issue 1.3 The case of Gyula Szekf 1.2 Creating a state of Magyars...... 15 1.1 Nationalizing a state...... 12 5.1.1 Victory of opportunism – The ...... 63 case of György Steuer 3.3.1 Impact of Hungarian refugees on domestic politics...... 44 Ħ ...... 18 iii CEU eTD Collection West Germany, as mid-1980s, aslate the so-called during the remained one mostof the controversial inmodern history.topics German and European In Second World War.Furthermore, thehistory German minoritiesof in hasEurope Eastern the after Hungary from expulsion their of context the in seen widely is origin, Swabian of brought the problematic of this ‘people with the two souls’ to the point. iswho German isand who Hungarian MaybeintendingGerman?” without it, this guest Spannenberger wrote his dissertation about the “The the about dissertation his wrote Spannenberger in the summer of 2007 Mohács boat trip and myjournalisticBudapest to ina from inof resulting work the context speaking weekly German inthe in Trianon-Hungary” history “German title the under series piece three researching Istarted that topic a andfinally thispublished was war.Itdueto facton the Nazis during true before as 1939and as hadcolumn’ becausea ‘fifth fate, acted they their deserved Germans ethnic the that was line official the hand, other the on Europe, Eastern In regime. Nazi the of crimes the relativize to used still was East the from Germans of place on February February 24 place on 2 November2006. scientific conference “The conference scientific of the be arguedaguest made”, hasto A Magyars. notdifference but “We areHungarians, Introduction 1 Sebastian Garthoff,„Donaugebunden. Eine ungarndeutsche Spurensuche.“ Sebastian Garthoff, „Deutsche Geschichte in Trianon-Ungarn.“ Geschichte „Deutsche Garthoff, Sebastian The history of the so-called Swabians, of whom just a minor percentage wasreally a minor percentage just of whom so-called Swabians, the of The history While doing research on Spannenberger. issue Norbertthe While doingon research Icontacted Pester Lloyd th 2 , 2007, inHe wentfurther Budapest. , 2007, is and “Who asked: Hungarian, , only convinced me more to make this the topic for my MA thesis. Volksbund 1 . My ongoing contacts with the Hungarian Germans, mainly Germans, Hungarian the with contacts ongoing My . of in of Germans the Hungary 1938-1945” which took 1 Volksbund Pester Lloyd Historikerstreit Pester Lloyd of the Germans in Hungary , 25 October; 10 November; 8 November; 10 October; 25 , , 30 May 2007. , the expulsion , the CEU eTD Collection December 5 December MinisterforNationalities, in 1923 founded he the became 1919 he In Budapest. of University the at teacher a private as German taught he Leipzig and Freiburg 6 politics till 1945. He was deportedHungarian of to old man’ the Soviet‘grand the as Unionacted he and diedresign his under After unsolved name. to his circumstances. connected were era Horthy the and leader of Hungarian the peace delegation inParis. As prime minister 1921-31 the ‘consolidation’ of Hungary workedhe as a local politician, 1918-1920 he acted as main organizerof counterrevolutionarythe forces und Ignác Romsics – “one of the last great figures of Hungarian conservative-nationalistic politics”. From 1901-18 understand with a look on understand look on with a timesthe of 1918/19,because revolutions the Horthy While Germans. asking himfor advicehe that whole the mentioned “is issue only to 5 World War II. Horthy was styled “His Serene Highness the Regent of the kingdom of Hungary”. 4 2002). Oldenbourg, minority policies of Bethlen of policies minority 1938-1945 underHorthy and Hitler” 3 infiltrated ethnic and forcedinfiltrated organizations upwardly mobile tochangetheir Germans names. leaders, harassedGerman publication community the of papers, German prevented ones, Hungarian with them merged or schools German down closed it campaign: assimilation Hungarian Atleastrevisionism. until Hungarian1936, the continuedgovernment its Bleyer demanded only cultural and rights hethough andhis organization supported leadervilified German of the the public figures maximize Hungarian and to in Inthe1920sandearly 1930s, theirpoliticians rights. order inandorganizations neighbouring states the the mobilization international of opinion public whenevertraitors they raised issueofminority the rights, andits own support of Hungarian as brand to quick were they whom Germans, ethnic towards policy its between contradiction recognize the failed to state Hungarian the line.Ironically, from assimilation this departed government Hungarian no that out comes It war. the after minorities surviving country’s the assimilate thelargestof thewas approximately 550.000 Germans, to determined minoritymuch for much liberalism respecttoo the Hungarianpolitical elite rights, too and of resultwas the i.e.tragedy national