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Managing Aboveground Pests: Arthropod Vectors of Citrus Pathogens Part II February 17, 2021 Lecture Overview

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Managing Aboveground Pests: Arthropod Vectors of Citrus Pathogens Part II February 17, 2021 Lecture Overview Managing aboveground pests: Arthropod vectors of citrus pathogens Part II February 17, 2021 Lecture Overview • Bacteria and bacteria-like microorganisms • Mollicutes: Spiroplasmas and phytoplasmas • Proteobacteria • Vector-borne diseases of citrus • Case study: Citrus greening disease Types of vector-borne plant pathogens • Viruses • Bacteria • Mollicutes: Spiroplasmas and phytoplasmas • Proteobacteria Spiroplasmas and phytoplasmas Class: Mollicutes • Bacteria lacking cell walls • Often obligate parasites of plants and insect vectors • Dual host transmission cycles: Acquired by insect vectors that feed on infected plants. • Persistently transmitted (usually propagative) • Latent period in vector is approximately 15–20 days Spiroplasmas • Restricted to the phloem sieve tubes and transmitted by phloem sap-feeding insects • Citrus Stubborn Disease (Spiroplasma citri): leafhoppers Citrus stubborn disease Causal agent: Spiroplasma citri Citrus Stubborn Disease • Stubborn disease does not kill trees, but stunts growth and inhibits fruit production • In young trees: the entire tree may remain small and unproductive • In mature trees: a single branch may show symptoms, and the disease may or may not spread slowly throughout the tree • low yield of small, lopsided fruit • Stunted, feathery canopy growth • Leaves are small and grow upright close to the stems • Trees usually develop unseasonal growth flushes and blossoms Citrus Stubborn Disease: small, lopsided fruit Rosettes of cup-shaped leaves and the presence of off season flowers and fruit at all stages of maturation Spiroplasma citri (Citrus Stubborn Disease) Citrus Stubborn Disease: Vectors Neoaliturus haematoceps Circulifer tenellus Citrus Stubborn Disease: Vectors • Naturally transmitted by leafhoppers: • Circulifer tenellus, Scaphytopius nitridus and S. acutus delongi in California (Oldfield, 1988) • Neoaliturus haematoceps and C. tenellus in the Mediterranean area (Bové, 1986, Klein et al., 1988) • Leafhoppers do not have a host preference for citrus and may acquire S. citri from other hosts • Insects become infective after a latent period of 10-20 days (Liu et al. 1893) • Persistant, propagative transmission • Infective throughout lifetime • No transovarial transmission Phytoplasmas • Phytoplasmas originally named mycoplasma-like organisms or MLOs after their discovery in 1967 • Phloem-limited • Cannot be cultured in vitro in cell-free media • Spread by insects in the families Cicadellidae (leafhoppers), Fulgoroidea (planthoppers) and Psyllidae (jumping plant lice) • Once established, phytoplasmas will be found in most major organs of an infected insect host • Witches broom: leafhopper Witches broom disease of lime (WBDL) Causal agent: Candidatus Phytoplasma aurantifolia has been observed in the phloem of infected plants • A non-citrus host reservoir for the causal agent is suspected • Kills lime trees in less than 5 years WBDL: Symptoms • Witches' brooms of thin proliferating twigs that have small, pale leaves • Additional witches' brooms appear as the disease progresses and extensive die-back occurs • Trees die within 3-5 years • Symptoms may appear within 6 months in graft- inoculated plants and warm conditions favor symptom expression. Witches' Broom Disease of Lime (WBDL) Severe die-back of lime caused by witches' broom disease indicated by arrows Witches' Broom Disease of Lime (WBDL) Witches' brooms of lime with small and pale leaves indicated by arrows. WBDL: Vector • Putatively vectored by the leafhopper, Hishimonus phycitis • Reproduces on lime trees • Hishimonus phycitis is common on citrus in Oman, UAE, and Iran is suspected, but has not been confirmed experimentally. • Phytoplasma occurs in leafhoppers collected from infected trees Witches broom disease of lime (WBDL) • Not present in the U.S. • Field observations suggest that extensive natural spread of WBDL has occurred in Oman and UAE • Presumably, WBDL poses greater risks in arid areas such as California with a climate similar to that in Oman and UAE • Unlikely to pose a severe economic threat to Florida because our major scion cultivars are not susceptible Types of vector-borne plant pathogens • Viruses • Bacteria • Mollicutes: Spiroplasmas and phytoplasmas • Proteobacteria Case study: Leafhoppers, vectors of Xylella fastidiosa X. Fastidiosa host plants • Broad host range includes over 30 families of monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants. • “Xylella fastidiosa, a bacterium in the class Gammaproteobacteria, is an important plant pathogen that causes phony peach disease in the southern United States, Bacterial Leaf Scorch, oleander leaf scorch, Pierce's disease, and citrus variegated