Proposed RMP/Final EIS Chapter 3

CHAPTER 3—AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter describes the existing resource conditions, resource uses, special designations, and socioeconomic conditions of lands administered by Price Field Office (PFO). The affected environment serves as the baseline of existing conditions for analyzing the impacts of the alternatives.

3.1.1 Overview of the Planning Area

The PFO encompasses approximately 2.5 million acres within Carbon and Emery counties, which are located in central-eastern Utah. The Green River on the east, the Manti-La Sal National Forest on the west, and the Carbon–Duchesne county line on the north bound the PFO. The Emery–Wayne county line borders the south (Map 1-2). Interstate 70 (I-70) traverses the southern half of the PFO. State highway SR-10 and federal highway US-6 are located within the PFO.

A number of noted features are located within the area, including the Book Cliffs, West Tavaputs Plateau, San Rafael Swell, Range Creek, Nine Mile Canyon, Desolation Canyon, Labyrinth Canyon, Price River Canyon, and Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry. Based on the modified Köppen Classification System (1987a), the Wasatch Plateau and Book Cliffs of the PFO are characterized as undifferentiated highlands. The central and northern portions of the PFO have steppe climates, and the southeast portion of the PFO has a desert climate.

Elevations in the PFO range from approximately 4,060 feet at the City of Green River to more than 10,400 feet at East Mountain. The majority of the PFO is drained by the Green River, including discharges from the Price River and San Rafael River. The Green River eventually drains into the Colorado River south of the PFO in Canyonlands National Park. Muddy Creek discharges south into the Dirty Devil River, which joins the Colorado River about 2 miles north of Hite, Utah, in Glen Canyon National Recreation Area.

Physiography and Geology

The PFO lies within the Colorado Plateau physiographic province (Map 3-1). More recently, Stokes (1986) refined the physiographic sections within the State of Utah for the Colorado Plateau, Rocky Mountain, and Basin and Range Provinces. Carbon and Emery counties include four sections within the Colorado Plateau (i.e., Book Cliffs/Roan Plateau, Mancos Shale Lowlands, San Rafael Swell, and Green River Desert), and one physiographic section that is considered transitional between the Colorado Plateau and Basin and Range (i.e., the Wasatch Plateau section). In addition, a very small section of the Circle Cliffs-Teasdale Anticline Section of the Colorado Plateau cuts the extreme southwest corner of the PFO.

A dominant physical feature within the PFO is the San Rafael Swell, occupying the majority of Emery County. This feature is a large northeast trending upward approximately 75 miles long and 30 miles wide that is part of a much larger, double-plunging anticline structure. This large, regional fold exposes rocks of the Pennsylvanian age through the Cretaceous age (Maps 3-1, 3-2, and 3-3). Resistant beds of sandstone are exposed as hogbacks on the steeply upturned east flank of the anticline and are referred to locally as “reefs.” Three perennial rivers (i.e., Muddy, San Rafael, and Price) flow eastward into the Green and Colorado River system (Map 1-1).

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Bordering the San Rafael Swell on the north, west, and northeast sides is the Mancos Shale Lowland section, including Castle Valley and Clark Valley. The Upper Cretaceous Mancos Shale is an easily eroded rock formation and is exposed at the surface across much of this section, resulting in relatively low-lying areas. The landscape of the Mancos Lowlands is characterized by sloping, gravel-covered pediments, rugged badlands, and flat-bottom alluvial valleys (Stokes 1988). Immediately southeast of the San Rafael Swell lies the Green River Desert Section of the Colorado Plateau, characterized by Quaternary eolian deposits (Maps 3-2 and 3-3) with scattered mesas and buttes of Jurassic bedrock exposed at the surface.

To the north of the Mancos Shale Lowlands lies the Book Cliffs and Roan Plateau section of the Colorado Plateau. This area constitutes the southern extension of the Uinta Basin where Upper Cretaceous and Lower Tertiary rocks (Maps 3-2 and 3-3) rise upward from the north along the dip slopes of the basin to reach elevations of 8,000 to 10,000 feet. On their south end, these rocks are abruptly truncated in great erosional cliffs that descend to elevations around 5,000 feet in the Mancos Lowlands. The Book Cliffs are formed by Upper Cretaceous sandstones and shaly siltstones of the Mesaverde Group, including the Blackhawk Formation, Castlegate Sandstone, and the Price River Formation. To the northeast of the Book Cliffs, the Roan Cliffs are formed by the reddish-brown mudstone and sandstone beds of the Colton Formation (Paleocene-Eocene) (Maps 3-2 and 3-3). Further to the northeast in Carbon County are other erosional rises, including the West Tavaputs Plateau and the Bad Land Cliffs that expose the Eocene Green River Formation.

Along the west margin of the PFO is the Wasatch Plateau section transitioning between the Colorado Plateau and Basin and Range physiographic provinces (Stokes 1986). The area displays some features typical of the Great Basin, such as extensional tectonics and north-south trending normal faults. The steep eastern margin of the Wasatch Plateau is a continuation of the Book Cliffs escarpment and is an erosional feature not related to faulting (Stokes 1986).

The Circle Cliffs-Teasdale Anticline physiographic section lies in the extreme southwest corner of Emery County (Map 3-2). This anticlinal structure is similar to the San Rafael Swell but shorter and narrower, and its axis trends northwest (Stokes 1986).

Climate

The PFO is located in central Utah, east of the Wasatch Mountains. The proximity of the Wasatch Mountains exerts a strong influence on the climate and weather of the area. Areas east of the Wasatch Range are characterized by hot, dry summers and cold, dry winters. Air movement at this latitude is predominately from the west and northwest year-round.

The lower elevations receive less than 10 inches of precipitation annually. Higher elevations of the PFO receive more than 14 inches of precipitation annually. Snow amounts also are low east of the Wasatch Mountains. Average maximum temperatures in the area range from 97°F in July to 33°F in January. Average minimum temperatures range from 7°F in January to 58°F in July (BLM 1997, BLM 1999b).

Detailed climate and meteorological data can be found in the Final Air Quality Baseline and Analysis Report – Price Resource Management Plan (Booz Allen 2008).

Global Climate Change

On-going scientific research has identified the potential impacts of climate changing pollutants on global climate. These pollutants are commonly called “greenhouse gases” and include carbon dioxide (CO2); methane; nitrous oxide; water vapor; and several trace gas emissions. Through complex interactions on a

3-2 Price RMP Proposed RMP/Final EIS Chapter 3 regional and global scale, these emissions cause a net warming effect of the atmosphere, primarily by decreasing the amount of heat energy radiated by the Earth back into space. Although climate changing pollutant levels have varied for millennia (along with corresponding variations in climatic conditions), recent industrialization and burning of fossil carbon sources have caused CO2 concentrations to increase dramatically, and are likely to contribute to overall climatic changes, typically referred to as global warming. Increasing CO2 concentrations also lead to preferential fertilization and growth of specific plant species.

Global mean surface temperatures have increased nearly 1.0°C (1.8°F) from 1890 to 2006 (Goddard Institute for Space Studies, 2007). However, observations and predictive models indicate that average temperature changes are likely to be greater in the Northern Hemisphere. Figure 3-1 demonstrates that northern latitudes (above 24° N ) have exhibited temperature increases of nearly 1.2°C (2.1°F) since 1900, with nearly a 1.0°C (1.8°F) increase since 1970. Without additional meteorological monitoring systems, it is difficult to determine the spatial and temporal variability and change of climatic conditions, but increasing concentrations of these “greenhouse gases” are likely to accelerate the rate of climate change.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has recently completed a comprehensive report assessing the current state of knowledge on climate change, its potential impacts, and options for adaptation and mitigation. At printing of this Proposed RMP/Final EIS, this assessment is available on the IPCC web site at http://www.ipcc.ch/. According to this report, global climate change may ultimately contribute to a rise in sea level, destruction of estuaries and coastal wetlands, and changes in regional temperature and rainfall patterns, with major implications to agricultural and coastal communities. The IPCC has suggested that the average global surface temperature could rise 1 to 4.5 degrees Fahrenheit (°F) in the next 50 years, with significant regional variation. The National Academy of Sciences (2006) has confirmed these findings, but also indicated that there are uncertainties regarding how climate change may affect different regions. Computer models indicate that such increases in temperature will not be equally distributed globally, but are likely to be accentuated at higher latitudes, such as in the Arctic, where the temperature increase may be more than double the global average (BLM 2007c). Also, warming during the winter months is expected to be greater than during the summer, and increases in daily minimum temperatures is more likely than increases in daily maximum temperatures. Vulnerabilities to climate change depend considerably on specific geographic and social contexts.

BLM recognizes the importance of climate change and the potential effects it may have on the natural environment. Several activities occur within the planning area that may generate emissions of climate changing pollutants. For example, oil and gas development, large fires, and recreation using combustion engines, can potentially generate CO2 and methane. Wind erosion from disturbed areas and fugitive dust from roads along with entrained atmospheric dust has the potential to darken glacial surfaces and snow packs resulting in faster snowmelt. Other activities may help sequester carbon, such as managing vegetation to favor perennial grasses and increase vegetative cover, which may help build organic carbon in soils and function as “carbon sinks.”

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Figure 3-1. Annual Mean Temperature Change for Northern Latitudes (24° – 90° N)

Source: Goddard Institute for Space Studies (2007)

3.2 RESOURCES

3.2.1 Air Quality

This section describes the air resource within the PFO. The Final Air Quality Baseline and Analysis Report – Price Resource Management Plan (Booz Allen Hamilton 2008), prepared in conjunction with this Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), provides a detailed description of the air quality conditions, contributors to measurable degradation, and analysis for resource management relative to air quality standards.

Ambient Air Quality Standards

Ambient Air Quality Standards

In accordance with the Clean Air Act (CAA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) promulgated ambient air quality standards and regulations. The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) were enacted for the protection of the public health and welfare. To date, EPA has issued NAAQS for six criteria pollutants—carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), particles with a diameter less than or equal to 10 micrometers (PM10) and 2.5 micrometers (PM 2.5), ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and lead (Pb). Volatile organic compounds (VOC) are also considered air pollutants because they are precursors for ozone; however, there are no current standards for VOCs. These standards are listed in Table 3-1 (EPA 2000a).

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Table 3-1. National and Utah Ambient Air Quality Standards Pollutant Value* Type Carbon Monoxide (CO) 8-hour Averagea 9 ppm (10 mg/m3) Primary 1-hour Averagea 35 ppm (40 mg/m3) Primary

Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) Annual Arithmetic Mean 0.053 ppm (100 μg/m3) Primary & Secondary

Ozone (O3) 1-hour Averageb 0.12 ppm (235 μg/m3) Primary & Secondary 8-hour Average 0.075 ppm (147 μg/m3) Primary & Secondary 8-hour Averaged 0.08 ppm (157 μg/m3) Primary & Secondary Lead (Pb) Quarterly Average 1.5 μg/m3 Primary & Secondary

Particulate Matter (PM10) Particles with diameters of 10 micrometers or less Annual Arithmetic Mean 50 μg/m3 (revoked)c Primary & Secondary 24-hour Averageb 150 μg/m3 Primary & Secondary

Particulate Matter (PM2.5) Particles with diameters of 2.5 micrometers or less Annual Arithmetic Mean 15 μg/m3 Primary & Secondary 24-hour Average 35 μg/m3 Primary & Secondary

Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) Annual Arithmetic Mean 0.03 ppm (80 μg/m3) Primary 24-hour Averagea 0.14 ppm (365 μg/m3) Primary 3-hour Averagea 0.50 ppm (1300 μg/m3) Secondary * Parenthetical value is an approximately equivalent concentration a. Maximum Concentration not to be exceeded more than once per year b. To attain this standard, the 3-year average of the fourth-highest daily maximum 8-hour average ozone concentrations measured at each monitor within an area over each year must not exceed 0.075 ppm. (effective May 27, 2008) c. (a) To attain this standard, the 3-year average of the fourth-highest daily maximum 8-hour average ozone concentrations measured at each monitor within an area over each year must not exceed 0.08 ppm. (b) The 1997 standard—and the implementation rules for that standard—will remain in place for implementation purposes as EPA undertakes rulemaking to address the transition from the 1997 ozone standard to the 2008 ozone standard. d (a) The standard is attained when the expected number of days per calendar year with maximum hourly average concentrations above 0.12 ppm is < 1. (b) As of June 15, 2005 EPA revoked the 1-hour ozone standard in all areas except the 8-hour ozone nonattainment Early Action Compact (EAC) Areas. e. Not to be exceeded more than once per year on average over 3 years. f. To attain this standard, the 3-year average of the weighted annual mean PM2.5 concentrations from single or multiple community-oriented monitors must not exceed 15.0 µg/m3. g. To attain this standard, the 3-year average of the 98th percentile of 24-hour concentrations at each population-oriented monitor within an area must not exceed 35 µg/m3 (effective December 17, 2006).

On September 21, 2006, EPA announced final revisions to the NAAQS for particulate matter. The 3 revision strengthens the 24-hour PM2.5 standard from 65 to 35 μg/m and revokes the annual PM10 3 3 standard of 50 μg/m . EPA retained the existing annual PM2.5 standard of 15 μg/m and the 24-hour PM10 standard of 150 μg/m3. After the final rule becomes effective, the State of Utah will enter into rulemaking to revise the Utah Ambient Air Quality Standards. Also, this table reflects the new ozone standard. The

Price RMP 3-5 Chapter 3 Proposed RMP/Final EIS new ozone standard is effective May 27, 2008 and applies only to the eight hour averaging time. To attain this standard, the 3-year average of the fourth-highest daily maximum 8-hour average ozone concentrations measured at each monitor within an area over each year must not exceed 0.075 ppm.

Prevention of Significant Deterioration Although the Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) program does not apply to land use planning decisions—the BLM compares potential air quality impacts on PSD increment values as significance thresholds—it does help describe the goals and objectives set in the Resource Management Plan (RMP) and the actions that can be taken to accomplish those goals and objectives. The concept behind PSD is to keep clean areas clean. PSD applies to all areas of the State except those designated as nonattainment under Section 107 of the federal CAA and identified in Section IX of the Utah State Implementation Plan (UDAQ 2005a). PSD applies to certain air pollutants regulated under the CAA. None of the PFO is within a nonattainment area.

The maximum allowable increases in concentrations in Classes I, II, and III areas are those increments specified in Utah Air Conservation Rule R307-405-4 (Final Air Quality Baseline and Analysis Report – Price Resource Management Plan, Booz Allen Hamilton 2008). Calculations of increases to baseline concentrations are made each time a major new source is proposed, or an existing source is proposed for major modification in any given area to ensure the increments will not be exceeded.

Under PSD, each area in the country is classified by the air quality in the region according to the following system:

• Class I – Areas (e.g., national parks, monuments, and wilderness areas) that are mandated by the CAA. These areas are the most highly protected. • Class II – All other areas of the country not designated Class I areas, where air quality standards are met, or where they cannot be classified. • Class III – To date, there are no Class III area designations.

The 1977 CAA automatically designated certain existing areas, like large national parks and wilderness areas as mandatory federal Class I areas, the most highly protected category.

In Utah, the following areas are designated as mandatory Class I areas (EPA 2000b):

• Arches National Park • Bryce Canyon National Park • Canyonlands National Park • Capitol Reef National Park • Zion National Park.

All other areas where the secondary NAAQS are met, or which cannot be classified, were initially designated as Class II areas. Carbon and Emery counties are designated as “attainment” or “unclassifiable” for all criteria pollutants and therefore classified as Class II areas (EPA 2000c), which include all BLM lands. The Uintah and Ouray Indian Reservation (also PSD Class II) is partially within the study area. There are no Class III areas in Utah.

Visibility Visibility impairment in the form of regional haze obscures the clarity, color, texture, and form of what can be seen. Haze-causing pollutants (mostly fine particles) are directly emitted to the atmosphere or are formed when gases emitted into the air form particles as they are carried downwind. Emissions from human-caused and natural sources that result in regional haze can spread long distances.

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Visual range, one of several ways to express visibility, is the farthest distance from which a person can distinguish a dark landscape feature from a light background, such as the sky. Without human-caused visibility impairment, natural visual range is estimated at an average of 110 to 115 miles in the western United States and 60 to 80 miles in the eastern United States (Malm 1999).

Existing Air Quality

Overall air quality in the PFO is good. Because of the region’s remoteness and a lack of major urban communities, the region around Price is designated as an attainment area for all criteria pollutants.

Ambient Air Quality

The Utah Division of Air Quality (UDAQ) has the responsibility to monitor air quality in Utah. Measurements are typically taken in urban areas where ambient pollution levels are expected to be the highest. Best available data of existing air quality in the Price resource management area are displayed in Table 3-2.

Table 3-2. Existing PFO Air Quality NAAQS Averaging Background Percentage of Pollutant (μg/m3) Period μg/m3 NAAQS

PM10 150 24-hour 11–30 7%–20%

NO2 100 Annual 17 17% CO 40,000 One-hour 8,000 20% CO 10,000 8-hour 2,000 20% Source: BLM 1999b

PM10 was measured in 1994 at Sunnyside, Utah, approximately 25 miles east-southeast of Price. Monitoring indicated that the 24-hour concentrations ranged from 11 to 30 μg/m3. The annual average concentration was 13 μg/m3. The highest 24-hour concentration was 2 percent of the NAAQS and the annual average was 26 percent. NO2 was measured from 1977 to 1981 at Castle Dale, Utah (while the major sources of NOx in the region were in operation). Measurements indicate the annual average varied from 10 to 18 μg/m3 (10 percent to 18 percent of the NAAQS). Information provided by the UDAQ 3 indicates that reasonable maximum background NO2 concentration in the region is 17 μg/m . In lieu of CO measurements in the project area, the UDAQ assumes the average CO background to be 8,000 μg/m3 for the 1-hour averaging period, and 2,000 μg/m3 for the 8-hour averaging period (i.e., 20 percent of the NAAQS) (BLM 1999b).

Visibility

There are no regulatory standards for visibility; however, there is federal guidance on the amount of visibility change that is acceptable. The United States Forest Service (USFS), National Park Service (NPS), and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) have published their Final Federal Land Managers' Air Quality Related Values Work Group (FLAG) Phase I Report (Federal Register, Volume 66 Number 2, January 3, 2001), which provided “a consistent and predictable process for assessing the impacts of new and existing sources on air quality related values (AQRV), including visibility, under EPA’s New Source Review process.” The FLAG report states, “A cumulative effects analysis of new growth (defined as all PSD increment-consuming sources) on visibility impairment should be performed,” and further, “If the visibility impairment from the proposed action, in combination with cumulative new source growth, is

Price RMP 3-7 Chapter 3 Proposed RMP/Final EIS less than a change in extinction of 10 percent [1.0 dv] for all time periods, the [Federal Land Managers] will not likely object to the proposed action.”

In addition, best available visibility data indicate:

• Most of the Colorado Plateau has visibility impairment of less than 10 dv (approximately 89 standard visual miles). Moving in any direction from this region generally results in a gradient of increasing dv (lowering visibility). • The best visibility occurs during the winter. Summertime visibilities are generally worse. • Nitrates contribute less than 10 percent to total light extinction. • Light-absorbing carbon is approximately 10 percent. • Fine and coarse soil/dust contributes between 10 percent and 20 percent of extinction (Colorado State University 2000).

Sources of Air Pollution

Each year, UDAQ collects information on the amount and characteristics of air pollution releases by sources of air pollution in the State. UDAQ reviews the information and compiles it into an emissions inventory report. The information on emissions in the region includes some sources that are outside the PFO; however, these emissions have been included in this report because they could affect activities on BLM lands. The Final Air Quality Baseline and Analysis Report – Price Resource Management Plan (Booz Allen Hamilton 2008) contains the tabulated emissions data from the sources in Carbon and Emery counties.

Pollution sources are grouped into the following categories in the emissions inventory:

• Area sources are small pollution sources that are significant as a group, but not as individual sources. Oil and gas drilling rigs, gasoline stations, wood-burning stoves, and home heating are examples of area sources. • Non-road mobile sources are a diverse grouping of small engines (e.g., lawnmowers and snow blowers), heavy-duty equipment (e.g., bulldozers, construction equipment), trains, and aircraft. • On-road mobile sources include cars and trucks that are driven on public roadways. • Point sources are larger industrial or commercial sources (e.g., power plants and manufacturing operations). • Biogenics are naturally occurring emissions from forests, crops, and other vegetation.

Data from the most recent UDAQ Report (UDAQ 2004) indicates that power plants are the major sources of air pollution in Carbon and Emery counties. The greatest amounts of air pollution emissions in the PFO result from power plants located in Carbon and Emery counties. Primary pollutants in Carbon County are CO, SO2, NOx, and PM10. NOx is the primary pollutant in Emery County, followed by SO2, CO, and PM10. Area sources account for the most emissions in Carbon County, whereas point sources account for the most emissions in Emery County (UDAQ 2004). Pollutants of interest resulting from BLM activities in the PFO are NO2, SO2, CO, and PM10. Primary sources for these pollutants, however, occur outside or adjacent to BLM managed lands, rather than from BLM activities.

BLM-authorized activities that could affect air quality within and out of the PFO include emissions from construction equipment, gaseous emissions from the construction and operation of natural gas-fired compressors and glycol dehydration units at compressor facilities, occasional flaring of natural gas at well sites, suspended PM10 generated by construction activities, motorized vehicles traveling on access roads, off-highway vehicles (OHV), and smoke from wildfires and prescribed fire.

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3.2.2 Soil, Water, and Riparian

Soil

General and detailed soils information for part of the PFO is contained in the Soil Survey of Carbon- Emery Area, Utah (USDA SCS 1970) and the Soil Survey of Carbon Area, Utah (USDA SCS 1988). These two surveys cover all of Carbon County and much of the private land in the northwestern portion of Emery County. Draft soil survey information exists for portions of the remaining BLM lands in Emery County.

Soils vary based on landform, geology, vegetation, and microclimate (refer to physiography and geology, climate, and vegetation sections for more information). They range from shallow, weakly developed, and rocky soils on plateaus, cliffs, and ridges to deeper, more productive soils on alluvial fans and in valley bottoms. The dry climate and parent materials also affect development and concentrations of carbonates (lime), salts, and gypsum within the soils and rooting zones, in turn affecting plant growth and water movement. Some soils are extremely alkaline and have saline or sodic properties that affect their use and management. The Mancos Shale Lowlands are characterized by soils with distinctive features, including claypans and layers of gypsum, which contribute to their high erosion potential. The sandy parent materials to the southeast of the San Rafael Swell in the Green River Desert Section are characterized by deep, well-drained, fine sandy soils forming in stabilized and active dunes.

Information about existing soil condition, soil quality, and productivity exists in older soil vegetation inventory data, more recent rangeland health assessments, and big-game trend studies, as well as PFO records regarding the number of acres that have been developed for roads, recreation, and energy development, or have otherwise undergone various levels of surface disturbing activities. This information is used in conjunction with soil survey information in site-specific project analyses to design projects to minimize soil disturbance and maintain long-term soil health and productivity.

There are soils within the PFO that could qualify as prime or unique farmland (7 CFR 657) if irrigated. Irrigation is not generally feasible in these areas because of the lack of water and the expense of developing irrigation systems. These lands are not currently considered prime farmland.

Erosion

Some soils in the PFO have a high potential for contributing salt and sediment to drainages, high susceptibility to water or wind erosion when disturbed, and high runoff potential. These soils are discussed further below.

Water Erosion Water erosion is a function of rainfall, soil erodibility, length of slope, percentage of slope, vegetation cover, soil conditions, and management practices. Bank erosion is accelerated in stream channels as a result of damming practices, improperly functioning riparian systems, and hydrologically unstable streams. Soils have natural erosion rates that are a function of inherent soil properties, slope, aspect and climate, which, in turn, also determine the ability of the site to support vegetation. Accelerated erosion occurs when the plant cover is depleted or soil surface conditions are degraded. Management activities that affect vegetation or compact soil surface can also lead to accelerated erosion (NRCS 2001a). Roads, railroads, paths, and trails form continuous flow paths that are capable of channelizing water. As overland flow of water and sediment concentrates in these channels, water runoff changes from “sheet” to channelized flow, increasing the energy of the erosional forces.

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Soils with surface textures that are highly susceptible to water erosion generally have a high proportion of coarse to very fine sands, or silts, with little binding material such as clay or organic matter. Loams and silty clay loams intermixed with barren shale, rubbleland, or rock outcrop are found widely distributed throughout the PFO. When the vegetation or biologic crust on these soils is removed, such as by surface disturbance, fire, or heavy grazing pressure, the soils are subject to accelerated erosion. Under good vegetation cover, soil loss is less than 1 ton per acre per year; with poor cover, soil loss can exceed 5 tons per acre per year. When these soils are disturbed, 10 tons per acre per year could be lost (BLM 1991a; NRCS 2001b; SCS 1970; SCS 1988).

Intense, often localized, convective storms from midsummer to early fall can flashflood dry washes and streams. This occurs most often in areas with high runoff potential, including extensive rock outcrop and badlands. These types of soils or miscellaneous land types occur in watersheds above the towns of Emery, Ferron, Castle Dale, Orangeville, and Huntington. The major stream channels throughout the PFO are subject to flooding from spring snowmelt at higher elevations. Soils are also subject to erosion along floodplains of major stream channels (BLM 1991a).

Wind Erosion Wind erosion is a function of soil erodibility, surface roughness, climate, length of slope, vegetation cover, presence of physical or cryptobiotic crusts, and soil condition. Wind erosion is a critical issue following the removal of protective vegetation and is most likely to occur in areas of arid climates such as those at lower elevations of the PFO. When the vegetation cover or soil crust is removed, soils are easily transported by wind. This results in the displacement or loss of topsoil, increased sedimentation, and impacts on ambient air quality from elevated dust levels.

The soil surveys indicate that the soil series in the northern portion of the PFO have a low to moderate potential for wind erosion. Soils in the southern portion of the PFO are highly susceptible to wind erosion. They have a very high proportion of medium, fine, and very fine sands, and no binder of clay or organic matter is present in any quantity. These soils are susceptible to either surface disturbance or periods of prolonged drought.

The major short-term impacts from wind erosion are soil loss and damage to or loss of structures, such as fences, cattle guards, roads, and reservoirs. Other short-term impacts include decreased visibility and diminished air quality from PM10 and PM2.5 and associated human health risks from the suspended matter. (BLM 1997; SCS 1970; SCS 1988). The major long-term impacts are the potential loss of soil productivity, changes in vegetation communities, and site degradation.

Compaction

Soil structure and surface texture directly influence how water moves over and into soil, as well as how much is stored for plants and soil biota within the rooting zone. It also affects aeration and temperature within the rooting zone, which affects plant, microbe, and insect activity, which, in turn, affects nutrient cycling and organic matter. Organic matter is the binder that helps maintain stable soil aggregates that resist breakdown and erosion by wind and water. Using heavy equipment or vehicles on unprotected, wet, or moist soils can lead to compaction or destruction of soil structure and aggregate stability. Certain soils, such as those with low organic matter or soils with high clay content, are more susceptible to compaction, while soils with high rock fragments or sandy surface textures may be more resistant to compaction. Aggregate stability is highly correlated with organic matter content, which, in turn, is related to maintaining live vegetation and litter cover.

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Soil Biota, Nutrient Cycling

Soil biota include micro-organisms (i.e., bacteria, fungi, and algae) and soil animals (i.e., protozoa, nematodes, mites, springtails, spiders, insects, and earthworms) that live in the soil and create a more diverse community than the plants and animals above ground. Most soil biota are concentrated in the plant litter, the upper few inches of soil, and along plant roots. They are vital in nutrient cycling and plant growth. They also build up organic matter in the soil, which is important, not only for plant nutrition, but for water storage, infiltration, and resistance to erosion and compaction.

Soil Crusts

Cryptobiotic soil crusts are a specialized living community of lichen, cyanobacteria, algae, and moss growing at the soil surface and binding soil particles together. Cryptobiotic crusts stabilize the surface, protecting it from wind and water erosion. Generally, they are considered to aid infiltration of water by increasing surface roughness; they reduce runoff and increase water storage for plants. In semiarid systems, cryptobiotic crusts can provide a significant amount of nitrogen for plant growth.

Cryptobiotic soil crusts do occur within the PFO, however, although no systematic inventory of biotic soil crusts has been conducted within the PFO, there is a growing body of literature and research on cryptobiotic soil crusts of the Colorado Plateau, especially related to use and management. This research has indicated that cryptobiotic crusts are sensitive to physical disturbance, increased frequency and intensity of fire, and climate variations (USDOI 2001). Sandy, course-textured soils with low stability, fertility, and water-holding capacity recover more slowly than fine-textured soils with high silt or clay contents. Stable areas with low slopes, little sand movement, and embedded rocks are quicker to recover than less stable sites with steeper slopes or a lot of soil surface movement or sand deposition (USDOI 2001).

Soils have differing potential for crust development and cover. Those formed in limestone formations tend to have rocky surfaces and less overall habitat; however, where habitat exists, cryptobiotic crust cover is often high. Gypsiferous soils also have a high potential for soil cryptobiotic crusts, as well as a high degree of biologic diversity of species making up the crusts. Certain types of shale have low or variable potential for crust cover. Generally, soils forming from sandstone parent materials and eolian sands, especially those with high calcium carbonates, have a high potential for soil cryptobiotic crusts.

Other types of crusts include chemical—primarily consisting of salts and physical—formed by raindrop impact in soils with low aggregate stability. Physical and chemical crusts are capable of sealing the soil surface and reducing the rate of water infiltration and increasing runoff. Mancos shale commonly exhibits both chemical and physical crusts, as do the gypsiferous soils.

Salinity

Salt and sediment yield is of major concern in the Colorado River Basin, and erosion on public lands is one source of sediment and associated salts in the PFO. Some of this is natural or resulting from relatively stable conditions in a semiarid or arid climate regime with periodic, high-intensity storms. In the upper Colorado River Basin, salt enters the Colorado River and its tributaries from groundwater flows, surface runoff, and from non-point sources such as saline springs and flowing wells. Dissolution of geologic evaporate deposits results in highly saline groundwater that ultimately contributes the largest amount of salt to the Colorado River system. Surface runoff from BLM-administered lands on the entire Colorado Plateau are estimated to contribute less than 15 percent of the total salt load, and the PFO would be a smaller portion of that total contribution. Controlling salinity in rangeland surface runoff is closely related to vegetation management and minimizing soil erosion, especially in areas that have saline or sodic soils.

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Saline geologic formations and slightly to highly saline soils are extensive in the PFO. Major salt-bearing formations in the PFO include the Summerville, Moenkopi, Carmel, Curtis, Morrison, Cedar Mountain, and Mancos (BLM 1991a). Badlands and gypsumlands are natural sources of sediment and salt. These areas lack vegetation, but they frequently have a thin mantle of hard shale, rock fragments, or soil crusts, which provides some stability and helps prevent surface erosion. Badlands occur mainly on exposures of the Morrison, Cedar Mountain, and Mancos Formations, whereas gypsumlands occur mainly on exposures of the Carmel and Summerville Formations. Present losses of sediment from badlands and gypsumlands are estimated at 5 to 50 tons per acre per year. These highly dissected areas, with their steep slopes and intricate drainage patterns, are little used by livestock because of the lack of forage and the complex terrain. They are, however, used by wild horses and burros and big game species (i.e., bighorn sheep, deer, and elk). The main areas containing gypsumlands and gypsiferous soils are on the west flank of the San Rafael Swell to the Coal Cliffs and Molen Reef, and southeast of San Rafael Reef near Goblin Valley. Gypsumlands and gypsiferous soils occur with more stable soils in delineated areas, which make up more than half of the area (BLM 1991a).

Although they can inhibit vegetation growth, salts that are held deeper in the soil profile are generally not a major source of salinity to the Colorado River system, except along drainages where bank erosion or subsurface leaching occurs. However, several plants in the PFO (i.e., mat, saltbrush, halogeton, wedgeleaf, saltbrush, salt cedar, shadescale, greasewood, and fourwing saltbush) concentrate salts in their tissues. The salts are available for transport to the drainage system in plant litter.

Soils rated very high in salinity (greater than 16 millimhos per centimeter [mMhos/cm]) are found mostly in eastern Emery County, with a few small areas scattered throughout eastern Carbon County (BLM 1997). Soils rated moderate to high in salinity (i.e., 4 to 16 mMhos/cm) occupy mostly the eastern half of the PFO (BLM 1997). Soils rated low in salinity (i.e., less than 2 mMhos/cm) are primarily found on the western half of the PFO at higher elevations (BLM 1997).

Water

Watersheds

The PFO lies within portions of seven major watersheds (Fourth-Level Hydrologic Units) located in the Upper Colorado Hydrologic Region (Region 14) (Table 3-3). The majority of the PFO is contained within the West Colorado River Watershed, although portions are in the Uinta Basin Watershed (UDWQ 2002).

Table 3-3. PFO Watersheds 8-Digit Hydrologic Unit Code Watershed Name 14060005 Lower Green–Desolation Canyon 14060007 Price 14060008 Lower Green 14060009 San Rafael 14070002 Muddy 14070004 Dirty Devil 16020202 Spanish Fork Source: BLM; EPA (http://www.epa.gov/surf/ )—Accessed March 2006

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The BLM manages surface or mineral estate within portions of most municipal watersheds in the PFO. Runoff from public lands in or adjacent to these watersheds could affect water quality.

Critical Watersheds

Critical watershed areas include soils that have a high potential for salt yield, are subject to severe water and wind erosion when disturbed, have high runoff potential during storm events, are subject to frequent flooding, and have a potential for loss of vegetation productivity under high rates of wind or water erosion.

Surface Water

The Lower Green River (within Hydrologic Unit Code [HUC] basin 14060008) and two of its major tributaries, the Price River (within HUC basin 14060007) and San Rafael River (within HUC basin 14060009), are within the major watershed units in the PFO. The PFO also includes portions of Nine Mile Creek (within HUC basin 14060005) and Muddy Creek portion of the Dirty Devil River (within HUC basin 414070002). Included in the mentioned basins are several perennial stream channels, including Muddy Creek, Huntington Creek, Ferron Creek, Cottonwood Creek, and Range Creek. Numerous smaller perennial, intermittent, or ephemeral stream channels, with an array of flow regimes and uses, are located throughout the PFO, with smaller segments located near springs or headwaters.

Lakes and reservoirs in the PFO include Millsite Reservoir, Olsen Reservoir, and Huntington Lake North. The BLM manages approximately 1,200 stock watering reservoirs, most of which are filled with runoff via ephemeral channels.

Water shortages within the PFO are typically the result of historic water development. In many locations, streams have been fully appropriated for irrigation and domestic use, leaving downstream reaches on BLM lands either dry or significantly dewatered during significant portions of the year. Typically, these streams are dewatered during the irrigation season and then flows return the remainder of the year. This water regime allows for BLM management of riparian values but precludes management for fishery and recreation values. The most significant water shortage location for the BLM within the PFO is Grassy Trail Creek, of which the BLM manages 14 stream miles. This stream has experienced long-term changes from dewatering, which include erosion, channel migration, and an unstable riparian community in some locations.

Water Rights

BLM implements multiple types of water uses on public lands that require water rights from the State of Utah, such as livestock watering, wildlife watering and habitat, wild horse watering, recreation facilities, and fire suppression. BLM will continue to implement actions to maintain its current water rights for these purposes, such as filing proofs of beneficial use, filing diligence claims, changing existing water rights to fit new uses and projects, and filing protests as necessary to protect existing BLM water rights. BLM will also file for new water rights in accordance with and when allowed under state water law procedures.