the Hungary, of traditional destruction from the lesson Jakob Bleyer was born on January 25 Count István Bethlen was born on October 3 Miklós Horthy (1868-1957) was theRegent of Hungary during the interwaryears and throughout most of Norbert Spannenberger, th , 1933, in Budapest. Der Volksbund der Deutschen unter Horthy undHitler, 1938-1945 5 were a sole result of this”. He argued that after having drawn a th , 1874 ,in the village Tscheb (Bacska).After hisstudies in Budapest, 3 and filledagapin thus history the of Hungarian the rd, 1874, in Gernyeszeg. He was – according to the words of Ungarländische Deutsche Volksbildungsverein 2 Kulturverein , Jakob Bleyer Jakob , (München: 6 , even though even , . He died on 4 and the and CEU eTD Collection Furthermore, a strong assimilation process took place after the placeafter took process a strong assimilation Furthermore, cultural historicaland traditions.Thus place. a common not take couldconscious linguistic, area, andcommon lackeda close settlement they Saxons, Transylvanian for the Except country. – the all over were dispersed Croats and Romanians Serbs, Slovaks, to the in contrast – Germans the that shows This andTolna. Pécs Baranya, of counties Hungarian i.e. western the Turkey, Swabian so-called and the the Bácska Bánát, the Swabians settled the occupation Turkish the of end the after century, nineteenth and eighteenth the During to TransylvaniaUpper Hungary Saxons) (the andto in today’s Slovakia ZipserSaxons). (the Árpáds the in of time the came settlers German earliest The period. asingle over developed nationalities in Hungary for avarious reasons. They did notform a tight community that had seemedclear. already and state, the consolidation of the Bethlen regime, when the future directions and on Nationalities both for sides, Ministry minoritythe of abolishment the plebiscite, Sopron the till revolutions My focus lies onthe betweenperiod 1918 and i.e. 1924, from timethe of Hungarianthe government. achievetogether with against the awakening Swabians or triedtheir to goals, lot of Hungarian Germans to magyarize their names in order to achieve social advance. i.e.both being boundto development. As Imentioned inthebeginning term the ‘peopleof souls’,the with two the stoodbehind in andwhichfactors state and minority this – were rooted time this whatin both futureradicalizationanswersides – extentthe the 1930son thequestion to Inthis Iwill sense, leadership state. and German interaction between Hungarian future the 1918 and 1919in regard tothe German minority and thusshowhowthis laid thebasis for 1835 and 1956. Together withkinsmen this affected approximately 500.000 persons. 7 According to Ferenc Szávai (Corvinus) 300.000 applications for changing names were handed in between in handed were names changing for applications 300.000 (Corvinus) Szávai Ferenc to According The situation of the Germans was essentially different from that of of other from the that different wasessentially Germans the of The situation My main willbe investigate purpose the to of time Hungarianthe of revolutions Volk and Staat , it is also of interest regarding how the political the how regarding interest of is also it , 3 Ausgleich in 1867, forcing a 7 Not CEU eTD Collection kept on fighting for concessions for the German minority. What followed was a period of in hisearly 1933 till of death a radicalization and Bleyer, who ledand state the minority to in Bethlen era.Thismarks history turning afirst between German relations point the the of back andfor the Nationalities Ministry inwas abolished 1922 after the beginning of the with hostilitiesstepped Bleyer Highly soon from Swabianbourgeousie. treated assimilated a politician Friedrich, István of cabinet the in Nationalities for Minister a time a short for became Bleyer Kun-regime, the in against Putsch the participating After period. interwar the minority during German of the figure became leading newcomerbut the in stage 1917 asa Hungary highly name with are associated of Bleyer, whoJakob stepped on politicalthe the the successor states as limitations of their sovereignty. by wereresented treaties The assumed. obligations of executions the practiceenforcing of Worldmeans Warthe minority grievances remove werefoundtreaties not and no could in in German year Party),Peoples’ 1908, one after Apponyithe Lex so-called the Party, Hungarian firstGerman the Hungarian (mainly Germans emerged,followedTransylvanian Saxons) by foundationthe of importance to prevent the culture of be emphasized. needs to persons the minorities. the or group the of origin ethnic the whenever study this throughout used is In Hungarian, than 1876 a political movementcase of Gyula of the Gömbös in be the seen as can theirpeople own against and ultranationalists into a fewlater turned with his rambling German origin. Thus, the