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Forest Contribution to Climate Change Mitigation: Management Oriented to Carbon Capture and Storage

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Forest Contribution to Climate Change Mitigation: Management Oriented to Carbon Capture and Storage climate Review Forest Contribution to Climate Change Mitigation: Management Oriented to Carbon Capture and Storage Leonel J.R. Nunes 1,* , Catarina I.R. Meireles 1 , Carlos J. Pinto Gomes 1,2 and Nuno M.C. Almeida Ribeiro 1,3 1 ICAAM—Instituto de Ciências Agrárias e Ambientais Mediterrânicas, Universidade de Évora, 7000-083 Évora, Portugal; [email protected] (C.I.R.M.); [email protected] (C.J.P.G.); [email protected] (N.M.C.A.R.) 2 Departamento da Paisagem, Ambiente e Ordenamento, Universidade de Évora, 7000-671 Évora, Portugal 3 Departamento de Fitotecnia, Universidade de Évora, 7000-083 Évora, Portugal * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +351-266-745-334 Received: 3 December 2019; Accepted: 25 January 2020; Published: 27 January 2020 Abstract: Today, climate change is assumed by many researchers and scholars as a certainty and is presented as the biggest challenge humanity has ever faced. It is commonly accepted that anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions are the main cause that is accelerating the process. Therefore, it is urgent to find solutions to mitigate climate change, mainly because the intense effects have already been felt, in many cases in the form of the occurrence of extremely violent weather events. Forests are undoubtedly one of the most effective and easiest ways to provide the function of carbon sinks. However, it is essential and convenient to analyze the permanence time of this carbon in forests, because this permanence time depends directly on the forest management model used. This article aims to analyze forest management models from the perspective of carbon residence time in temperate forests, dividing the models into three types, namely carbon conservation models, carbon storage models, and carbon substitution models, according to their ability to contribute to functioning as carbon sinks, thereby contributing to the mitigation of climate change. Keywords: forest management; climate change; carbon sinks; carbon cycle 1. Introduction Mankind is currently facing one of the greatest challenges it has ever faced, and must be prepared to efficiently solve and adapt to the problem, because even if organized in an integrated and global manner, the solution will not be immediate [1–3]. Climate change is a reality which is assumed almost unanimously by the scientific community, but also by the majority of the general population who, even without understanding the technical and scientific components associated with the phenomena, feel the implications and changes in their daily lives [4–6]. An example of these situations is the occurrence of extreme weather phenomena, in particular, concerning forest environments, which have a direct consequence by increasing the occurrence of rural fires and changing environmental conditions that lead to the proliferation of exotic forest species that could present an invasive behavior due to a faster adaptation to the new climatic parameters [7–10]. Assuming that an increasing concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere is the main cause of climate change acceleration, without discussing the origin of this CO2 (Figure1), it seems clear that the first steps to mitigate the changes are any that can somehow reduce this CO2 concentration [11–14]. However, increasing concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere can be attributed to anthropic activity in the increments of 7.8 0.8 PgC yr-1 and 1.1 0.8 PgC yr-1, respectively, associated with fossil fuel use ± ± and land use change [15]. In other words, it is a set of all the measures that are implemented to have Climate 2020, 8, 21; doi:10.3390/cli8020021 www.mdpi.com/journal/climate Climate 2020, 8, 21 2 of 20 CO2 sequestered from the atmosphere (Figure2), but at the same time stored for as long as possible, somewhatClimate 2020, delaying8, 21 the natural carbon cycle [16–18]. 3 of 21 FigureFigure 1.1. The releaserelease ofof carboncarbon sequesteredsequestered and storedstored inin thethe distantdistant pastpast isis mostmost likelylikely thethe leadingleading causecause ofof acceleratingaccelerating climateclimate change.change. TheThe increasingincreasing useuse ofof fossilfossil fuelsfuels sincesince thethe period ofof the industrial revolutionrevolution is,is, onon thethe oneone hand,hand, thethe basisbasis ofof societalsocietal developmentdevelopment asas itit hashas mademade availableavailable accessibleaccessible energyenergy sources,sources, but,but, onon thethe otherother hand,hand, itit hashas contributedcontributed greatlygreatly toto pollutionpollution andand toto thethe increasedincreased concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere. concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere. A process, activity, or tool that contributes to CO removal from the atmosphere and to storage From this point of view, projects involving reforestation2 and intensive planting of new forests for a certain period of time is known as a carbon sink. This storage occurs mainly in