Situations in which BLM will file for new water rights include locations where existing water rights are insufficient or not in place to support the water use, or when existing water rights cannot be changed to support the water use on public land.

The BLM does not experience problems in obtaining water rights for public land management purposes. This occurs because of the relatively low population of the area and the lack of heavy reliance on regional groundwater aquifers. The BLM’s water needs have been protected by participating in the water rights

Price RMP 3-13 Chapter 3 Proposed RMP/Final EIS adjudication and permitting processes and filing protests as necessary to protect BLM water uses. When permittees on public lands submit applications to the BLM requesting water usage, the BLM includes terms and conditions to protect water-dependent values on public lands.

All surface water available for irrigation and industry has been appropriated, pending adjudication. Water rights can still be obtained for stock ponds less than 3 acre-feet in volume. Temporary water rights, usually used during drilling operations or road dust control, are still available. These rights are issued for a maximum of 7 years for a volume of approximately 3 acre-feet and only if the rights do not interfere with any other uses (BLM 1991a).

Water Developments

The BLM surface water developments have included stock ponds, erosion control structures, rainfall catchments, spring developments, off-channel reservoirs, flow diversions, and guzzlers. Stock ponds and wildlife guzzlers will continue to be developed. Management objectives are to provide water for the complete and appropriate use of wildlife and livestock forage, to protect and enhance watershed conditions where they were being degraded, and to restore or enhance riparian areas.

Irrigation

The majority of surface water in the region is appropriated for irrigation. Irrigation practices often involve dams that divert all flow within a stream. Water is diverted from Huntington Creek, Cottonwood Creek, Ferron Creek, Muddy Creek, Price River, San Rafael River, Green River, Nine Mile Creek, Range Creek, and other small drainages.

Industrial Water Use

Industrial water use in the PFO is chiefly for the generation of electricity. Utah Power and Light operates the Huntington, Hunter, Sunnyside Cogeneration, and Price Canyon power plants. These plants use water from Huntington Creek, Price River, Grassy Trail Creek, and Trail Springs Wash (BLM, 1991a). Some coal mines also use surface water in hydraulic and cooling systems on mining machinery. Incidental drilling operations temporarily use local water sources.

Groundwater

The PFO is nearly all underlain by a series of consolidated sedimentary formations. All the geologic units contain some water, but only five are considered to be major aquifers: Entrada, Navajo, and Wingate Sandstones, the Coconino Sandstone (including its equivalents in the Cutler Formation), and rocks of the Mississippian age. Several other formations are at least locally important, including the Carmel Formation, the Salt Wash Sandstone member of the Morrison Formation, the Curtis Formation, and the Moss Back Member of the Chinle Formation (BLM 1991a). The formations are encountered at elevations ranging from surface outcrops to more than 2,000 feet below the surface.

Groundwater supplies are controlled more by recharge conditions than by use depletions. Precipitation is the ultimate recharge source. Areas with exposed permeable formations and regional fracture systems, where average annual precipitation is more than 12 inches, usually are recharge areas (BLM 1991a). Groundwater moves from these areas of recharge, discharges to stream valleys flowing from the Wasatch Plateau and Bookcliffs, and recharges the major aquifers underlying the PFO.

Groundwater is a part of the developed water supply for municipalities in the PFO. Price City, Helper, Wellington, and East Carbon all use groundwater for portions of their municipal water supplies. The

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BLM also manages wells, which use water from perched aquifers. There are numerous private domestic wells within the region.

Groundwater disposal is a significant aspect of coalbed natural gas development. The discharge of saline water during gas production poses strategic problems for water and watershed management in the PFO. If produced water does not meet State surface water quality standards, it is re-injected into an aquifer with water of equal or lesser quality. Saline water pumped from coalbed natural gas wells throughout the PFO is re-injected mostly because of its high total dissolved solids (TDS).

Water Quality

Surface Water Quality. On public lands in the Colorado River Basin, the primary factors affecting surface water quality are runoff events containing appreciable sediments and salts. Runoff from public lands tends to accumulate salts and sediment from surface soils and from saline soils in drainages and transport them into the main drainages during intense localized storms. Runoff adds to the salt content of the irrigation return flow carried by the Price River, San Rafael River, Green River, Nine Mile Creek, and Muddy Creek. Minor segments of perennial streams (generally those near the USFS boundary, where most diversions for irrigation and municipal uses are located) have low salt content and sediment loads. Reduction or elimination of surface cover tends to increase runoff, resulting in increased erosion and a greater amount of sediment and salt carried into the drainage channels. When the amount of runoff increases, discharges into streams tend to be greater and of shorter duration, increasing channel cutting and sometimes flooding. Several agencies, including the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), and the State of Utah have established a gauging network on the San Rafael River and Muddy Creek and their major tributaries to monitor salt content and compliance with water-quality standards on major stream segments.

Water quality comprises the measured physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the streams in the area. The target parameters are set by the State and federal regulations for particular stream segments or particular water uses. Surface water in most of the PFO has high TDS levels and heavy sediment loads (BLM 1989b). State water-quality standards have been exceeded at several stations (BLM 1991a). Pursuant to Section 303(d) of the Clean Water Act (CWA) as amended, each state is required to identify those water bodies for which existing pollution controls are not stringent enough to implement State water-quality standards. Thus, those water bodies not currently achieving or not expected to achieve those standards are identified as “water quality limited.” A water body can be water quality limited because of point or non-point sources of pollution or both. In addition to common sources of pollutants, there can be pollutants resulting from habitat alterations or hydrological modifications (UDWQ 2002).

A full list of streams and water bodies located in the PFO and shown on Utah’s 2002 303(d) list appears in Table 3-4 and Table 3-5. Water bodies with permit renewals dated from April 1, 2002 to March 31, 2004, were listed for pollutants that are not controlled through technology-based requirements or end-of- pipe requirements. With few exceptions, stream water bodies assessed as “partially supporting” or “not supporting” their beneficial uses were listed. In addition, water bodies for which a total maximum daily load (TMDL) has been completed and approved by the EPA were not listed (UDWQ 2002).

Table 3-4. Utah’s 2002 303(d) List Waterbody Name Waterbody Description HUC Unit Cause Nine Mile Creek and tributaries from Nine Mile Creek 14060005 Temperature confluence with Green River to headwaters Gordon Creek from confluence with Price River Gordon Creek 14060007 TDS to headwaters

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Waterbody Name Waterbody Description HUC Unit Cause Price River and tributaries from Coal Creek Price River 3 14060007 TDS confluence to Carbon Canal Diversion Grassy Trail Creek tributaries from confluence Lower Grassy Trail Creek 14060007 PH with Price River to Grassy Trail Reservoir Price River and tributaries from near Woodside Price River 4 14060007 TDS to Soldier Creek confluence Price River and tributaries from confluence with Dissolved Oxygen, Price River 5 14060007 Green River to near Woodside Iron, TDS Huntington Creek tributaries from confluence Huntington Creek 4 with Cottonwood Creek to Highway 10 14060009 TDS Crossing Cottonwood Creek from confluence with Lower Cottonwood Creek 14060009 TDS Huntington Creek to Highway 57 San Rafael River from Buckhorn Crossing to Upper San Rafael confluence with Huntington and Cottonwood 14060009 TDS Creeks San Rafael River from confluence with Green Lower San Rafael 14060009 TDS River to Buckhorn Crossing Muddy Creek and tributaries from Quitchipah Middle Muddy 14070002 TDS Creek confluence to U-10 Crossing Muddy Creek from confluence with Fremont Lower Muddy Creek 14070002 TDS River to Quitchipah Creek confluence Source: UDWQ 2002

Table 3-5. Waterbodies and Specific Parameters to Be Removed From Utah’s 2000 303(d) List Waterbody Name Waterbody ID Parameter Justification Scofield Reservoir UT-L-14060007-0005 Total Phosphorus TMDL Approved—2000 Scofield Reservoir UT-L-14060007-0005 Dissolved Oxygen TMDL Approved—2000 Source: UDWQ, 2002.

Groundwater Quality. Groundwater quality is highly variable, depending on the formation in which the aquifer is located and on the well location. Groundwater contamination is a continuing concern.

Flood Hazards

The watersheds upstream of existing towns in the PFO are in mixed ownership of federal, State, and private land. Some areas of public land are on steep terrain with clayey, stony, and shallow soils. These areas have high runoff potential, and surface-disturbing activities can change the duration and peaks of runoff events reaching the streams. Debris jams and channel bank erosion on these lands can cause flooding and sediment damage to private agricultural land, irrigation works, buildings, roads, and other structures. The structures most often affected by peak runoff events on public lands are water and erosion control structures, stock ponds, and roads, which often follow canyon floors and cross-stream channels.

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Floodplains are not extensive in the PFO, even considering dry washes. Approximately 55,000 acres are recognized as occurring in floodplains subject to 100-year floods. Smaller washes can be expected to flood during any intense, local storms (BLM 1991a).

Riparian and Wetlands

Riparian areas are those with distinctive soils and vegetation between a stream or other body of water and the adjacent upland. They include wetlands and those portions of floodplains and valley bottoms that support riparian vegetation. The riparian ecosystem is considered valuable for providing wildlife and fisheries habitat, maintaining water quality, stabilizing stream banks, and providing flood control and scenic and aesthetic values. Lake shores (lentic ecosystem) and stream banks (lotic ecosystems) are typical riparian areas. Riparian areas do not include ephemeral streams or washes without the vegetation that depends on free water in the soil (Utah Division of Wildlife Resources [UDWR] 1999). Map 3-4 depicts riparian habitats in the PFO.

The term "wetlands" means those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or ground water at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that, under normal circumstances, do support a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar areas (Corps of Engineers Wetlands Delineation Manual).

All riparian areas in the PFO are considered sensitive and important (i.e., unique/limited) habitats that provide critical vegetation and transportation corridors for mammals, birds, and amphibians. Some of the larger riparian areas include the Green River, San Rafael River, Price River, Nine Mile Creek, Rock Creek, Gordon Creek, Range Creek, and Muddy Creek. All riparian systems within the PFO are also important components of hydrologic function. The hydrologic network (tributaries) that feeds and supports these eight major watercourses also contains riparian areas and habitat. The BLM uses the concept of proper functioning condition (PFC) to delineate riparian habitat quality and to assist in guiding management actions. The condition of riparian habitat and the percentage of riparian areas in each functioning condition category are shown in Table 3-6.

The Green River is the largest riparian system in the PFO. Over the past 20 years, cattle use in Desolation Canyon has declined. Over this period, vegetation in the riparian areas has changed from tamarisk to willow, and riparian conditions along the river and tributaries have improved. Cottonwood reproduction occurs regularly, and all age classes of cottonwood are found. Rock Creek, a major tributary, is the most intensely monitored and has gone from a non-functioning to a functioning condition. It previously had bare banks but now is a wide, ditch-like stream that is well vegetated with willow, which has stabilized the banks and decreased erosion.

Table 3-6. Condition of Riparian Habitat

Functioning Condition Riparian Habitat in the PFO Percent of Riparian Areas PFC 783 miles 76

Functioning at Risk—Upward Trend 83 miles 8

Functioning at Risk—Stable Trend 104 miles 10

Functioning at Risk—Downward 34 miles 3 Trend

Non-functioning 20 miles 2

Source: BLM Price Field Office

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Riparian functioning condition assessments have been completed for the PFO. Table 3-6 shows that 76 percent of the riparian areas are in PFC, and 8 percent are in functioning at risk with upward trend. The remaining 15 percent are either functioning at risk with a stable trend (10 percent), functioning at risk with a downward trend (3 percent), or non-functioning (2 percent). Under current management, the PFO would continue to conduct riparian functioning condition assessments and make necessary resource management adjustments to achieve riparian objectives.

Definitions of the riparian conditions are listed below:

PFC—The ability of the riparian area to dissipate energy, filter sediment, transfer nutrients, and develop ponds and channel characteristics that benefit wildlife populations and improve water retention and groundwater recharge, while improving stream bank stability and supporting greater biodiversity.

Functioning at Risk—Riparian-wetland areas that are in functional condition but an existing soil, water, or vegetation attribute makes them susceptible to degradation:

• Upward Trend—Those riparian areas that are improving but remain at risk. • Stable Trend—Those riparian areas that have not demonstrated significant upward or downward trends in vegetation communities and/or bank stability. • Downward Trend—Those riparian areas that a decline in resource values is apparent.

Non-functioning—Riparian areas that could theoretically still be in decline and most of the riparian values have already been lost.

3.2.3 Vegetation

The PFO lies within parts of three defined geographic regions, known as major land resource areas (MLRA), as described by U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA 1981):

• The Colorado and Green River Plateaus area is within the 6- to 12-inch precipitation zone. The San Rafael Desert falls within this MLRA. The vegetation includes desert brush and grassland. • The Central Desert Basins, Mountains, and Plateaus area is in the 6- to 9-inch precipitation zone. The majority of the PFO falls within this MLRA. The vegetation is primarily pinyon-juniper woodland, sagebrush, and grass-like plants. • The Wasatch and Uinta Mountains area is in the 15- to 18-inch precipitation zone. The western side of the PFO falls within this MLRA. These higher elevations support mostly mixed conifer, aspen, and Ponderosa pine.

Distribution of vegetation types within the PFO can be attributed primarily to a combination of climate, soils, elevation, and topography. Water availability and soil composition are particularly important. Altitude changes between valley floors and plateau tops also affect vegetation. Saline and alkaline soils greatly influence plant growth.

There are four known areas of isolated relict plant communities in the PFO. Relict plant communities contain unique vegetation assemblages as well as associated wildlife species that are not found elsewhere in the PFO. The unique quality of these areas is directly related to their isolation over time or from disturbance. This isolation also provides an opportunity to gauge impacts occurring elsewhere in the PFO and on the Colorado Plateau. Relict plant communities within the areas of Bowknot Bend, North Big Flat Tops, Hebes Mountain, and the San Rafael Reef have potential value for scientific study and for

3-18 Price RMP Proposed RMP/Final EIS Chapter 3 comparison with similar communities that have been grazed or where surface disturbing activities have occurred (BLM, 1989a; BLM, 1991a).

Vegetation Cover Types

Vegetation varies depending on soils, climate, aspect, elevation, and topography. Moisture and elevation are the factors most often responsible for vegetation distribution. Based on the Utah Geographic Approach to Planning (GAP) data for land cover, vegetation in the PFO is classified into nine vegetation cover types and one non-vegetated type (USGS 1995). Map 3-5 shows the location of the 10 cover types within the PFO. The vegetation categories are mixed conifer, aspen, Ponderosa pine, oak, mountain shrub, pinyon-juniper woodland, sagebrush, grass-like, and desert brush.

Table 3-7 presents the number of acres in each of the categories. The following paragraphs provide a brief description of vegetation species associated with that cover type.

Table 3-7. Vegetation Cover Types within the PFO Acres on BLM Lands Percentage of BLM Cover Type Within PFO Lands Within PFO Non-Vegetated 31,300 1 Mixed Conifer 49,300 2 Aspen 9,300 <1 Ponderosa Pine 11,500 <1 Oak 4,100 <1 Mountain Shrub 2,000 <1 Pinion-Juniper Woodland 682,800 28 Sagebrush 285,100 11 Grass-Like 469,600 19 Desert Brush 934,000 38

Non-Vegetated

This cover type contains urban areas; developed agricultural fields that are used for row crops or are irrigated; and residential, industrial, and commercial areas. Also included in this cover type are areas that are classified as barren. Barren areas include salt flats, sand, playas, slick rock, and lava flows.

Mixed Conifer

Tree species in mixed conifer areas are white spruce (Picea engelmannii), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), white fir (Abies concolor), subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa), and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta). On some aspects and elevations, Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), limber pine (Pinus flexilis), or bristle cone pine (Pinus aristata) may occur. This cover type is located in the northwestern and northeastern portion of the PFO.

Mixed conifer stands provide cover and nesting habitat for a variety of wildlife species. Understory vegetation and vegetation structure play important roles in determining use by big game and livestock. Generally, open stands of mixed conifer with a grass and forb understory are preferred by livestock.

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Closed mixed conifer stands provide habitat for small mammal and rodents, which are a food source for birds of prey.

Aspen

Deciduous forests principally dominated by quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) are located in the northeastern and northwestern portions of the PFO. Containing some coniferous species, this cover type is at slightly lower elevations than mixed conifer. Conifer species associated with aspen stands include Ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine, Douglas fir, and spruce species (Picea spp.). Aspen is a transitional or ephemeral vegetation cover type and changes over time. Unless there is a disturbance such as fire or logging, the aspen vegetation type is replaced by the mixed conifer type.

Quaking aspen forests provide important breeding, foraging, and resting habitats for a variety of birds and mammals. Wildlife and livestock use of quaking aspen communities varies with species composition of the understory and relative age of the quaking aspen stand. Young stands provide the most browse for big game and livestock. Quaking aspen buds, catkins, and leaves provide an abundant and nutritious, yearlong food source for ruffed grouse.

Ponderosa Pine

Interior Ponderosa pine and shrub communities in the PFO are usually the lowest elevation coniferous forest type, and they border shrublands or pinyon-juniper woodlands. Dominant understory species include curlleaf mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus ledifolius), greenleaf manzanita (Arctostaphylos patula), black sagebrush (Artemisia nova), Gambel oak (Quercus gambelii), and mountain snowberry (Symphocarpus oreophilus). Ponderosa pine associated with mountain muhly (Muhlenbergia montana) also occurs in the PFO (Youngblood 1985). Other tree species associated with the Ponderosa pine cover type are single-needle pinyon (Pinus monophylla), juniper (Juiperus spp.), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), and white fir (Abies concolor).

Ponderosa pine cover types and associated vegetation communities are important wildlife habitat. The forest understory provides valuable browsing and grazing for wildlife and livestock. Ponderosa pine provides roosting, nesting, and foraging habitat for the Mexican spotted owl. The mixed-conifer, interior Ponderosa pine, and Gambel oak types provide optimal habitat for the owl, which is a federally listed endangered species (Ganey et al. 1999).

Oak

In the PFO, Gambel oak is the dominant species on south-facing slopes at elevations of 6,500 feet to 7,800 feet (Harper et al., 1985). Other species associated with Gambel oak are fir species (Abies spp.), maple species (Acer spp.), Utah serviceberry (Amelanchier utahensis), and sagebrush (Artemesia spp).

Oak woodlands provide food and shelter to numerous wildlife species. Gambel oak is a major forage species for deer and elk (Mower et al. 1989), and the acorn crop provides a major food source for Merriam’s turkeys (USFS 2004). Mule deer use oak woodlands during the winter for browse and cover, although use is greatest when the average vegetation height is less than 15 feet (USFS 2004).

Mountain Shrub

In the PFO, mountain shrubs may form a distinct belt on mountain slopes and ridge tops above pinyon- juniper woodlands. These communities are usually found at elevations of 5,000 to 7,000 feet. The mountain shrub community exhibits a mosaic pattern of several co-dominant shrub species distributed across a diverse landscape.

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Plant species associated with mountain shrub include mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus spp.), scrub oak (Quercus spp.), bigtooth maple (Acer grandidentatum), antelope bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata), Stansbury cliffrose (Purshia mexicana var. stansburiana), mountain big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata spp. vaseyana), pachistima (Pachistima myrsinities), ninebark (Physocarpus malvaceus), ceanothus (Ceanothus spp.), serviceberry (Amelanchier spp.), chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), bitter cherry (Prunus emarginata), and snowberry (Symphoricarpos spp.) (USFS 2004).

Mountain shrubs provide valuable forage and browse for big game species and livestock. Some species, such as serviceberry, provide a valuable food source for birds, including greater sage-grouse. Mountain shrub communities are identified as priority breeding habitats for migratory birds.

Pinyon-Juniper Woodlands

The pinyon-juniper woodland associations inhabit semidesert and upland zones throughout the PFO. This type includes mixes of pinyon and juniper trees and areas that are strictly pinyon or juniper trees. The dominant species of the pinyon-juniper type are the Utah juniper (Juniperus osteosperma) and pinyon pine (Pinus edulis). The pinyon-juniper woodland distribution is limited because of low precipitation, high temperatures, and saline soils. Stands vary from quite dense to sparse with shrub and grass understory.

Pinyon-juniper woodlands provide shelter and forage for numerous species of wildlife. Succession changes the quantity and variety of wildlife species using pinyon-juniper woodlands (Balda et al. 1980). Pinyon and juniper trees out-compete all other vegetation for moisture, and, at climax, only a scattering of understory remains (BLM 1991).

Sagebrush

In the PFO, dominant sagebrush species include big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata var. tridentata) and Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata Wyomingensis). Other sagebrush species include bud sagebrush (Artemisia spinescens) and fringed sagebrush (Artemisia frigida) (BLM 1991). Common shrubs and grasses associated with sagebrush include broom snakeweed (Gutierrezia sarothrae), green rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus), galleta (Hillaria jamesii), blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), Indian ricegrass (Oryzopsis micrantha), and needle-and-thread grass (Stipa comata). Sagebrush ecosystems provide vital habitat for many wildlife species, including greater sage-grouse, mule deer, pronghorn, and cottontail rabbits. Sagebrush in several areas of the Colorado Plateau is in decadent condition and overall conditions are declining due to drought. Sagebrush die-off areas have been identified and mapped on the Colorado Plateau, including 15,380 acres within the PFO.

Big sagebrush provides cover for a variety of wildlife, including pronghorn, mule deer, bighorn sheep, jackrabbits, shrub-nesting birds, and some ground-nesting birds, including greater sage-grouse. The cover of mature shrubs is especially important to pronghorn fawns and greater sage-grouse broods. Mid- to late- seral communities are important habitats for black-tailed jackrabbits. In contrast, some prey species and raptors that rely on sagebrush prefer open and grassy early seral sagebrush communities. Sagebrush numbers decline as plant succession advances toward late seral stages.

Grass-Like

Grass-like areas include desert and semidesert climates. Grass-like areas are primarily perennial grasses intermixed with half shrubs, occasional shrubs, and annual grasses. The dominant grass species are Indian ricegrass, galleta, and blue grama. Other grasses include sand dropseed (Sporobolus cryptandrus), threeawn species (Aristida spp.), needle-and-thread, squirreltail (Sitanion hystrix), and western

Price RMP 3-21 Chapter 3 Proposed RMP/Final EIS wheatgrass (Agropyron smithii). Other common plants are shadscale (Artiplex confertifolia), fourwing saltbush (Artiplex canescens), Mormon tea (Ephedra viridis), black sagebrush (Artemisia nova), low sagebrush (Artemisia arbuscula), green rabbitbrush, winterfat (Ceratoides lanata), and broom snakeweed (Gutierrzia sarothrae) (BLM 1991).

Grass-like areas provide forage for wildlife and livestock. Some mature grass species, such as threeawn, are less palatable to wildlife and livestock, whereas other species, such as blue grama, provide excellent forage for wildlife and livestock. Grass-like areas also provide nesting habitat for ground-nesting species and provide habitat for ferruginous hawks.

Desert Shrub

Desert shrub is characterized by low-growing shrub communities, which frequently occur in saline-alkaline soils at lower elevations (i.e., valley floors, bottomlands, and floodplains of intermittent and perennial streams). Poor drainage conditions and low precipitation cause soil salts to accumulate in these lowlands, significantly affecting plant growth. Shadscale, blackbrush (Coleogyne ramosissima), and black greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus) are the dominant shrub species. Other plants associated with this cover type are alkali sacaton, saltgrass (Distichlis stricta), Indian ricegrass, galleta, and Mormon tea.

Galleta and Indian ricegrass are the most important understory plants. Both are salt tolerant, but galleta’s competitive advantage, aided by continual spring grazing, has resulted in an increase of galleta and a decrease in Indian ricegrass (BLM 1991b). Livestock usually avoid areas dominated by saltgrass for forage, but the dense mats of vegetation provide good cover for small mammals.

Exotic or Introduced Plants

The PFO has a number of exotic or introduced plants. Introduced plants are those planted as part of vegetation treatments or rehabilitation projects. Six of these plant species have the greatest influence on the management of land in the area: crested wheatgrass, Russian wildrye, smooth brome, forage kochia, cheatgrass, and tamarisk (BLM 1989b). Crested wheatgrass, Russian wildrye, and smooth brome are grasses that have been planted as part of vegetation treatments or rehabilitation projects. Forage kochia has also been used for rehabilitation.

Crested Wheatgrass

Crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum and A. desertorum) is a cool season bunchgrass. It is drought tolerant and is used chiefly in arid and semiarid areas for seeding rangeland in poor condition. Beginning in the 1960s, thousands of acres in the PFO were seeded with crested wheatgrass. Crested wheatgrass is also useful for reclamation of disturbed areas. It provides good watershed protection and good forage.

Russian Wildrye

Russian wildrye (Elymus junceus) is a long-lived bunchgrass that grows rapidly in the spring and produces abundant basal leaves that remain green through summer and fall. It endures close grazing better than most grasses and withstands drought. Russian wildrye is adapted to sagebrush, mountain brush, and pinyon-juniper sites, and is useful on soils too alkaline for other grasses.

Smooth Brome

Smooth brome (Bromus inermis) is a long-lived, sod-forming grass that is very palatable and productive for livestock grazing. It suppresses re-invasion by undesirable vegetation. Smooth brome is very useful for erosion control.

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Forage Kochia

Forage kochia (Kochia prostrata) is a perennial shrub introduced from southern Eurasia. It does not become established at a site unless specifically planted. Forage kochia provides valuable livestock and wildlife forage during winter periods and dry seasons, provides food and cover for upland game birds, and is useful for rangeland reclamation. It persists on disturbed, harsh soils with high salt content and will out- compete less desirable range grasses such as cheatgrass.

Cheatgrass

Cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) is an annual grass found throughout the PFO. It is most apt to occur on degraded and disturbed areas, and it frequently forms a monotype on burn sites. This can be seen in numerous areas along the Green River, Price River, and Rock Creek. It is also found on disturbed areas such as drill pads, borrow pits, cleared rights-of-way (ROW), and others. The seeds germinate in the fall and green up early in the spring. Cheatgrass stays green for an average of 6 weeks. Cured cheatgrass is a very flashy fuel and is a major fire hazard where it occurs in significant amounts, potentially increasing fire cycles from more than 30 years in sagebrush communities to 2–5 years in the cheatgrass-dominated areas.

Tamarisk

Tamarisk (tamarix ramosissima) is extremely deep rooted. Some studies show that tamarisk uses much more water than native cottonwood and willow communities and has the ability to sequester salts in its lower leaves and then shed them, resulting in a buildup of salts in upper soil horizons and litter. Tamarisk invades these areas, frequently displacing native plant species, and reinvades rapidly after wildland fire. Tamarisk is common and frequently forms pure stands along the Green and Price rivers and is showing up along numerous other drainages in the PFO.

The Green River, through Desolation and Gray Canyon, is one area where tamarisk is being replaced by native willow. The green line aspect of this river has changed over the last 25 years from tamarisk to willow.

Invasive and Noxious Plants

Federal, State, and local laws and regulations govern the PFO invasive and noxious species program. The BLM has two existing memoranda of understanding (MOU) with Carbon and Emery counties for noxious weed control. The Utah Department of Agriculture has identified 18 noxious weeds, and Carbon County has also listed Russian olive. In addition, in 2003, the PFO entered into a cooperative agreement with other federal, State, and local agencies as a cooperating agency with the newly formed Skyline Cooperative Weed Management Area (CWMA). CWMA’s efforts over the past 2 years to control and eradicate invasive and noxious plants on public lands have been through inventory, treatment, and grant proposals.

The BLM works cooperatively with other federal, State, and county agencies, as well as private landowners, to prevent and control the spread of noxious weeds. Noxious plants are those that infest either land or water resources and cause physical or economic damage. Table 3-8 lists the name, estimate of acres infested, general trend, and treatment comments.

In 1997–1998, an extensive inventory of noxious weeds was performed in both Emery and Carbon counties. Although the survey focused primarily along roads, it provided a broad assessment of the major weeds likely to be found within the PFO. At least minor occurrences of all State- and county-listed

Price RMP 3-23 Chapter 3 Proposed RMP/Final EIS noxious weeds were found in both counties. Several weed species are limited to agricultural fields (private land). Priorities and strategies for treatment are determined through the existing MOUs and the Skyline CWMA.

Table 3-8. Invasive and Noxious Plant Species within the PFO Common Infested General Trend Scientific Name Name Acres Treatment Comments Bindweed Infestation is considered stable, and no efforts are (Morning Convolvulus spp. 60 under way to control bindweed on public lands. Glory) Black Henbane Hyoscyamus niger 4 Infestation is considered stable and isolated. Broad-leaved Infestation is considered stable, and most of the Lepidium latifolium 210 Peppergrass infestations are located along the Green River. Buffalo Bur Solanum rostratum >1 Infestation is considered stable and isolated. Canadian Cirsium arvense 10 Infestation is considered stable and isolated. Thistle Infestation is considered stable; however, some Hoary Cress Lepidium draba 4 infestations located on private lands are encroaching onto public lands. Infestation is considered stable. Efforts by Carbon Houndstongue Cynoglossum officinal 70 County are to control houndstongue along roadsides. Infested acres are increasing by about approximately 10 percent annually. Chemical and biological controls Musk Thistle Carduus nutans 200 are being used to control manage the spread of musk thistle. Infestation is considered stable, and major efforts by Purple Lythrum salicaria 1 CWMA are underway to control the spread of purple Loosestrife loosestrife. Infested acres are increasing by 5 percent annually. Russian Centaurea repens 100 Major efforts are underway by CWMA to control the Knapweed spread of Russian knapweed. Infestation is considered stable. Carbon and Emery Russian Olive Elaegnus angustifolia 65 counties’ efforts are to limit Russian olive to the existing population. Scotch Thistle Onopordum acanthium 5 Infestation is considered stable and isolated. Spotted Centaurea maculosa >1 Infestation is considered stable and isolated. Knapweed

Tamarisk Infestation is considered stable, and no efforts are Tamarix ramosissima 8,000 (Salt Cedar) under way to control tamarisk on public lands. Source: BLM inventories and treatment reports 1996–2003.

Aggressive treatments are used on seven of the invasive species within the PFO: musk thistle, Russian knapweed, hoary cress, Canadian thistle, scotch thistle, black henbane, and purple loosestrife. Carbon and Emery counties treat approximately 150 infested acres annually. The recent increase in mineral development in the planning area has required the treatment of invasive vegetation along pipelines, roads, and well pads. Mineral lessees treat an estimated 400 acres per year. These treatments include bare ground treatment on well pads and spot treatments of noxious weeds along pipelines and roads.

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3.2.4 Cultural

Cultural resources are sensitive, irreplaceable resources with potential public and scientific uses and an important and integral part of our national heritage. Cultural resources constitute “a definite location of human activity, occupation, or use identifiable through field inventories (i.e., surveys), historical documentation, or oral evidence” (BLM-M-8100). The term cultural resource also includes “archaeological, historic, or architectural sites, structures, or places with important public and scientific uses, and may include definite locations (i.e., sites or places) of traditional cultural or religious importance to specified social and/or cultural groups. Cultural resources are concrete, material places and things that are located, classified, ranked, and managed through the system of identifying, protecting, and utilizing for public benefit. They may be but are not necessarily eligible for the National Register” (BLM- M-8100).

Cultural History Overview

Cultural resources in the PFO are categorized into two major time periods (prehistoric and historic) separated by the presence of European influence in the region. Prehistoric sites can be associated with one or more of four broad cultural periods that are distinguished based on differences in material culture traits or artifacts and subsistence patterns. In the following section, the nature of each cultural period is addressed.

Paleo-Indian (Prior to 8,000 B.C.)

Evidence indicates Paleo-Indians followed and hunted the herds of Late Pleistocene mega-fauna, such as mammoth, camel, bison, and giant sloth, in the Castle Valley lowlands and on the Wasatch Plateau. Enough archaeological evidence has been recovered in Utah that a Paleo-Indian presence in the State is no longer questioned. Although Paleo-Indians were chronological contemporaries of extinct mega-fauna, and evidence for hunts exists elsewhere, no sealed Paleo-Indian deposits have been found in association with extinct fauna in Utah (Spangler & Forsyth 1993). There is undocumented evidence of Paleo-Indian interaction with mega-fauna near Nine Mile Canyon. Three mammoth tusks were discovered during the widening of the road near Nine Mile Canyon; the tusks were discovered associated with some charcoal, but there was no evidence of burning. Unfortunately, the charcoal was not recovered with the mammoth tusks and was subsequently destroyed by the road construction (Spangler & Forsyth 1993). Paleo-Indians sites are known to occur in the Dry Lakes and the Lower Green River areas (Appendix L). Because of the rare nature of these resources, discoveries of additional Paleo-Indian sites would provide further evidence of how this culture used the area; the potential remains for further discoveries.

Archaic (8,000 B.C. to 100 B.C.)

The Archaic tradition may be defined as a “generalized hunter-gatherer adaptive strategy” (Spath 1999), with peoples employing “common adaptive strategies to exploit a variety of desert environments” (Spangler & Forsyth 1993). The warmer, dryer environment of the Archaic period resulted in a change from the big-game subsistence pattern of the Paleo-Indian to a small game hunting and seed and nut gathering subsistence pattern. For the most part, researchers agree there is little or no evidence that Archaic peoples developed directly out of Paleo-Indians (Spangler & Forsyth 1993). In several areas, there appears to be a brief hiatus between Paleo-Indian use of areas and use of the same areas by Archaic people.

It is thought that Archaic peoples “followed an annual round in response to changing resource availability, living in small, kin-related groups throughout most of the year” (Tipps 1988). These highly adaptive groups could easily move from where resources were depleted to where resources were

Price RMP 3-25 Chapter 3 Proposed RMP/Final EIS abundant, roving from location to location, with their diet focusing on a new staple food source at each different location. This seasonal pattern of subsistence is evident in several excavations throughout the PFO (Wyle 1971). Toward the end of the Archaic period, the hunter-gatherer tradition was gradually incorporated into supplemental agricultural subsistence (BLM 2003a). Because of the small size of the Archaic sociopolitical groups, the few seasonal cave and overhang dwellings thus far discovered are estimated to represent only a portion of the sites used. Archaic sites exist in the Temple Cottonwood Dugout and Lower Green River areas. Potential for further Archaic site discoveries remains throughout the PFO.

Formative (100 B.C. to A.D. 1200)

The appearance and disappearance of the Formative period Fremont culture in the Colorado Plateau is still a controversial issue (Morse 1931). Fremont habitation in the San Rafael Swell dates from approximately A.D. 700 to A.D. 1200, when it abruptly disappears. For several reasons, the Formative period Fremont culture is the best preserved and most studied of any cultures that have used the PFO. First, the nature of Fremont culture creates more permanent resources that resist deterioration. The Fremont led a more sedentary life than did their Archaic predecessors. The Fremont are “archaeologically characterized by the use of ceramics and the bow and arrow, habitation of deep pithouses in small riverine settlements, and a metate with a shelf, termed the Utah metate” (Miller 2002). In addition, much of the rock art in the PFO is attributed to Formative cultures, although rock art from Archaic and later Numic cultures also has been noted. Most sites in the PFO identified as belonging to a specific cultural group are either wholly from or contain components of Formative cultures.

Overall, the Fremont culture was in “decided contrast” to Archaic culture and was characterized by “energy-expensive architectural sites that suggest reduced mobility, a well-developed ceramic and horticulture tradition, and bow-and-arrow technology” (Spangler & Forsyth 1993). The Fremont were partially dependent on horticulture, with some Fremont sites producing evidence of maize. Granaries are common on the cliffs throughout the PFO and were built to store and protect the maize and other resources. Fremont semi-permanent villages are located near reliable water sources, although some Fremont resources are present at several of the caves and overhangs throughout the Swell that are away from reliable water. The Fremont were able to support themselves in more permanent settlements by augmenting their hunting and gathering with horticulture and vice versa. Fremont sites exist in Nine Mile Canyon, Range Creek, and the Lower Green River areas (Appendix L).