word Magyar, rather impossible for minorities to almost passbecame them. it Thesethat difficulty regulations such of were tests valid competency not of onlylanguage forpassing state-supported the required It also institutions, Hungarian. teaching of Hungarianthe language in elementary schools inwhich the the language of mandated instruction it was not changes, curriculum Besides school. primary the in already minority of the assimilation 8 The ‘Lex Apponyi’ of 1907 was the culmination of the school system in Hungary that forced to achieve The political efforts of the traditionally apolitical and rural German minority in minority German rural and apolitical traditionally the of efforts political The afew upto Within schools disappeared, then decades,nationality significant of Ungarländische Deutsche Volkspartei 4 8 . After the First the . After (Hungarian CEU eTD Collection minister as well as presidentpublic life. Dueto highthe respect for his person –he wasfor example finance andforeign of the German sawminority, identity Gratz as a private goodthatshouldbe in cultivated in notprivate, different way of consciousness. While Bleyer stood for the self-consciousness of the a differentpath. Both Bleyer – and Gratz though friends inprivate life –represented a already radicalized purposes. Gustav Gratz, as further important figure of this time, followed 2005. and, is wishof the to author, according the alsoavailablein Hungarian translation since Spannenberger by whose investigated Norbert Swabiansthe just 1933,atopic from was side emerged after that German the well in interest real a this, from Apart issue. minority the with calculate always could Germany Reich in toachieveorder her goal of revision. Knowing of Hungary’s aims for revision, tiesbound German the with to tried leadership Hungarian Germany.i.e.: The herself,than revision of Trianon. Toachieve these goals Hungary was dependent more on powerful allies forgetintegrity the later, not main the should and territorial thus, goal: preserving the disintegrating Hungary. post-war have To ahunch Hungary’sabout aims,political one 1919 under Béla Kunthis adopted minority in term,within especially regardof German the Republic Soviet Hungarian the whatextent to regard to interestis of It Empire. Tsarist the andminority. between government mediator of leaderthe later Basch, Anton Franz student Bleyer’s promises upto secondthe half of 1920swhenthe following the generation, by represented Gustav Gratz,“ 9 of the most supported that minority schools.denominations, religious various of the jurisdiction the under those for also but GünterSchödl, „Trianon-Ungarn und die deutsche Minderheitenpolitik.Zu den„Lebenserinnerungen von In 1916Lenin hadappeal non-Russians coined theto term ‘self-determination’ in to Südostdeutsches Archiv 26/27 (1983/84):139-151. 9 5 Volksbildungsverein Volksbund Volksbund soon turned into a standard work – as such he served as a , started his under work , started CEU eTD Collection incorporated were loyal to the sovereign power in the land. Otherwise, instead wereloyal intheland. of sovereign the promoting incorporated power Otherwise, to population strengthwould representgreater only if minority substantial the populations thus sizelarger and greater newstates for the convinced that were Powers The Great new war. chauvinismnot achieve which could butonlycreatenew anything, innerconvulsions and Hungarian German minority between minority German Hungarian extensively light totheissuecontributed to up the but basis for developmentof the the much German blood run in the veins of the ruling aristocracy, gentry and clergy. that disregarding maybe citizens, Hungarian all from nation political and cultural Magyar the to devotion undivided demanding began Magyars the war, the after dismemberment Hungary’s following But state. Hungarian the to loyalty their harmonizing difficulty by mostwere finally World terminated WarOne, Swabianshadno war.Before the beginnings ambitious but modest web.These a more to effective movements single German 1918 he 1918 he was memberof Hungarian,the 1919-1930 member ofthe Romanian parliament. 1931-1932 washe 12 Volkspartei magyarization. In Vienna kepthe onworking as a publicist and in 1906 founded against fight the his of because retire to forced was he 1892 In inparliament. districts Transylvanian several 11 the new Europe encouraged German leader like leader encouraged German Edmund Steinacker and discontent caused already of 1867 Law Nationality the of The non-compliance moving assimilated tothe after town. wassoon intelligence theanyway that Swabian rare overcome the difficultiesemerged thatfrom does not Hungarian the surprisechauvinism. It second, and, consciousness national own the up hold to necessary was it First, challenges. faced two place immediately they took Germans Hungarian of the amovement If thus ininterwar period. in Central states itthe Europe tothe of Brubaker put East regard 10 The teacher andpoliticianRudolf Brandsch was born in1880 inthe Transylvanian townMediasch. 