chlorosis disease (CVC) in Brazil.” • 153 host species are known to harbor the bacterium • Infects most citrus cultivars • All cultivars in Florida are susceptible Xylella fastidiosa • A gram negative bacterium • citrus variegated chlorosis • Pierce’s disease in grape • glassy-winged sharpshooter CVC: Causal agent • Xylella fastidiosa the most important bacterial pathogen transmitted by Auchenorrhyncha • The xylem vessels are ultimately blocked by bacterial aggregates and by tyloses and gums formed by the plant. X. Fastidiosa host plants • Broad host range includes over 30 families of monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants • 153 host species are known to harbor the bacterium • Infects most citrus cultivars • All cultivars in Florida are susceptible Citrus variegated chlorosis (CVC) • First described in 1987 • Found in Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay and recently identified in Costa Rica (not outside of South America) • Thrives in warm climates • If introduced, CVC has the potential to become a significant problem for Florida citrus production. Citrus variegated chlorosis (CVC) • In young trees, CVC causes severe leaf chlorosis between veins resembling nutritional deficiencies • CVC does not kill trees, but trees become less productive within a few years following infection • Fruits not suitable for processing or fresh market • No cure! Pierce’s disease in grape • Southern California • Blue green and glassy winged sharpshooter X. fastidiosa in Florida grapes • Pierce’s disease has been the limiting factor in bunch grape production in Florida. • Cultivars of Vitis vinifera will not survive in Florida. • Many muscadine varieties have partial to near complete resistance • X. fastidiosa resistance important in the selection of both grapes and rootstocks. • Muscadine grapes do not require rootstocks. Why isn’t CVC in Florida? • CVC strain not in Florida • Climatic conditions ideal for spread • Presence of alternate hosts • Variety of bacterial strains, and only selected strains induce diseases in specific hosts CVC: Vectors • CVC can be graft-transmitted or vectored by sharpshooter leafhoppers (Family: Cicadellidae) • At least 11 species of sharpshooters vector CVC in Brazil • Despite the fact that sharpshooters can feed on various plants, the role of non-citrus hosts as a pathogen reservoir remains unknown CVC vectors • Two Florida sharpshooter species transmit CVC under experimental conditions: • Sharpshooter leafhopper, Oncometopia nigricans Walker, native to Florida • Glassy-winged sharpshooter Homalodisca coagulata Say native to Florida, introduced in CA around 1990, vectors Pierce’s disease of grape Glassy-winged sharpshooter common name: glassy-winged sharpshooter scientific name: Homalodisca vitripennis (=coagulata) (Germar) (Insecta: Hemiptera: Cicadellidae: Cicadellinae) http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/fruit/glassywinged_sharpshooter.htm CVC Vectors Oncometopia nigricans Populations of Sharpshooters in Two Citrus Groves in East-central Florida as Indicated by Yellow Sticky Card Traps David G. Hall and Wayne B. Hunter. 2008. Florida Entomologist 91(3):488-490. CVC: Transmission • Foregut-borne (non-circulative) and propagative (multiply) inside the vector’s foregut • No latent period • Sharpshooter adults are infective for life • Bacterial cells acquired by sharpshooters from infected plants adhere to the foregut cuticle, particularly in the anterior portion of the esophagus, cibarium (suction pump), and precibarium • Nymphs lose infectivity after molting, suggesting that transmissible bacterial cells are limited to the vector’s foregut which is shed during molting Retention of X. fastidiosa in sharpshooters (A) Dorsal view of the cibarium chamber of Acrogonia citrine (B) magnified view showing a bacterial biofilm (Bf) (C) bacterial cells forming a microcolony (Mc) on the precibarium Alves et al. (2008) Retention of X. fastidiosa in sharpshooters (D) bacterial aggregates on the precibarium wall and on the cibarium’s ventral surface, near the food meatus Challenges for CVC management • If established, spread of the CVC pathogen would be rapid and extensive • In South America spread over thousands of miles occurred in 10 years • Long latent period (1 yr) between infection and symptom appearance Challenges for CVC management • Asymptomatic infections in many host plant species makes identification of host species difficult without molecular diagnosis • Inoculum removal, chemical control • Eradication of alternate hosts • Cultural control CVC Cultural control • Maintenance of weed-free tree rows with an herbicide program (feeding/breeding sites) • Avoidance of summer pruning (new leaf growth attractive to vectors) • Avoid planting near woods (overwintering/alternative feeding sites) Challenges for CVC management • Asymptomatic infections in many host plant species makes identification of host species difficult without
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