Although no exhaustive inventory has been completed, the transect inventories resulting from the reconstruction of I-70 and the construction of Utah Power and Light powerlines indicate that there is a high potential for Formative period sites. The inaccessibility of many of these resources has sheltered them from disturbance. While this has been a means of protection for the sites, it is also a potential detriment because natural site degradation, vandalism, or unauthorized collecting is so difficult to monitor and manage. Although Formative period sites compose the majority of those with cultural affiliation identified, much is not known concerning this period. Identification, preservation, and the study of Formative period sites, especially undisturbed sites, is integral to the understanding of this period and the Fremont culture.

Late Prehistoric (A.D. 1200 to circa [ca.] 1776)

Following the seemingly abrupt decline and disappearance of the Fremont culture about A.D. 1200, archaeological evidence suggests that a new Numic-speaking culture entered the area (BLM 2003a). As with the rise and fall of the Fremont culture, the origins of the Numic culture are debated. What is not debated, however, is that about 1200 A.D. the Fremont culture of semi-permanent villages and horticulture, augmented by hunting and gathering, was replaced by a subsistence pattern of seasonally

3-26 Price RMP Proposed RMP/Final EIS Chapter 3 following a hunting and gathering economy, similar to the Archaic culture. While the Numic culture is not known extremely well in the archaeological record, it is documented in the records of ethnographers. “Numic sites, if they can be identified archaeologically, would not be located in close proximity to large settlements and should reflect a highly mobile lifestyle” (Spangler & Forsyth 1993). The Numic-speaking cultures transitioned into those cultures present in 1700 when interaction with the Spanish and explorers began. Numic-speaking cultures include the Utes, Paiutes, and Shoshoneans.

As is similar with previous periods, there is a high potential for Proto-Historic sites in the PFO. Although they may not be as resistant to deterioration as Fremont sites, the relatively modern Proto-Historic sites have had much less time to deteriorate. Because of the relative paucity of Proto-Historic sites, newly identified sites would be significant both locally and nationally in aiding research to ascertain the fate of the Fremont culture and the rise of the Numic-speaking cultures.

Historic (After ca. 1776)

“The historic cultural resources of PFO represent a remarkable variety of American, European, and religious influences—arguably the most diverse assemblage of cultural influences anywhere in the State of Utah” (Spangler & Forsyth 1993). Although the first documented Europeans in Utah arrived in 1776– 1777, led by the Spanish Catholic Fathers Dominguez and Escalante, they traveled north of what is now the PFO (Spangler & Forsyth 1993). Subsequent travelers and traders established the various routes of what has become known as the Northern Route of the Spanish Trail (Map 3-29). These routes cross into eastern Utah near and around the San Rafael Swell area and were used by trappers, explorers, and emigrants passing through to the Pacific coast. Between the early 1830s and the late 1840s, users of the Old Spanish Trail navigated numerous routes, many of which cross portions of the PFO (NPS 2001). There is more information on the Old Spanish Trail in Section 3.4.4, Other Special Designations.

The geographic nature of the PFO, as well as its topographic and climatological characteristics, resulted in permanent Euro-American settlements not being established until the late 1870s. Prior to that, the Euro-American presence, the distinction between prehistoric and historic time periods, was transitory in nature and therefore not well represented in the archaeological record (Spangler & Forsyth 1993). Many of the historic resources in the PFO are derived from early land uses, many of which continue today to some degree.

The establishment of permanent Mormon settlements in the Castle Valley area in the 1870s and the subsequent establishment of the mining, railroad, and livestock industries have left a rich archaeological record. Many of the local settlers found areas of the PFO ideal for winter grazing (BLM unpublished report). Many of these settlers and ranchers had originally settled in other parts of central Utah, but decided to settle in communities in Carbon and Emery counties to make better use of grazing opportunities. There are many local heritage sites associated with historic homesteads and ranching operations, such as Swaseys Cabin, Nine Mile Canyon, Range Creek, Shepherds End, Wilsonville, Smith Cabin, and Hunt Cabin (Appendix L).

Several railroad lines were constructed, and unused railroad graded beds were developed to support the transportation and mineral developments in the area. The western expansions of the Nation’s railroad system explored potential routes through the San Rafael Swell, but these attempts were thwarted because of the rugged topography. Nonetheless, acceptable routes were found within PFO by skirting the northern end of the Swell, which led to increased economic opportunities for settlement surrounding the Swell.

Historic mineral extraction throughout the PFO drew interest both regionally and nationally. The settlement of what is today Carbon County was directly related to the discovery and development of coal reserves (Spangler & Forsyth 1993). The number of non-Mormon immigrants increased in the region in

Price RMP 3-27 Chapter 3 Proposed RMP/Final EIS the early 1880s to assist with the development of coal and other mineral resources. Emery County farmers found the Carbon County coal camps a market for their produce and livestock and “the coal mines also offered employment to Mormon farmers when the farms were unable entirely to support a more numerous second generation of Castle Valley Mormons” (Spangler & Forsyth 1993). Several other historic mining operations are spread throughout the PFO, including Copper Globe, which is a copper mine discovered before 1900 and worked periodically up to World War II. Following World War II, several uranium mines were developed. During the cold war, the United States Atomic Energy Commission funded several uranium extraction operations nationally, and the San Rafael Swell was one of numerous locations, including Temple Mountain, Tidwell Draw, Hidden Splendor, Little Susan, and Lucky Strike (Appendix L).

The increased economic activity and settlement brought several of the West’s most notorious and revered outlaws, such as Butch Cassidy, into the area. They used the ruggedness and remoteness of the San Rafael Swell to elude capture by local authorities. Both the area and the outlaws became a part of American folklore.

Cultural Affiliation

Several tribes, as well as descendents of Euro-American settlers, maintain active interests in the use and management of PFO cultural resources. While the presence of traditional cultural properties is likely throughout the PFO, the only identified traditional cultural property in this planning process is the Green River, which is identified by the Navajo tribe. Continuing consultation efforts with cultural groups would result in the identification of other areas of tribal religious significance and/or traditional use.

Current Conditions

Archaeological investigations in the PFO began as early as 1894 with investigations of the Nine Mile Canyon and Price areas by Henry Montgomery, a professor of natural sciences at the University of Utah (Spangler & Forsyth 1993). Several research projects, including studies in Desolation Canyon, Range Creek, and Nine Mile Canyon, were conducted by pseudo-professionals in the early 1930s. Beginning in 1936, systematic, scientific archaeological methodology was used to study the area’s cultural resources. Most research projects have been sponsored by various universities and/or museums and reflect the evolutionary application of science in such research. The various inventories and excavations focused on the northern portions of the PFO, with several inventory efforts occurring within Nine Mile Canyon. Over the last 25 years, several inventories in Nine Mile Canyon have been undertaken to document the presence of and impacts on cultural resources, such as granaries, pit houses, and specifically, rock art. These Nine Mile Canyon surveys are unique in that certified amateurs provided the field crews necessary for an intensive professional survey (Spangler & Forsyth 1993). Most of the work in Nine Mile Canyon, however, has been limited to surface inventories with few excavations. Because extensive rock art panels have been documented throughout Nine Mile Canyon, the area is often called the world’s longest art gallery (Lancto 2006), with more than 10,000 images carved into the walls. The canyon “is an outdoor museum,” and has been featured in publications such as National Geographic noting the unique nature and beauty of the art (Utah 2006). When the State of Utah acquired the Wilcox Ranch in Range Creek Canyon, it provided access to an area long closed by the former ranch owner (Sanford 2004; Potterfield 2004). As a result, the cultural resources in Range Creek Canyon, estimated at 2,000 to 5,000 sites, with more being identified above and below the acquired property (Bauman & Boren 2004), are in pristine condition, virtually untouched since the departure of the Fremont (Potterfield 2004; Lavine 2006). Sites in the area indicate very dense habitation and include rock art, pit houses, granaries, and burial sites (Bauman & Boren, 2004). “The entire area qualifies for listing on the National Register of Historic Places” (UDWR, 2005). In these areas in particular, the value of the cultural resources has resulted in great institutional and agency interest for scientific research.

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Over the past 20 years, cultural resource inventories have been dominated by those performed in compliance with Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act. These inventories are implemented to support site-specific surface disturbing projects, such as mineral and energy development, and therefore, the location of these inventories has focused on those locations where development is occurring rather than where cultural research needs are greatest. Implemented in this manner, cultural resource inventories have been focused along pipeline corridors and ROWs, on well pads, and occasionally on larger tracks of public lands targeted for coal or water developments. These inventories have provided for the orderly and professional identification, evaluation, and mitigation of cultural resources that may be subject to potential impacts. This has resulted in the inventory of many areas that otherwise would not have been inventoried over the past 20 years. Known cultural resource sites, therefore, may not fully represent the distribution of cultural resources present in the PFO. Several Class II cultural resource inventories have been conducted, both associated with natural resource development and as a management tool aimed at identifying environmental variables corresponding with site density (Spangler 2002). These inventories demonstrated that prehistoric peoples “exploited a wide variety of distinct environmental zones, and all zones contained archaeological sites to a greater or lesser degree” (Spangler 2002). While these inventories and the various associated predictive models have provided valuable insights on the general relationship between cultural resource sites and the landscape, increasing the precision of the models will not occur as long as the areas being studied are determined by natural resource development projects and not an entire ecosystem (Spangler 2002). Intensive cultural resource inventories meeting Utah Class III standards (15-meter transect intervals) have been completed on less than 5 percent of the PFO, generally in association with natural resource development projects.

A total of 2,033 cultural resource sites are listed in the State Historic Preservation Office (SHPO) database within the planning area. Cultural resources are classified into site types based on similar physical or cultural characteristics identified as components or occupations. At the broadest level, cultural resource sites are categorized as containing either prehistoric or historic components. Because geographic locations desirable for human use at one time could also be desirable for human use at other times, the number of sites shown in Table 3-9 (whether historic/prehistoric or within prehistoric cultural affiliations) is not aggregated because cultural material from one site may be attributable to several time periods. There are 1,181 sites (58 percent of sites) that contain prehistoric cultural resources from the various cultural traditions in the PFO. Most of these sites (e.g., Unknown Aboriginal: 703) cannot be associated with a specific prehistoric time period. This category usually includes sites with prehistoric artifacts but lacking any diagnostic artifacts, such as pottery or projectile points, that would enable dating to a specific time period. They are often small, simple scatters of chipped stone debris. There are 316 sites that date to the Formative period. Formative period sites are the most archaeologically visible sites with diagnostic artifacts, often with evidence of architecture and pottery. For this document, historic sites are organized either chronologically or functionally. There are 356 sites (18 percent of sites) with evidence of historic occupations. There are 598 sites (29 percent of sites) that are lacking any description of cultural affiliation.

Table 3-9. Cultural Time Periods and Site Occurrence Cultural Time Time Percent of # Sites Characteristics Period Frame Total* Before Big-game subsistence patterns. Paleo-Indian Paleo-Indian 10 < 1 8,000 B.C. sites are significant because of their scarcity. Hunting and gathering lifestyle likely with well-established seasonal rounds for 8,000 B.C.– Archaic 98 5 resource procurement. Projectile points and 100 B.C. camps have been found and further discoveries are likely.

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Cultural Time Time Percent of # Sites Characteristics Period Frame Total* Introduction of bow and arrow, ceramics, and farming with associated sedentary lifestyle and population growth. As a result, more permanent settlements and associated 100 B.C.– Formative 316 16 cultural resources remain from these A.D. 1200 cultures. Scientific uncertainty still remains concerning their origin and disappearance. Identification of additional sites would be scientifically beneficial. Return to hunting-gathering traditions with A.D. 1200– limited use of ceramics and horticulture. Proto-Historic 54 3 ca. 1776 Identification of additional sites would be beneficial to further research. Euro-American settlement patterns After ca. associated with agriculture, homesteading, Historic 356 18 1776 ranching, farming, minerals development, and transportation. Sites with prehistoric-type artifacts but lacking diagnostic materials, making the Unknown Aboriginal Unknown 703 35 assignment to a specific prehistoric time period impossible. No cultural affiliation information given for No Affiliation Unknown 598 29 these files. * Because some sites contain material from multiple periods, the percentage of all sites will add to more than 100 percent. Source: Utah Division of State History Files

Few of the cultural resource inventories have attempted to correlate cultural manifestations (sites or resources) with environmental variables to develop a model for site density. Some variables that have been investigated include vegetation type, distance from permanent water, distance to arable land, elevation, and rainfall zones. Some relationships were identified between distance from pinyon-juniper woodland communities and site densities, as well as distance from permanent water sources. However, the various studies did not always produce consistent results. Spangler (2002) notes a direct relationship between permanent water, arable lands, and access to pinyon-juniper resources. “The lack of any one of those resources corresponded with a significant decrease in the density of sites” (Spangler 2002). For Nine Mile Canyon, various studies have identified site densities varying from 33 sites per square mile to 0.3 sites per square mile. Generally, site densities were higher on the west end of Nine Mile Canyon and decreased as the canyon neared the confluence with the Green River (Spangler & Forsyth 1993). There have been fewer studies of this nature in the central and southern portions of the PFO.

The fragile nature of cultural resources makes them prone to damage, whether naturally or through human activity. Many sites have been damaged, intentionally or unintentionally, through human activity over the past 100 years. In addition, many sites are affected simply through exposure to natural processes such as erosion.

Cumulative and residual impacts are an issue with cultural resources, with closely linked linear resources and related sites of particular concern. Historic highways, railroad grade, fence lines, ditches, and other linear resources may be affected by individual approved actions that affect small portions of the systems. Professional research, documentation, and recovery where necessary will evaluate and document the resource at the point of impact. Subsequent actions affecting a resource will take into account previous

3-30 Price RMP Proposed RMP/Final EIS Chapter 3 research and disturbances. These cumulative effects have a tendency to mount with each successive undertaking.

National Register and Well-Known Sites

Prehistoric or historic cultural resource sites, structures, or objects listed or eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) are managed as directed by 36 CFR 800, Protection of Historic and Cultural Properties. These regulations stipulate that cultural resources must be assessed for integrity of location, design, setting, materials, workmanship, feeling, and association. A property may be considered eligible for listing on the NRHP if it retains sufficient integrity of the elements above and if it meets certain criteria as outlined in National Register Bulletin 15 (NPS 1997). As listed in 36 CFR Part 60, Historic Properties, prehistoric and historic archaeological sites and places considered important to Native Americans must meet a specific set of criteria:

“The quality of significance in American history, architecture, archeology, engineering, and culture is present in districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects that possess integrity of location, design, setting, materials, workmanship, feeling, and association, and:

a. That are associated with events that have made a significant contribution to the broad patterns of our history; or b. That are associated with the lives of persons significant in our past; or c. That embody the distinctive characteristics of a type, period, or method of construction, or that represent the work of a master, or that possess high artistic values, or that represent a significant and distinguishable entity whose components may lack individual distinction; or d. That have yielded, or may be likely to yield, information important in prehistory or history [NPS 1997:2].”

The following seven sites within the PFO are currently listed on the NRHP:

• Flat Canyon Archaeological District • Desolation Canyon National Historic Landmark • Black Dragon Canyon Pictographs • Buckhorn Wash Rock Art Sites • San Rafael Bridge • Denver and Rio Grande Lime Kiln (also known as Buckhorn Flat Lime Kiln) • Rochester-Muddy Creek Petroglyph Site.

Many others are eligible for listing. Current laws protect sites that are listed on the NRHP as well as those that are eligible.

There are 430 sites that have been recommended as eligible for listing on the NRHP and 276 sites that have been determined as eligible for listing on the NRHP by SHPO. These represent approximately 35 percent of the known sites in the PFO. There are 884 sites that have been recommended not eligible for listing on the NRHP. In addition, those sites where data are insufficient to make an eligibility determination (i.e., 291 sites) are treated as though they were eligible until supporting information shows otherwise.

Other well-known or sensitive cultural resource districts, sites, and areas include the following:

• Nine Mile Canyon • Gordon Creek

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• Range Creek • Price River • Head of Sinbad Rock Art Site • Lone Warrior Rock Art Site • Green River Desert Archaeological District • Power Pole Knoll • Windy Ridge • Crescent Ridge • Innocents Ridge • Cedar Creek Archaeological District • Molen Seep Wash • Short Canyon • Noel Morss’ Temple Mountain Alcove • Swaseys Cabin • Red Hole Draw Rock Art Sites • Clydes Cavern • San Rafael Reef Rock Art District • Pint-Size Shelter • Coal Cliffs West Slope Archaeological District • Temple Mountain Uranium Mine • Tomsich Butte Uranium Mine • Copper Globe • The Old Spanish Trail National Historic Trail.

See Section 3.4.2 for additional information about areas of critical environmental concern.

3.2.5 Paleontology

Paleontological resources are contained in most of the sedimentary rock units of the PFO. The geographic extent of the PFO exposes 24 sedimentary geologic formations at the surface. A comprehensive paleontological resource inventory of these formations has not been completed. However, in the fall of 2007, the BLM adopted the Potential Fossil Yield Classification system of assigning values to formations for planning and management purposes.

The occurrence of fossils anywhere in a formation suggests they may be present elsewhere in the formation as well. Each formation was formed through depositional processes that led to characteristic traits and potential for a certain type of fossil (Table 3-10). If extensive excavation on a certain formation in one current geographic area results in substantial fossil resources, a potential exists that excavations throughout the extent of the formation will also produce fossil material.

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Table 3-10. Geological Formations Exposed in the PFO Potential Fossil Geologic Depositional Types of Fossils Formations Yield Time Period Environments Potentially Present Classification Unconsolidated surface deposits (includes alluvium, Little potential for colluvium, pediment fossilized material in situ; mantle, eolian dunes, quaternary mammals Surficial Deposits Quaternary PFYC – 2 and deposits have been discovered in associated with both Carbon and Emery landslides, slope- counties wash, alluvial fans, and terraces) Plant, vertebrate, and Green River Lacustrine deposits Eocene trace vertebrate fossils PFYC – 4-5 Formation with fluvial interbeds are known to be present Fluvial deposit with Wasatch/Colton Paleocene to Contains invertebrate marginal lacustrine PFYC – 3 Formation Eocene fossils and deltaic facies Upper Contains invertebrate Flagstaff Limestone Cretaceous to Lacustrine deposit PFYC – 4 fossils Paleocene Known to contain North Horn Cretaceous/Tert Fluvial deposit with vertebrate and plant PFYC – 4 Formation iary some lacustrine facies fossils Price River Upper Fluvial and floodplain Contains plant fossils PFYC – 4 Formation Cretaceous origin Castlegate Upper Fluvial origin No known fossils PFYC – 2 Sandstone Cretaceous Known to contain plant Blackhawk Upper Deltaic and inter- and trace vertebrate PFYC – 4 Formation Cretaceous deltaic deposit fossils Beach sand and Star Point Upper intermediate marine Unknown PFYC – 2 Sandstone Cretaceous shale Common invertebrate and Shallow marine shelf Upper vertebrate and trace Mancos Shale transitional to delta PFYC – 3 Cretaceous vertebrate fossils are plains deposit uncommon Upper Beach to marginal Plant and invertebrate Dakota Sandstone PFYC – 4 Cretaceous marine/ deltaic deposit fossils are present Vertebrates, traces of Cedar Mountain Lower Terrestrial deposits, vertebrate, and plant PFYC – 5 Formation Cretaceous including fluvial fossils present Terrestrial deposits, Vertebrate, invertebrate, Morrison Formation Upper Jurassic including fluvial and trace vertebrate, and plant PFYC – 5 lacustrine fossils present Summerville Potential for trace Middle Jurassic Tidal-flat deposit PFYC – 2 Formation vertebrate fossils

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Potential Fossil Geologic Depositional Types of Fossils Formations Yield Time Period Environments Potentially Present Classification Invertebrate fossils Curtis Formation Middle Jurassic Marine deposit PFYC – 2 present Nearshore eolian Contains trace vertebrate Entrada Sandstone Middle Jurassic depositional PFYC – 2 fossils environment Shallow marine to Contains invertebrate Carmel Formation Middle Jurassic supratidal depositional PFYC – 2 fossils environment Lower Jurassic Deposited in an eolian Contains trace vertebrate Navajo Sandstone to Upper PFYC – 3 environment and plant fossils Triassic Plant, invertebrate, and Kayenta Formation Upper Triassic A fluvial deposit PFYC – 3 trace vertebrate fossils Wingate Sandstone Upper Triassic Eolian deposit Trace vertebrate fossils PFYC – 2 Potential for vertebrate, Deposited in a fluvial plant, and trace vertebrate Chinle Formation Upper Triassic PFYC – 4 environment fossils in this bench forming rock Vertebrate, invertebrate, Moenkopi Middle to Lower Marine deposit and trace vertebrate PFYC – 3 Formation Triassic fossils Invertebrate fossils Kaibab Limestone Lower Permian Marine deposit PFYC – 2 common Cedar Mesa Eolian deposited Member (Cutler Lower Permian No known fossils present PFYC – 3 sandstone Formation) Invertebrate fossils Hermosa Group Pennsylvanian Marine deposit PFYC – 3 present Sources: Stokes, 1986; USGS, 1987, 1988, 1990, 1991.

3.2.6 Visual

The PFO contains a diverse array of visual resources and outstanding scenery associated with remote areas and unique natural and geologic features. The PFO is located within the Colorado Plateau physiographic province. The landform of the PFO includes dramatic canyons, open desert plains, rugged mountains and ridges, and meandering desert rivers that traverse the area. Portions of the PFO with high scenic quality include Desolation Canyon, Nine Mile Canyon, the San Rafael Swell, Labyrinth Canyon, Range Creek, and Gordon Creek areas. Many of these areas are sensitive to landscape alterations because of heavy recreation visitation and the presence of other sensitive resources. Many of the high scenic quality areas are frequently viewed.

The San Rafael Swell is one of the region’s most well-known and popular scenic attractions. The I-70 Area of Critical Environmental Concern (ACEC) is managed to maintain the scenic qualities of the San Rafael Swell where the interstate bisects the area. Within the San Rafael Swell, features such as the Wedge Overlook, San Rafael Reef, Mexican Mountain, Temple Mountain, and Buckhorn Draw attract high levels of recreation visitation because they provide visual evidence of the geologic processes that

3-34 Price RMP Proposed RMP/Final EIS Chapter 3 created the San Rafael Swell. Desolation Canyon is another well-known and popular scenic area. Recreationists travel the river corridor to experience steep-walled canyons carved by the Green River. Undisturbed scenery lines nearly 80 miles of the Green River in the northeastern portion of the PFO.

Nine Mile Canyon contains a regionally significant concentration of cultural resource sites within a steep- walled canyon. The rugged canyon contains numerous petroglyphs and other cultural resource sites visible from the county road that follows the canyon bottom. Labyrinth Canyon is another portion of the PFO with high-quality scenery associated with a river corridor in a remote and rugged canyon setting. The Green River enters Labyrinth Canyon south of its confluence with the San Rafael River and slowly meanders through high-walled cliffs eventually leading to Canyonlands National Park.

The PFO contains several other desert river corridors with outstanding scenic characteristics, including the Price River, San Rafael River, and Muddy Creek. Visitors in these areas can view an array of desert river landscapes and their associated riparian habitats. Features such as river oxbows, deep canyons, and lush vegetation are associated with these corridors. In addition, several scenic byways exist within the PFO to highlight the area’s scenic, geologic, cultural, and paleontological resources.

The current Visual Resource Inventory identifies the existing scenic values in the PFO. The inventory consists of a scenic quality evaluation, sensitivity level analysis, and a delineation of distance zones. Based on these three factors, BLM-administered lands are placed into one of four visual resource inventory classes (Table 3-11). These inventory classes represent the relative value of the visual resources and serve as the baseline for an environmental impact analysis. Classes I and II are the most sensitive, Class III represents a moderate value, and Class IV is the least sensitive (Table 3-12).

All wilderness study areas (WSA) are managed to meet Visual Resource Management (VRM) Class I objectives, in accordance with BLM policy. Bowknot Bend, Muddy Creek, the upper and lower portions of San Rafael Canyon, San Rafael Reef, and Segers Hole ACECs are managed as VRM Class I in accordance with the 1991 San Rafael RMP. In addition, a scenic ACEC is associated with the I-70 corridor that is managed as VRM Class I. Desolation Canyon National Historic Landmark (NHL) is also managed as VRM Class I (1 mile on each side of the Green River from Nine Mile Canyon to Florence Creek). The area of Desolation Canyon NHL that overlaps with the Nine Mile Canyon Recreation and Cultural Resources Management Area (which is designated as VRM Class II) is managed as VRM Class I. Areas managed as VRM Class I are assigned to this category on Map 2-1. Additional information regarding ACECs can be found in Section 3.4.2 and Appendix L.

Table 3-11. VRM Inventoried Classes in the PFO Acres of BLM Land Percentage of BLM VRM Class Within the PFO Land Within the PFO I 288,000 12 II 686,000 28 III 795,000 32 IV 710,000 29

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Table 3-12. Visual Resource Inventory Class Definitions Classification Objective To preserve the existing character of the landscape. The level of change to the characteristic I landscape should be very low and must not attract attention. To retain the existing character of the landscape. The level of change to the characteristic II landscape should be low. To partially retain the existing character of the landscape. The level of change to the III characteristic landscape should be moderate. To provide for management activities that require major modification of the existing character IV of the landscape. The level of change to the characteristic landscape can be high. Source: BLM Handbook H-8410-1, Visual Resource Inventory.

3.2.7 Special Status Species

Special status species include those plant and animal species federally listed as threatened, endangered, proposed, or candidate, as well as BLM and State of Utah sensitive plant and animal species. There are 15 listed and 1 candidate for federally listed species in the PFO. Of the 16 total species, four are wildlife, four are fish, and eight are plant species. In addition to federally listed or candidate species, the BLM and the State of Utah maintain lists of sensitive animal and plant species. Candidate and other non-listed special status species are managed in a manner to prevent federal listing from occurring. Because of restricted distributions, specialized habitat requirements, and population pressures (human-induced and natural) facing them, their populations are of conservation interest. There are 37 other special status species in the PFO.

Consultation with the USFWS is required on any action that a federal agency proposes or authorizes that may affect a federally listed species. If it is determined by the BLM, with the written concurrence of the USFWS, that the action is not likely to adversely affect listed species or designated critical habitat, the consultation process is complete, and no further action is necessary. Consultation (50 CFR 402.14) is required if the federal agency (the BLM) determines that an action is likely to adversely affect a listed species or will result in jeopardy or adverse modification of designated critical habitat (50 CFR 402.02). Federal agencies should also confer with the USFWS on any action that is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of any proposed species or result in the destruction or adverse modification of a proposed critical habitat (50 CFR 402.10). According to BLM Manual 6840, all non-listed special status species are to be managed in a manner, “…that actions authorized, funded, or carried out by the BLM do not contribute to the need for the species to become listed.” This includes sensitive species as well as candidate species.

Federally Listed Species

Table 3-13 identifies the federally listed species in the PFO. See Map 3-6 for threatened and endangered species designated critical habitat.

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Table 3-13. Federally Listed Species

Common Name Scientific Name Status Birds Mexican Spotted Owl Strix occidentalis lucida Federally Threatened Southwestern Willow Flycatcher Empidonax traillii extimus Federally Endangered Coccyzus americanus Western Yellow-Billed Cuckoo Federal Candidate occidentalis

Fish Bonytail Chub Gila elegans Federally Endangered Colorado Pikeminnow Ptychocheilus lucius Federally Endangered Humpback Chub Gila cypha Federally Endangered Razorback Sucker Xyrauchen texanus Federally Endangered

Mammals Black-Footed Ferret Mustela nigripes Federally Endangered

Plants Barneby Reed-Mustard Schoenocrambe barnebyi Federally Endangered Jones Cycladenia Cycladenia jonesii Federally Threatened Last Chance Townsendia Townsendia aprica Federally Threatened Maguire Daisy Erigeron maguirei Federally Threatened San Rafael Cactus Pediocactus despainii Federally Endangered Uinta Basin Hookless Cactus Sclerocactus glaucus Federally Threatened Winkler Pincushion-Cactus Pediocactus winkleri Federally Threatened Wright Fishhook Cactus Sclerocactus wrightiae Federally Endangered

Birds

The Mexican spotted owl was listed as a threatened species on April 15, 1993 (USFWS 1993b). Its range extends from the southern Rocky Mountains in Colorado, the Colorado Plateau in central and southern Utah, and southward through Arizona and New Mexico. Mexican spotted owls primarily forage at night. Their diet consists of a variety of mammals, birds, reptiles, and insects, with mammals constituting the bulk of the diet throughout the owl’s range. Steep slopes and canyons with rocky cliffs characterize much of the owl’s habitat in the PFO. Threats to Mexican spotted owls include habitat loss associated with human disturbance and timber harvest.

Designated critical habitat was established for the Mexican spotted owl in 2001 and revised in 2004. For canyon habitats, the primary constituent elements include one or more of the following attributes: (1) cooler and often more humid conditions than the surrounding area; (2) clumps or stringers of trees and/or canyon walls containing crevices, ledges, or caves; (3) a high percentage of ground litter and woody debris; and (4) riparian or woody vegetation. The primary constituent elements related to forest structure include: (1) a range of tree species; (2) a shade canopy created by the tree branches, covering 40 percent or more of the ground; and (3) large, dead trees with a trunk diameter of at least 12 inches (69 FR 53181-

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5398). The PFO contains 160,400 acres of designated critical habitat for the Mexican spotted owl on BLM-managed land (Map 3-6) and four proposed Protected Activity Centers (PAC).

The southwestern willow flycatcher was listed as an endangered species in 1995. It breeds primarily in the southwestern United States and winters in Central America and southern Mexico. Within Utah, the southwestern willow flycatcher is found in the southern and eastern parts of the State, and along the Colorado Plateau riparian zones. The southwestern willow flycatcher is rare in southern Utah during the summer and is found most frequently in riparian habitats, especially in areas of dense willows associated with rivers and wetlands. As published in the Federal Register, Volume 70, Number 201, pages 60,885– 61,009, there is no designated critical habitat for the southwestern willow flycatcher in the PFO; however, there is suitable habitat in Carbon and Emery counties (UDWR 2004). This species feeds on insects caught in flight, occasionally eating berries or insects picked from leaves or branches. The major factor in the decline of the flycatcher is the alteration and/or loss of the necessary riparian habitat (UDWR 2003).

The western yellow-billed cuckoo is considered a riparian obligate and is usually found in large tracts of dense cottonwood or willow habitats (below an altitude of 33 feet) (UDWR 2005a). The riparian areas in the PFO may provide habitat for this species. Yellow-billed cuckoos are one of the latest migrants to arrive and breed in Utah; they arrive in extremely late May or early June and breed in late June through July (Parrish et al. 2002). Yellow-billed cuckoo nesting behavior may be closely tied to food abundance. Nesting habitat is classified as dense lowland riparian characterized by a dense sub-canopy or shrub layer (i.e., regenerating trees, willows, or other riparian shrubs) within 333 feet of water (UDWR 2005a). Threats to the species include the alteration of riparian corridors from invasive species, improper livestock management, and recreational development (USFWS 2005).

Fish

Because of declining numbers and distribution of humpback chub, bonytail chub, Colorado pikeminnow, and the razorback sucker, USFWS designated critical habitat in April 1994. It consists of 1,980 miles of critical habitat for these four Colorado River endangered fish in portions of Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, and California. Threats of extinctions are due to habitat loss (including alterations to natural flows and changes to temperature and sediment regimes), proliferation of non-native introduced fish, and other artificial disturbances (50 CFR Part 17 Vol. 59, No 54. March 21, 1994). Details on each of these fish follow.

Bonytail chub were listed by USFWS as an endangered species in 1980. They are found in larger channels of the Colorado River system, in swift water, and are endemic to the large rivers (Colorado, Green, and San Juan) of the Colorado River Basin. The historical distribution of bonytail is poorly documented; however, their optimum habitat, based on former collections, appears to be the open river areas of relatively uniform depth and current velocity. Adults are found mainly in pools and eddies with silt, sand, or boulder substrates. Young occur in still water or shallow pools with silt or gravel (Bosworth 2003). UDWR captured two potential bonytail in 1996 in the Colorado River in both Cataract Canyon and Desolation Canyon (Endangered and Threatened Animals of Utah 1998). UDWR has documented populations of bonytail within eastern Emery, Wayne, and Garfield counties (UDWR 2005a).

Spawning occurs over gravel bars in shallow pools from June to July at water temperatures between 64 ºF and 70 ºF. Although bonytail spawning in the wild is now rare, the species spawns in the spring and summer over gravel substrate. Many bonytail are currently produced in fish hatcheries, with the offspring released into the wild when they are large enough to survive in the altered Colorado River system environment. Bonytail prefer eddies, pools, and backwaters near swift current in large rivers. Bonytail chub are opportunistic feeders, eating insects, zooplankton, algae, and aquatic plants. Goals for

3-38 Price RMP Proposed RMP/Final EIS Chapter 3 management and conservation of bonytail are described in Bonytail (Gila elegans) recovery goals: amendment and supplement to the Bonytail Chub Recovery Plan (USFWS 2002a).

The Colorado pikeminnow was listed as endangered in 1967 and is also included in the UDWR Sensitive Species List (UDWR 2003). The Colorado pikeminnow (formerly known as the Colorado squawfish) is a large minnow native to the Colorado River system of the western United States and Mexico. Adults often occupy deep-water, low-velocity eddies and pools. Young of the species prefer slow-moving backwaters. The species spawns during the spring and summer over riffle areas with gravel or cobble substrate. Colorado pikeminnows primarily eat fish, but smaller individuals also eat insects and other invertebrates.

Changes in sediment deposition patterns, flow, and temperature caused by dams have resulted in loss and alteration of aquatic habitats and have favored non-native competitors and predators (Bosworth 2003). Recovery goals have been produced to guide management and conservation efforts and are described in Colorado Pikeminnow (Ptychocheilus lucius) recovery goals: amendment and supplement to the Colorado Squawfish Recovery Plan (USFWS 2002b).

The humpback chub was federally listed as endangered in 1967 and is also included in the UDWR Sensitive Species List (2003). Humpback chub originally thrived in the fast, deep whitewater areas of the Colorado River and its major tributaries, but flow alterations, which have changed the turbidity, volume, current speed, and temperature of the water in those rivers, have had significant negative impacts on the species. Incidence of humpback chub in Utah are presently confined to a few whitewater areas in the Colorado, Green, and White Rivers (Bosworth 2003).

The humpback chub diet is primarily insects and other invertebrates, but algae and fish are occasionally consumed. The species spawns during the spring and summer in shallow, backwater areas with cobble substrate. Spawning occurs in deep, turbulent canyons from May through June, when water temperatures range from 66 °F to 72 °F. Currently, the species occurs in large rivers, primarily in canyon-bound reaches of the Colorado River drainage. Reproducing populations are considered extant in three locations: Westwater Canyon (Colorado River), Cataract Canyon (Colorado River), and Desolation and Gray canyons (Green River) (USFWS 2002c). Recovery goals to guide management and conservation of the species are documented in Humpback chub recovery goals: amendment and supplement to the Humpback Chub Recovery Plan (Fish and Wildlife Service [USFWS] 2002c).