1910- for representative was he 1875-1888 Debrecen. in 1839 in born was preacher, of a son Steinacker, Edmund Rogers Brubaker, It isnot aim the what paperthis of torepeat Spannenberger Norbert already Hungary, however, tried to continue her way as a ‘nationalizing state’, asRoger state’, continue a‘nationalizing herway triedas however, to Hungary, . (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). Nationalism reframed. National minorities, nationalizing states and external homelands in Volk 6 and 11 and later Rudolf Brandsch Staat in the framework of national Ungarländische Deutsche 12 tolink the 10 CEU eTD Collection During the Hungarian Soviet Republic he fled from Hungary and spend most of the rest of his life in the in life of his Unitedrest States.of the most spend and Hungary from fled he Republic Soviet Hungarian the During journal 13 died in 1953 Romanianin prison. several rights for the minorities. Especially Oszkár Jászi Oszkár Especially minorities. the for rights several granted government the borders Hungary’s save to order In psychosis. war of state a in Republic 1919.Hungary Communist’s infoundherself till the at thisMarch timetakeover Trianon-Hungary. scholar, Gyula Szekf Hungarian the of case in the show will I as fashion, historical/political in a act and think to connection i.e.the and a‘consciousness of between historical politics scholarship, history’, in which issuesthe regardedin thesisthis place. took is It interest therefore of toconsider i.e. circumstances the in Hungary, nationalism interwar the lieon A focus will press. expert morein than afootnote not herself is Alsooften Hungary historiography.role inwestern effect. opposite the precisely have will they that proved experience all whereas Magyars, into Slovaks imagined that and still minorities on the Magyarization of forceexternals the duty to had apatriotic such effortsit believed Hungarians that tradition (ethnic) among a chauvinistic internal strife. However, to dangerous through these states of weakening bedenationalize the would result stability,the greater the minorities will really turn Germans or Under State Secretary for ethnical minorities and founder of the founder and minorities ethnical for Secretary State Under 1918 till June 1920. Within experienced Hungary democracy,1918 till communism, June 1920. period this themselvespresented in disagreement. glorious side other the on Germans Hungarian the be shown, will As analysed. be will Nationalities Oszkár Jászi (1875-1957) was aHungarian Social Scientist Politician.and He founded the progressive Huszadik század In the second chapter my main focus will lie on the first months of of my first months Hungarian the lie the will main focus on In thesecond chapter a minor just plays minority German Hungarian the that show further will paper This The year 1919is in probably longest the history.Hungarian lastedfrom It October (20 Ħ , whose ideas had influence, whose a huge oncontemporary in thinking th Century). Under the Károlyi regime he served as Minister forNationalities. 7 Verband der Deutschen in Großrumänien 13 andhis workasMinister for . He CEU eTD Collection to create own associations or at least demand the fulfilment of their given rights. question in order to show the difficulties the of foundation the Germany minority faced as soon regime.as they tried The dissolution timethe after theHungarian of of revolutions 1918/19 andyears the first of Bethlen the the Ministry for Nationalities is my thesis of lastsection fifth and in the me concerns What power. assumed when Bethlen will be considered as well as the certain of his certain of speechesatthe beginninghis and end of political the activity. and the Peace Treaty of Trianon. The changes inhis thinking will be evaluated through time revolutions the the of life after andsocial public changes inHungarian connected to the is directly nevertheless It life. his of issues problematic most the to belongs metamorphosis changes inthe conceptual of thinking Bleyer duringthe 1920s. Bleyer’sJakob for distrust the any towards inGerman element Hungary. mainlythe German inhabitedAustria Burgenland to and showthus how this paved theway Republic underBélaKun Soviet Hungarian the of time the on lay will attention main My in 1921. plebiscite Sopron the to up 1920 June in Trianon of Treaty the and soil Hungarian on regime communist first the of establishment the between time the on focus will I section this In thesis. my of centre eighttried out, cabinets andrival Hence, two ‘thelonggovernments. 