HOW COGNITIVE DISTORTIONS CAUSE EMOTIONAL DISTRESS William F. Doverspike, Ph.D. drwilliamdoverspike.com 770-913-0506

Cognitive behavioral is based on Absolutistic thinking occurs when a person’s the premise that our are largely beliefs, feelings, or opinions are equated with determined by our thoughts. To oversimplify, reality. The underlying belief is, “If I think it’s most forms of cognitive behavioral so, then it’s so.” This process involves an psychotherapy are based on the idea that we can egocentric assumption (largely “unconscious” change how we feel by changing how we think. or outside of awareness) that one’s thoughts are Thinking can be differentiated into content of in fact reality, often accompanied by the claim thought (i.e., what we think about) and form, that others’ beliefs are not reality. In other structure, or process of thought (i.e., how we words, absolutistic thinkers equate their think). Cognitive distortions are errors in the certainty with absolute truth. This type of process of thinking, which can then lead to thinking leads to rigidity, inflexibility, bigotry, various , , and . and lack of emotional and behavioral freedom.

An important cue or signal that one or more All-or-nothing thinking, which is less often errors in thinking is operating is a person’s termed “all-or-none” thinking, is a form of degree of emotional distress or interpersonal absolutistic thinking that occurs when a person conflict. An important distinction can be made thinks in terms of “always,” “every,” “never,” between perceptions (i.e., what someone or “there’s no other choice.” Few aspects of life actually says or does in a specific situation that are ever so absolute. We are all prone to can be seen or heard), inferences (i.e., how slipping into reductionist type of thinking from someone interprets what is seen or heard in a time to time, partly because it simplifies specific situation based on one’s underlying information. At the same time, all-or-none assumptions), and assumptions (i.e., the thinking reduces our choices when we ignore underlying attitudes, core beliefs, or cognitive exceptions, gradations, and the middle ground. schemata that provide a filter by which All-or-none thinking is a binary, bifurcated, or perceptions are interpreted. The basic cognitive dualistic type of thinking, often described as equation is that, if we want to change how we “black and white” thinking. In contrast, as most feel, we need to change how we think. The people have experienced, the wide array of basic behavioral equation is that, if we want to colors in the real world are much more complex change how we think, we need to change how than simply shades of gray. To the binary we act. In reality, people often act their way thinker, the various shades of gray may feel too into better thinking faster than they think their “fuzzy” for comfort. From a psychological way into better actions. perspective, all-or-none thinking is often associated with personality traits such as Cognitive behavioral concepts have become inability or difficulty tolerating ambiguity, part of the public domain, which includes many , or uncertainty. concepts and terms adapted from various original sources including the writings of Arbitrary inference involves drawing a researchers and psychotherapists such as Albert conclusion when evidence is lacking or Ellis, Ph.D., Aaron T. Beck, M.D., Donald contrary to the conclusion. It can also involve Meichenbaum, Ph.D., James P. McCullough, taking a single quotation or verse out of Ph.D., Martin Seligman, Ph.D., Marsha context, while attributing to it a highly Linehan, Ph.D., and others. personalized meaning. It may involve ignoring COGNITIVE DISTORTIONS CAUSE EMOTIONAL DISTRESS 2 the cultural, historical, or semantic context of a Optimal emotional functioning requires going quotation or saying while giving an beyond binary thinking. idiosyncratic or highly personalized interpretation to it. Binary thinking is also expressed in the logical fallacy known as the false dilemma, also known Attribution theory is a conceptual model as the fallacy of false choices, in which based on the idea that we attempt to understand something is falsely claimed to be an the behavior of others by attributing feelings, “either/or” situation, when in fact there is at beliefs, and intentions to some other source least one additional option. This type of (i.e., usually to ourselves or to another person). bifurcated thinking usually takes the form of Attributions can be internal (attributed to self) acknowledging only two options—one of which or external (attributed to others). In an external is usually extreme—from a continuum of (or situational) attribution, a person infers that possibilities. For example, “Either we accept another person’s behavior is due to situational the belief in ______, or we must no factors. By contrast, in an internal attribution, longer call ourselves religious.” The fallacy of we attribute some behavior or event to internal the false dilemma is sometimes the result of a factors within the other person (or within habitual tendency, whatever the cause, to view ourselves). We have a tendency to attribute the world with limited sets of options. One positive events to internal characteristics within antidote for mutually exclusive “either-or” ourselves, and we are more likely to attribute thinking is a more inclusive “both-and” negative events to external or situational factors thinking. outside of ourselves. For example, when bad things happen to us, we attribute those events to Cognitive deficiency occurs when an important others or to circumstances or forces outside aspect of one’s life situation is disregarded, ourselves, whereas when good things happen to dismissed, or ignored. The term does not refer us, we attribute those events to the internal to a mental defect or intellectual disability, but traits of within ourselves. In other words, we rather it comes closer to the psychodynamic attribute positive outcomes to our own actions, concepts of denial, repression, or lack of whereas we are more likely to attribute negative awareness. While judging others harshly, a outcomes to circumstances or forces outside cognitively deficient person might ignore his or ourselves. her own self-righteous hypocrisy.