The razorback sucker was listed in 1991 and is also included in the UDWR Sensitive Species List (UDWR 2003). The species is believed to have historically occupied much of the Green, Colorado, and San Juan rivers, as well as the lower portions of large tributaries such as the White and Duchesne rivers. Current distribution patterns are difficult to interpret, primarily because the species is rarely encountered. Razorback sucker occur in water at desert and submontane elevations. Habitat used may vary seasonally and includes pools, slow runs, backwaters, and flooded off-channel habitats (Bosworth 2003).

The razorback sucker mainly eats algae, zooplankton, and other aquatic invertebrates. Successful reproduction has not been documented in the last 25 years. Spawning occurs during a 6-week period in April and May when water temperatures reach 53 °F–64 °F. Recovery goals have been produced to guide management and conservation efforts (USFWS 2002e).

Mammals

Black-footed ferrets were first listed in 1967 and are currently listed as Endangered (USFWS, 2005). This species was considered extinct for many years until a wild population was found in Wyoming (UDWR 2003). A re-introduced population was established in Uintah County in 1999 but is considered an Experimental Population, Non Essential (UDWR, 2005). Black-footed ferrets are nocturnal animals,

Price RMP 3-39 Chapter 3 Proposed RMP/Final EIS living underground in prairie dog burrows (UDWR, 2005). Black-footed ferrets are carnivores, with their primary food source being prairie dogs; thus, ferrets are closely associated with prairie dog colonies (Natureserve 2005). Breeding occurs from March to April; an average of three young are born in approximately 6 weeks (UDWR 2003). The decline of prairie dogs is the major threat to the survival of black-footed ferrets (Map 3-14), although predation by coyotes or badgers may occur (Natureserve 2005). There are no known black-footed ferrets in the PFO.

Plants

Barneby reed-mustard was federally listed as endangered in 1992 and is found only in Emery County. The species grows on red clay soils rich in selenium and gypsum, overlain with sandstone talus derived from the Moenkopi and Chinle geologic formations (USFWS 1995b). Barneby reed-mustard grows in sparsely vegetated sites in mixed desert shrub and pinyon-juniper woodlands, at elevations ranging from 4,788 to 6,510 feet (1,459 to 1,984 meters) (Clark and Clark 1999). Potential threats to the population of Barneby reed-mustard include mining, trampling by hikers, and road or recreation development (USFWS 1994).

Jones cycladenia was federally listed as threatened in 1986 and occurs in Emery County. The species is found in gypsiferous soils that are derived from Summerville, Cutler, and Chinle Formations. Jones cycladenia is found in erigonum-ephedra, cool desert shrub, and juniper communities at elevations ranging from 4,400 to 6,000 feet (Utah Native Plant Society 2005). Threats to this species include trampling by OHV recreation use, and mineral and energy exploration and development (Natureserve 2005).

Last chance townsendia was federally listed as threatened in 1985 and occurs in Emery County. The species is found in clay, clay-silt, or gravelly clay soils derived from the Mancos Formation. These soils are often densely covered with biological soil crusts. Last Chance townsendia grows in salt desert shrub and pinyon-juniper woodlands at elevations ranging from 5,531 to 8,396 feet (1,686 to 2,559 meters) (Federal Register, Volume 50, Number 182, August 21, 1985). Threats to Last Chance townsendia populations include poor rangeland conditions, trampling by OHV recreation use, and mining (USFWS 1993a).

Maguire daisy was federally listed as threatened in 1985 and occurs in Emery County. The species grows on the sand and rubble weathered from Wingate, Chinle, and Navajo Sandstone and rarely, the Kayenta Formation (Utah Native Plant Society 2003–2004 and Clark 1999). It is found in slick rock crevices, on ledges, and in the bottoms of washes, at elevations ranging from 5,248 to 8,200 feet (1,600 to 2,500 meters) (Clark 1999). In 1996, USFWS changed the status of Maguire daisy from endangered to threatened based on the discovery of 12 additional populations (Federal Register, Volume 61, Number 119, June 19, 1996, pages 31,054–31,058). Threats to existing Maguire daisy populations are primarily from mineral and energy exploration and development, OHV recreation use, and livestock trampling (USFWS 1995a).

San Rafael cactus was federally listed as endangered in 1987 and occurs in Emery County. It is found in fine-textured soils rich in calcium derived from the Carmel Formation and the Sinbad Member of the Moenkopi Formation. The species grows on benches, hilltops, and gentle slopes in pinyon-juniper woodlands and mixed desert shrub-grassland communities at elevations ranging from 4,756 to 6,822 feet (1,450 to 2,079 meters) (Utah Native Plant Society 2005) (Federal Register, Volume 60, Number 187, September 27, 1995). Potential threats to the San Rafael cactus are surface disturbance from OHV use, trampling by humans and livestock, and mineral resource exploration and development (Natureserve 2005).

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Uinta Basin hookless cactus is a federally threatened plant that occurs in Carbon County. This inconspicuous species is a small, spiny, succulent ranging from 1.5 to 3 inches tall and similarly as wide (Utah Native Plant Society, 2005). Uinta Basin hookless cactus flowers in April to late May with bright pink to magenta flowers emerging from the top of the stem (Natureserve 2005). Threats to this species include energy development and extraction, illegal collection, and disturbance from agriculture and recreational activities (Natureserve 2005).

Winkler pincushion-cactus was federally listed as threatened in 1998 and occurs in Emery County. The species is a small, nearly round cactus with solitary or clumped stems. The crown of the stem is at or very near ground level (Utah Native Plant Society 2005). Winkler pincushion-cactus is found in fine-textured soils derived from the Dakota Formation and the Brushy Basin Member of the Morrison Formation (Utah Native Plant Society 2005). It occurs on benches, hilltops, and gentle slopes on barren, open sites in salt desert shrub communities, at elevations ranging from 4,888 to 6,592 feet (1,490 to 2,009 meters) (Federal Register, Volume 60, Number 187, September 27, 1995). Threats to this species are its limited habitat and illegal collection (Natureserve 2005).

Wright fishhook cactus was federally listed as endangered in 1979 and occurs in Emery County. The species is found in soils that range from clays to sandy silts to fine sands, typically in areas with well- developed biological soil crusts (Clark and Clark 1999). Wright fishhook cactus grows in salt desert shrub and widely scattered pinyon-juniper woodlands at elevations ranging from 4,280 to 6,440 feet (1,305 to 1,963 meters) (Utah Native Plant Society 2004). The species and its habitat are vulnerable to disturbance from domestic livestock grazing, mineral resource development, and OHV use (Federal Register, Volume 144, Number 198, October 11, 1979).

BLM Sensitive Species

This category of species includes those that are on the Utah BLM State Director’s Sensitive Species list and have ranges that include the PFO. For sensitive animal species, this list includes those identified by the BLM and the UDWR. The State of Utah does not maintain an official sensitive plant species list. Table 3-14 provides the current BLM Sensitive Species list, which is regularly updated. BLM uses the most recent list in reviewing implementation level activities and projects. Under BLM Manual 6840, the BLM is required to manage habitat for sensitive species in a manner that will ensure that all actions authorized, funded, or carried out by the BLM do not contribute to the need for the species to become listed.

Table 3-14. BLM Sensitive Species 1

Common Name Scientific Name Amphibians Great Plains Toad Bufo cognatus Western Toad Bufo boreas

Birds Bald Eagle Haliaeetus leucocephalus Burrowing Owl Athene cunicularia Ferruginous Hawk Buteo regalis Greater Sage-Grouse Centrocercus urophasianus Long-Billed Curlew Numenius americanus

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Common Name Scientific Name Northern Goshawk Accipiter gentilis Short-eared Owl Asio flammeus

Fish Bluehead Sucker Catostomus discobolus Colorado River Cutthroat Trout Oncorhynchus clarki Flannelmouth Sucker Catostomus latipinnis Roundtail Chub Gila robusta

Mammals Fringed Myotis Myotis thysanodes Kit Fox Vulpes macrotis Northern River Otter Lontra canadensis Spotted Bat Euderma maculatum Townsend’s Big-Eared Bat Corynorhinus townsendii Western Red Bat Lasiurus blossevillii White-Tailed Prairie Dog Cynomys leucurus

Reptiles Smooth Greensnake Liochlorophis vernalis

Plants Alcove Bog-Orchid Habenaria zothecina Basalt Milk-Vetch Astragalus subcinereus basalticus Book Cliffs Blazing-Star Mentzelia multicaulis labrina Cataract Gilia Gilia latifolia imperialis Cedar Mountain Flame-Flower Talinum thompsonii Creutzfeldt-Flower Cryptantha creutzfeldtii Entrada Skeleton-Weed Lygodesmia grandiflora entrada Graham’s Beardtongue Penstemon grahamii Jones Indigo-Bush Psorothamnus polydenius jonesii Mussentuchit Gilia Aliciella (Gilia) tenuis Peabody Milkvetch Astragalus pubentillimis peabodianus Psoraelea Globemallow Sphaeralcea psoraloides Smith Wild-Buckwheat Eriogonum corymbosum smithii Trotter’s Oreoxis Oreoxis trotteri Utah Phacelia Phacelia utahensis Utah Spurge Euphorbia nephradenia 1 The current BLM Sensitive Species list, which is regularly updated, is provided. BLM uses the most recent list in reviewing implementation level activities and projects.

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Sensitive Animals

Sensitive animal species are found in a wide range of habitats throughout the PFO. The majority of species are dependent on riparian areas. Utah BLM and UDWR consider the species listed below as sensitive.

Amphibians The Great Plains toad was formerly rare in Utah and has not been detected in many years. The toad has been found in Emery County. This species is an inhabitant of prairies and deserts. In addition to grasslands, it occurs in creosote bush scrub, mesquite woodlands, desert riparian situations, and sagebrush steppe. Its elevational range is from near sea level to about 8,000 feet. It breeds in shallow, temporary pools formed after heavy rains and in quiet waters of streams, marshes, irrigation ditches, and flooded fields (Stebbins 2003). Threats to the species have not been reported but almost certainly include several diseases known to have devastating effects on populations of a variety of amphibians, including other species of toads, in Utah and adjacent states. Illegal transport, by people, of other species of amphibians may also be a threat to this species, as it is to other amphibians of conservational concern in Utah, resulting in predation, competition, and spread of amphibian diseases (UDWR 2007).

The western toad is found in Emery County and in a wide variety of habitats, including desert springs and other still-water habitats and slow-moving streams. The western toad digs burrows in loose soil and will also use burrows of small mammals. They lay their eggs in still water or in pools of slow-moving streams. The diet of adult western toads is small terrestrial invertebrates, while larvae (tadpoles) filter small plant material or organic debris (Natureserve 2005). Threats to this species include loss and/or degradation of riparian and wetland habitat (UDWR 2003).

Birds Bald eagles exist in Carbon and Emery counties, chiefly during the winter. Most eagles that breed in Canada and the northern U.S. move south for the winter. Winter home ranges can be very large, especially for nonbreeding birds. They feed opportunistically on fish, injured waterfowl, various mammals, and carrion. Wintering areas are commonly associated with open water, although in some areas, eagles use habitats with little or no open water if other food resources (e.g., rabbit or deer carrion) are readily available. Major threats include habitat loss, disturbance by humans, biocide contamination, decreasing food supply, and illegal shooting (Natureserve 2008).

Burrowing owls exist in Carbon and Emery counties. This species prefers open areas within deserts, grasslands, and sagebrush steppe communities. Habitat consists of well-drained, level to gently sloping areas characterized by sparse vegetation and bare ground such as moderately or heavily grazed pasture. Burrowing owls breed in pastures, hay fields, fallow fields, road and railroad ROWs, and in a number of urban habitats. They mainly eat terrestrial invertebrates, but also consume a variety of small vertebrates, including small mammals, birds, frogs, toads, lizards, and snakes. Threats to this species are due to loss of habitat from agriculture and human development (UDWR 2003).

Ferruginous hawks are distributed throughout most of Utah. Productivity in ferruginous hawks is directly correlated with the availability of prey, such as jack rabbits. Because of the cyclic nature of jack rabbit populations, ferruginous hawks may experience similar population booms and crashes as a result of the presence or absence of enough food to maintain a certain population level. Breeding ferruginous hawks rely on grassland or shrubsteppe terrain and in many parts of Utah nest on the ecotone between these habitats and pinyon-juniper woodlands. Threats to this species include habitat destruction for agriculture, grazing or human development, declines in prey abundance, and human intrusion during breeding (UDWR 2003).

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Greater sage-grouse populations are documented in both Carbon and Emery counties (Natureserve 2005). The greater sage-grouse is an herbivore and insectivore and is associated with both tall and short sagebrush types. Greater sage-grouse inhabit sagebrush plains, foothills, and mountain valleys at elevations from 4,000 to more than 9,000 feet and are highly dependent on sagebrush for food and cover (USFWS 2005). Sagebrush, understory of grasses and forbs, and associated wet meadow areas are essential for optimum habitat. Greater sage-grouse exist on State, private, and BLM lands in the Emma Park, Whitmore Park, West Tavaputs, and Gordon Creek areas. Greater sage-grouse were reintroduced in the Gordon Creek area in 2002. Greater sage-grouse are not hunted in the PFO.

Greater sage-grouse use the same breeding ground or “leks” for several consecutive breeding seasons; there are approximately 50 acres of crucial value known leks on BLM-managed land in the PFO. Greater sage-grouse crucial value nesting/brood rearing (13,300 acres), high-value winter habitat (42,200 acres), and high-value yearlong habitat (37,200 acres) are also located on BLM-managed land in the PFO (Map 3-13). In addition to these areas, a large percentage of greater sage-grouse winter within the Emma Park area, but the wintering sites in these areas are highly variable annually and are therefore not mapped. Greater sage-grouse habitat has decreased from historic levels as a result of pinyon-juniper woodland invasion into the sagebrush steppe, sagebrush die-off on 15,380 acres in the PFO, and resource development. Table 3-15 identifies the condition of sagebrush (in average percentage cover) and the trend for habitat components in the PFO.

Table 3-15. Greater Sage-Grouse Habitat Condition and Trend

Sagebrush Trend Trend for Trend Trend Study Site Average for Herbaceous for for Trend Comments Name Cover Sage- Understory Browse Soils Percentage brush Emma/Whitmore Park Greater Sage-grouse Mountain big sagebrush population density is not changed Emma but the number of decadent Park¹ plants has declined. The 19.89 Stable Up Slightly Stable Stable herbaceous understory is (nesting moderately abundant and habitat) diverse. More than half of the herbaceous understory vegetative cover is made up of forbs. Range Creek (West Tavaputs) Greater Sage-grouse Mountain big sagebrush Steer population density has decreased Ridge¹ while the average cover Up 6.40 Stable Stable Stable percentage has increased and (nesting Slightly and winter the percentage decadence is low. habitat) The frequency of perennial forbs declined slightly. Sagebrush population density has increased, and the number of Cedar decadent plants has increased. Corral¹ Pinyon and juniper continue to Up 12.26 Stable Slightly down Stable increase in canopy cover. (nesting Slightly and winter Grasses and forbs have steadily habitat) declined, likely because of the increase in cover of shrubs and trees.

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Sagebrush Trend Trend for Trend Trend Study Site Average for Herbaceous for for Trend Comments Name Cover Sage- Understory Browse Soils Percentage brush Twin Mountain big sagebrush Hollow¹ population density has slightly Down declined while the canopy cover 11.58 Stable Up Slightly Stable (nesting Slightly has increased. Forbs are diverse and winter and provide nearly as much cover habitat) as grasses. Wyoming big sagebrush Cottonwood population density has increased Slightly slightly while the number of ¹ Slightly Slightly 15.89 Slightly up improvi decadent plants has gone up. down down (winter ng The frequency of perennial forbs habitat) has declined because of the dry spring and summer. Unoccupied Historical Greater Sage-grouse range Wiregrass Wyoming big sagebrush density Bench² is lower, seedlings very abundant, Down Down Down 4.90 Stable and 67 percent of the population (nesting Slightly Slightly Slightly and winter is decadent. Perennial forb cover habitat) was higher.

Sources: ¹ ‘Utah Big Game Range Trend Studies, 2000 Vol. 1 & 2,’ Publication #00-39 (Report for Federal Aid Project W-135-R-21), State of Utah DNR DWR, written and edited by James N. Davis, Mark Farmer, Ashley Green. ² ‘Utah Big Game Range Trend Studies, 2004 Vol. 1 & 2, Southeastern Region’ Publication #05-13 (Report for Federal Aid Project W-82-R-49), State of Utah DNR DWR, written and edited by Daniel Summers, Daniel Eddington, James Davis.

Population health is related to habitat condition. Table 3-16 shows the male greater sage-grouse population trend between 1997 and 2005.

Table 3-16. Male Greater Sage-Grouse Counted by Group of Leks

Year West Tavaputs Group of Leks Emma/Whitmore Park Group of Leks 1997 2 44 1998 20 51 1999 5 63 2000 57 144 2001 24 82 2002 17 51 2003 25 43 2004 71 72 2005 29 88 Average 28 71 Median 24 63 Note: The reliability of the total count each year varies because not every lek is counted every year. Source: BLM

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Threats to greater sage-grouse include habitat loss due to agricultural expansion, human development, and livestock grazing (UDWR 2003). The USFWS began a formal status review after receiving three petitions to list the greater sage-grouse range-wide as endangered or threatened (USFWS 2005). The USFWS publicly recommended on December 3, 2004, that the greater sage-grouse did not at this time warrant listing under the Endangered Species Act.

Long-billed curlew is a migratory species present within Carbon County. In Utah, this species nests in areas of short grass near barren ground (Natureserve 2005). Foods taken are diverse, including crustaceans, mollusks, worms, toads, the adults and larvae of insects, and sometimes berries. Threats to this species include loss of habitat due to human development (UDWR 2003).

Northern goshawk is present within Carbon County. The northern goshawk prefers mature mountain forest and riparian zone habitats. Nests are constructed in trees in mature forests; often nests previously used by northern goshawks or other bird species are reused. Northern goshawks cruise low through forest trees to hunt and may also perch and watch for prey. Major prey include rabbits, hares, squirrels, and birds. Threats to this species include loss of nesting habitat through logging (Natureserve 2005).

Short-eared owls are present in the northern two-thirds of the State. In Utah, short-eared owls are distributed over most of the State, although they are less widespread today than historically. The short- eared owl is an open country, ground-nesting species that occupies grasslands. Populations of short-eared owls are largely dependent on the abundance of small mammals, such as voles, for prey (UDWR 2003).

Fish The bluehead sucker is found in the Dirty Devil, San Rafael, and Green Rivers from the Colorado River confluence upstream to Ladore, Colorado. The species feeds on algae from the bottom of stream substrate. Bluehead sucker inhabit large rivers and mountain streams in variable turbidity and temperature (Natureserve 2005).

The Colorado River cutthroat trout is present in several Emery County rivers and streams, but presently does not occur in Carbon County (Dalton et al. 1990). Plans to reestablish the trout are being discussed. Colorado cutthroat trout can be found in a number of habitat types from high-mountain streams and lakes to low-elevation grassland streams, all with a healthy riparian zone providing structure, cover, shade, and bank stability. Colorado cutthroat trout consume primarily insects and small fish in the case of larger individuals. Major threats are habitat loss, predation by other non-native fish, and hybridization (Natureserve 2005).

The flannelmouth sucker is found in the San Rafael, Price, and the Green River from the Colorado River confluence upstream to Flaming Gorge Reservoir. Flannelmouth sucker is a bottom feeder, consuming algae, other fragmented vegetation, seeds, and invertebrates. The species lives within moderate to large rivers. Flannelmouth sucker is threatened by non-native species, hybridization, habitat alteration, and blockage of migration routes (Natureserve 2005).

The roundtail chub is found in the San Rafael and Green Rivers from the Colorado River confluence upstream to Flaming Gorge Reservoir. Spawning occurs from March to May. Roundtail chub require rocky runs, rapids, and pools in creeks, small to large rivers, and large reservoirs in the upper Colorado River system. Roundtail chub eat aquatic and terrestrial insects, snails, crustaceans, fishes, and sometimes algae. Threats to roundtail chub include non-native fish, habitat loss, and sedimentation (Natureserve 2005).

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Mammals Fringed myotis are found primarily in desert, grassland, and woodland habitats; and roost in caves, mines, rock crevices, buildings, and other protected sites. They are insectivorous, with beetles a common prey item. The greatest threat is human disturbance of roost sites, especially maternity colonies, through recreational caving and mine exploration (Natureserve 2008).

Kit foxes live primarily in open desert, shrubby or shrub-grass habitat; shadscale, greasewood or sagebrush. The primary food item is usually the most abundant nocturnal rodent or lagomorph in the area. Kit foxes may also feed opportunistically on birds, reptiles, and insects. Several dens may be used, especially in summer (Natureserve 2008).

Northern river otter inhabit riparian and riverine ecosystems. They consume a wide range of aquatic animals, including fish, insects, amphibians, and occasionally small birds or mammals. Threats to this species are from loss or degradation of riparian habitat and loss of food sources (Natureserve 2005).

Spotted bats are found in various habitats from desert to montane coniferous stands, including pinyon- juniper woodland, canyon bottoms, open pasture, and hayfields. They roost in caves, in cracks, and crevices in cliffs and canyons. Spotted bats apparently feed primarily on noctuid moths and sometimes beetles. The two highest threats to spotted bats appear to be collection of specimens by humans and the use of pesticides that the bats may accumulate through their diet and that kill their prey (Natureserve 2008).

Townsend’s big-eared bats occur throughout Utah in caves, abandoned mines, and occasional buildings. They are generally limited to elevations below 9,000 feet. Threats to the Townsend’s big-eared bat are mainly loss of habitat through human disturbance and mine closure (UDWR 2003).

The western red bat is very rare in Utah and is sparsely distributed within north-central, central, and southwestern regions of the State. Western red bats roost in the foliage of cottonwood trees and are dependent on broadleaf shrubs and trees in lowland riparian zones below 5,700 feet elevation. Loss of riparian habitat is the main threat to western red bat (UDWR 2003).

White-tailed prairie dogs prefer dry conditions with mixed stands of shrubs and grasses (Natureserve, 2005). The preferred diet of the white-tailed prairie dog is forbs, grasses, and bulbs (UDWR 2005). White-tailed prairie dogs inhabit the northeastern portion of Utah, including Carbon and Emery counties (Natureserve, 2005). Threats to white-tailed prairie dogs are golden eagle, badger, habitat loss, poisoning by humans, and the plague (UDWR 2005) (Map 3-14 and Appendix L).

Reptiles The smooth greensnake is found in Carbon County. It can be found in a variety of habitats such as meadows, grassy marshes, stream borders, mountain shrubland, abandoned farmland, and vacant lots. Smooth greensnakes lay their eggs under rotting wood, underground, and under rocks. This species consumes small terrestrial insects and spiders (Natureserve 2005). Threats include loss of habitat through livestock grazing, recreation, and human development (UDWR 2003).

Sensitive Plants

Sensitive species of plants in the PFO primarily occur in specialized soils or rare habitats. There is little documentation of the threats to sensitive plant species. It can be assumed, however, that in addition to threats to specialized habitats, other threats include trampling by humans, livestock, or OHVs; encroachment of human and mineral development; and illegal collection.

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The alcove bog-orchid is found in Emery County. The species is limited to moist stream banks, seeps, and hanging gardens in mixed desert shrub, pinyon-juniper woodlands, and oakbrush communities. The species is limited to elevations of 4,000 to 6,200 feet (Utah Native Plant Society 2005).

Basalt milkvetch is found in western Emery County. This species occurs on igneous gravel in pinyon- juniper woodlands and Ponderosa pine communities at elevations of 4,500 and 8,000 feet. Basalt milkvetch produces yellow flowers from May through July (Utah Native Plant Society 2005).

Book Cliffs blazing-star is a rare species found in only four known locations in Carbon and Emery counties (Natureserve 2005). This species occurs in sagebrush, rabbitbrush, and pinyon-juniper communities on the Mancos Shale and Price River Formations at approximately 6,200 feet elevation (Utah Native Plant Society 2005).

Cataract gilia is endemic to Utah and is present in Emery County. There are no known plants within the area, although there is habitat. Habitat for the species is composed of shadscale and other mixed desert shrub communities. Cataract gilia can be found at elevations of 3,800 to 5,200 feet (Utah Native Plant Society 2005).

Cedar Mountain flame-flower is endemic to Cedar Mountain at the far north end of the San Rafael Swell in Emery County (Natureserve 2005). This species is found in pinyon-juniper woodlands and Ponderosa pine communities in siliceous conglomeratic gravels of the Buckhorn Conglomerate Formation at 7,500 feet elevation (Natureserve 2005 and Utah Native Plant Society 2005). The Cedar Mountain flame-flower produces pink flowers from July to September (Natureserve 2005).

Crutzfeldt-flower is found in Carbon and Emery counties in approximately 20 known locations (Natureserve 2005). This species is found in shadscale and mat atriplex communities on the Mancos Shale Formation at elevations between 5,250 and 6,500 feet (Utah Native Plant Society 2005). Crutzfeldt-flower has clusters of white flowers blooming in late April through June (Natureserve 2005).

Entrada skeleton-weed is endemic to Emery County. This species is found in pinyon-juniper woodlands and mixed-desert shrub communities at approximately 4,400 to 4,800 feet elevation. Entrada skeleton weed produces white flowers in May through June (Natureserve 2005).

Graham’s beardtongue is found in a limited range within the Uinta Basin in Carbon County. This species is found in gravel-rich clay soils on semi-barren knolls of Green River Formation shale, often in oil-rich substrate, in pinyon-juniper communities at 4,600 to 6,700 feet (Natureserve 2005). Graham beardtongue displays lavender flowers in late May to early June (Utah Native Plant Society 2005).

Jones indigo bush is found in Emery County. This species grows in shadscale, mat-saltbush, ephedra, and galleta communities in the Mancos Shale Formation at elevations of 4,200 to 4,900 feet. Jones indigo bush flowers in late May to mid-July (Utah Native Plant Society 2005).

Mussentuchit gilia is known from seven locations in Emery County (Natureserve 2004 and Utah Native Plant Society 2004). The species is restricted to a discontinuous stretch of habitat of sandstone outcrops and sandy slopes in association with mountain brush, pinyon-juniper woodlands, and cushion plants (Natureserve 2004). Often, Mussentuchit gilia is located on material derived from the Curtis Formation and the Dakota and Navajo Sandstones between 5,198 to 7,117 feet in elevation (Welsh 1993 and Utah Native Plant Society 2004).

Peabody milkvetch is found in Emery County. This species occurs on the south and western edges of the Tavaputs Plateau in pinyon-juniper woodlands and mixed-desert shrub communities at elevations of

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4,300 to 5,800 feet. Peabody milkvetch displays multicolored flowers from May to early July (Utah Native Plant Society 2005).

Psoraelea globemallow is found in Emery County. This species occurs on clay or sandy semibarren areas in salt and mixed-desert shrub communities, including pinyon-juniper woodlands, ephedra, and zuckia at elevations of 4,000 to 6,300 feet. Psoraelea globemallow blooms in mid-May to June, displaying bright orange flowers (Natureserve 2005, Utah Native Plant Society 2005).

Smith wild-buckwheat is a narrow endemic found in Emery County. This species occurs in purple sage, matchweed, ephedra-Indian ricegrass, rabbitbrush, and desert shrub communities. Smith wild-buckwheat is found at elevations of 5,200 5,600 feet in the red “blowsand” of the Entrada Sandstone (Natureserve 2005).

Trotter’s oreoxis is found in Emery County in mixed juniper and warm desert shrub communities, often in crevices or sandy pockets on the Moab Tongue at 4,800 to 6,000 feet elevation. This species displays clusters of small, yellow flowers in late April and May (Natureserve 2005, Utah Native Plant Society 2005).

Utah phacelia is found in Carbon County within the Mancos Shale Formation. This species occurs in salt desert shrub communities and is an obligate gypsophile at elevations of 5,500 to 6,200 feet. Utah phacelia displays blue-purple flowers in April to June (Natureserve 2005, Utah Native Plant Society 2005).

Utah spurge is endemic to Utah and is present in Emery County. There are no known plants within the area, although there is habitat. Habitat for this species includes mat-saltbush, blackbrush, ephedra, and mixed sandy desert shrub communities, mainly in Tropic Shale and Entrada Formations. The species can be found at elevations of 3,800 to 4,800 feet (Utah Native Plant Society 2005).

3.2.8 Fish and Wildlife

The BLM has the primary responsibility for the management of habitats within the PFO. The UDWR is responsible for managing species in cooperation with the BLM. Owing to overlapping administrative responsibilities, the BLM and UDWR coordinate many of their activities as equal partners. The BLM’s objective is to maintain, protect, and enhance the density and diversity of native fish and wildlife resources through sound habitat management practices and actions.

The diverse fish and wildlife resource in the PFO is valuable both in terms of ecological function of the natural environment and in providing regionally significant consumptive and non-consumptive recreational values to local, regional, and in some cases national publics. Direct and indirect recreational values associated with fish and wildlife contribute substantially and likely represent some of the dispersed recreational use within the PFO. Consumptive recreational uses associated with the fish and wildlife resource include big game, small game, upland game-bird hunting, fishing, and fur trapping.

Non-consumptive uses directly associated with the fish and wildlife resource range from wildlife viewing (i.e., bird watching, big-game viewing, etc.) to antler hunting (of mule deer and elk). Statistics are not readily available on the number of recreationists that engage in these activities.

Ecological values of healthy sustainable fish and wildlife populations are, at best, difficult to quantify but should not be overlooked or underestimated. Wildlife species have unique inter-specific relations that link assemblages of species on a landscape to one another and to specific habitats contained within the landscape. Understanding this, it is easy to see that decisions that affect a specific habitat could also affect a multitude of species and effect changes on a landscape basis. Some of these relationships are as simple

Price RMP 3-49 Chapter 3 Proposed RMP/Final EIS as predator-prey relationships (such as mountain lion and mule deer) and some are more complex relationships (such as prairie dogs, burrowing owls, mountain plovers, black-footed ferrets, and ferruginous hawks). It is important to know that these relationships exist so it is understood that the conservation measures for one particular wildlife species or habitat are intended not only to conserve that species but also are linked to conservation of an entire assemblage of wildlife species and in some cases landscapes.

Habitat and wildlife within the PFO are representative of northern Great Basin and Colorado Plateau flora and fauna. Specific habitats of importance for the wildlife and fish species in the PFO area reflect the diversity of the area.

Fish

The Price River drainage and upper reaches on Green River tributaries support cool-water fisheries in their upper reaches at higher elevations and a warm-water species assemblage in their lower reaches at lower elevations (Map 3-7). UDWR management of the fisheries is related to thermal and sediment conditions, in-stream habitat, and non-native species interactions. Areas with limited or constrained riparian areas typically exhibit warmer water temperatures, less stream stability, and increased numbers of non-native fish.

The PFO has several existing cold-water fisheries, including the upper Price River, Upper Gordon Creek, Range Creek, Rock Creek, and Huntington Creek. Each of these waters currently supports rainbow, cutthroat, or brown trout fisheries.

In 2000, UDWR established the Blue Ribbon Fisheries Advisory Council. The mission of the council is to identify and recommend to the Director of UDWR those Utah waters that provide or have the potential to provide blue-ribbon quality public angling experiences for the purpose of preserving and enhancing these valuable economic and natural resources. Waters identified as Blue Ribbon Fisheries in the PFO include Scofield Reservoir, Huntington Creek, and Fish Creek, below Scofield through the confluence with the White River, forming the Price River, downstream to the ghost town of Royal.

Notable warm-water fisheries occur in the Green River, Nine Mile Creek, lower Price River, and San Rafael River. Representative cold- and warm-water fish species occupying habitats in the PFO are identified in Table 3-17. Sixteen species of fish are present in the drainage. Four of the species are native, with the remainder classified as exotic (non-native) species, which have been introduced directly or indirectly by humans.

Almost all waters in the PFO are managed by UDWR as wild fisheries, and as such are maintained by natural recruitment rather than stocking. Private ponds near BLM land may be independently stocked, which may introduce diseases or undesirable fish species. Many exotic species have been introduced as sport fish and are considered game species. They include rainbow, brown, and Yellowstone cutthroat trout; channel catfish; black bullhead; and green sunfish. Other exotic fish species have been introduced illegally as bait fish. They include the Utah chub, fathead minnow, red shiner, redside shiner, sand shiner, and common carp.

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Table 3-17. Fish Species in the PFO

Species Origin Status Black Bullhead (Ameirurus melas) Exotic Game Brown Trout (Salmo trutta) Exotic Game Channel Catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) Exotic Game Colorado River Cutthroat (Oncorhynchus clarki pleuriticus) Native Game, Sensitive Species Common Carp (Cyprinus carpio) Exotic Non-game Fathead Minnow (Pimephales promelas) Exotic Non-game Green Sunfish (Lepomis cyanellus) Exotic Game Mottled Sculpin (Cottus bairdi) Native Non-game Mountain Sucker (Catostomus platyrhynchus) Native Non-game Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) Exotic Game Red Shiner (Cyprinella lutrensis) Exotic Non-game Redside Shiner (Richardsonius balteatus) Exotic Non-game Sand Shiner (Nortopis stramineus) Exotic Non-game Speckled Dace (Rhinichthys osculus) Native Non-game Utah Chub (Gila atraria) Exotic Non-game Yellowstone Cutthroat (Oncorhynchus clarki bouvieri) Exotic Game Source: Draft Aquatic Management Plan, Price River Drainage, 2001–2010, Louis N. Berg, Regional Aquatic Program Manager, Utah Division of Wildlife Resources, Salt Lake City, UT, February 2001.

Wildlife

The PFO contains a variety of habitats that possess the biological and physical attributes important in the life cycles of many wildlife species. Map 3-8 shows UDWR Wildlife Management Units. Populations of mule deer, pronghorn, elk, Desert bighorn sheep, Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep, mountain lion, black bear, bobcat, turkey, chukar partridge, greater sage-grouse, blue grouse, ruffed grouse, California quail, waterfowl, and non-game species such as coyote, blacktail jackrabbit, white-tailed prairie dog, and cottontail rabbit are found in the PFO. Wildlife of special interest includes big game animals, raptors, upland game birds, and other species that serve as indicators of ecosystem health.

Wildlife habitat can occur as continuous or disjoint features extending from low elevation to high elevation. Climate, precipitation, soils, and biota respond to varying elevations, slope, and aspect. Big game populations are managed based on habitat condition and the quality of the animals being produced. Population levels are linked to a variety of factors, including vegetation quality and quantity; adequate space, shelter, and cover; water distribution; and regional weather patterns and trends such as prolonged drought. As water availability and distribution affects wildlife populations, water developments, whether constructed primarily for livestock or wildlife, can improve water availability in wildlife habitat.

General habitat characterizations reflect vegetation resource condition, habitat quality relative to fragmentation or density of intrusions, and level of conflicts with competing resource issues or as indicated by population level. Ranking of relative habitat values to population of individual species is as follows:

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• Crucial—an area that provides for “sensitive” biological and/or behavioral requisites necessary to sustain the existence of wildlife populations • High-priority—an area that provides for “intensive” use • Substantial—an area that provides for “frequent” use • Limited—an area that provides for only “occasional” use (UDWR 1990).

Maps 3-9 through 3-12 show the big-game habitat of specific species based on UDWR 2003 data. These maps were used for big-game stipulations for Alternatives A, B, C, and E. Map 3-12a shows the crucial habitat for many big-game species as revised by UDWR in 2006 and 2008. This map was used for the big-game stipulations in the Proposed RMP.