1919’standsin the Romanian occupation and the White Terror of Horthy. Four systems of government were Paris until he turned against Rákosithe regime (1949). establish connections forDanube a Confederation.He returned toHungary in 1946and became ambassador in Bourgeois Democratic Revolution. He lived inexile in France and in England (from 1919) where he tried to fought for ending the War from 1916 onwards. He became Prime Minister of the Government of the successful15 Hungarian Soviet Republic, fora brief period in 1919. 14 Mihály Károlyi (1875-1955)was a Hungarian politician, memoir writer count.and As head of his party he BélaKun (1886-1938) was aHungarian Communist politician, who ruled Hungary, the as leaderof the In contrast to Károlyi In the fourth chapter of this thesis I move to the difficult task of working out the Ungarländische Volksbildungsverein Ungarländische Deutsche 14 . Furthermore, Iwill regard the Sopron plebiscite that transferred 15 and Kun, the Treaty of Trianon was already a 8 (UDV) and the school the and (UDV) fait accompli fait CEU eTD Collection York: Columbia Universitz Press,1977). 17 politics in counterrevolutionarythe regime) (Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1975). including the minority policies Bethlenthe of andthe regime plebisciteSopron in which he of country, the picture contemporary asharp drew thus and hisexperiences relied own on period. inter-war the in Hungary on view expert’s an provides Macartney, C.A. scholar, British The conclusions. However,two partieshe the between compromise wasfair a losespsychosis war from always suffering Hungary a In consciousness. hindered himself by the deceitfula nationalizing promises inperiod. inter-war of in the relations thedetails Swabian-Hungarian Bethlen administration. view the on aconcise Spira offers Thomas andrecriminations. common stereotypes and describingand itsHungary timid political time of and revolutions the in after 1918/19. and articulation doesandnationality the of scientific Hungarian policiesat the development approach. Heregardsthe up tonot the a first comeGerman yearshistoriography. of theto Bethlenfruitful regime.minority He refusesIn HungaryVolksbund Béla andthatBellér modified conceptions was justSimilar newfigure stepped stage. on the different asBleyer 1917a with actors when other theappears firstin the person awakened whoof relations did minority between emerge againinand state just thebeginning of 1930s the Franz worked Anton Basch, later the on of foundation leaderthe of issuethe to presentsin witha little decisive pointfinally government sense the the that allowed the national a history in interwar Hungary isidentical quiet with cabinetthe Bethlen, year the 1924 16 Thomas Spira, Thomas Béla Bellér, Béla Strangely, the topic concerning me in this paper found rather less attention in found attention less me paper rather in topic concerning this Strangely, the firstThis Although of paper endswith year1924. period the Hungarianthe German . Az ellenforradalom nemzetségi politikájának kialakulása German-Hungarian Relations andthe Swabian Problem.From Károlyi toGömbös Ungarländische Deutsche Volksbildungsverein Deutsche Ungarländische 18 While visiting often in Hungary the 1920s and 1930sMacartney 16 9 He mainly focuses on the German minority German the on focuses mainly He 17 He describes the interaction between interaction the Hedescribes (The development of the Nationality . A turning point inA the . point turning (New CEU eTD Collection 21 20 2007). time of their expulsion after the Second World War. Friedrich Spiegel-Schmidt’s essays Spiegel-Schmidt’s Friedrich War.World Second the after expulsion time of their butnot only focusedon merely, the theirpeople,of on Spannenberger, history the worked German history. of buttopics unfortunatelyminor just a of percentage dealtauthors with explicit Hungarian Südostdeutsches Archiv and with hisquarrels Hungarian the for cultural government Periodicals likerights. convictions. Thiscontains the organisation of a HungarianGerman cultural representation political his as well as identity of concept Bleyer’s on light throw to able thus is She However, Schwind was the first and only one who had access to the literary estate of Bleyer. Swabianthe background be of workcannot authorthe the be expectedcritical. too to leader.of Swabian the biographeron HedwigSchwindtheboth politics lifeand the sides. Jakob Bleyer’s describes radicalization increasing the shows thus and articulation political for efforts German well as Trianon-Hungary. in policy minority honest in hisspeeches the period and essays theinter-warproblemsduring effectiveof an and in national Hungarian thinking. Itthus grouparoundGömbös. the changes continuitiesshows the and i.e Jászi’sradicals or citizenship and the understanding of what is ‘Magyar’ of certain actors in Hungarian history, 19 of Hungarian nationalism from the 19th century