Binary thinking is another term for Confirmation refers to the tendency to dichotomous reasoning, which refers to all-or- interpret new evidence as confirmation of one’s none thinking. It is also known as dualistic own pre-existing beliefs or theory. Even the thinking, in contrast to holistic thinking (which most objective scientific researchers must be some writers term non-dualistic thinking, which continually on guard against seeing what they itself reflects dualistic categories). A binary expect to see in the data. Perspective-taking, thinker may use categories such as right-wrong, which involves striving to understand a subject good-bad, us-them, normal-abnormal, and so matter from the perspective of the other person forth. Our world in general is filled with binary or an alternative hypothesis, is one way to thinking such as and , guard against . and thriving, vulnerability and resilience, and so forth. Emotional truths often Dichotomous reasoning is another term for involve paradox—not one dimension or the binary thinking or all-or-none-thinking. It other, but rather a blend of both and others. involves viewing situations as binary rather COGNITIVE DISTORTIONS CAUSE EMOTIONAL DISTRESS 3 than multidimensional. Rather than seeing in verbal communication (eye contact, facial color or even in shades of gray, dichotomous expressions, body language etc.). Pragmatic thinking involves seeing in black and white. A language can be distinguished from structural dichotomous thinker may view events as either language, which refers to the literal good versus bad, which ignores the subtle arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses in a nuances of how some activities involve a blend sentence. The grammatical meaning of a or combination of the sacred and secular. In a sentence is dependent on structural organization similar manner, a dichotomous thinker may see (also called syntax or syntactic structure or, in others in a binary way. written language, the mechanics of writing), whereas the deeper, intended, and underlying Disqualifying the positive is a form of meaning of language is more dependent on minimization that involves negating, pragmatic language. In comparison, structural minimizing, discounting, or “shooting down” language conveys the surface meaning of positive experiences for highly personalized spoken language, whereas pragmatic language reasons. This distortion is also known as carries the deeper meaning. In other words, discounting the positive, in which we claim that structural language refers to what we say, and the positive things that we or others do are pragmatic language refers to how we say it. trivial (e.g., “That’s what she is supposed to do—she’s my wife”). Although literalists are by no means people with mental disorders, there are some people Emotional reasoning occurs when we let our with mental disorders who have difficulty feelings guide our interpretation of reality. It is understanding the non-literal and non-verbal a process by which our emotional reaction cues of pragmatic language. For example, “proves” something is true, despite all evidence individuals who are impaired by a condition to the contrary. Without being aware of this known as social communication disorder suffer distortion, our “emotional truth” may exist in from difficulty understanding , gestures, direct conflict with the inverse empirical reality. and facial expressions in others’ non-verbal For example, even though a partner may have language. As a result, they may have difficulty shown only devotion and fidelity, the understanding the meaning of double-entendre, unconscious (i.e., outside of our awareness) idiomatic phrases, humorous intentions, process of emotional reasoning might lead the metaphorical expressions, or hidden meaning person to conclude, “I know my partner is (i.e., “reading between the lines”) in spoken cheating on me because I feel jealous.” language. Such individuals are often quite Emotional reasoning can also amplify the concrete and literal in their speech. As a result, effects of other cognitive distortions. they may be more inclined toward literalism in other areas of their lives. Literalism is not so much within the purview of cognitive behavioral theory, literalism is a Magnification occurs when the meaning of an characteristic sometimes associated with event is exaggerated. Minor events are pragmatic language, which is more within the misconstrued to be major problems, such as purview of clinical and developmental “making a mountain out of a molehill.” psychology. Pragmatic language refers to the “Awfulizing” can be a form of magnification. social language skills that we use in our daily Remember, the only difference between interactions with others. It includes context- stumbling blocks and stepping stones is how we specific language (i.e., how appropriate our use them. interactions are in a given situation) and non- COGNITIVE DISTORTIONS CAUSE EMOTIONAL DISTRESS 4