There can be crucial time periods in an animal's life cycle during which protection from man’s disturbance is essential to the population's survival. During those times, the species’ use area would be ranked as being of crucial value. The BLM PFO manages habitats for pronghorn, mule deer, bighorn sheep, and elk herd units. Off-site mitigation at the rate of 1 acre of habitat enhancement for each acre of surface disturbance has been used in the PFO since 1983 to help offset surface disturbance impacts on crucially valued wildlife habitats.

Through cooperative transplants from other states and areas in Utah, introduction of elk, pronghorn, moose, chukar, and turkey have historically occurred on lands within or adjacent to the PFO. UDWR formally coordinates these activities with the BLM and other public and private entities on a case-by-case basis. Certain management activities may be augmented with cooperative efforts with non-profit conservation groups.

Pronghorn

Habitat Requirements—Pronghorn are considered yearlong residents of their range and do not have seasonal ranges like mule deer and elk. Even so, some seasonal movements within their range occur in response to extreme winter conditions and water availability. Pronghorn prefer very open vegetation types such as salt desert shrub, grassland, and other treeless types, and avoid areas of steep slopes. Pronghorn diets comprise a variety of forbs, shrubs, and grasses. Forbs are of particular importance during spring and summer while shrubs are more important during the winter. Pronghorn fawning occurs throughout the range of this species (Map 3-9).

Population Trend—Pronghorn were extirpated from the PFO by the early 1900s. Pronghorn were reestablished by reintroduction into the PFO through cooperative agreement between the BLM and UDWR beginning in the 1970s and 1980s. Based on hunting permits and success rates, current populations in the PFO are stable to increasing slightly (UDWR 2005).

Habitat Condition—Habitat conditions on pronghorn range are highly variable. Limiting factors that affect the size and condition of pronghorn populations are primarily determined by the quantity and quality of their habitat. Several years of drought have reduced forage production and caused mortality of some vegetation species.

Mule Deer

Habitat Requirements—Mule deer throughout most of the PFO are migratory and move seasonally between summer and winter ranges. They summer at higher elevation ranges in aspen and conifer and mountain browse vegetation types where individual deer are more or less evenly distributed. On the summer range, mule deer diets are primarily composed of forbs and shrubs, but they will eat some grass. Mule deer winter at the lower elevation ranges, occupying the sagebrush and pinion-juniper woodlands

3-52 Price RMP Proposed RMP/Final EIS Chapter 3 vegetation types. Mule deer winter diets in the PFO consist primarily of sagebrush, specifically Wyoming big and basin big sagebrush. Other shrubs, such as true mountain mahogany, fourwing saltbush, and antelope bitterbrush, are also important winter forage species. Pinyon-juniper woodlands are considered important emergency forage during severe winters with deep snow conditions that cover other forage species. Mule deer have a high degree of fidelity to specific winter ranges, where they concentrate on relatively small areas at high population densities. Because of the relatively small winter-range area, high population densities, and the natural stress of winter survival, mule deer are vulnerable to added stress caused by human activity. Mule deer are known to be displaced an average of 600 feet from areas of human activity. Mule deer fawn during the spring on their movement back to their summer range. This usually occurs in mountain browse vegetation zones, including aspen mountain browse intermixed vegetation types.

Population Trend—Mule deer herds within the PFO declined in population size during the late 1980s and early 1990s. These declines were attributed primarily to severe drought conditions, which substantially reduced animal condition and fawn production and survival.

Habitat Condition—Habitats on both summer and winter ranges in the northeast portion of the PFO are considered to be in good condition and are not believed to be limiting mule deer populations (Map 3-10 and Map 3-12a). Habitats on the summer range in the northwest region of the PFO are also considered to be in good condition and not limiting mule deer population. However, habitats on winter ranges in the northwest region of the PFO are in poor condition. In 2003, these winter ranges experienced a 50-percent or greater mortality of sagebrush on an estimated 130,000 acres. This is expected to limit mule deer populations and likely result in population declines in the area. In addition, coalbed natural gas development on the winter ranges of this northwest region has reduced habitat suitability and carrying capacity for this herd.

The size and condition of mule deer populations are primarily determined by the quantity and quality of their habitat. Loss and degradation of habitat are thought to be the main reasons for mule deer population declines over the last few decades (Workman and Low 1976). Critical mule deer habitat is continuously being lost in many parts of Utah and severely fragmented in others due to human expansion and development.

Special Management Areas—The UDWR manages the Gordon Creek Wildlife Management Area for big- game winter range west of Price, in the northwest region of the PFO. In conjunction with the UDWR, the BLM manages mineral subsurface of these lands and livestock grazing on adjoining BLM lands to specifically benefit wildlife and preserve the security of this important winter range.

Bighorn Sheep

Habitat Requirements—Rocky Mountain and Desert bighorn sheep are considered to be yearlong residents of their range and do not have seasonal ranges like mule deer and elk (Map 3-11 and Map 3- 12a). Even so, some seasonal movements within their range occur, such as when ewes move to reliable watercourses or sources during the lambing season. Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep prefer steep rocky slopes and may migrate from higher elevations to lower valleys in the winter. The diet of the species consists of a variety of shrubs, forbs and grasses, which vary with the season. Bighorn sheep lambing occurs on steep talus slopes typically within 1 to 2 miles of reliable water sources.

Both species of bighorn sheep are vulnerable to a variety of viral and bacterial diseases carried by livestock, principally domestic sheep. In some reported cases, exposures to some of these diseases decimated entire bighorn populations. These diseases are transmitted in a number of ways, including nose-to-nose contact and wet soils associated with areas of concentrated use such as stock watering

Price RMP 3-53 Chapter 3 Proposed RMP/Final EIS ponds. For these reasons, the BLM has adopted specific guidelines regarding domestic sheep grazing in or near bighorn sheep habitat.

Population Trend—Both Rocky Mountain and Desert bighorn sheep were extirpated from the PFO by the early 1920s. Desert bighorn sheep were reestablished by reintroduction into the PFO through cooperative agreement between the BLM and UDWR beginning in the 1970s–90s. Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep were introduced to the Book Cliffs in the 1990s. Both species of bighorn sheep have been very successful in reoccupying historic habitat.

Habitat Condition—Habitats for both Rocky Mountain and Desert bighorn sheep are considered to be in good condition and are not believed to be limiting sheep populations. Limiting factors that affect the size and condition of bighorn sheep populations are primarily determined by the quantity and quality of their habitat.

Special Management Areas—Gray Canyon Wildland Management area was established by land use planning decision in June 1989 for the express purpose of enhancing wildland values, including recreation; riparian; and wildlife, notably bighorn sheep. All forage within this large geographic area was allocated to wildlife.

Elk

Habitat Requirements—Rocky Mountain elk throughout most of the PFO are migratory and move seasonally between summer and winter ranges (Map 3-12 and Map 3-12a). They summer at higher elevation ranges in aspen and conifer and mountain browse vegetation types where they are more or less evenly distributed. While on the summer range, elk diets consist primarily of grasses and forbs. Elk winter at mid-to-lower elevation ranges occupying the mountain browse, sagebrush, and pinion-juniper woodlands vegetation types. Wind-swept higher ridges in some areas, such as the high ridge tops of Castle Valley Ridge, above Price Canyon, and along some areas of the Bookcliffs, are important for this species.

Elk exhibit a high degree of mobility on both summer and winter ranges to seek out habitats that provide the best forage conditions. On winter ranges, elk congregate in large herds of 50 to more than 200. Because of this congregation in large herds and the natural stress of winter survival, elk are vulnerable to added stress caused by human activity. Elk are known to be displaced from 0.5 miles to 1 mile from areas of human activity. Elk calving occurs during late spring and early summer in aspen-mountain browse intermixed vegetation types.

Population Trend—Elk within the PFO were extirpated by the early 1900s. Elk were reestablished by reintroduction from transplants dating back to the early 1900s. The size of the elk herd in the Book Cliffs area is above the UDWR management objectives. UDWR is currently using antlerless hunt strategies to maintain population levels near the population objectives for each unit.

Habitat Condition—Limiting factors that affect the size and condition of elk populations are primarily determined by the quantity and quality of their habitat. Habitats on both summer and winter range in the northeast portion of the PFO are considered to be in good condition and are not believed to be limiting elk populations. Habitats on the summer range in the northwest portion of the PFO are also considered to be in good condition. Habitats on lower winter ranges in the northwest are in poor condition (see description in mule deer narrative).

Special Management Areas—See description under mule deer for Gordon Creek Wildlife Management Area.

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Moose

Moose were transplanted into adjacent habitats several years ago by UDWR. Approximately 20 to 30 moose have migrated to higher elevation, wet meadow habitats located in the PFO-managed land on the West Tavaputs Plateau.

Black Bear

The black bear, Ursus americanus, is native to Utah. The species is fairly common in Utah and is present in Carbon and Emery counties, where it can be found primarily in large forested areas. Contrary to its name, the black bear is not always black; the species varies in color from reddish to light brown to black. Black bears are omnivores, with diets consisting of fruits, insects, grubs, some small vertebrates, and carrion. They breed in June or July, and young are born in January or February; average litter size is two. Young stay with their mother until the fall of their second year. Black bears are nocturnal and are dormant during the winter. The black bear is currently the only species of bear that occurs naturally in Utah.

Cougar (Mountain Lion)

In the PFO, cougars are found in areas where prey species, especially mule deer, are present. They are still fairly common throughout Utah, but are rarely seen because of their secretive nature. Females may produce one litter of one to six kittens approximately every 2 years. Cougars are active year-round, during day and night, although most activity occurs at dawn and dusk. Cougars are carnivores, with diets composed of deer, rabbits, rodents, and other animals. They are hunted on a limited, and closely monitored, basis in Utah.

Migratory Birds

The overall decline of some migratory birds has been well documented. Reasons for the decline are complex and include such factors as loss of habitat due to fragmentation, alteration, urban expansion, natural disasters, loss or alteration of habitat in non-breeding areas along migratory routes, and brood parasitism (Parrish et al. 2002). Numerous programs have been initiated to combat this decline. The North American Waterfowl Management Plan (NAWMP) was adopted by the United States, Canada, and Mexico to address the conservation and restoration of waterfowl and other migratory waterbirds and their habitats. The international Partners in Flight (PIF) program, is a coordinated effort to document and reverse apparent declines in the populations of all nongame land birds that breed north of Mexico and then migrate to Mexico, Central and South America, and the Caribbean in the winter months. Executive Order 13186, signed in 2001, requires all federal agencies that might have a measurable negative effect on migratory birds to develop an MOU with the USFWS to promote the recommendations of NAWMP, North American Bird Conservation Initiative (NABCI), North American Bird Conservation Act, and other migratory bird programs. The Executive Order further requires federal agencies to consider the effects that planned or authorized activities will have on migratory birds and their habitats and to consider migratory birds in their land use planning efforts.

The Intermountain West Joint Venture (IWJV) was established to coordinate implementation and achievement of population and habitat objectives of the NAWMP within parts of 11 western states, including all of Utah. In 2005, IWJV partners within the State of Utah merged and synthesized habitat goals and objectives of existing bird conservation plans into a coordinated planning document entitled the Coordinated Implementation Plan for Bird Conservation in Utah, which reflects the habitat priorities of all bird conservation programs in Utah. The plan identifies portions of three Bird Habitat Conservation Areas (BHCA) that occur within the PFO. Although BHCAs carry no authority, they are recognized by agencies as areas that contain important habitat for some species. In 1993, a PIF program in Utah was established for the purpose of addressing the status of avian populations within the State and to provide

Price RMP 3-55 Chapter 3 Proposed RMP/Final EIS data relevant to issues raised concerning the status of neotropical migratory birds (NTMB). In addition, the USFWS, in compliance with the Fish and Wildlife Conservation Act, published the Birds of Conservation Concern 2002, which is a report that identifies migratory and non-migratory bird species (beyond those already designated as federally threatened or endangered) that represent the highest need for conservation initiatives. The UDWR prepared the Utah Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy in response to declining wildlife populations. The Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategies (CWCS) are funded by a grant from the Congress and the State Wildlife Grants (SWG) program, and every state in the nation is developing a program. USFWS accepted Utah’s CWCS program on September 9, 2005. The program includes tiered ranking systems to allow for wildlife managers to design appropriate management plans for conservation and species protection (UDWR 2005).

To date, these reports identify more than 400 species of birds within the State of Utah. Of those, 231 species have been recognized as regular breeders in the State and in need of consideration in the Utah Avian Conservation Strategy (UTACS) process. Of the 231 species, 132 (57 percent) are NTMB and 29 (12 percent) are considered State Sensitive Species, two of which are also federally listed as Endangered and four are listed as Threatened (Parrish et al. 2002). Primary and secondary breeding habitat preferences have been identified for each of the 231 species. Primary habitat is the nesting habitat most commonly used by a species, while secondary breeding habitat is the second most common. Winter habitat preferences have also been identified.

Table 3-18 identifies both migratory and non-migratory species that could occur within the PFO; PIF or the USFWS have identified these species as needing special conservation actions. Conservation areas are based on species’ primary and secondary habitat types and those habitat types that occur within the PFO. Table 3-18 also identifies species’ primary, secondary, and winter habitat. (Habitat types have been combined within the vegetation categories identified in the Vegetation section of this document). To distinguish those species in relation to the PFO, a compilation of species identified in the documents mentioned above was created and was intersected with the Colorado Plateau physiographic region identified by the PIF program.

Table 3-18. Migratory and Non-Migratory Bird Species PIF USFWS Birds of Primary Secondary Species Priority Conservation Breeding Breeding Winter Habitat Species Concern Habitat Habitat American X X Riparian/Wetland Non-Vegetated Migrant Avocet Bald Eagle Riparian/Wetland Other Riparian/Wetland Black-Chinned X Desert Scrub Desert Scrub Migrant Sparrow Black- Pinyon-Juniper Oak/Mountain Throated Gray X X Migrant Woodland Shrub Warbler Blue Riparian/Wetland Riparian/Wetland Migrant Grosbeak Brewer’s Sagebrush X X Desert Scrub Migrant Sparrow Steppe Broad-Tailed X Riparian/Wetland Riparian/Wetland Migrant Hummingbird Burrowing Owl Desert Scrub Sagebrush Steppe Migrant

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PIF USFWS Birds of Primary Secondary Species Priority Conservation Breeding Breeding Winter Habitat Species Concern Habitat Habitat Common Riparian/Wetland Riparian/Wetland Migrant Yellowthroat Ferruginous Pinyon-Juniper Sagebrush X X Sagebrush Steppe Hawk Woodland Steppe Flammulated X Ponderosa Pine Mixed Conifer Migrant Owl Gambel’s X Desert Scrub Riparian/Wetland Desert Scrub Quail Golden Eagle X Non-Vegetated Desert Scrub Desert Scrub Grasshopper Sagebrush Sagebrush Steppe Migrant Sparrow Steppe Pinyon-Juniper Oak/Mountain Gray Vireo X X Migrant Woodland Shrub Greater Sage- Sagebrush Sagebrush X X Sagebrush Steppe Grouse Steppe Steppe Lewis’s Oak/Mountain X X Ponderosa Pine Riparian/Wetland Woodpecker Shrub Loggerhead Pinyon-Juniper X Desert Scrub Desert Scrub Shrike Woodland Long-Billed Sagebrush X X Other Migrant Curlew Steppe Mexican X Non-Vegetated Non-Vegetated Non-Vegetated Spotted Owl Mountain X X Desert Scrub Desert Scrub Migrant Plover Northern Ponderosa Pine Aspen Riparian/Wetland Goshawk Northern X Riparian/Wetland Desert Scrub Other Harrier Peregrine X Non-Vegetated Riparian/Wetland Riparian/Wetland Falcon Pinyon-Juniper Pinyon-Juniper Pinyon Jay X Ponderosa Pine Woodland Woodland Prairie Falcon X Non-Vegetated Desert Scrub Other Pygmy X Ponderosa Pine Aspen Ponderosa Pine Nuthatch Red-Naped X Aspen Mixed Conifer Riparian/Wetland Sapsucker Sagebrush Sage Sparrow X X Desert Scrub Desert Scrub Steppe Short-Eared Wetland/Riparian Sagebrush Steppe Other Owl

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PIF USFWS Birds of Primary Secondary Species Priority Conservation Breeding Breeding Winter Habitat Species Concern Habitat Habitat Southwestern Willow Riparian/Wetland Riparian/Wetland Migrant Flycatcher Swainson’s X Other Aspen Migrant Hawk Virginia’s Oak/Mountain Pinyon-Juniper X X Migrant Warbler Shrub Woodland Williamson X Mixed Conifer Aspen Migrant Sapsucker Yellow-Billed X X Riparian/Wetland Other Migrant Cuckoo Source: IWJV 2005; Parrish et al. 2002; USFWS 2002

Raptors

There are many species of raptors found in the PFO, several of which are offered special protection by the State and/or federal government. These raptor species are discussed further in the special status species section. Raptors are also commonly migratory species. The Migratory Birds section above addresses raptors in relation to their nature as migratory birds. Special habitat needs for these raptor species includes the protection of nest sites, foraging areas, and roosting or resting sites. Buffer zones are usually recommended around raptor nest sites during the early spring and summer when raptors are raising their young. There are three primary areas of high-density raptor cliff nesting habitats in the PFO: Book Cliffs east of Price, Gordon Creek area, and the cliffs in the transition between the Colorado Plateau physiographic province and the Wasatch Plateau on the west-central side of the PFO. Desolation and Gray Canyons provide other areas of importance to raptors.

Annual raptor inventories in Carbon and Emery counties monitor raptor nests and populations. This includes monitoring active nests, as well as raptor nests in various other conditions of inactivity or abandonment. The number of active raptor nests identified during the inventory decreased by more than half from 2001 to 2003; however, in the past 2 years, the number of active nests has exceeded the number in 2001 by more than 10 percent. In 2005, 85 active raptor nests were identified in the inventories. For each year of the past 5 years, inactive nests comprised approximately 60 percent of inventoried nests.

Special habitat needs for raptors are generally associated with limiting disturbance during the nesting season and maintaining small mammal populations as a prey base.

Upland Game Birds and Waterfowl

The PFO provides important migration, nesting, and winter habitats for several upland game bird species. Chukar habitat occurs along the river corridors and the open, rocky slopes. The amount of rainfall has a dramatic effect on yearly chukar populations. In drought years, chukars are usually found in low numbers. Additional upland game bird species include blue grouse and ruffed grouse, which can be found yearlong in aspen and coniferous forests. Mourning doves are widespread summer residents. Small populations of California quail are found mainly along the Price River on private land. Small numbers of turkeys have been reintroduced into the area. The PFO also provides migration, nesting, and winter habitats for waterfowl. The majority of the waterfowl are birds migrating through in the spring and/or fall to their breeding and summering grounds. The Green River is a major corridor for migrating ducks and has small

3-58 Price RMP Proposed RMP/Final EIS Chapter 3 numbers of nesting Canada geese. The Desert Lake Waterfowl Management area provides substantial migration habitat and important nesting habitat. A limited amount of waterfowl nesting occurs along other perennial streams and close to reservoirs. For more information on migratory species, see the Migratory Birds section above.

3.2.9 Wild Horses and Burros

There are four Herd Management Areas (HMA) in the PFO: Range Creek, Muddy Creek, Sinbad, and Robbers Roost. The Appropriate Management Level (AML) for each HMA is shown in Table 3-19.

Table 3-19. AML and Current Estimated Populations

AML Current Estimated Population HMA Horses Burros Horses Burros Range Creek 75–125 0 138 0 Muddy Creek 30–50 0 59 0 Sinbad 30–50 30–70 54 94 Robbers Roost 15–25 0 21 0 Total 150–250 30–-70 272 94

Herd population management is critical in balancing herd numbers with forage resources. Wild horses have been shown to be capable of 18 percent to 25 percent increases in numbers annually. This can result in a doubling of the wild horse population about every 3 years (BLM 2000c). This regular increase in population affects the condition of the range within an HMA, which results in greater competition for resources between wild horses and cattle or wildlife, specifically elk with horses and bighorn sheep with burros. Populations are currently maintained within the AML through wild horse and burro gathers. These gathers are performed as necessary, with an average frequency of one gather for each HMA every 3 to 4 years. Extenuating circumstances such as drought, high reproduction rates, and poor range condition may alter the frequency of gathers. Gathered horses either are placed for adoption through the Wild Horse and Burro Adoption Program or are placed in long-term holding facilities.

Although there have been data gaps in the past (BLM 1991a), data are now obtained about gathered horses and burros. In relation to this data, BLM Instruction Memorandum 2002-95 requires that the following data be collected:

• Population demographics (age structure and sex ratio) • Herd characteristics (color, size, and type) • Reproduction and survival rates • Herd health (parasite loading and physical condition) • Herd history and genetic profile (blood and hair sampling) • Condition class (Henneke System) • Immuno-contraception data, if applicable.

The BLM is currently researching the use of immuno-contraceptives to slow the reproductive rate of wild horses and burros. Although still considered experimental, immuno-contraceptives are used extensively by the BLM. This method of population control has been used on horses in the Muddy Creek HMA.

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Current HMA boundaries (Map 2-6 and Table 3-20) do not accurately represent the areas used by wild horses and burros. In several areas, boundaries can be realigned to follow natural landmarks and barriers. Such realignment will enable more efficient management of wild horses and burros, as well as other resource uses currently within portions of HMA boundaries that wild horses and burros do not use.

Table 3-20. HA/HMA Acreages

HA/HMA 1 Range Creek Sinbad Muddy Creek Robbers Roost Acreage BLM 54,600 204,600 168,900 84,900 State 3,900 26,000 21,900 10,800 Private 20,100 0 0 0 Total 78,600 230,600 190,800 95,700 Note: 1—Acres include only those portions of the Robbers Roost HMA within the PFO.

Constraints and threats to wild horse and burro management include the following:

• Competition between bighorn sheep and burros • Competition between elk and horses • HMAs in which critical soils make up more than 50 percent of the area • Competitive use between livestock (i.e., cattle and sheep) and wild horses or burros • Illegal chasing, capturing, and harassment of wild horses and burros.

3.2.10 Fire and Fuels Management

The Moab Field Office has fire protection and fire management responsibilities for all BLM-administered lands in Carbon, Emery, Grand, and San Juan counties. This is known as the Moab Fire District for the BLM. All fire suppression, fire dispatching, fire prevention, and other fire-related responsibilities are retained administratively within the district. The Moab Field Office will seek fire suppression assistance from, and provide assistance as needed to other BLM field offices, USFS, NPS, Bureau of Indian Affairs, and the State of Utah. Guidelines for this cooperation are identified in the Southern Utah Annual Fire Operating Plan. A key element of that plan is the concept of initial attack by the closest force. This situation results in frequent crossing of administrative boundaries for the purpose of making an initial attack on a wildfire. In 1992, the Moab Field Office entered into agreements with the Manti-La Sal National Forest and the State of Utah to combine fire dispatch offices.

To identify the fire workload and determine the organization needed to meet management objectives, the district is divided into various sized polygons based on fuel types. The Fire Management Zone (FMZ) is a fire management division of areas with similar fuel and fire behavior and representative locations. Fire Management Areas are areas within the FMZs that represent a typical fire response; these were established to ensure appropriate fire management direction and desired resource condition. For reference purposes, Table 3-21 lists the PFO fire management areas.

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Table 3-21. Fire Management Areas Representative Fire Management Area Category FMZs Acres Locations Price Bench Chaining B 1 5 180,000 San Rafael Swell-Cedar Mountain C 1 5 620,000 Gordon Creek Winter Range B 1 5 30,000 Emma Park and Wattis Benches B 1 5 320,000 Highway 6 and 10 Corridor A 2 3 143,000 Riparian Area-Price Area A 2 3 300,000 Woodside-San Rafael Desert C 2 3 1,500,000 Range Creek Complex A 3 2 19,000 East Range Creek B 3 2 145,000 Turtle Canyon and Rock Creek C 3 2 80,000 Bruin Point A 3 2 165,000 Beckwith Plateau D 3 2 75,000 Note: Acreage includes all private and State land blocks and is rounded for simplicity. Source: BLM 1998.

Fire Categories

The four fire categories are as follows:

• Category A—Wildland fire is not desired at all. • Category B—Wildfire is likely to cause negative effects, but these effects may be mitigated. • Category C—Fire is desired, but there are constraints. • Category D—Fire is desired, and there are no constraints or areas where fire will not normally burn.

Fire Management Zones

The three FMZs are discussed in the following paragraphs.

FMZ 1

FMZ 1 is vegetated primarily by pinyon-juniper woodlands, with scattered pockets of grass and sage and some Ponderosa pine, representing the mid-elevation areas of the district. The terrain is generally mesas and benches.

FMZ 2

FMZ 2 is vegetated primarily by grass and sage. This area includes the lower elevations of the district, including the valley floors and riparian areas. Cheat grass is a fuel type, but other grasses, such as crested wheat, thrive in some areas.

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FMZ 3

FMZ 3 is the high country of the Book and Roan Cliffs on the northern end of the district. Douglas fir is predominant in the higher elevations and north slopes, with a good portion suffering from bug kill. Mountain brush and Gambel oak occur on some of the south slopes, and pinyon-juniper woodlands occur in lower parts of the zone in open and closed stands.

Representative Locations

A discussion of the three representative locations follows.

Representative Location 5

Representative Location 5 is the general pinyon-juniper woodlands country near Price. It covers the Price Bench chaining area, San Rafael-Cedar Mountain, Gordon Creek, Wattis Benches, and Emma Park polygons. Approximately eight fires occur each year. The largest was the 1996 East Carbon fire that burned 1,000 acres in an old chaining area. Numerous private land holdings must be protected along with the National Forest boundary on the west. The private land holdings are a predominate factor, and sufficient fire forces are needed to ensure adequate protection as well as enough suppression forces to conduct larger burns.

Representative Location 3

Representative Location 3 includes the valley areas in Carbon and Emery counties. It includes the Woodside and San Rafael Desert polygons, and the Green River, Price River, San Rafael River, Muddy River, and Nine Mile riparian polygons. The Highway 6 and 10 Corridor polygon is also included. The town of Price and all the small surrounding communities are included in this representative location. One key area is the Price Canyon highway corridor that includes the Price Canyon Recreation Area. On average, five fires occur each year. The largest fire that has occurred in this area was the Price Canyon fire in 2002 that burned 3,269 acres along the Price River to the top of Sulphur Canyon. With the exception of the Price Canyon fire, fires rarely consume more than 300 acres. Grass and sage are generally found in scattered pockets. The Green River Corridor occasionally has a significant fire in tamarisk.

Representative Location 2

Representative Location 2 covers the Roan Cliffs and Tavaputs Plateau, spreading westward from the Green River through high country. It includes the Bruin Point, Rock Creek, Range Creek, East Range Creek, Turtle Canyon, and Beckwith Plateau polygons. This location includes some of the most rugged country in the PFO. A large portion of the representative location is privately owned. The Bruin Point communications site is located here. Approximately three fires occur each year in this location. The largest was the 2004 Big Canyon fire that burned 3,500 acres of mixed conifer. Beckwith Plateau has very little fuel and almost no fire occurrence. The private land along the top of Range Creek is a major fire protection concern.

Prescribed Burn Program

The Moab Fire District directs the prescribed burn program for the PFO, which has averaged one prescribed burn every 2 years for the last 20 years. A limited amount of prescribed burning has been accomplished because of lack of funds. Mechanical treatments have been minimal.

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3.2.11 Non-WSA Lands with Wilderness Characteristics

Since WSAs were established in the 1980s, designation of wilderness in Utah has become a prominent national issue. For more than 20 years, the public has debated which lands have wilderness characteristics and should be considered by the Congress for wilderness designation. In 1996, the Secretary of the Interior directed the BLM to take another look at some of the lands in question. In response to the direction of the Secretary, the BLM inventoried these lands, and approximately 2.6 million acres of public land statewide (outside of existing WSAs) were found to have wilderness characteristics (BLM 1999c).

In April 2003, the BLM and the State of Utah, the Utah School and Institutional Trust Lands Administration (SITLA), and the Utah Association of Counties (collectively “Utah”) reached a settlement to a lawsuit originally brought in 1996 by Utah, challenging BLM’s authority to conduct its 1996/1999 inventory and to manage lands as de facto wilderness. The settlement stipulated that BLM lacks authority to designate new WSAs or to manage additional lands under FLPMA’s section 603’s non-impairment standard. However, it did acknowledge the BLM’s authority to inventory public lands and their resources and other values, including wilderness characteristics, and to consider such information in its land use planning under FLPMA. The settlement agreement was revised in September 2005 to remove those provisions that made the original agreement a consent decree. The BLM’s Land Use Planning Handbook (H-1601-1) states that management decisions to protect wilderness characteristics are to be considered during planning.

The BLM determined in the 1999 Utah Wilderness Inventory that 15 areas (483,900 acres) in the PFO outside of existing WSAs have wilderness characteristics. During scoping and the public comment period on the Draft RMP/Draft EIS, environmental organizations submitted information suggesting that additional areas outside of existing WSAs and those in the 1999 Utah Wilderness Inventory also have wilderness characteristics and should be managed to preserve those values. The PFO interdisciplinary team reviewed the submissions received during scoping and through public comments, as well as data on other lands within the PFO, and carefully updated its inventory of the public land resources. The BLM found that all or portions of these areas have wilderness characteristics, including naturalness and outstanding opportunities for solitude or primitive recreation. Non-WSA lands with wilderness characteristics are areas having 5,000 acres, or areas less than 5,000 acres that are contiguous to WSAs or other administratively endorsed for wilderness management lands or, in accordance with the Wilderness’ Act’s language, areas “of sufficient size as to make practicable its preservation and use in an unimpaired condition”. BLM used the same criteria for evaluating wilderness characteristics as in the 1979 wilderness inventory. The 5,000 acre value was helpful to BLM in making preliminary judgments, but it was not considered a limiting factor.

After consideration of additional new information from the public, the BLM found 27 areas of non-WSA lands in the PFO, totaling approximately 937,440 acres, that contain wilderness characteristics (Table 3-22 and Map 3-15). Through its inventory update and land use planning process, the BLM also found that many lands lacked wilderness characteristics. Those lands are identified as not having wilderness characteristics in Table 3-22.

Detailed information about non-WSA lands with wilderness characteristics is part of the administrative record for the RMP. The following records are available for public review at the PFO:

a. 1999 Utah Wilderness Inventory – Wilderness inventory completed at the request of the Secretary of the Interior that documents a comprehensive review of lands contained in the H.R. 1500 and H.R. 1745. b. 1999 Utah Wilderness Inventory Revision Document for the PFO—Published in January 2002, this document includes updates to the 1999 inventory resulting from public comment and

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subsequent internal review of inventory files and field evaluations. Adjustments were made to the boundaries of wilderness character areas identified in the inventory. c. 1999 Utah Wilderness Inventory Case Files for the PFO—These provide supporting detailed data for the above two documents, including specific information for each area. d. Reasonable Probability Determinations for the PFO, and e. Documentation of Wilderness Characteristics Review for the PFO—In response to public scoping comments and comments on the Draft RMP/EIS, review of new information and additional analyses of non-WSA lands with wilderness characteristics were completed. These last two types of records document BLM’s findings of the reviews.

Table 3-22. Non-WSA Lands with Wilderness Characteristics in the PFO

Acres With Acres With No Comments on Wilderness Area Name Wilderness Wilderness Characteristics Characteristics Characteristics Cedar Mountain 15,000 320 Contiguous to Desolation Desolation Canyon 89,000 18,000 Canyon WSA Contiguous to Devils Canyon Devils Canyon 11,000 2,600 WSA Contiguous to Sids Mountain Eagle Canyon 39,000 0 WSA Shared area with Richfield Flat Tops 7,100 0 Field Office (PFO acreage shown) Hondu Country 20,000 200 Contiguous to Jack Canyon Jack Canyon 1,500 2,000 WSA Labyrinth Canyon 26,000 20,000 Shared area with Richfield Limestone Cliffs 1,100 0 Field Office (PFO acreage shown) Lost Springs Wash 32,000 5,000 Adjacent to USFS roadless Mahogany Point 0 3,000 area Contiguous to Mexican Mexican Mountain 41,000 12,000 Mountain WSA Molen Reef 33,000 0 Muddy Creek–Crack Canyon 133,000 37,000 Adjacent to USFS roadless Muddy Creek–Nelson Mountain 0 10,000 area Mussentuchit Badlands 25,000 100 Never Sweat Wash 29,000 1,000 Price River 90,000 14,000 Shared area with Richfield Rock Canyon 17,000 0 Field Office (PFO acreage shown)

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Acres With Acres With No Comments on Wilderness Area Name Wilderness Wilderness Characteristics Characteristics Characteristics Contiguous to San Rafael Reef San Rafael Reef 46,000 15,400 WSA San Rafael Knob 17,500 0 San Rafael River 104,000 0 Contiguous to Sids Mountain Sids Mountain 36,000 3,400 WSA Portions are adjacent to USFS South Horn Mountain 6,400 4,100 roadless area Shared area with Richfield Sweetwater Reef 63,000 1,000 Field Office (PFO acreage shown) Adjacent to USFS roadless Trail Mountain 0 470 area Contiguous to Turtle Canyon Turtle Canyon 5,000 0 WSA Upper Muddy Creek 18,000 1,200 Shared area with Richfield Wildcat Knolls Extension 340 3,600 Field Office (PFO acreage shown) Shared area with Richfield Wild Horse Mesa 31,500 2,200 Field Office (PFO acreage shown) Total (30 areas) 937,440 156,590

3.3 RESOURCE USES

3.3.1 Forest and Woodlands

There are approximately 70,000 acres of forest and 684,000 acres of woodland in the PFO. A detailed inventory of PFO forest resources is incomplete, but a previous inventory conducted by the State of Utah, Division of Forestry and Fire Control from 1971 to 1974 can be used for general reference. Forested land in the PFO is primarily pinyon-juniper (Pinus edulis and Juniperus osteosperma) woodlands. The bulk of pinyon-juniper woodlands occurs at elevations from 4,500 to 7,500 feet. Distribution of the species is largely determined by precipitation patterns. Small areas of other species also occur in the PFO. Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and spruce (Picea engelmannii and Picea pungens) are found at higher elevations of the PFO. There are approximately 30,000 acres of Douglas fir in the northern portion of the PFO. Very limited amounts of Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) can be found in transitional elevations in drainages and along ridges. There are also small pockets of white fir (Abies concolor), oak (Quercus spp), cottonwood (Populus spp), box elder (Acer negundo), river birch (Betula nigra), quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides), ash (Fraxinus nigra), willow (Salix exigua), and other broadleaf species.

Current forest and woodland management is limited to permit sales for noncommercial harvest and occasional hazardous fuels reduction projects conducted by BLM fire management. The highest demand for forest products is fuelwood and Christmas trees. There is also limited demand for juniper fence posts.

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An additional use of forest resources within the PFO is vegetation harvest for grass and seeds. Pinyon nuts and grass seeds are the vegetation products in highest demand and with the widest distribution in the PFO.

The demand for timber harvest of Douglas fir, spruce, fir, and aspen may be increasing. The PFO is receiving a growing number of requests for commercial cutting of spruce and Douglas fir. Forest tracts in the area of the Tavaputs Plateau, Range Creek, and Roan Cliffs may have some harvestable timber stands. Many of these areas are landlocked by private and State lands where timber harvests are ongoing. There are opportunities for the BLM to collaborate with other landowners and schedule timber harvest to promote access and economic viability.