oceans, soils, and have been emerging all over the world as they are presented as simple measures to implement forests, where organisms capture carbon and release oxygen into the atmosphere [19,20]. The balance [20,33,34]. Examples are the reforestation megaprojects being carried out in Africa or India [35–39]. between CO captured by forests through photosynthesis is 14.1 PgC yr-1 and the CO released through For example,2 the green wall that is being erected in Africa, made of trees, to prevent2 the advance of respiration and forest fires is 11.6 PgC yr-1, representing a positive balance of capture and storage [15]. the Sahara Desert. It is the 15 km wide and 7775 km long “Great Green Wall” across the African Carbon sinks work like a drain, and unlike sources that emit more carbon than they absorb, they absorb continent from Mauritania to Djibouti, with the aim of halting the advancement of the desert, more carbon than they emit. Because it is a natural and environmentally friendly process, human improving the management of natural resources, and fighting poverty [40]. actions have been negatively interfering [21], because burning of fossil fuels, as well as different land However, many other projects, perhaps less well-publicized, are also being implemented in uses associated with deforestation and burning, are the main causes of the increase in CO levels in the several other countries, where they are also expected to contribute to climate change mitigation2 [41– atmosphere. This destruction consequently makes storage more difficult [22]. 43]. For example, the Cape Verdean government and FAO signed in 2017, a five million euro agreement for the European funding of the project entitled “Strengthening the Capacities and Resilience of the Forest Sector in Cape Verde”. The project is to be implemented and financed by FAO with 133,000 euros, and carried out on the islands of Boa Vista, Fogo, and Santiago. The main objective is to increase resilience and strengthen the country's adaptive capacity in view of the additional risks caused by climate change, such as desertification and land degradation [44]. Climate 2020, 8, 21 3 of 20 Climate 2020, 8, 21 4 of 21 Figure 2. Forests are able to create their own carbon cycle, as trees and plants in general, take CO2 Figure 2. Forests are able to create their own carbon cycle, as trees and plants in general, take CO2 out out of the atmosphere and use it to create their own organic matter, along with water and sun energy, of the atmosphere and use it to create their own organic matter, along with water and sun energy, through photosynthesis. It is this process that allows the use of biomass energy to be considered carbon through photosynthesis. It is this process that allows the use of biomass energy to be considered neutral, as it is considered that the carbon emitted is only that which the plant has absorbed and stored carbon neutral, as it is considered that the carbon emitted is only that which the plant has absorbed during its lifetime. and stored during its lifetime. In this perspective, forests present themselves as a potential solution, as they can effectively Capture and sequestration of atmospheric CO2 by forests also present differences, because contribute to CO capture and sequestration over different time periods [23]. These periods are greater depending on the2 type of forest development implemented, the results obtained concerning carbon the longer the longevity of the forest species used, but also totally dependent on the intended purpose quantity and permanence time vary, and can lead to the achievement of different objectives [45,46]. for the forest [24], that is, whether short rotation periods are used, as in the case of energy crops, The main objective of this review article is to analyze different management models applied to or long rotation periods are used, as in the case of forests intended for the production of timber for temperate forests, defined by their ability to capture and store carbon, but most importantly, for how construction or shipbuilding [25,26]. long this carbon can be stored. Here, the models that are analyzed generically refer to the possibilities In 1997, the Kyoto Protocol suggested that the absorption of carbon dioxide by trees and soil is as of land occupation with forest aptitude, but also are extensible to soils with other occupations, namely valid as reducing CO emissions from burning fossil fuels [19]. As a result, trees, other plants, and soil old agricultural soils,2 bushlands, and pastures. In this way, the potential contribution of forests to were given great importance as temporary carbon sinks emitted into the atmosphere by burning fossil climate change mitigation is also analyzed. fuels [27]. However, there is a movement against these carbon sinks because their effect cannot be accurately measured, especially in forests as trees absorb different amounts of carbon and the carbon 2. The Global Carbon Balance movement in soils is unknown [28,29]. AlthoughIn addition, weather there ishas a problemchanged throughout of interests. the Land history used of for the carbon earth, sinkin all projects time scales, requires it is clear legal thatagreements the current that prevent changes land have use forsome many distinct years [aspects.30].
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