present times. nationalism of from to 19thcentury the Hungarian creation the reconsiders Gyurgyák János of publication recent most the Moreover, part. took 18 Hedwig Schwind, Gustav Gratz. János Gyurgyák. C.A. Macartney. It lies in the nature of things that scholars of Hungarian German origin, including The ‘Hungarian with German origin’, as Gratz himself described his identity, reflects Deutschungarische Probleme Hungary Ezzé lett magyar hazátok Jakob Bleyer 21 (1957-2004) (London: Ernst Benn, 1934). Written just a few years after Bleyer’s death and bearing in mind bearing and death Bleyer’s after years a few just Written (München: Süd-Ost-Institut, 1960). (This became out of your Hungarian home) (Budapest: Osiris, (Budapest: home) Hungarian your of out became (This or (Budapest:Neues Sonntagsblatt, 1938). SueviaPannonica 20 10 Gratz evaluates Hungarian minority policy as policy minority Hungarian evaluates Gratz are characterized by a wide by awide range arecharacterized 19 It includes viewon It the CEU eTD Collection footnote. Itis also the aim of this paper tolink these two approaches. contrary, when dealing with these topics the German minority is often worth not more than a the On studies. minority or nationalism recent to a reference find could I publication no Innearly isolated. rather be existence passits seems to historiography Hungarian Germans Deutschtümelei gradeof by as often interesta certain butdisturbed well they are were of great against ascan directed state, the befound in later propaganda. Hungarian nationalist way no in was that counterrevolution the in role important their shows thus He revolutions. Hungarian the of time the at played Germans role the and events ‘big’ the behind for me.interest great wereof thus (11/1983): 69-94. (11/1983): 4-18; Idem, „Jakob Bleyerin der neueren ungarischen Geschichtsschreibung, “ Archiv zwischen dem Putsch gegen Peidl und derÖdenburger Volksabstimmung (1919-1921),“ Deutschen in Ungarn,“ 22 FriedrichSpiegel-Schmidt, „Die Arbeiterbewegung 1918/19 in Ungarn mitbesondererBerücksichtigung der 30/31(1987/88): 78-111; Idem,„Die kulturpolitische KonzeptionJakob Bleyers, “ Numerous published and unpublished conference papers from published papersfrom Numerous historians unpublished conference and Swabian , i.e. the petty or excessive display of Germanness. It appears further thatthe appears It of Germanness. display excessive petty i.e.the or , Südostdeutsches Archiv 22 The author offers detailed information about the events the about information detailed offers author The 26/27 (1983/84): 100-109; Idem,„Das Deutschtum Ungarns 11 Südostdeutsches Sueva Pannonica Sueva Pannonica CEU eTD Collection not only not only local butalso on andracial thinking Social Darwinism, on cultural that traditions argued, ideathe Turda between ofnational in superiority Hungary 1880 and 1918wasbased As by Hungary for Marius ‘making similar’. nationalism nationalities represented the of happened as early as after the compromise from 1867, and aimed eliminateto the danger the place. This took inlanguage thepolicy Magyarization of become and customs Magyar fromHungarian state a cultural a political into concept andby enjoining the nationalities to inHungarian nationalistic thought By period. interwar the transforming the unitary in element key a becomes nation’ Hungarian undividable and ‘one the of principle the Thus, enlightenment. the since historiography in Hungarian element a key was tribes, German and of in seaSlavic the declineof Hungariandom i.e. the prophecy’, ‘Herderian The fearof the astate 1.1 Nationalizing remaining nationalities. the among convulsions inner new created only they however, efforts, ‘nationalizing’ urged countries creation of the homogenized ethnically Central In Europe theirof states. policies for the interwar of framework wholeserves asa Thisconcept states’. of ‘nationalizing concept Brubaker’s of Central Europe. Iwill examineRogers serves Moreover, The superiority asakey element. of thinking. races After the breakdownconclusions about the interaction between historiographyof and contemporarythe political empires, The aim examine sectionthis isof to Hungarian inpolitical thought 1920s the and thusdraw the small 1. Nationalizing Hungary 12 CEU eTD Collection 25 24 2004), 6. the other hand, nationalization can be directed at spheres of practice rather than groups of groups atspheres than of rather practice otherthe hand, nationalizationcanbedirected On as awhole. citizenry for the asnormative conceived are characteristics whose putative Accordingit Brubaker,involves to population a target somesimilar to population, reference dominant elites as nation-states, as the states of and for particular ethno-cultural nations” ethno-cultural particular for of and states asthe nation-states, as elites dominant their by