Demand for commercial harvest on public lands managed by the BLM may be linked to the harvest of adjacent areas. However, the BLM’s ability to access, inventory, and manage these public lands is limited by surrounding private access. The PFO must receive permission to use private roads and gates to enter most of the potential timber areas. The ability to manage forest activities will depend on planning ahead to obtain access and collaborate with neighbors. The PFO is aware that trespass timber harvests may have occurred in portions of the harvestable stands. Although the amount of trespass has been limited to date, without the development of new management prescriptions in this RMP, it is anticipated that trespass would increase.

Detailed forest and stand inventories have not been completed to determine the extent and nature of existing timber resources. Many of the forest and woodland areas in the PFO are located on steep slopes or within WSAs, primitive recreational opportunity spectrum (ROS) classes, or Special Recreation Management Areas (SRMA).

3.3.2 Livestock Grazing

Grazing in the PFO is managed according to the Utah Standards for Rangeland Health, based on historical use and dependent on the availability of forage and water. All grazing areas are open for livestock grazing, with the exception of Buckhorn Draw, Horseshoe Canyon South Allotment, Gray Canyon Wildland Area (includes Last Chance, Price River South, Bighorn, Elliot Mountain, Pack Trail, and River allotments), and Wildlife Allotment, which are closed to grazing because of its aesthetic and recreation values. Interoffice agreements between the Price and Richfield Field Offices, Price and Vernal Field Offices, and Price and Salt Lake Field Offices relating to vegetation allocation for grazing management, outline which grazing allotments will be administered by each field office. Appendix O lists existing PFO grazing allotments and the amount of permitted use currently associated with each allotment.

Grazing allotments are monitored periodically to ensure proper stocking rates to avoid overgrazing forage on the allotments. In addition, allotments are inventoried periodically and evaluated to determine whether the Utah Standards for Rangeland Health are being met and if livestock grazing is managed in accordance with Guidelines for Grazing Management for BLM Lands in Utah. Rangeland health assessments have been completed on 1,271,600 acres within 66 livestock grazing allotments in the PFO (Map 3-16). Individual allotment assessment data are located in the PFO allotment monitoring files. For the assessed allotments, approximately 80 percent are considered to be functioning and approximately 20 percent are functioning at risk. It should be noted that allotments identified in Map 3-16 as functioning at risk contain a subset of the allotment area or an ecological component that results in the entire allotment being categorized as functioning at risk. While there could be site-specific riparian areas that are not in PFC (see Riparian/Wetland section above), no areas where rangeland health assessments were completed are considered non-functioning. By regulation, if the Utah Standards for Rangeland Health are not being met, and livestock grazing is determined to be a significant contributing factor, appropriate actions must

3-66 Price RMP Proposed RMP/Final EIS Chapter 3 be taken no later than the start of the next grazing year (43 CFR 4180.2.c) which will result in significant progress toward meeting the Standards.

The rangeland health assessments are used in the completion of individual allotment evaluations to analyze vegetation, soil, and habitat conditions. This information is then used to develop recommendations to maintain or improve rangeland health. Any livestock grazing adjustments are implemented through an agreement or by decision.

The Green River is the largest riparian system in the PFO. Over the past 20 years, cattle use in Desolation Canyon has declined. Over this period, vegetation in the riparian areas has changed from tamarisk to willow, and riparian conditions along the river and tributaries have improved. Cottonwood reproduction occurs regularly, and all age classes of cottonwood are found. Rock Creek, a major tributary, is the most intensely monitored and has gone from a non-functioning to a functioning condition. It previously had bare banks but now is a wide, ditch-like stream that is well vegetated with willow, which has stabilized the banks and decreased erosion.

The PFO has developed a vegetation monitoring plan to determine whether current livestock management practices are meeting planning objectives and standards for rangeland health. Throughout the PFO, livestock monitoring studies have been established on most grazing allotments. Monitoring studies on these grazing allotments identify key plant species. Key plant species selected are based on physical presence, ecological site potential, and management objectives, and are used to detect changes in the vegetation communities. The PFO contains five general vegetation communities for monitoring studies: riparian areas, salt desert, sagebrush/grass, pinyon-juniper woodlands, and mountain brush. Table 3-23 lists the typical key species associated with each vegetation community.

Table 3-23. Typical Key Species Associated With Vegetation Community Vegetation Key Plant Species Community Riparian areas Bluegrass, wheatgrass, rushes, sedges, cottonwood, and willow Salt desert Indian ricegrass, galleta grass, squirrel tail, shadscale, fourwing saltbush, and winterfat Indian ricegrass, needle and thread grass, western wheatgrass, fourwing saltbush, and big Sagebrush/grass sagebrush Pinyon-juniper Indian ricegrass, needle and thread grass, bluegrass, and antelope bitterbrush woodlands Mountain brush Bluegrass, needle-and-thread grass, snowberry, and mahogany

The PFO established forage utilization levels to avoid overuse of key plant species during the grazing use season. These levels may vary based on the ecological and vegetation communities within individual allotments and management prescriptions.

Authorized animal unit months (AUM) for licensed use (i.e., AUMs paid for by permittees), permitted use (i.e., AUM preference associated with permits), and the percentage of use by livestock type between 1994 and 2005 is presented in Table 3-24. Licensed use for selected allotments addressed in Chapter 2 is identified in Table 3-25. AUMs reduced since the last land use plans are listed in Table 3-26. Reductions in AUMs available for livestock grazing were associated with land use plan amendments, reductions due to vegetation and grazing monitoring, and permittee loss of base property. Since the previous planning efforts, there has been a reduction of 14,810 active AUMs and a reduction of 5,517 suspended AUMs.

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Table 3-24. Authorized PFO AUM and Livestock Type

Licensed AUMs by Livestock Type Total Total Year Licensed Permitted Percentage of Use Cattle Horses Sheep AUMs AUMs 1994 40,193 211 1,294 41,698 111,411 37 1995 46,147 230 300 46,677 105,865 44 1996 31,628 238 262 32,128 105,815 30 1997 40,555 188 284 41,027 102,919 40 1998 50,461 201 604 51,266 102,891 50 1999 55,272 250 310 55,832 102,160 55 2000 41,168 235 215 41,618 100,840 41 2001 55,741 263 262 56,266 100,625 56 2002 42,218 182 94 42,494 100,625 42 2003 32,627 216 0 32,843 100,559 33 2004 34,518 298 110 34,926 100,429 35 2005 49,716 293 213 50,222 100,429 50 Average 43,354 234 329 43,916 102,881 43 Source: BLM Price Field Office.

The greatest demand for grazing resources on public lands is in the spring. Often, there is a gap between the date livestock must be moved from public lands and the date they can be taken onto USFS lands or private summer range, and this increases the demand for spring grazing on public lands. Continuous spring grazing has caused some of the cool-season plant species to be replaced with warm-season species, which produce very little spring forage, thus reducing the spring grazing capacity of the range. This change, however, does not appear to have occurred area-wide. Average licensed use is currently being met in the grazing area, but forage capacity affords little margin for increase. An estimated 15 percent to 20 percent of this forage is unavailable to livestock because of inaccessibility and lack of stock water.

PFC studies indicate that under current management, rangelands are mostly functioning, with some areas functioning at risk. Future demands may be met under these conditions. If conditions were non- functioning, future demands could still be met with the implementation of range treatments (e.g., chaining, seeding, applications of herbicide, prescribed fires, and vegetation manipulation) and more intensive grazing systems (e.g., development of stock water areas and season of use changes). In allotments with the potential to respond to intensive management, grazing systems are manipulated to produce more livestock forage. Range improvements commonly include livestock guzzlers, fencing, wells, and livestock handling facilities.

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Table 3-25. Licensed Use for Selected Allotments Addressed in Chapter 2

1 Licensed Use by Grazing Year (GY) Allotment Name Season of Use GY93 GY94 GY95 GY96 GY97 GY98 GY99 GY00 GY01 GY02 Green River (total) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 112 174 Green River (Horse Bench Pasture— 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Desolation SRMA only) November 1– Hondo 0 0 0 0 0 0 170 97 12 81 May 31 2 Horseshoe Canyon North 0 0 0 537 1,553 1,697 1,697 1,263 1,582 470 November 1– McKay Flat 370 362 126 58 405 0 253 54 388 395 March 15 Range Creek 114 282 284 142 142 284 142 284 284 0 October 16– Red Canyon 653 861 616 825 791 997 1,424 107 883 783 March 15 March 1– Rock Creek (in Desolation SRMA) 80 34 59 24 94 103 70 64 61 0 February 28 2 San Rafael River 0 0 861 1,665 2,213 734 722 382 630 520 2 Saucer Basin 1,072 1,109 1,109 754 968 1,102 1,102 576 745 596 1 Shows only time periods for allotments that change in season of use in this Proposed RMP. 2 All allotments in Labyrinth Canyon SRMA cannot be split out by use within the proposed SRMA.

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Table 3-26. Changes in Livestock Grazing AUMs Since Previous Land Use Plans

Initial Reduction Allotment Active Suspended Active Suspended AUMs AUMs AUMs Reduced AUMs Reduced Bighorn (34005) 650 340 650 340 Elliot Mountain (34042) 725 0 725 0 Pack Trail (24126) 698 233 698 233 River (24099) 600 400 600 400 Last Chance (34063) 400 210 400 210 Fuller Bottom (35023) 772 263 143 45 Iron Wash (35031) 4,985 0 417 0 Pinnacle Bench (34090) 333 107 74 0 Green River (34049) 8,584 5,416 5,546 3,633 Wattis (14118) 100 2 50 2 Georges Draw (25024) 998 0 292 0 Horseshoe Canyon South 2,025 0 2,025 0 (15100) Taylor Flat (25087) 2,028 0 579 0 Mesquite Wash (35044) 114 0 28 0 Dry Canyon (34038) 875 39 235 0 South Ferron (15080) 741 0 496 0 McKay Flat (35043) 2,288 129 1,014 129 Miller Canyon (35046) 498 189 306 154 Ferron Mills (35021) 121 29 31 11 Canal 8 0 8 0 Coal Creek (34027) 849 1,190 99 0 Coon Spring (34029) 384 84 116 0 Wildcat (14121) 70 0 35 0 Washboard (04115) 601 399 243 0 TOTALS 29,447 9,030 14,810 5,157

Because of continuing land tenure adjustments and changes in administrative boundaries, some grazing allotments or parts of grazing allotments are no longer under the jurisdiction of the PFO. In addition, in the process of promoting orderly administration of the federal rangeland and meeting resource objectives, some changes have occurred to the livestock grazing program. Table 3-27, Table 3-28, and the following bulleted lists identify the changes to the grazing program since completion of the Price River MFP and San Rafael RMP.

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Table 3-27. Lands Closed to Livestock Grazing Since the Price River Management Framework Plan (1983) and San Rafael Resource Management Plan (1991) Allotment or Area Purposes Gray Canyon Wildland Wildlife habitat and forage; enhancement of wild land values, including recreation, Management Area riparian, and wildlife Vegetation enhancement; soil stabilization and erosion reduction; additional protection Horseshoe Canyon of portions of critical watersheds and critical soils; additional wildlife habitat protection South Allotment and reduced competition for available food, space, cover, and water; maintenance or enhancement of high-value recreational lands and existing recreational opportunities Sources: BLM 1989a; BLM 1996; BLM 2006b

Allotments No Longer Managed by the PFO

• Canyon Allotment—Transferred to SITLA in 1998 land exchange. • Max Canyon Allotment—Transferred to Vernal Field Office for management of grazing • Dugout Allotment transferred to SITLA—January 1990 • Mohrland Allotment—Transferred to SITLA in 1998 land exchange • Brown Allotment sold—March 1997

Lands Sold or Permits Combined Since the San Rafael RMP (1991) or Price River MFP (1983)

• Canal Cattle Allotment combined with Desert Allotment in 1986 • Elliott Mountain, Pack Trail, River, and Bighorn allotments combined into Gray Canyon Wildland Management Area—June 1989 • Lila Canyon and Little Park allotments combined—June 1993 • Church Flat, Farnham, and Oil Well Draw South allotments combined into Mounds Allotment— March 1994 • Justensen and West Orangeville allotments combined—April 1997 • Wildcat Allotment: Relinquishment of half of the grazing preference (35 animal unit months [AUM])—September 2001 • Big Pond and Georges Draw combined into the Big Pond Allotment – August 2005 • Price River South; relinquishment of grazing preference and combined into the Gray Canyon Wildland Management Area (40 animal unit months [AUM])—July 2006

Allotments Affected by the 1998 Land Exchange

Table 3-28. State Land Exchange Allotment and AUMs Transferred State Land Exchange AUMs Transferred to Allotments SITLA Canyon 100 Consumers Wash 158 East Grimes 50 Haley Canyon 37 Hiawatha 86 Miller Creek 303

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State Land Exchange AUMs Transferred to Allotments SITLA Mohrland 110 North Huntington 1,148 North Spring 274 Pinnacle Bench 140 Poison Spring Bench 690 Porphyry Bench 226 Washboard 60 Wattis 9 West Huntington 472 Wilberg 202 Total AUMs 4,065 Source: Price Field Office Grazing Files

3.3.3 Recreation and Off-Highway Vehicles

A variety of recreation resources are located in the PFO area. They include areas for dispersed camping, hiking, horseback riding, OHV riding, scenic overlooks, hunting, fishing, boating, canyoneering, scientific and cultural resource study, wildlife viewing, and wildlands enjoyment. Recreation activities take place in developed facilities, as well as in large, undeveloped parts of the PFO.

Recreation Opportunity Spectrum

The ROS is a system of inventorying and classifying the range of recreation experiences, opportunities, and settings in the PFO. ROS classes were identified for the 1991 San Rafael RMP. The Price River Management Framework Plan (MFP) and the 1984 MFP Supplement do not address ROS classification. ROS inventory for the Price River area was developed subsequent to the Price River MFP. In the past, the BLM has primarily managed for five of the six ROS classes, including primitive, semi-primitive non- motorized (SPNM), semi-primitive motorized (SPM), roaded natural, and rural. The urban ROS classification does not typically require BLM management, but the BLM can coordinate with cities and towns to provide recreation opportunities using the ROS. Roaded natural and rural ROS classes also require very little BLM management. The primitive, semi-primitive, and roaded natural classifications are designed to provide certain types of recreation experiences and settings, and may require management to meet experiences, opportunities, and settings (Table 3-29 and Map 3-17).

Table 3-29. Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Within the PFO Acres of BLM Land Percentage of BLM ROS Classes Within the PFO Land Within the PFO Primitive 374,800 15 Semi-primitive Non-motorized 361,000 14 Semi-primitive Motorized 1,350,000 55 Roaded Natural 370,180 15

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Acres of BLM Land Percentage of BLM ROS Classes Within the PFO Land Within the PFO Rural 23,000 1 Urban 20 <1

Recreation Management Areas

Recreation Management Areas (RMA) are the primary means used by the BLM to manage recreational use of the public lands. All public lands managed by the BLM fall within either an SRMA or Extensive Recreation Management Area (ERMA).

Special Recreation Management Areas

SRMAs are areas where some specialized recreation is a principal management objective and which demand more intensive management from the BLM to provide certain types of experiences and opportunities. Existing SRMAs include the Desolation Canyon, Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry, Labyrinth Canyon, and San Rafael Swell. These areas are managed as SRMAs in recognition of the valuable nature of resources located within them.

Desolation Canyon SRMA. Recreation in Desolation and Gray Canyons of the Green River is one use in the PFO. The river corridor between Sand Wash Ranger Station and Swaseys Rapid has been adjudicated as being non-navigable and is subject to BLM management. River use in Desolation Canyon is available by special recreation permit (SRP) only. Fees are charged for all SRPs in Desolation Canyon. The canyon receives high levels of primitive recreation use from early spring to late fall. Six private and commercial river launches of up to 25 people per launch are permitted every day of the high-use season (May 15 to August 15). Total user-day capacity for the area is 35,000 user days per season. Allocation of private and commercial user days is split equally with unclaimed user days reallocated to a passenger day pool to meet demand. Launches are allocated and held at two per day during the low-use season.

River-related resources in the canyon are generally protected by management prescriptions detailed in the Desolation and Gray Canyons of the Green River River Management Plan. Intensive use of some camp and day use areas contributes to limited devegetation. However, these impacts are minimized through ranger contact and river permit stipulations and information. River permits are limited during the high-use season to support resource protection.

Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry SRMA. In addition to being a world-renowned paleontological resource, the Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry provides a unique recreation experience. There is a limited infrastructure to support recreation and educational site visits. Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry has a staffed visitor center featuring interpretive materials and exhibits, as well as information about the San Rafael Swell area. Two outbuildings at the quarry provide protection for and access to the exposed bone bed. Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry features a short interpretive trail, three hiking trails, a picnic area, drinking water, and restrooms. It is a fee area and is open seasonally during scheduled days and times.

Labyrinth Canyon SRMA. Labyrinth Canyon is an excellent example of a large-volume desert river that is easily accessible to floaters. It is federally adjudicated as navigable water. Lands below the 1897 high- water line are State owned. The flat water of Labyrinth Canyon attracts a large number of recreationists seeking a scenic river float. As with Desolation Canyon and other similar desert river corridors, impacts occur from concentrated use along the river. Impacts are primarily from concentrated use in camping

Price RMP 3-73 Chapter 3 Proposed RMP/Final EIS areas. Resource damage may also occur because a greater percentage of river runners in Labyrinth Canyon are novice and first-time river runners. Permits and BLM patrols of Labyrinth Canyon help minimize these impacts, but some resource damage does occur.

San Rafael Swell SRMA. Visits to the San Rafael Swell are increasing as recreationists seek “undiscovered” areas to explore. Recent publicity surrounding the resources found in the Swell serves to increase visitation even more. Certain areas of the Swell, such as Little Wild Horse Canyon, the Wedge Overlook, Buckhorn Panel, and the Temple Mountain area are used heavily during peak seasons. In some instances, existing facilities are insufficient to protect resources or support visitor opportunities. The remote nature of the Swell lends itself to many forms of dispersed recreation. The ruggedness, remoteness, and lack of facilities require visitors to be self-sufficient.

Nine Mile Canyon Area. While not designated a SRMA in the existing land use plan, there is an implementation level Recreation and Cultural Area Management Plan for the Nine Mile Canyon Area. This area is associated with the Nine Mile Canyon BLM Back Country Byway and State Scenic Backway. The area is managed by both the BLM Price and Vernal Field Offices. An implementation- level management plan was completed for the area in 1995 that provides implementation-level decisions and guidance for land use plan decisions. This area is well-known for its concentration of prehistoric archaeological sites, specifically the unusually extensive number of rock art panels. Visitors to the area participate in a range of recreation opportunities such as driving for pleasure; interpretive stops; short hikes to view Native American rock art and structures; photography; guided auto, biking, and hiking tours; scientific archaeological and nature study; mountain biking; dispersed camping; and hunting.

Range Creek Area. Although not designated a SRMA in the existing land use plan, this area is associated within the UDWR Range Creek Wildlife Management Area. Range Creek has nationally significant, outstanding cultural resources. The segregated nature of its management prior to recent land transactions, as well as existing State interim management, provides a unique heritage recreation opportunity in a primitive setting. Visitors to the area can view cultural sites and a variety of wildlife species. Visitors can also view the setting and structures associated with ranching in the area.

Range Creek contains thousands of Fremont archaeological sites, including numerous pictograph and petroglyph panels, as well as prehistoric habitation sites (Bauman & Boren 2004). The area is possibly the most pristine and extensive untouched archaeological complex in the American West today, while its cultural resources are some of the most intact and well-preserved sites in the United States. “Cattle ranches have operated in Range Creek continuously since 1885. Early ranchers built cabins, fences, ditches, and buildings throughout the canyon that extended to the plateau above. Prior to 1947, all equipment brought into the canyon by ranchers was packed in by mule over precipitous trails. Much of this equipment remains in the valley, remanded to machinery bone yards scattered around the canyon. These remains add poignant details to the rich heritage of the canyon, and testify to the tenacity and perseverance of early ranchers” (UDWR 2006). The canyon also provides habitat for a variety of wildlife. “Songbirds are plentiful in the riparian areas and you may see several species of raptors. Bears, mountain lions, chukars, and turkeys inhabit the canyon, as well as a few deer and elk” (UDWR 2006).

Extensive Recreation Management Areas

The ERMA is the remainder of the PFO outside of SRMAs and other special designation areas. It consists of areas where recreation is non-specialized and dispersed, and does not require intensive management. Attention to recreation may not be the primary management objective in these areas, and recreation activities are subject to few restrictions. The PFO ERMA has no special management prescriptions but rather is currently managed according to the overlying management prescriptions in the applicable land use plan.

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Various types of recreation occur within the ERMA, including scenic drives, dispersed camping, OHV use, hiking, fishing, and cultural resource viewing. BLM is aware that conflicts between recreation and other resource uses, such as grazing and mineral development will continue to increase, and BLM is attempting to address some of those conflicts through various management decisions in this PRMP. Many uses of the ERMA have developed or have changed since the development of the Price River MFP and San Rafael RMP. Most of the northern portion of the PFO was classified as open for OHV use. OHV use has changed dramatically since the Price River MFP was completed.

Special Recreation Permitting

SRPs are used to manage different types of recreation associated with commercial uses, competitive events, organized groups, vending, and special areas. These recreation uses can include, for example, large group events, river guide services, and commercial recreation activities. Each permit is issued based on need and type of use, with appropriate use stipulations intended to enhance the recreation experience and minimize or mitigate resource damage. National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) review is generally required for the issuance of special recreation permits.

Recreation Visitation

BLM recreation visitation, shown in Table 3-30, is estimated by the Recreation Management Information System (RMIS). RMIS estimates recreation participation in 65 types of recreation activities recorded at BLM sites and areas based on registrations, permit records, observations, and professional judgment. Visitation is estimated by numbers of visits as well as visitor days. Visits represent the actual number of people who take part in a recreation activity. A visitor day is a common unit used to measure recreation use on federal lands. One visitor day represents an aggregate of 12 visitor hours to a site or area.

Table 3-30. Recreation Visitation Years Participants Visitor Days 1999 1,564,584 1,582,294 2000 1,427,989 1,474,109 2001 617,071 641,289 Note: Changes to the RMIS method of data collection and estimation were made after fiscal year (FY) 2000. Recreation estimates before FY01 were believed to be overestimates, so the methodology for FY01 was improved, and visitation estimates were significantly lower for the PFO in 2001. Large declines in visitation estimates from 2000 to 2001 should not be interpreted as an actual decrease in visits but rather a change in estimation methodology. Source: BLM Recreation Management Information System, BLM Utah State Office.

OHV use is perceived as the fastest growing activity in the PFO, but visitation data on recreation use can be particularly difficult to collect because of the dispersed nature of many activities. Improved information on the actual amount and the areas of recreation use would improve management and decrease potential for visitor conflict. The existing system of recreation visit data collection, RMIS, does not adequately describe the types or amounts of recreation use occurring in the PFO area. The primary difficulty with the RMIS data collection system is the lack of actual data collection in much of the PFO.

Recreation Facilities and Visitor Contact

Direction for the use of sites and areas comes largely from the design of facilities; regulations posted in the area, PFO website, Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry visitor center, and other areas of concentrated recreation use; interpretive or administrative signage or maps and brochures; and visitor contact with a

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BLM employee or Emery County sheriff. Recreation facilities and visitor contact are the primary tools used to manage recreation activities on public lands. In many cases, the only information a visitor receives during his or her stay is from interpretive or administrative signage or maps and brochures.

Developed recreation sites incorporate visitor use infrastructure, defined in the Utah Standards for Public Land Health and Guidelines for Recreation Management as amenities such as roads, parking areas, and facilities, to protect the resource and support the recreation user in pursuit of activities, experiences, and benefits. Visitor use infrastructure is a management tool that can help minimize resource impacts, appropriately concentrate use, and reduce visitor conflicts. Developed recreation sites in the PFO help accomplish all of these goals. First priority for facilities development in the PFO is for those developments that protect resources and improve visitor experiences.

Recreation Activities

Front country recreation is recreation that occurs along primary travel corridors and at highly developed sites. This type of recreation remains popular in the PFO area. Because visitation to these sites may increase, management of the areas may need to focus more heavily on providing defined recreation experiences. Users of front country recreation sites typically demand more extensive interpretive information and facilities. Dispersed recreation is recreation that occurs off or away from primary travel corridors and away from developed sites. Areas that were once dispersed recreation sites may have become de facto front country recreation sites through increased use.

Rafting is an important recreation activity in the PFO on the Green River. Rafting is an intermittent recreation use, subject to adequate flows on the Muddy, Price, and San Rafael Rivers, and is managed as a dispersed recreation activity.

Visitor experiences from activities such as OHV use, backcountry camping, mountain biking, rock climbing, river running, and hiking are dependent on a low density of other visitors.

Recreational Off-Highway Vehicle Use

Growth of OHV use has become a significant issue in the PFO because of the concern related to the possible degradation of resources that can result from high levels of use and proliferation of pioneered routes. OHV registrations in Utah have grown significantly over the past 10 years. Registrations in Carbon and Emery counties also have increased. OHV registrations for the counties and the State of Utah are shown in Table 3-31. In the 7 years shown in the table, OHV registrations have increased more than 150 percent in Carbon and Emery counties, and more than 200 percent for the State of Utah. Increases in OHV registrations statewide, especially within Carbon and Emery counties, support the trend for continuing increases in OHV users. OHV use and management should be addressed and updated in an effort to resolve resource conflicts that pertain to other natural resources and still provide for responsible OHV use. The PFO is working collaboratively with Emery and Carbon Counties to address these OHV uses including agreements for cooperative enforcement, planning, etc.

Table 3-31. Total OHV Registration, by Year Area 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Carbon County 1,305 2,155 2,406 2,477 2,811 2,631 3,361 Emery County 869 1,074 1,218 1,249 1,961 1,822 2,310 Utah State Total 51,686 80,469 91,596 95,569 137,556 124,954 161,350 Source: Utah State Tax Commission, OHV Registration.

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In addition, the San Rafael Motorized Route Designation Plan (2003) designated approximately 670 miles of routes for recreational OHV use, including four routes within the Sids Mountain WSA that are open on the condition that they continue to meet the WSA non-impairment standard. The level of OHV use within SRMAs and the ERMA is an important component of these designations. Existing OHV use categories were designed to accommodate the levels of OHV use and conflict encountered when existing plans were implemented. Approximately 743,000 acres are currently open to cross-country recreational OHV in the PFO. In addition, there are 3,210 miles of existing and designated routes. The majority of recreational OHV users are currently using existing routes.

Recreation activities can conflict and affect the opportunities and experiences available. Recreation activities may also conflict with and have an impact on other uses of the PFO. Specific examples of this type of conflict and impact include damage to cultural resources, disturbance of wildlife habitat, disruption of grazing activities, and damage to natural ecosystems.

3.3.4 Lands and Realty

The goal of the lands program is to create a balance between land use and resource protection that serves the public at large. The primary objective of the lands program is to facilitate and manage the use of public lands through ROWs, leases, permits, and land tenure adjustments. The secondary objective is to provide support to other programs that protect and enhance resources.

Lands are currently managed under classifications, withdrawals, ROWs, permits, leases, and disposal actions. ROWs across public lands are granted under Title V of the FLPMA and Title I of the Mineral Leasing Act (43 CFR 2800 and 2880). ROWs are issued for many purposes and are recorded on master plats, which are located at the PFO and the BLM Utah State Office.

Approximately 61 percent of Carbon County and 92 percent of Emery County is not private land (Map 1- 2). A lands action can take place anywhere in the PFO as long as it meets the conditions required by law, regulation, or management of other resource values.

Land tenure adjustments focus on acquiring private in-holdings that have high resource values and disposing of unmanageable parcels. The direction is to seek acquisition of easements on State or private land that provide legal access to public land. The BLM may acquire private land by donation, direct purchase, or exchange for federally owned land of approximately equal value in the same state. Land tenure adjustments also consist of disposal of unmanageable tracts through sales, exchanges, and other adjustments to BLM-administered properties to improve the ability and efficiency of managing public land resources.

Throughout much of Utah, the State owns and manages 4 isolated sections in each 36-section township. These are generally sections 2, 16, 32, and 36, and are ordinarily 1 mile square (640 acres). They are primarily administered by the SITLA for the purpose of economic support of the State’s public schools and institutional trust funds. Activities on State land generally are not substantially different from those on the surrounding land administered by the BLM. Many of the SITLA lands generate funds through grazing permits, ROW easements and permits, and hydrocarbon or other mineral leases.

Many BLM lands with management restrictions, such as WSAs, have State lands adjacent to or within their boundaries. State lands that are completely or almost entirely surrounded by BLM lands with management restrictions, or are in conjunction with administratively endorsed NPS lands, are termed State inholdings.

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Existing access to inheld State lands varies. Some of the parcels have direct access through cherry- stemmed or boundary roads of WSAs. Inheld parcels may or may not currently have access, depending upon whether or not existing vehicle routes lead to them. BLM policy, as required by the Cotter decision, is that “the state must be allowed access to the state school trust lands so that those lands can be developed in a manner that will provide funds for the common school…” This decision confined the issue of access to situations directly involving economic revenues generated for the school trust. For example, if a holder of a state oil and gas lease on a parcel of state land that is completely surrounded by a WSA requires access to develop that lease, the BLM must grant the leaseholder reasonable access with consideration given to minimize impacts on wilderness character.

3.3.5 Minerals and Energy

As a part of this planning process, a Mineral Potential Report and a coal report were developed. These reports provide an assessment of the mineral occurrence and development potential throughout the PFO. These reports were used in developing management alternatives and analyzing effects of mineral development and management alternatives on mineral resources. Specific information regarding mineral resources and development potential is identified in these reports. Listed below is a summary of some of the information found in the Mineral Potential Report (BLM 2002a).

The categorization of mineral resources as “locatable,” in the General Mining Law of 1872; “leasable,” in the Mineral Leasing Act of 1920; or “salable” in the Mineral Materials Act of 1947 (as amended) and Surface Resources Act of 1955 (as amended) is based on these provisions and other laws. The BLM is the administering agency for oil and gas, minerals (locatable, leasable, and salable [mineral materials]), and coal development on federal lands within the PFO. Table 3-32 lists the acreage held under current oil and gas leases, current coal leases, and active mining claims (locatable minerals) on federal land in the PFO.

Table 3-32. Land Held for Mineral and Energy Resources in the PFO, by County, in Acres

Resource Carbon County Emery County Total Oil and Gas Leases1 329,175 290,020 619,195 Pending Oil and Gas Leases1 295,312 528,299 823,611 Coal Leases2 26,252 42,566 68,818 Mining Claims3 7,840 122,280 130,120 Notes: 1—Information current as of December 2007. 2—Information current as ofJune 2008. 3—Information current as of June 2008.

In terms of future development potential, the most important mineral resources in the PFO are coal, coalbed natural gas, oil and gas, uranium, gypsum, clay, sand and gravel, and humate. Overall, coal and gas resources, including coalbed natural gas, have the highest potential for future development. Demand for mineral energy resources (i.e., oil, gas, coalbed natural gas, and coal) will continue at current levels or increase through the life of the plan.

Locatable

Locatables are mineral deposits such as precious and base metals, gypsum, and uranium/vanadium.

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Gypsum. Areas of both high and moderate occurrence potential for gypsum occur in the PFO (Map 3-18). It is considered likely that the areas with high occurrence potential will be developed in the future, although it is unlikely that areas of moderate potential will be developed.

Uranium/Vanadium. The potential for uranium-vanadium occurrence in the PFO is shown on Map 2-35. Areas where productive mining has previously taken place, and which coincide with the outcrop footprint of either the Morrison or Chinle Formation, are considered to have high occurrence potential with a high level of certainty. Other mining regions that contained either small producing mines or prospects hosted by either the Morrison or Chinle Formations have high occurrence potential with a medium degree of certainty. During the pendency of the planning effort approximately 100,000 additional uranium mining claims have been filed. BLM has no control over filing of mining claims; the claims are filed pursuant to the Mining Law of 1872, which allows individuals to file claims based on their own initiative. In other words, this is a self-executing law that BLM cannot limit without a withdrawal. Merely filing a mining claim does not necessarily lead to mineral development. Many of these claims turn out to be speculative and never lead to development. Consequently, the additional 100,000 mining claims suggest that BLM may have to make different or alternate locatable mineral decisions in the future, but at this point, BLM believes that the current RFD is still valid, but BLM will pay close attention to this mineral to ensure that decisions made in this RMP are still suitable for the level of resource development at present and future levels.

Leasable

Leasable, energy-related minerals are coalbed natural gas, oil and gas, coal, oil shale, and tar sands. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 authorized issuing conventional oil and gas leases in areas designated as special tar sand areas. This plan only addresses conventional oil and gas leases in these areas. As described in chapter 1 (Relationships to Other Programs, Plans, and Policies), all decisions related to land use planning decisions (areas open to application for potential leasing) for oil shale and tar sands resources in this RMP will be made by the ongoing Programmatic EIS for Oil Shale and Tar Sands Resources. The ROD on the Final Programmatic EIS will amend the existing Price River MFP and San Rafael RMP, or the ongoing PFO RMP, if completed first, by making land use planning decisions on whether or not public lands will be available for future application, leasing, and development of oil shale and tar sands for those areas where the resource is present. Additional site-specific NEPA analysis will be completed on each lease application before any leases would be issued.

Coalbed Natural Gas

USGS has identified two coalbed natural gas plays in PFO: 1) the Book Cliff coalbed natural gas Play, and 2) the Emery coalbed natural gas Play (BLM 2002a). Within each coalbed natural gas play, individual fields have been identified. In practice, areas that have traditionally been referred to as coalbed natural gas fields in PFO are typically permit or lease areas of the companies proposing the development project. These include the Helper/Price, Ferron Fairview North/Drunkard’s Wash, and Ferron Fairview South/Buzzard’s Bench covering most of the Emery Play in Carbon and Emery counties (BLM 2002a). In the Book Cliffs Play, the only coalbed natural gas field that is commonly named is the Castlegate (BLM 2002a). Areas of high, moderate, low, and no coalbed natural gas occurrence potential were identified in the PFO (Map 3-20). Areas of high occurrence potential were associated with a high degree of certainty, whereas areas of moderate and low occurrence potential had a medium or low degree of certainty. In areas with a high mineral potential, it is considered likely that coalbed natural gas development will occur in the future. In all remaining portions of the PFO, coalbed natural gas development in the future is unlikely. Since coalbed natural gas was first produced in Utah in 1982, almost all of the in-state production has come from wells located in Carbon and Emery counties (BLM 2002a). Table 3-33 shows natural gas production for the two counties and the rate at which the production trend has increased.

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Table 3-33. Natural Gas Production (thousand cubic feet), 1995–2004

Year Carbon County Emery County Total 1995 12,379,993 703,166 13,083,159 1996 17,124,314 778,051 17,902,365 1997 22,760,216 926,911 23,687,127 1998 31,903,361 1,344,955 33,248,316 1999 50,175,216 2,317,451 52,492,667 2000 72,586,085 4,042,810 76,628,895 2001 86,532,946 7,718,744 94,251,690 2002 90,700,883 13,901,494 104,602,377 2003 85,179,739 17,213,152 102,392,891 2004 79,238,659 17,443,464 96,682,123 Source: Utah Division of Oil, Gas and Mining—Annual Production Data 2005— http://ogm.utah.gov/oilgas/PUBLICATIONS/Reports/prodbycnty.htm.

Oil and Gas

Oil and gas accumulations include all those not associated with coalbed natural gas or solid hydrocarbons such as oil/tar sands and oil shale. This includes both conventional and unconventional deposits of liquid petroleum oil, and natural gas of all types, including methane, carbon dioxide, and inert gases such as helium.