Mind reading occurs when a person believes stereotyping others, which can lead to us paying that he or she knows the thoughts or feelings of more to how we are different rather another person without asking the other person. than how we are similar to others. Mind reading can also involve the expectation that the other person will meet my needs, Projection refers to the process by which we regardless of whether I state what I need. This attribute our impulses, feelings, or motives to cognitive error can contribute to conflicts in others. In this sense, projection is related to interpersonal relationships. attribution theory, although the concept of projection originated in psychoanalytic theory Minimization occurs when major problems are as a defense mechanism in which we misconstrued as minor issues. This type of unconsciously attribute our unacceptable thinking occurs when one “doesn’t care” or impulses onto others. The “unconscious” refers when important issues “don’t matter,” or to that which is outside of our awareness. “aren’t important.” This error in thinking may occur when a person focuses only on the In a broad sense, projections can be negative or negative and minimizes the positive aspects of positive. Our religious “enemies” may be those an interaction or situation. It may also occur in onto whom we project our own unacceptable reverse, such as when a person minimizes his or impulses that we are not able or willing to her faults or shortcomings, while minimizing recognize within ourselves. On the other hand, the other person’s virtues or strengths. our religious “friends” may be those onto whom we project our idealized images of ourselves. Minimization occurs when major problems are misconstrued as minor issues. This type of Prophesizing, which has also been described as thinking occurs when one “doesn’t care” or “fortune telling,” occurs when a person “tells when major important issues “don’t matter,” or the future,” and then consequently acts in a “aren’t important.” This error in thinking can fashion that makes the prediction come true, also occur when one focuses only on the such as “I won’t succeed.” When applied to negative and minimizes the positive aspects of oneself, this type of thinking is also called a an interaction or situation. It may also occur in “self-fulfilling prophesy.” reverse, such as when a person minimizes his or her faults or shortcomings, while minimizing Self-Other rating occurs when a person rates the other person’s virtues or strengths. global worth, rather than rating traits of one’s self or others. It can also involve “comparing Negative filtering occurs when we focus one’s insides to others’ outsides.” A self-other almost exclusively on the negatives aspect of rating is a form of overgeneralization, which people, places, and things. In this type of can produces , , or feelings distortion, we seldom notice the positives. of inadequacy.

Overgeneralization occurs when a single instance such as failure is viewed as a sign that similar incidents will recur. This type of thinking includes the use of words such as Copyright © 2007 by William F. Doverspike, Ph.D. “everybody,” “always,” or “never.” Some content last updated 2021.

Overgeneralizations such as “you always” or The correct citation for this article is Doverspike, W. F. “you never” can create conflicts in (2007). How cognitive distortions cause emotional relationships. Overgeneralizing can lead to distress. http://drwilliamdoverspike.com/