conceived are that “states are these definition, his In period. interwar the in Europe empires. situation of the new emerged domestic statesthe givesof impression an states ‘nationalizing’ ideasof Brubaker, whose Rogers in Central East Europe afterscholarship andcontemporary and politics Thethinking. overall is framework provided by the breakdown of the old Szekf Gyula scholar caseof Hungarian the the HungarianHanák Sugarabout nationalism Peter and Magyarization,and alsoexamine Iwill insecurity. inner ideas tothe of with Alongside combined irresponsibility a deep Péter deformed as well: befitting one’s own nation, national vanity, moral claims and moral political character the character, societal the thedeforming of and with consequence, logical society. Hungarian of fabric social and political intellectual, in the ingrained were 23 freedoms to secede from Hungary.secede from to freedoms lesson non-Hungarian nationalities1848/49 that the of speaking woulduse democratic the was it Bibó, István to According War. World First the following years in the continuing say to if not re-emerging superiority, national of idea the of definition Magyar the for becameof survival ideasof struggle ultimately of part nation’, the ‘ruling the race and politicians validated in theirnationalHungary about assumptions insuperiority. Seen terms and intellectuals which with rhetoric and imagery vocabulary, the provided traditions these Brubaker, István Bibó. István Marius Turda. Brubaker created the term of ‘nationalizing’ countries for the states of Central of East states the for countries term ‘nationalizing’ the of Brubaker created Nationalism reframed Die Misere der osteuropäischen Kleinstaaterei The idea of national superiority in Central Europe, 1880-1918 , 79. 24 Turning away from ideas seemedthe thus from democratic Turningaway 13 Ħ , in order to show the interaction between interaction toshow the , inorder (Frankfurt a.M.: Verlag Neue Kritik, 1992), 29. (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen, 23 In turn, In 25 . CEU eTD Collection Hungaricums in, for instance, Vienna and in,for instance, Vienna Berlin. Hungaricums fundamentally foundationthe theeducationsupported system changed and Collegium the of by He forKunoKnebelsberg. Education, carried nationalism, out Minister the new so-called in the be seen can this, Hungary of case the In nation. thecore hegemony of political or welfare, flourishing, economic predominance, demographic language, cultural promote the to anddomains settings of variety in a needed is action specific idea that (4) the state, the of rightful its ownership despite expressed adequately or realized arenot interests of polity asthe polity exists the that polity, the owns legitimately nation core the idea that the distinguished from the citizenry or permanent resident population of the state as a whole, (2) sharply and terms, in ethno-cultural defined nationality, or nation core a of existence the characteristicsflourishing, political or hegemony of ethno-cultural core the nation. distinguishes Brubakers economic of preponderance, demographic language, the promote culture, actionto undertake a nationalizing state using the following seven elements: (1) the assimilationist. cultural and economic political, of and territory of but Germans, of not nationalization the at directed They were life within state. the of citizens it. unassimilated, if culturally loyal, into Thus, them turning at nor minorities, of Brubaker considers assimilation ethno-cultural the at neither directed were thus nationalization of and practices them as differentialist,fundamental difference. Instead of seeking alterto identities, it takes them as given. Policiesnot presumed on basis of their the treatment it differential prescribes similar, make people people. In this sense it involves dissimilation rather than assimilation. Far from seeking to 26 Ibd., 80. and for To compensate and to perceive past discrimination, nationalizing states urgeand nationalizing states perceive pastdiscrimination, compensate and to To the core nation, (3) the idea that the core nation is not flourishing, that its specific that flourishing, isnot nation core the idea that (3) the nation, core the 26 14 CEU eTD Collection formal and informal andpolicies practices informed by ideasthe above.outlined organizations, adoption the non-state of orof and(7) officialsagencies, state, within the or in an effort itsand interests, promote (6)mobilization thebasis ideas variety in on of these a of settings to shape the safeguardto own state haditbefore its nation the against previous discrimination for correct policies justificationor of such action as remedialpractices or compensatory, as needed to counterbalance and of the state, of particular organizations,
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