USGS has identified 2 provinces with 10 traditional oil and gas plays that occur within PFO (USGS 1995). Because each is defined by a variety of parameters, many of the geographic boundaries of the plays overlap each other. The following provinces and plays are wholly or partially in the PFO:

• Uinta-Piceance Basin Province – Uinta Tertiary Oil and Gas Play – Upper Cretaceous Conventional Play – Cretaceous Dakota to Jurassic Play – Permian—Pennsylvanian Sandstones and Carbonates Play – Tight Gas Uinta Tertiary West Play – Basin Flank Uinta Mesaverde Play • Paradox Basin Province – Fractured Interbed Play – Salt Anticline Flank Play – Permo-Triassic Unconformity Play – Cretaceous Sandstone Play. Within these plays, 19 separate conventional oil and gas fields have been identified and developed in PFO (Map 3-21), of which 9 are active (BLM 2002a). These fields are individual producing units consisting of either a single pool or multiple pools of hydrocarbons related to a structural or stratigraphic feature (BLM 2002a). The San Rafael Swell (the physiographic feature) and southeastern Emery County are the only regions of the PFO where oil and gas fields have not been discovered. Although the plays and fields described are likely to host the majority of future development, changes in technology, product pricing, and improved product transportation are likely to result in new discoveries outside these areas. The

3-80 Price RMP Proposed RMP/Final EIS Chapter 3 current assessment of high, medium, and low development potential will likewise change over time as new resources are discovered.

CO2 and inert gases have been produced in association with coalbed natural gas development and have also been identified and produced separately. The Gordon Creek, Farnham Dome, and Woodside fields (currently inactive and/or abandoned) have tested and/or produced large volumes of inert gas, primarily CO2 and nitrogen (BLM 2002a). Of these, the Farnham Dome field has produced approximately 4.76 billion cubic feet (bcf) of CO2 from the Navajo Sandstone, and gas is also present in the Moenkopi Formation (BLM 2002a).

The majority of the gas currently produced in the PFO is from sandstone and coalbeds in the Ferron Sandstone. Small quantities of oil are produced in Carbon County from the Green River and Wasatch Formations, while the Moenkopi is the largest oil producer in Emery County. Gas production had been declining in both counties until the early 1990s when rapid coalbed natural gas exploration began in the Ferron Sandstone and Blackhawk Formation. In recent years, improvements in technology have allowed an increase in production of conventional gas in the West Tavaputs Plateau area. A Draft EIS for full field development in the West Tavaputs area was released in February 2008. Existing wells and permit applications appear to be defining an 80-acre surface spacing for at least part of this area, where approximately 807 wells on 538 well pads are projected (Appendix M). Oil production continues to decline in both counties, and since 1980, all new field discoveries in the PFO have been gas producers (BLM 2002a). Areas of high and low conventional oil and gas occurrence potential were identified (Map 3-21), each associated with a moderate level of certainty. Map 3-23 shows currently held federal oil and gas leases. In areas of high potential, it is considered likely that oil and gas resources will be developed in the future. While it is less likely that areas currently recognized as having low potential or low occurrence would be developed in the immediate term, there is potential for new discoveries that would change this assessment.

Oil Shale

Map 3-22 shows occurrence potential for oil shale and tar sands. Oil shales occur throughout the northeast corner of Carbon County within the Green River Formation, and are typically a dark brownish-bluish gray, very fine grain, thin-bedded shale (Booz Allen 2002). Throughout the middle section of Green River Formation where oil shales are present, they are typically interbedded with marlstone and siltstone (Booz Allen 2002). Oil shale has a high content of kerogen that formed from the compacted residue of microorganisms that lived in Eocene Lake Uinta. Accordingly, the source rock and reservoir rock are typically one-in the-same in oil shales as compared to tar sands in which the bitumen has been mobilized. As with tar sands, the kerogen from oil shales is generally extracted by heating the material, a process called retorting.

Within the planning area, oil shale beds are both thinner and less abundant than those east of the Green River in Uintah County where they have been studied in far greater detail. In Uintah County, this includes lands that were previously designated Naval Oil Shale Reserve #2 by the U.S. Congress, a small portion of which extended west of the Green River onto the West Tavaputs Plateau in Carbon County. In the eastern Uinta Basin, oil shales with the highest concentration of kerogen occur primarily in what is know as the Mahogany ledge zone in the Parachute Creek Member of the Green River Formation (Booz Allen 2002). The Mahogany ledge varies from 15 to 150 feet in total thickness; however, the cumulative thickness of discrete, highly concentrated, oil shale beds typically do not exceed 6 feet (Booz Allen 2002). Within the planning area, the Green River Formation contains many thin oil shale beds both within and above the Mahogany ledge, and to a lesser degree below the ledge. Mineral Potential Report Map 18 shows areas in Carbon County where oil shale deposits of the Mahogany ledge are present in the shallow subsurface (typically 2,000 feet or less). As shown on this map, this area forms a triangular shaped region,

Price RMP 3-81 Chapter 3 Proposed RMP/Final EIS but only the northeastern most corner of Carbon County can be considered a significant resource because oil shale thickness and kerogen content decrease towards the southwest. This division has traditionally been drawn along the 15-gallon/ton saturation line (Booz Allen 2002).

Tar Sands

Map 3-22 shows occurrence potential for oil shale and tar sands. Tar sands are loosely defined as any sedimentary rock impregnated with heavy, viscous crude oil that cannot be recovered by conventional techniques, but rather requires an external energy source (i.e., heat) to mobilize the oil (Booz Allen 2002). Most tar sand deposits in Utah probably formed from crude oil that accumulated in conventional petroleum reservoirs near the land surface. During Laramide uplift, these reservoirs were subsequently breached by erosion cutting through the reservoir cap rocks thereby allowing the volatile components of the oil to escape to the atmosphere (Booz Allen 2002). In addition, microbes contained within meteoric groundwaters preferentially metabolize the lighter hydrocarbon fractions that also served to demobilize the oil, and increase its viscosity.

Within the planning area, tar sand accumulations are found in the Tertiary Wasatch/Colton and Green River Formations of the Uinta Basin, and in the Mesozoic rocks of the San Rafael Swell region (Booz Allen 2002). In general, tar sands occur in five separate areas in Carbon and Emery Counties (Map 18 of the Mineral Potential Report).

Coal

As a part of this planning process, a Coal Report was completed by the BLM in cooperation with the State of Utah. This report provides detailed information regarding the coal resources managed by the PFO, which include coal resources in Carbon and Emery counties, as well as portions of Sevier County.

The PFO administers significant coal deposits under federal lease (in Carbon, Emery, and Sevier counties) that together account for about one-third of Utah’s coal resources and 90 percent of its current production (Map 3-25). Coal production in Carbon County has been fairly stable over the past 10 years (Table 3-34). For Emery County, the 10-year trend peaked in the late 1990s and has tapered off slightly since then. On the other hand, coal production from Sevier County, which affects Emery County through use of roads, providing jobs, and energy for local power plants, is generally at its highest levels compared with the past 10 years. Map 3-24 shows the existing coal leases.

Table 3-34. Coal Production by County in Utah (1,000 Short Tons/Year) Year Carbon Emery Sevier 1990 8,810 10,315 2,887 1991 5,816 12,980 3,079 1992 3,386 15,049 2,580 1993 2,642 15,528 3,553 1994 4,523 16,330 3,569 1995 3,801 17,344 3,906 1996 5,985 16,872 4,214 1997 6,956 14,533 4,939 1998 7,206 13,675 5,719 1999 4,514 16,214 5,763

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Year Carbon Emery Sevier 2000 4,615 16,399 5,906 2001 5,689 14,334 7,001 2002 6,007 11,692 7,600 2003 7,091 8,852 7,126 2004 8,772 5,477 7,568 2005 9,620 7,332 7,055 5-year Average 7,436 9,737 7,270 10-year Average 6,646 12,538 6,289 Source: Utah State Energy Program, Utah Energy and Mineral Ch. 2, Coal, September 2005 Data

Coal deposits contained within the PFO boundaries contain about 20 percent of Utah’s total coal resources. All or parts of three coal fields are inside the PFO—the Book Cliffs, the Wasatch Plateau, and the Emery coal fields. Some of the Emery Coal Field is in Sevier County outside the PFO, and much of the Wasatch Plateau Coal Field is located in the Manti-La Sal and Fishlake National Forests managed by the USFS. Lands outside the PFO were not considered for future leasing in this plan. Lands inside the PFO located in National Forest System were considered for future leasing and development, but did not have unsuitability criteria applied because that is a function of the National Forest System’s land use planning. Future leasing within the two National Forests is a joint effort with the BLM and the USFS. Management of existing leases in all of the three coalfields, whether outside the PFO or in National Forest lands, are handled by the BLM. Map 3-25 identifies coal resources in the PFO.

Book Cliffs Coal Field—The Known Recoverable Coal Resource Area (KRCRA) defined for the Book Cliffs coal field comprises 129,338 acres in the PFO. Development of this coal field has been ongoing for the last century. An estimated 275.2 million tons of coal remain to be recovered in the area. Approximately 62 percent of the remaining recoverable reserves of this coal field are currently held under lease, whether federal, State, or private. Much of the Book Cliffs Coal Field would be considered as split- estate lands with the surface owned by private landowners and the coal estate reserved to the United States. Based on coal resource data, a number of areas (Map 3-25) have been identified within the KRCRA that could potentially be developed over the next 30 years. This area with development potential includes about 7,180 acres of unleased federal coal. The Coal Unsuitability Criteria outlined in 43 CFR 3461.5 have been applied to these lands. Generally, for most of the criteria, an exception can be applied because the lands will be mined by underground mining methods, which should not affect the resource values identified in the criteria. One area with development potential is contained within the Turtle Canyon WSA and would be considered unsuitable for leasing under the interim management policy unless and until the Congress releases those lands from wilderness consideration and the Price RMP is amended to make coal leasing suitable for all or a portion of those lands.

Wasatch Plateau Coal Field—The Wasatch Plateau KRCRA comprises more than 350,000 acres in Carbon, Emery, Sanpete, and Sevier counties (Map 3-25). Of this total, 210,000 acres (60 percent) is within the PFO. Development of this coal field has been ongoing for the last century. An estimated 686 million tons of recoverable coal that remains in the PFO is considered to have development potential over the next 30 years. Of this total, 203.4 million tons are currently under lease. The northeast portion of the coal field contains many split-estate lands with private surface and the coal reserved to the Federal Government. The remainder of the coal field to the south is National Forest lands with some associated fringe public lands. The BLM has identified about 5,130 acres of unleased federal coal, with the surface managed by the BLM, and 8,300 acres of unleased federal coal, with the surface managed by the USFS,

Price RMP 3-83 Chapter 3 Proposed RMP/Final EIS as areas in the coal field that are likely to be developed in the next 30 years. In addition, 15,430 acres of State coal (with potential revision to federal coal after certain levels of production) have been identified as areas in the coal field with development potential. In this planning effort, the unsuitability criteria were only applied to the 5,130 acres of land with the surface managed by the BLM. The USFS is responsible for applying the coal unsuitability criteria for National Forest lands in its land use plans. The coal in the Wasatch Plateau will be primarily mined through underground mining methods, so an exception can be applied for most of the criteria because the stipulated mining method should not affect the resource values identified in the criteria. A small area (120 acres) of split-estate lands (federal coal and private surface) has surface mining potential. After application of the unsuitability criteria, this small area was not determined to be unsuitable for leasing. Prior to moving forward with leasing for this parcel, consent must be obtained from the surface owner. All of the lands in the Wasatch Plateau with development potential are considered to be acceptable for further leasing considerations.

Emery Coal Field—The Emery KRCRA comprises about 89,500 acres, approximately 57,200 acres of which (64 percent) occur inside the PFO. Development of this coal field has been sporadic over the last 90 years, with minimal production. In Emery County, the Emery Coal Field contains an estimated 238.7 million tons of coal, most of which is not leased at the present time. The area considered to have development potential in the Emery Coal Field (Map 3-25) contains an estimated 106 million tons of recoverable coal.

Salable (Mineral Materials)

Salables (mineral materials) are earth materials, such as sand and gravel, building stone, clay, and humate.

Sand and Gravel

Areas of both high and low sand and gravel occurrence potential were identified in the PFO associated with a moderate or low level of certainty (Map 3-26). Within the PFO, 75 non-specified sand and gravel pits have been developed. In high potential areas that are located near major paved roadways, it is considered likely that sand and gravel deposits will be developed in the future.

Building Stone

Areas of high, moderate, and low stone occurrence potential were identified in the PFO (Map 3-27). There are 4 active commercial stone mines and 36 other BLM-permitted stone removal locations within the PFO (BLM 2002a). In areas where stone is currently being quarried, it is anticipated that development will continue in the future.

Clay

Areas of high, moderate, and low clay occurrence potential were identified in the PFO (Map 3-19). With the exception of areas that are currently being mined, it is considered unlikely that clay deposits will be developed in the future. It is anticipated that areas undergoing active clay mining will continue to be developed in the future.

Humate

Areas of high, moderate, and no humate occurrence potential were identified in the PFO. Within the PFO there are eight humate mine locations; six of these locations are active permits and two are inactive (BLM 2002a). A relatively small area with this mineral is located near I-70 and has active humate mines. It is considered likely that development in this area will continue in the future.

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3.4 SPECIAL DESIGNATIONS

3.4.1 Wilderness Study Areas

In 1964, the Congress passed the Wilderness Act, establishing a national system of lands for the purpose of preserving a representative sample of ecosystems in a natural condition for benefit of future generations. Until 1976, most of the lands considered for and designated as wilderness were managed by USFS and NPS. With the passage of FLPMA, the Congress directed the BLM to inventory, study, and recommend which public lands under its administration should be designated wilderness.

In 1979, pursuant to section 603(c) of FLPMA, the BLM began an inventory of 2.5 million acres of public land in the PFO. In 1980, the BLM completed that wilderness inventory, finding 10 areas in the PFO, totaling about 526,100 acres that possess wilderness character. In 1991, the Department of the Interior made its recommendation to the Congress. The Congress has not acted on that recommendation.

WSAs are roadless and natural, provide outstanding opportunities for solitude or primitive and unconfined recreation, and may have supplemental values (such as ecological, geological, or other features of scientific, educational, scenic, or historical value). With completion of the inventory in 1980, the BLM designated 10 WSAs and one Instant Study Area (ISA) in the PFO (Table 3-35).

Table 3-35. Wilderness Study Areas in the PFO Acres From Utah Acres Used for RMP WSA Name a Statewide Wilderness Analysis Study Report Desolation Canyon 213,000 201,780b Turtle Canyon 33,000 33,690 Jack Canyon 7,000 7,500 Muddy Creek 30,000 31,400 Sids Mountain 75,000 80,970 Devils Canyon 9,100 9,610 Crack Canyon 26,000 25,335 San Rafael Reef 59,000 59,170 Horseshoe Canyon (North) 17,000 20,500 Mexican Mountain 57,000 59,600 Link Flats ISA 860 912 Total in the PFO 526,960 530,467 Note: a—WSA acres differ from those identified in the Utah Statewide Wilderness Study Report because of the use of geographic information system (GIS)-generated data. b—Excludes 89,065 acres of the Desolation Canyon WSA in the Moab Field Office.

The Link Flats Natural Area became an ISA with the passage of FLPMA. The WSAs and ISA total 526,960 acres. These WSAs and ISA, shown in Map 3-28, were established under the authority of Section 603(c) of FLPMA and are being managed to preserve their wilderness values according to the Interim Management Policy (IMP) for Lands Under Wilderness Review (BLM H-8550-1). They will continue to be managed in this manner unless and until the Congress releases those lands from wilderness

Price RMP 3-85 Chapter 3 Proposed RMP/Final EIS consideration and the PFO RMP is amended. Management of WSAs is similar but generally less restrictive than management of designated wilderness. The Federal Onshore Oil and Gas Leasing Reform Act of 1987 closed lands within BLM WSAs to oil, gas, or geothermal leasing (30 USC 226-3(a)2). Activities that are allowed in WSAs include hunting, fishing, travel with motorized vehicles on existing routes (unless otherwise restricted through land use planning), camping, hiking, horseback riding, and livestock grazing. In March 2000, the BLM issued a Notice of Emergency Off-Road Vehicle Closures in Wilderness Study Areas Located in the San Rafael Swell Region in the Federal Register, closing all but 4 routes in these areas. The San Rafael Motorized Route Designation Plan (2003) designated these routes within the Sids Mountain WSA as open to OHV use on the condition that such use in the WSA continues to meet the non-impairment standard. Current monitoring shows that these routes are meeting the non- impairment standards.

Only the Congress can designate the WSAs established under Section 603 of FLPMA as wilderness, or release them for other uses. The status of the existing WSAs will not change as a result of the RMP process. A discussion of the current resource values and uses in each WSA can be found in the Utah BLM Statewide Wilderness Study Report (BLM 1991b).

3.4.2 Areas of Critical Environmental Concern

ACECs are defined in FLPMA, Section 103(a) as “areas within the public lands where special management attention is required (when such areas are developed or used or where no development is required) to protect and prevent irreparable damage to important historic, cultural, or scenic values, fish and wildlife resources or other natural systems or processes, or to protect life and safety from natural hazards.” To be designated as an ACEC, an area must meet the relevance and importance criteria identified in the federal regulations and BLM Manual 1613 and require special management to protect and prevent irreparable damage to relevant and important resource values.

Existing ACECs

Currently, there are 13 ACECs in the PFO (Map 2-45 and Table 3-36).

Table 3-36. Existing Areas of Critical Environmental Concern Acres with Relevant ACEC Relevant and Important Values and Important Valuesa Big Flat Tops 190b Relict Vegetation Bowknot Bend 1,100b Relict Vegetation Copper Globe 220 Historic Mining and Cultural Resources Dry Lake Archaeological District 16,990 Cultural Resources Interstate 70 Scenic Corridor 50,650 Scenic Muddy Creek 22,540 Cultural Resources, Historic Mining, Scenic Pictographs 40 Cultural Resources San Rafael Canyon 34,420 Scenic San Rafael Reef 68,720 Scenic, Relict Vegetation, T&E plants Segers Hole 7,120 Scenic

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Acres with Relevant ACEC Relevant and Important Values and Important Valuesa Sids Mountain 61,870 Scenic Swaseys Cabin 220 Historic ranching Temple Mountain Historic District 2,580 Historic Mining TOTAL ACECs 266,660 Notes: a) In the Draft RMP/EIS there were several discrepancies in acres due to clerical and GIS errors. These have been corrected in this table and document. b) The acres from the San Rafael RMP (1991) did not accurately reflect where the relevant and important values were located, but the RMP did define the ACEC boundary in the narrative. Acres figures for these ACECs were adjusted in this document in accordance with the San Rafael RMP narrative to only include the areas with relevant and important values. Source: San Rafael Resource Management Plan (BLM 1991a)

The acres in Table 3-36 reflect the acres currently designated in the existing land use plans. During the scoping process, some ACEC nominations involved areas directly adjacent to existing ACECs nominated for the same relevant and important values. Rather than creating new ACECs in these areas, the additional acres were added to the existing acres throughout alternative development and analysis.

The analysis of relevant and important values for which existing ACECs were established in the San Rafael RMP (1991), is addressed in detail in that document. In the Notice of Intent to prepare the Price RMP (Federal Register, Volume 66, Number 216, November 7, 2001, Notice of Intent, Environmental Impact Statement, Price Resource Management Plan, Utah), the BLM identified the 13 existing ACECs created in the San Rafael RMP. The Notice of Intent explained BLM’s intention to bring these ACECs forward into the revised Price RMP. A scoping report was prepared in May 2002 to summarize the public and agency comments received in response to the Notice of Intent. The few comments that were received were supportive of continued management as ACECs. The BLM ACEC Manual states: “Normally, the relevance and importance of resource or hazards associated with an existing ACEC are reevaluated only when new information or changed circumstances or the results of monitoring establish a need (BLM 1988).” There has been no change in information or circumstances regarding these existing areas. ACECs and their associated relevant and important values are identified in more detail in Appendix L.

Big Flat Tops ACEC

The area contains vegetation communities that developed without the influence of grazing by domesticated animals. The area has value for scientific study and as a comparison area for similar vegetation communities that have been grazed. The mesa top supports a little-disturbed vegetation community that would fill identified needs of Utah’s growing system of natural areas.

Bowknot Bend ACEC

Bowknot Bend presents an isolated relict plant community that remains unaltered by human intervention or domestic livestock grazing. The vegetation of the area is predominantly herbaceous vegetation associated with blackbrush stands, noticeably different from nearby areas accessible to livestock. The area has potential for scientific study and as a comparison area for similar vegetation communities that have been grazed. Natural history values in the area are also recognized because this area has rarely had human or domestic animal intrusion.

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Copper Globe ACEC

This area contains a mine discovered prior to 1900 and worked periodically up to World War II, and is an example of mine workings and technologies of the early 20th century. Several drifts, some scattered equipment and structures, and one access shaft remain in an area where miners tried to develop a copper oxide ore body.

Dry Lake Archaeological District ACEC

Dry Lake Archaeological District has a multitude of apparently undisturbed single-episode lithic scatters, as well as other site types such as lithic procurement, shelters, and campsites. It is one of the most likely locations for Paleo-Indian sites, the rarest and oldest site type in the PFO and Utah. Individually, these sites have little scientific value, but collectively they are a valuable resource.

Interstate 70 Scenic Corridor ACEC

Interstate 70 across the San Rafael Swell is highly scenic, passing through areas with Scenic Quality “A” in BLM’s VRM inventory system. Within the nation’s interstate highway system, the scenery on this highway is unique in its combinations of deeply incised canyons, dramatic exposures of slick rock, and varied geology and grand vistas. Because of increased traffic on this route, the scenic values are becoming better known to the traveling public.

Muddy Creek ACEC

The Muddy Creek area consists of several incised drainages and major canyons, colorful rolling volcanic terrain, alcoves and caves, and red stair-step mesas. From most viewpoints in the upper levels of the canyon system, the landscape would be classified as panoramic in that there is little impression of visual boundaries, and distant views are seldom blocked by landforms in the foreground. The Tomsich Butte special emphasis area is included in the ACEC and is one of the best examples of uranium mining activities in the area. Especially in the 1950s, this activity was nationally significant, and these old uranium workings offer important evidence of the technology of that time and the use of the area’s mineral resources.

Pictographs ACEC

The pictographs in the areas surrounding Interstate 70 include the world-famous Black Dragon, Head of Sinbad, and Lone Warrior rock art sites, which are some of the best examples of Colorado Plateau rock art; the sites are easily accessible from Interstate 70. They are being visited more every year. Their popularity has grown following their appearance in several publications, including National Geographic magazine (Smith 1980; Schaafsma 1971; and Castleton 1984). The Rochester Creek site is located east of the city of Emery. It also has received some recognition from the same publications as the I-70 pictographs. The site is only slightly less accessible and has a management conflict resulting from increasing visitor use.

San Rafael Canyon ACEC

The dominant scenic features of the subject area are spectacular vertical cliff formations, talus slopes, and deep canyons with severe erosional patterns. Diverse, vivid rock and soil coloration of varying intensities of red, brown, and buff add to the area’s scenic quality. The Black Box is an extremely narrow, meandering canyon cut by the San Rafael River. The near-vertical, rough-textured canyon walls are varying shades of brown and buff. Desert varnish stains the canyon walls, creating interesting color

3-88 Price RMP Proposed RMP/Final EIS Chapter 3 contrasts and patterns. Included in this area are Buckhorn Wash, the Wedge Overlook, Calf Canyon, and Window Blind Peak.

San Rafael Reef ACEC

The San Rafael Reef area is important because of its unique vegetation and scenic values. Relict vegetation communities are found throughout the steeply dipping cuestas on the back side of the reef. Because of the terrain, only Desert bighorn sheep or wild burros graze in the area. Therefore, these vegetation communities are unique because they have developed without the influence of domestic grazing. In addition, a number of Threatened and Endangered (T&E) plant species occur within the area of the reef. One of the truly rare plant species in Utah, Cycladenia humilis var. jonesii, occupies gypsiferous substrates of the Summerville Formation.

San Rafael Reef is created by the resistant Wingate, Kayenta, and Navajo Sandstones of the Glen Canyon group along the eastern side of San Rafael Swell, dipping steeply along the monocline, but becoming nearly horizontal a short distance east and west of the major fold. The monocline is spectacularly expressed by these resistant units, particularly as they rise above the valley floor on the east, carved on Carmel and Entrada beds. The most outstanding visual features of San Rafael Reef are the deeply carved drainages and the sawtooth ridge of the reef itself. Rising at a near-vertical angle from the desert floor, huge upturned sandstone fins dominate the scenery for more than 12 miles. Deep-cut canyons find their way through the reef, adding character to an already unique desert scene. Few views within the reef do not involve a panoramic scene into a deeply cut canyon or an enclosed view dominated by a vertical red sandstone wall or tremendous fin. The central and northern parts of the subject area are characterized by a checkerboard pattern of rust, tan, and orange sandstone slabs, crisscrossed by fault and fracture lines. Green vegetation dots the area, adding an element of color and variety to the texture.

Segers Hole ACEC

The Segers Hole area is bounded by The Chimney on the north and east and by Moroni Slopes on the south and west. The area’s most outstanding feature is the enclosure of Segers Hole on three sides by high sandstone cliffs. This enclosure creates a feeling of isolation for those who visit the area. A basalt dike juts up vertically from the valley floor, cutting through the southern cliffs and imposing an interesting geologic contrast. Adjacent scenery greatly enhances the overall impression of Segers Hole as one walks through the area. Distant views include the Boulder and Thousand Lake Mountains to the southwest, Muddy Creek and Keesle Country to the north and east, the Henry and Abajo Mountains to the southeast, and the La Sal Mountains to the east.

Sids Mountain ACEC

The scenic quality in the Sids Mountain area is outstanding in terms of diversity of landforms and colors present. Landforms include rounded domes, high truncated buttes, and vertical cliffs dissected by deep canyons. The change in form and elevation is highly visible. Vivid colors range from light buff and brown sandstones to the light gray-green with dark green vegetation on the mesas and in the canyons.

Swaseys Cabin ACEC

The Swaseys Cabin area includes several features built or used by the Swasey family. The Swasey family, foremost in the folklore of the San Rafael region, used the cabin area as part of its livestock operations. Features within the area include a cabin built in 1920; the Jackass Corral constructed in 1905; Joe’s Office, a rock shelter used as a camp until the cabin was built; the Refrigerator, a cave that keeps things cool year-round; Cliff Dweller’s spring; and a dry farm.

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Temple Mountain Historic District ACEC

This historic district is one of the best examples of uranium mining activities in the area. Especially in the 1950s, this activity was nationally significant, and these old uranium workings offer important evidence of the technology of that time and the use of the area’s mineral resources.

Potential ACECs

Fourteen nominated ACECs were determined to meet the relevance and importance criteria, and are considered potential ACECs in this planning process. The maximum potential size of each area and the associated relevant and important values are listed in Table 3-37. It should be noted that several of the potential ACECs encompass all or portions of existing or other potential ACECs.

Table 3-37. Potential Areas of Critical Environmental Concern Acres with Relevant ACEC and Important Relevant and Important Values Values Lower Green River 34,000 Ecology, Scenic, Vegetation, Cultural Resources Beckwith Plateau 50,600 Geologic, Natural Processes Temple-Cottonwood-Dugout 72,600 Cultural Resources Range Creek 65,500 Cultural Resources Nine Mile Canyon 49,000 Cultural Resources Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry 770 Paleontological Gordon Creek 3,300 Cultural Resources Heritage Sites (4 new sites) 2,745 Historic Uranium Mining Districts (4 sites) 4,170 Historic Mining Desolation Canyon 156,200 Scenic, Cultural Resources, Ecological White-Tailed Prairie Dog 5,400 Special Status Species Habitat Mussentuchit Badlands 58,400 Cultural Resources Rock Art (10 new sites) 5,300 Cultural Resources Lower Muddy Creek 29,900 Scenic, Vegetation TOTAL ACECs 537,885 Source: Price BLM.

Relevant and important values associated with each potential ACEC are presented in Appendix L.

Lower Green River

The potential ACEC incorporates all or portions of the existing Bowknot Bend ACEC, which contains a relict plant community and significant natural history values; the existing Dry Lake Archaeological District ACEC containing Paleo-Indian sites, which are the rarest site type in Utah; and the nominated Horseshoe Canyon ACEC. The cultural resources of the area show the prehistoric exploitation of this desert ecological setting in a relatively undisturbed context. The area encompasses a large ecosystem that contains several fundamental ecological processes that occur in a relatively undisturbed, natural environment. The area also provides habitat for several BLM sensitive plant and animal species. The area

3-90 Price RMP Proposed RMP/Final EIS Chapter 3 also provides high-value, year-long habitats for pronghorn and Desert bighorn sheep, as well as an important migratory corridor for waterfowl, shorebirds, raptors, and neotropical migratory birds.

This area is also nominated for its scenic values, including barren cliffs of Wingate Sandstone that tower over the lush, narrow riparian zone and the sweeping curves of river incised 1,000 feet below the canyon rims.

Beckwith Plateau

The potential ACEC area possesses a nationally important characteristic as a primitive outdoor classroom, displaying the processes leading to the formation of coal in a classic regressive coastal sequence. The nominated area borders several miles of the Price River and the Green River that contains riparian plant communities. These naturally functioning riparian systems provide important habitat for endangered, threatened, and sensitive animal species. The ecosystems within the Beckwith Plateau have high ecological integrity and can continue to express the evolutionary and biogeographic processes that gave rise to the current biota.

Temple Cottonwood Dugout

The area encompasses the Big Flat Tops ACEC’s relevant and important values for relict vegetation. Beyond the Big Flat Tops area, there is also a large assemblage of undisturbed archaic sites that makes this area highly significant. The prevailing winds of the area carry sands into the entrenched Cottonwood Wash complex. Cultural sites are buried within the sands from the early to middle archaic period, 2,100 to 10,000 years ago.

Range Creek

Range Creek has nationally significant, outstanding cultural resources. The segregated nature of its management prior to recent land transactions has resulted in virtually no disturbance to sites within the canyon rims and between the gates along the road. It holds hundreds, if not thousands, of Fremont archaeological sites. This is the most complete collection of pristine, Fremont sites known to exist. It includes numerous pictograph and petroglyph panels, as well as prehistoric habitation sites throughout Range Creek Canyon and its side canyons. The area is possibly the most pristine and extensive untouched archaeological complex in the American West today, while its cultural resources are some of the most intact and well-preserved sites in the United States. The unexpectedly high number of sites and the pristine condition of many of them offer unprecedented opportunities for research to examine the prehistoric behavior of Fremont farmer-foragers within a well-defined environmental context.

Nine Mile Canyon

The potential ACEC possesses a significant and high density of historic, cultural, and archaeological sites joined together in several overlapping historical landscapes, including Nine Mile Canyon and its tributaries, from the stream bed to the top of the plateau. Human modifications define and illustrate settlement patterns, especially of the Fremont and historic settlement cultures. Nine Mile Canyon is said to contain the country’s highest concentration of rock art panels, remnants of the prehistoric Archaic, Fremont, and Ute cultures. About 80 percent of the known sites are rock art sites, which lose most of their significance for both native cultures and interpretation when separated from their environmental context. The rock structural remains of Fremont homes, granaries, and “forts” are more visible in Nine Mile Canyon than almost anywhere in the Fremont cultural area. Because of the vast cultural and historical resources throughout the canyon, the area is eligible for the NRHP; many of the characteristics are historically significant at the national level. It is unique that such historic and prehistoric resources are easily accessible to the public and may be visited and viewed within their natural landscape context.

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Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry

The Cleveland-Lloyd bone deposit is the densest concentration of Jurassic dinosaur bones in the world. It is also the world’s largest known collection of bones of a large, meat-eating dinosaur (Allosaurus fragilis). The Cleveland-Lloyd deposit is a one-of-a-kind paleontological locality in the world. With 18 scientific papers published on this site in the last 10 years, Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry continues to receive attention from research paleontologists. However, the reason for the high concentration of bones still remains unsuccessfully explained. Paleontological resources have been identified in the areas adjacent to the NNL quarry.

Gordon Creek

Gordon Creek archaeological district contains remains of two agricultural communities that have occupied the area, a prehistoric Fremont cultural occupation about 1,000 years ago, and a historic pioneer occupation about 100 years ago. Although this situation existed elsewhere, the early abandonment of the historic occupation and a natural closure of the area have left the Gordon Creek sites relatively undisturbed, providing an opportunity to study the similarity and differences of the two cultural responses to the same area.

Heritage Sites

This potential ACEC includes several sites associated with the early historic uses on the public lands in Emery County, including Wilsonville, Shepherds End, Smith Cabin, Hunt Cabin, Copper Globe, Temple Mountain, and Swaseys Cabin. Of these sites, Copper Globe, Temple Mountain, and Swaseys Cabin are existing ACECs. The potential ACEC combines them with other sites important to the early historic uses of public lands in PFO. A National Heritage Conservation Area was proposed for the San Rafael area, and these sites represent that part of this heritage located on public lands (Appendix A).

Uranium Mining Districts

This potential ACEC includes Tidwell Draw, Hidden Splendor, Little Susan, and Lucky Strike Mining Districts. These areas include several significant mining sites associated with the development of uranium as part of U.S. efforts during the escalation of the Cold War during the 1950s. These sites have remains of the habitations of the miners, showing the non-mining parts of their lives, and the remains of mining efforts demonstrating the technology of the era. The Tidwell area has had continued activity and fewer historic structures, and it is more representative of more recent mining history.

Desolation Canyon

Throughout the canyon are a series of cultural and historic features, including thousands of rock art, habitation, and food storage sites. While Fremont sites are the most prolific, Archaic through Ute sites are also found. The landscape of the canyon itself is a historic feature. It is the least changed landscape of all the Green and Colorado River segments explored by John Wesley Powell in 1869. It also contains historic structures and artifacts from the homestead era, representing isolated wilderness settlement rather than Utah’s typical village settlement patterns. It is also closely associated with western outlaw history.

Desolation Canyon is a migratory corridor for many migratory birds and a nesting area for waterfowl and shorebirds. It contains terrestrial habitats that range from desert to subalpine and more than 5,000 feet of vertical relief. It is a wintering area for herds of elk and deer found on the Tavaputs Plateau. It is also a wintering ground for the bald eagle, and a year-round habitat for Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep. There are at least four nesting pairs of peregrine falcon in the canyon.

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White-Tailed Prairie Dog

The potential ACEC is composed of the largest white-tailed prairie dog complex in the PFO. The Castle Valley Complex (more than 5,000 acres) provides habitat for the white-tailed prairie dog, a BLM Utah sensitive species. The dog towns create a habitat feature for other sensitive species such as the burrowing owl, long-billed curlew, and the black-footed ferret. At present, black-footed ferrets are not known to be present in the Castle Valley Complex.

Mussentuchit Badlands

This area contains extensive lithic scatter sites indicating use by past cultures. Much of the area was once covered by a deposit of red, white, and gray variegated chert directly overlain with a thick layer of basalt. As these badlands have been dissected by erosion, the chert beds have been exposed. The prehistoric quarrying areas are important for the study of local prehistoric economies, and the stone material is distinctive enough to be studied as part of regional trading systems. The archaeological sites represent an exceptional opportunity for scientific study of prehistoric, regional trade. Quarrying and processing the material took place onsite, and the chert was traded over a wide area. The quarry sites are unique in that they are not closely associated with habitation and foraging areas and are in a relatively inhospitable area.

Rock Art sites

This potential ACEC would include the Pictographs ACEC, as well as several other sites and areas with rock art. Rock art sites include Black Dragon Canyon, Head of Sinbad, Lone Warrior, Rochester/Muddy Petroglyphs, Big Hole, Cottonwood Wash, Wild Horse, Sand Cove, Dry Wash, Short Canyon, North Salt Wash, Molen Seep, and Kings Crown. These sites are some of the best examples of prehistoric rock art on the Colorado Plateau. Many are world famous and are visited more every year. Their popularity has grown following their appearance in several publications, including National Geographic, and identification as part of the San Rafael National Heritage Area.

Lower Muddy Creek

This potential ACEC contains a vibrant multi-colored visual landscape intermingled with badland topography. These scenic values are of exceptional quality, and the area is Class A scenery. Because of its proximity to Goblin State Park, some of the rare “goblin” structures can also be found. The southeast quarter area also contains high value habitat for pronghorn. Three threatened, endangered, or sensitive plants occur within the area—Wright fishhook cactus, Psoralea globemallow, and Heil’s Beavertail.

3.4.3 Wild and Scenic Rivers

The National Wild and Scenic Rivers System was created by the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968. The purpose of the act was to preserve in their free-flowing condition, certain selected rivers of the nation, which, with their immediate environments, possess outstandingly remarkable scenic, recreational, geologic, fish and wildlife, historic, cultural, or other similar values. Outstandingly remarkable values (ORV) and the criteria associated with each are as follows:

• Scenic: diversity of view, special features, seasonal variations, cultural modifications • Fish: habitat quality, diversity of species, values of species, abundance of fish, natural reproduction, size and vigor of fish, quality of experience, cultural and historical importance, recreational importance and access • Recreational: water-oriented: length of season; diversity of use, flow, character of run, scenery and naturalness, access, level of use, associated opportunities, attraction, sites and facilities

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• Wildlife: habitat quality, diversity of species, abundance of species, natural reproduction, size and vigor of species, quality of experience, cultural and historic importance, recreational importance and access • Geologic: feature abundance, diversity of features, and educational or scenic • Historical: significance, site integrity, education and interpretation, listing and eligibility • Cultural: significance, current uses, number of cultures, site integrity, educational and interpretation, listing and eligibility • Ecological: species diversity, ecological function, rare communities, educational and scientific.

Section 5(d)(1) of the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act directs federal agencies to consider the potential for national Wild, Scenic, and Recreational river areas in all planning for the use and development of water and related land resources. The wild and scenic river (WSR) review process incorporated into the planning process for the Price Proposed RMP includes three steps: evaluation of a river’s eligibility, tentative classification, and suitability for designation for inclusion in the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System.

Eligibility and tentative classification consist of an inventory of existing conditions. Eligibility is an evaluation of whether a river or river segment is free-flowing and possesses one or more ORVs. If found eligible, a river is analyzed to determine its current level of development (i.e., water resources projects, shoreline development, water quality, and accessibility) and segmented accordingly. Each river segment is given one of three tentative classifications (Wild, Scenic, or Recreational) based on the degree of development associated with the river and the lands adjacent to the river corridor at the time of inventory. Tentative classification also dictates types of activities allowed within the river corridor. Wild is the most restrictive of the three classifications and is associated with rivers free of impoundments, generally inaccessible except by trail, containing shorelines and watersheds that are essentially primitive, and characterized by waters that are unpolluted. Scenic rivers are slightly less restricted than Wild rivers. Accessibility to these river segments is generally easier and can include existing roads and trails; however, Scenic rivers are still generally free of impoundments and contain shorelines and watersheds that are largely primitive and undeveloped. Recreational rivers have the fewest restrictions placed on them and include rivers that are readily accessible by roads, trails, or railroads; may have some development along their shorelines; and have substantial evidence of human activity. For a more detailed explanation of river classifications and what activities are allowed within the corridor of each classification, see Appendix C. The final procedural step, suitability, provides the basis for determining whether to recommend a river as part of the national system by considering such factors as manageability, current uses, and other management options.

The PFO has determined that 19 rivers are eligible for designation for inclusion in the national Wild and Scenic Rivers System (Table 3-38). These streams, as well as a summary of the WSR review process, are presented in Appendix C. The PFO coordinated this review of stream segments with the Vernal, Richfield, and Moab BLM Field Offices, Manti-La Sal National Forest, the State of Utah, Carbon and Emery counties, and the Ute Tribe.

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Table 3-38. Rivers Determined Eligible for Designation into the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System Percentage of Corridor Segment Name Outstandingly Remarkable Value(s) Administered by the BLM Barrier Creek recreation, cultural, ecological 99 Bear Canyon Creek fish 43 Buckskin Canyon fish 51 Creek Cane Wash cultural, scenic 89 Coal Wash cultural, historical 100 Cottonwood Wash scenic, cultural 80 Fish Creek fish 15 Gordon Creek cultural, historic 44 scenic, recreational, wildlife, historic, cultural, fish, Green River* 66 geological, ecological, paleontological Keg Spring Canyon scenic, cultural 91 Muddy Creek scenic, recreational, historical, cultural 92 Nine Mile Creek historical, cultural, scenic 44 North Fork Coal Wash scenic, cultural, historical 85 North Salt Wash scenic, wildlife, cultural 97 Price River fish, cultural, historical, geological, wildlife 68 Range Creek cultural, scenic, historical, wildlife 55 Rock Creek scenic, recreational, cultural, historical, fish 70 San Rafael River cultural, scenic, recreational, historical, wildlife 82 South Fork Coal Wash scenic, cultural, historical 94 *BLM lands on the east side of the Green River corridor are administered by the Moab Field Office. PFO included in the eligibility determinations for the Green River any ORVs present on these BLM lands.

Rivers can be designated for inclusion in the national system by an act of Congress or by the Secretary of the Interior at the request of a state governor. A designated river is formally classified as Wild, Scenic, or Recreational, which guides management activities within the stream’s corridor. Comprehensive river management plans for WSRs are to be developed within 3 years of designation.

Currently, no rivers or river segments in the PFO have been carried through all steps of the WSR review process. No WSR considerations were included in the Price River MFP. Portions of the Green River, Muddy Creek, and San Rafael River were determined to be eligible for inclusion in the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System in the San Rafael RMP. However, a suitability determination on these rivers was not completed.

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3.4.4 Other Special Designations

National Historic Trails

Old Spanish Trail (Public Law 107-325)

The Old Spanish Trail National Historic Trail (OST) was designated December 4, 2002, by the Old Spanish Trail Recognition Act of 2002. The trail corridor passes through the southern portion of the PFO (Map 3-29). The NPS and BLM co-manage the OST. Emery County has signed and interpreted the Old Spanish Trail for over fifty years. They have also participated with the National Historic Trails Committee in efforts to establish management for the trail.

The OST was a 2,700-mile trade route linking Santa Fe, New Mexico, and Los Angeles, California, passing through Colorado, Utah, Arizona, and Nevada. The trail had brief but heavy use between 1830 and 1848. During that period, Mexican and American traders took woolen goods west over the trail by mule train and returned eastward with California mules and horses for the New Mexico and Missouri markets.

Well-documented Spanish expeditions that led from Santa Fe to central Utah, along the eastern half of the trail, include Juan Maria Antonio de Rivera in 1765, the Dominquez-Escalante party of 1776, Manuel Mestas in 1805, and the Arze-Garcia party of 1813. However, Spanish traffic was fairly constant between 1765 and 1821 to trade with the Ute, including for slaves.

Mexican trader Antonio Armijo made the first commercial, round-trip journey along a southern variant of the route in 1829 to 1830. William Wolfskill and George Yount's commercial pack train of 1830 to 1831 inaugurated consistent use of the entire route from 1830 to 1848. By 1853, the OST had been abandoned as a principal trade route.

The trail crosses the Green River into the PFO at the town of Green River. From there, it heads west in Saleratus Wash. This segment is on private land for about the first 5 miles, passing under Interstate 70 twice, to about where it crosses old State Route 24. Here the trail is located in an incised channel bordered by tamarisk. Scenic vistas to the north are of the Book Cliffs. The trail turns and heads north from old State Route 24 in Saleratus Wash. The wash is both incised and braided in the more open parts of the rolling country. Wide vistas exist on both sides of the San Rafael Swell to the west and the Book Cliffs to the east.

At the confluence of Cottonwood Wash and Lost Springs Wash, the trail arrives at Trail Springs, historically the first reliable water encountered since Green River. The trail splits at Trail Springs; the east branch follows Trail Springs Wash and then continues on an overland route, eventually connecting with Lost Spring Wash (Lost Springs/Trail Springs Wash segment, 13 miles total, 82 percent on BLM lands). At the point where Big Hole Wash and Joes Hole Wash converge and become Lost Spring Wash, the trail could have followed either wash, but most historical accounts record the trail going to the Big Holes up Big Hole Wash.

The west branch leaves Trail Springs to follow Cottonwood Wash. A BLM system road and a powerline ROW share this segment. The old narrow gauge railroad grade can be seen in places along this segment, as well as a high-voltage powerline. The OST leaves Cottonwood Wash just before the wash enters the San Rafael Reef and then continues on an overland route, eventually connecting with Lost Spring Wash near the confluence of Big Hole Wash and Joes Hole Wash (Green River Crossing [via Cottonwood Wash] to Big Flat segment, 43 miles total, 71 percent on BLM lands). From this point, the trail heads west onto Big Flat and Buckhorn Flat where it traverses a block of SITLA lands below Cedar Mountain.

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From Buckhorn Flat to Huntington Creek, the trail remains in a broad open flat valley below Cedar Mountain and Little Cedar Mountain, a more developed landscape. It follows or crosses graveled county roads, passes under powerlines, and is within sight of livestock facilities. Just before Huntington Creek, it crosses more rolling and incised terrain.

At Huntington Creek, the trail leaves public land and is located mostly on private land, following the perennial San Rafael River and Ferron Creek. The trail leaves Ferron Creek, crossing the open Castle Valley along the western edge of the San Rafael Swell to the Emery County line (Big Flat to Walker Flat [Emery/Sevier County Line] segment, 67 miles total, 39 percent on BLM lands).

Backways and Byways

Byways and backways are routes that range from multilane freeways to narrow, graded roads open part of the year. Designation as a byway or backway can occur at the national level by the U.S. Secretary of Transportation, at the State level, or at the BLM Field Office level. There are seven designated byways or backways in PFO, two of which are designated at multiple levels.

National Scenic Byways

The National Scenic Byways Program was established under the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 and reauthorized in 1998 under the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century. Under the program, the U.S. Secretary of Transportation recognizes certain roads as National Scenic Byways or All-American Roads based on their archaeological, cultural, historic, natural, recreational, and scenic qualities. For a highway to be considered for inclusion in the National Scenic Byway Program, it must provide safe passage for passenger cars year-round, it must be designated a State Scenic Byway, and it must have a current corridor management plan in place. There are portions of two National Scenic Byways in the PFO:

• Dinosaur Diamond Prehistoric Highway National Scenic Byway • Huntington/Eccles Canyons Energy Loop National Scenic Byway.

Utah Scenic Byways

Similar to National Scenic Byways, Utah State Scenic Byways are paved highways that have been designated by official State declaration for their scenic, historic, recreational, cultural, archaeological, or natural qualities. The byways are paved roads that are generally safe, year-round, for passenger cars. There are two Utah Scenic Byways in the PFO:

• Dinosaur Diamond Prehistoric Highway State Scenic Byway • Indian Canyon Scenic Byway.

Utah Scenic Backways

State Scenic Backways are roads that do not generally meet federal safety standards for safe, year-round travel by passenger cars that have been designated by official State declaration for their scenic, historic, and recreational qualities. Backways often require four-wheel drive, and road conditions can vary because of such factors as season and weather. There are four Utah Scenic Backways in the PFO:

• Nine Mile Canyon State Scenic Backway • Wedge Overlook/Buckhorn Draw State Scenic Backway • Dinosaur Quarry/Cedar Overlook State Scenic Backway • Temple Mountain/Goblin Valley Road State Scenic Backway.

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BLM Back Country Byways

The Back Country Byway Program was developed by the BLM to complement the National Scenic Byway Program. These byways highlight the spectacular nature of the western landscapes. Back Country Byways vary from narrow, graded roads, passable only during a few months of the year, to two-lane paved highways providing year-round access. The Nine Mile Canyon Scenic Byway is the only BLM back country byway in the PFO. Designated in 1991, it follows the length of Nine Mile Canyon, loops to the north through Gate Canyon and Duchesne, and returns south on US Highway 191. The total length of the byway is 78 miles. Within Nine Mile Canyon is the greatest concentration of rock art sites in the United States. There are also several historic sites.

National Landmarks

There are two National Landmarks in PFO: Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry NNL and Desolation Canyon NHL.

Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry was designated an NNL after an NPS study concluded that the distant proximity of Dinosaur National Monument precluded the inclusion of the quarry in the National Park System. The study did state that the quarry would qualify for status as a registered natural landmark (BLM 1976). In addition to being an NNL, Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry is managed as an SRMA.

Desolation Canyon NHL was established in 1969 as part of the centennial of John Wesley Powell’s first exploration of the Green and Colorado river systems to commemorate the events of 1869. The NHL extends from the confluence of Nine Mile Creek to the confluence of Florence Creek, for 1 mile on either side of the river. Of all the rivers explored by Powell, this segment was judged to be the least changed. It is managed to provide visitors a landscape experience as similar to Powell’s experience as is available today. Contained entirely with the Desolation Canyon NHL is the Flat Canyon Archaeological District.

3.5 SUPPORT

3.5.1 Transportation

The BLM and Carbon and Emery counties maintain roads within the PFO. BLM policy is to develop and maintain roads that provide access for the public and for resource management purposes. The BLM will prepare a Transportation Plan in coordination with Carbon and Emery Counties to address the future needs identified as a result of the decisions.

Five landing strips (Peter’s Point, Mexican Mountain, Cedar Mountain, Hidden Splendor, and Tavaputs Ranch) wholly or partially on public lands within the PFO meet the codified definition of a backcountry airstrip found in Section 345 of Public Law 106-914. That definition requires a landing strip to be commonly known and consistently used for aircraft landing and departure and to be officially recognized by State or federal aviation officials. Some of these airstrips are maintained by volunteer groups. Nine additional airstrips do not meet the statutory definition; Table 3-39 identifies these and describes the current condition of the airstrips. Most of these airstrips are presently overgrown and do not show evidence of consistent use.

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Table 3-39. Additional Backcountry Airstrips and Condition Airstrip Name Airstrip Condition Bowknot Bend Completely reclaimed by tamarisk; no longer usable. Cliff Dweller Flat Part of the airstrip is now a road; remainder is overgrown with sagebrush. Rutted with some sagebrush, although usability is unknown. The BLM observes Daddy Spring airstrip is very rough and in the process of being naturally reclaimed. Gruvers Mesa Rough with small bushes, and usability is unknown. Utah Back Country Pilots Association (UBCP) shows as usable and in good condition. The BLM observes that the airstrip is also the road to the trailhead to Five Horseshoe Canyon Hole Arch. Pilots and aircraft are able to land here, but the primary use is as a road, not an airstrip. Unknown condition and unknown usability. The BLM observation is the strip is Sagebrush Bench becoming overgrown with brush and is rough. This airstrip is shown on the topographic maps as the Interplanetary Airstrip. UBCP Interplanetary Airstrip lists the condition and usability as unknown. BLM observes that the strip is overgrown with a dense stand of knee-high sagebrush. Sweetwater Reef UBCP shows this strip as being unusable. UBCP lists this strip as unusable, very bumpy with some woody plants. Advises Temple Wash landing on adjacent road and using airstrip for parking only. Source: Utah Back Country Pilots Association website (UBCP 2004) and BLM field observations

Section 345 of Public Law 106-914 states that the Department of the Interior cannot permanently close aircraft landing strips that are officially recognized by State or federal aviation officials without public notice, consultation with State and federal aviation officials, and the consent of the Federal Aviation Administration. Landing strips damaging soil and water resources or impeding agency compliance with existing laws and/or regulations can be closed following appropriate public notice, consultation, and consent. Short-term closures are not affected by this provision.

BLM system roads and designated routes may also be used for noncommercial aircraft operations. If the BLM decides closure of an airstrip for more than 180 days in a calendar year is necessary to protect public safety or to protect lands and resources, such closure would only occur after consultation with the Utah State Division of Aeronautics and with the consent of the Federal Aviation Administration.

3.5.2 Hazardous Materials and Waste

Management of hazardous materials, substances, and waste (including storage, transportation, and spills) would be conducted in compliance with 29 CFR 1910, 49 CFR 100-185, 40 CFR 100-400, Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA), Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), Superfund Amendment Reauthorization Act (SARA), Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), and CWA and other federal and State regulations and policies regarding hazardous materials management.

3.6 SOCIOECONOMICS

The BLM PFO study area is located in central eastern Utah in Carbon and Emery counties. Federal lands managed by the PFO total about 45 percent of Carbon County and 72 percent of Emery County. Local

Price RMP 3-99 Chapter 3 Proposed RMP/Final EIS communities in the area are linked to public lands historically, culturally, socially, and economically. In addition, the public lands in this region are a connection point to others that live outside the area.

3.6.1 History and Development

While Carbon and Emery counties now share many commonalities, such as economics, they have a distinct history and settlement patterns. However, the entire area was once used by prehistoric nomadic Indian tribes who traveled extensively while sustaining themselves primarily through hunting of indigenous wildlife, dating as far back as 10,000 B.C. In more contemporary times, those known as the Fremont and Ute Indian tribes occupied the region. The Fremont Indians were the first inhabitants to develop a somewhat stable, non-nomadic culture, which included irrigated agriculture that provided a supplemental food source. The Fremont people disappeared from the area about 800 years ago. About that time, Shoshonean peoples, ancestors of the Ute and Paiute, moved into the area.

In the early 1800s, the Spanish Trail brought non-Native American travelers to the PFO, including early explorers John C. Fremont and John W. Gunnison. This trail became a significant trade route for the next 50 years and has now been designated as an NHL. The earliest authenticated account of Anglo penetration into Emery County was Jedediah Smith’s expedition of 1826. Later explorers included John Wesley Powell who surveyed and mapped the Green River. The early Native American cultures were eventually overrun by the migration of both trappers and white settlers, and by the late 1870s, white settlements were permanently established in much of the study area.

The first established communities in Emery County were the Castle Valley, San Rafael, and Green River Desert areas. Many of these areas were settled in the mid-1870s by Sanpete County livestock growers, who began full-scale agriculture activities. High desert areas, such as Sinbad Country and Cedar Mountain, were especially attractive because of the supply of tall grass and water sources, and were able to support cattle, horses, and sheep. By the late 1870s, Mormon pioneers established settlements all along Price River Valley and in Castle Valley. With ample forage and water sources, ranching and farming developed into key components of Emery County’s economy and remained so well into the 20th century. Emery County’s population also benefited by economic development in Carbon County, which provided seasonal employment opportunities and markets for agricultural products.

Another important event that affected development in the study area was the completion of the Denver and Rio Grande (D&RG) Railroad through Carbon and Emery counties in 1883. The railroad provided transportation to other parts of the State and nation for locally grown produce and livestock, and led to the establishment of the town of Green River in Emery County's beautiful San Rafael Swell country.

While Carbon County experienced a similar development pattern to Emery County, with early pioneer settlers attracted to the area for its vast rangeland to raise livestock, this soon changed with the discovery of coal in the 1880s. The economic development that followed brought a distinctive ethnic diversity, which became a major characteristic of Carbon County. This started with the immigration of Chinese laborers to work in the mines and help develop the railroad. Soon, coal production became the major industry supporting economic and social development. Coal mining companies often built and ran towns in this area as they brought unskilled labor from southern and eastern Europe, as well as China, to work in railroad gangs and in coal mines. This brought a unique cultural mix, in addition to ethnic tensions, which escalated into sporadic occurrences of violence in the area.

Since these early periods, coal mining has remained a dominant activity within both Carbon and Emery counties and is expected to continue as a major economic contributor. The mining industry also provides considerable tax revenues (e.g., ad valorem, sales, and use taxes) to the State of Utah and local governments.

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In addition to the coal mining operations located within the PFO, a number of key indirect industries are affected substantially by the local coal market. Perhaps the most notable of these industries is electricity generation. Beginning in the 1950s with the development of the Carbon power plant, followed by the development of other power plants near Castle Dale and Huntington in the 1970s, this activity resulted in a significant boost to economic activity for the counties and contributed directly to the increase in local population. The Huntington, Hunter, and Carbon power generation facilities owned and operated by Pacificorp are adjacent to BLM lands administered by the PFO. All these facilities use coal and coal by- products that are generated within the PFO.

An additional indirect industry that depends on both the coal and power generation activities in the area is the trucking industry, which is notable in Carbon and Emery counties. For instance, Highway 10 remains a major coal haul route. The local economy remains highly dependent on coal mining, government, and the electricity generation industry.

Recreation as a lifestyle and an industry also has a long history in the study area. River rafting on the Green River has been a viable business since the early 1900s, and more traditional activities such as hunting, fishing, and motorized vehicle travel continue to be significant contributors to the local economy. As families and other residents began to recognize the inherent value of wide-open, natural conditions, recreational activities continued to develop. Trail riding on cattle trails developed by early cowboys has remained popular, and “dispersed camping,” which was once a necessity of ranch life, has remained as a recreational opportunity. Another unique social and geographic activity is “Eastering,” which has more to do with enjoying the first spring outing than recognizing the Christian event. OHV use has also been popular in this area and developed out of the need to use motorized vehicles to traverse the sometimes inhospitable terrain in the area. As early four-wheel drive vehicles such as the “jeep” became available, local people immediately recognized the value of these new innovations, and four-wheeling became popular locally, long before its popularity caught on in other parts of the country. Carbon and Emery counties are also becoming much more popular to visitors who enjoy the open areas and unique recreational opportunities. The study area is becoming known regionally and nationally for areas such as the San Rafael Swell, Desolation Canyon, the Book Cliffs, Range Creek, and Nine Mile Canyon.

The influence of Emery County’s pioneers and ranchers and Carbon County’s coal developers and workers remains evident today. Descendents of these settlers continue to have strong connections to the land. Access to public land and resources, whether as a means to earn a living, continuing traditional activities, or recreating, is very important to local residents. Local residents, organizations, and governments have developed range improvement projects; built roads; and shared in the development, maintenance, and management of the public estate.

The Carbon County seat is Price, which serves as the economic hub for all of Carbon County as well as parts of Emery County. Carbon County also includes six incorporated cities and several unincorporated town areas, including the larger cities of Helper, Wellington, and East Carbon. The largest communities within Emery County include Huntington, Castle Dale (county seat), Ferron, Green River, and Orangeville. The rest of the population is dispersed among smaller communities and unincorporated town areas. The counties have existing facilities and services to meet the needs of their citizens and to encourage economic development.

3.6.2 Affected Groups

Public land users have a diverse social structure that affects individual users’ relationship with the available resources, the various land users, and the public land managers. Social structure is the enduring relationship between individuals and groups, differentiated by perceived patterns of similarities and differences among groups, including ethnicity, occupation, language, political relationships, and

Price RMP 3-101 Chapter 3 Proposed RMP/Final EIS recreation activities. Changes in land management priorities have the potential to cause social impacts on various individuals and groups within and outside the PFO. To accommodate the discussion of impacts, different social groups, also known as stakeholders, that may be affected have been identified as: 1) the livestock/grazing/ranching community; 2) the conservation community; 3) those affiliated with the energy industry; and 4) recreationists. Note that these discussions generalize and simplify the members’ actual values and attitudes. Furthermore, this format is not meant to imply that these groups are mutually exclusive because individuals may, at times, fit within one or all of these categories. For instance, some livestock permittees engage in recreation and are particularly concerned about the environment. Recreationists may engage in motorized and non-motorized recreation and may have high levels of concern about conservation. In addition, people’s attitudes and interests may change over time. However, organizing general comments and concerns into these categories can provide a structure for discussing impacts in Chapter 4.

Livestock/Grazing/Ranching Stakeholders—Ranching remains an important part of the social and cultural structure within the study area. This assessment was echoed throughout the scoping process as individuals stressed the historical importance of this industry and the desire to keep grazing viable on lands within the study area because this activity remains very important to a “way of life.” However, ranchers today are faced with many challenges, including economic issues and changing land use patterns. Ranchers and livestock permittees may also be facing increasingly stressful social situations as they try to balance their traditional lifestyles with demands from other public land users (e.g., oil and gas development and recreationists).

Conservation Stakeholders—Another group voicing opinions on the development of the RMP are those characterized by their concern for conservation. These individuals tend to value and give high priority to the protection of natural resources and general ecosystem health. They support increased emphasis on natural values in relation to extractive and some recreational uses (e.g., OHV). Many of the comments received from this group during scoping focused on wilderness and special designations and tended to support the continued protection of designated areas as well as the expansion of ACECs, wilderness proposals, and WSR designations.

Energy Stakeholders—Another group showing interest in the RMP are those that support the continued development of mineral and energy resources. This group often cites the strong economic dependence of the local area on these activities. In addition, this group tends to believe that access to public lands to develop energy and mineral resources should be increased, and careful consideration should be given to how a lengthy administrative or environmental review process affects the cost of development. Many also feel that mineral and energy development in this area is of national importance, and further development can help ease the nation’s dependence on foreign resources.

Recreation Stakeholders—The Scoping Report comments, as well as those submitted by county officials, suggest that recreational opportunities, including OHV use, camping, horseback riding, mountain biking, sightseeing, canyoneering, and river running contribute to the overall quality of life for residents and visitors. The recreation community includes diverse groups of people, and changes in recreation management can affect the people who engage in the various activities in very different ways. Recreationists have tended to organize into different interest groups based on their preferred recreation activity. Thus, several specific types of recreational activities may have individuals and groups that advocate for that particular activity.

Local and regional organizations and individuals have shown interest in the study area by providing valuable input during the scoping process. According to the Scoping Report, the most common issues raised were related to wilderness/special designations, recreation/OHV, and access/transportation. The comments related to these issues indicate that the condition of resources on public lands is important and

3-102 Price RMP Proposed RMP/Final EIS Chapter 3 reflects the value these stakeholders place on wilderness protection, ecosystem heath, access to recreational activities, and resource development, as well as other reasons.

Scoping Report comments also indicate that many individuals and groups are concerned about potential limitations on the availability of public lands for commercial uses such as coal, oil and gas, and other mineral development, OHV recreation, and livestock grazing. These individuals indicated that public lands should be managed to be as productive as possible and that the survival of local economies and communities depends on these commercial uses. Some commenters expressed a desire for other groups to recognize that their lifestyle and history are tied to public lands.

Since the scoping report comments, a statewide social survey was conducted by Utah State University (USU) in 2007 to assess the ways in which Utah residents use and value public land resources and their views about public lands management. A complete analysis of the results had not been completed as of February 2008. “Public lands.” as described in the study, consist of all federal and State managed lands, not just BLM lands. Surveys were mailed to a random sample of residents of all 29 Utah counties. According to the authors, the study and sample sizes are designed to produce results generalizable at the statewide level, with generalization increasingly risky as the sample area diminishes. For example, the data may lose much of their statistical validity at the individual county level. The areas sampled do not necessarily coincide with PFO boundaries because that was not the focus of the study. Nonetheless, the study provides current and interesting results not available elsewhere and shows the dependence of Utah residents on public lands for a variety of economic and recreational pursuits. Appendix P contains initial summary results for Carbon and Emery counties. Because of the considerations noted above, these results cannot be used as the basis for significant conclusions regarding the relationship of local residents to the study area lands. Thus, the preliminary USU results do not affect the formulation of alternatives in Chapter 2 or the analysis of impacts in Chapter 4.

3.6.3 Population

The most current population estimates for the study area were obtained from U.S. Census Bureau and are summarized in Figure 3-2. The populations of Carbon and Emery counties peaked in the mid-1980s, declined significantly in the late 1980s, and grew slightly during the 1990s (Figure 3-2). Over the last 5 years, the population has again started to decline, and by 2005, it had decreased to fewer than 30,000. Population forecasts for this area published by the State of Utah indicate that the populations for the two counties are projected to continue a slight decrease until 2010 and then increase at a gradual rate through 2050 (Figure 3-3. Population Projections, Study Area, 2000–2050).

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Figure 3-2 Population Estimates, Study Area, 1970–2005

40,000 Carbon Emery Study Area 35,000

30,000

25,000

20,000

Population 15,000

10,000

5,000

0 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 Year

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2006; Utah State Governors Website, Utah Population Estimates by County (http://www.governor.state.ut.us/dea/UPEC/05PopbyCounty.pdf) (2001–2005).

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Figure 3-3. Population Projections, Study Area, 2000–20501

45,000 Carbon 40,000 Emery Study Area 35,000 30,000 25,000 20,000

Population 15,000 10,000 5,000 0 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 Year

Source: 2006 Economic Report to the Governor, Table 4: Population Projections by County and District, pp. 23.

Table 3-40 summarizes the components of population change for each of the two counties, the study area, and the State of Utah during the 1980s, 1990s, and during 2000 to 2005. Columns 4 and 5 show the change in total population during the last two and a half decades. Population in the study area declined by 9 percent during the 1980s, grew slightly (4.5 percent) during the 1990s, but again declined during the past 5 years. In addition, population growth in the study area has lagged significantly behind the State’s population growth rates during this time period.

Population changes result from both “natural changes” (e.g., the net result of births and deaths) and from “net migration” (e.g., the net result of persons moving in and out of the area). Columns 8 and 9 show the change in population resulting from natural changes for each of the counties in the study area. Study area population resulting from natural changes increased by nearly 15 percent in the 1980s, 7.5 percent during the 1990s, and 4 percent during 2000 to 2005.

Net migration for each area is summarized in Columns 10 and 11. The study area experienced a decline in population as a result of negative net migration starting in the mid-1980s, continuing through 2005. This trend was similar to the statewide pattern during the 1980s; however, during the 1990s, Utah saw positive net migration, while the study area continued to lose residents.

1 The State of Utah’s REMI model forecasts population growth for Emery and Carbon counties between 2000 and 2050 to be 0.6 percent annually.

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Table 3-40. Components of Population Change, 1980 to 2005, Study Area

Percentage Percentage Numeric Natural Change in Cumul- Cumul- Natural Change in 2000 2005 Change in Percentage Net County Total ative ative Change in Population Population Population Population Change in Migration Population Births Deaths Population From Net 1990–1999 Population 1990–1999 Migration 2000–2005 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) Carbon, UT 20,422 19,338 -1,058 -5.2% 1,870 1,199 671 3.3% -1833 -9.0% Emery, UT 10,860 10,491 -291 -2.7% 1,008 442 566 5.2% -1204 -11.1% Study Area 31,282 29,829 -1,349 -4.5% 2,878 1,641 1,237 4.0% -3037 -9.7% Utah 2,233,169 2,547,389 300,836 13.4% 293,085 76,051 217,034 9.7% 137,341 6.2% 1990–1999 Carbon, UT 20,228 20,898 670 3.3% 2,858 1,656 1,202 5.9% -532 -2.6% Emery, UT 10,332 11,052 720 7.0% 1,681 600 1,081 10.5% -361 -3.5% Study Area 30,560 31,950 1,390 4.5% 4,539 2,256 2,283 7.5% -893 -2.9% Utah 1,722,850 2,129,836 406,986 23.6% 369,419 98,393 271,026 15.7% 135,960 7.9% 1980–1990 Carbon, UT 22,179 20,228 -1,951 -8.8% 4,527 1,681 2,846 12.8% -4,797 -21.6% Emery, UT 11,451 10,332 -1,119 -9.8% 2,986 674 2,312 20.2% -3,431 -30.0% Study Area 33,630 30,560 -3,070 -9.1% 7,513 2,355 5,158 15.3% -8,228 -24.5% Utah 1,461,037 1,722,850 261,813 17.9% 381,549 88,034 293,515 20.1% -31,702 -2.2% Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Population Estimates Archives; July 2000–2005: Utah Population Estimates Committee.

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The most recent data available that report population ethnicity in the study area were obtained from the U.S. Census Bureau. Figure 3-4 shows distribution of the population by ethnicity for the study area, State of Utah, and the United States during 2004. There are only slight differences in ethnic composition between the study area, and the State, and noticeable differences from the national composition. The study area reported a higher percentage of whites than the statewide and national figures. The study area also had a lower percentage of blacks or African Americans than the United States. The percentages of other ethnic groups are small and very similar to Utah and the nation as a whole.

Figure 3-4. Ethnicity, Study Area, 2004

100.0%

90.0% 89.0% 83.8% 80.0%

70.0% 67.4% Study Area 60.0% Utah

50.0% U.S.

40.0%

Percent of PopulationPercent of 30.0%

20.0% 13.9% 12.2% 10.4% 10.0% 9.0% 4.1% 1.8% 1.5% 1.3% 1.2% 0.9% 0.8% 0.8% 0.7% 0.4% 0.4% 0.2% 0.1% 0.0% 0.0% White Hispanic or Black or American Asian Native Two or more Latino African Indian and Hawaiian and races American Alaskan Native Other Pacific Islander Ethnicity

Source: U.S. Census, County estimates by demographic characteristics—Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin. http://www.census.gov/popest/datasets.html, Modified Jan. 6, 2006. Accessed February 27, 2006.

3.6.4 Poverty

Estimates of poverty rates in Carbon and Emery counties were obtained for 2000 to 2003 and represent the most recent data available for the study area. In 2003, poverty rates in both counties were higher than the statewide average but very near the national average (U.S. Census Bureau 2006). Table 3-41 summarizes county, State, and national poverty rate estimates for each of these geographic areas.

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Table 3-41. Estimated Poverty Rates, 2000–2003 Location 2000 2001 2002 2003 Carbon County 13.4% 13.4% 12.6% 13.5% Emery County 11.3% 11.4% 11.1% 11.6% Utah 8.8%. 9.4% 9.7% 10.0% United States 11.3% 11.7% 12.1% 12.5%

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Small Area Income & Poverty Estimates (SAIPE).

3.6.5 Personal Income

The most recent data available on personal income levels in the study area were obtained from the Utah Department of Workforce Services. Real personal income (2005 dollars) decreased by 25 percent between 1993 and 2004.2 Labor income remains the largest component of personal income but has decreased significantly in the past 20 years while investment and transfer payment income have become larger components. Per capita income in the two counties in 2004 was $23,199 below the State average of $27,493 (2006 Economic Report to the Governor, Table 33 using Utah Department of Workforce Services, Workforce Information, November 2005, [2005 dollars]).

3.6.6 Unemployment

The most recent unemployment data for the study area were obtained from Utah Department of Workforce Services. In general, unemployment trends in Emery and Carbon counties tend to follow those in the State and national economies (Figure 3-5). However, unemployment in the study area tends to be higher than both the State and national averages. Although unemployment in all areas declined in the last 2 years, significant increases occurred during 2000 and 2003, which corresponds to a national economic slowdown.

2 Calculated from BEA Regional Economic Profiles: 1963–2003, Table CA80 and 2006 Economic Report to the Governor, Table 32, using Utah Department of Workforce Services, Workforce Information, November 2005.

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Figure 3-5. Unemployment, Study Area, 1991–2004

12.0% Study Area Utah U.S. Carbon Emery 10.0%

8.0%

6.0%

4.0%

Unemployment Rate 2.0%

0.0%

1 6 7 8 9 04 199 1992 1993 1994 1995 199 199 199 199 2000 2001 2002 2003 20 Year

Source: Utah Department of Workforce Services; National Statistics from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) website (series ID: LNS14000000).

3.6.7 Employment and Earnings

The Demographic and Economic Analysis (DEA) Division of the Utah Governor’s Office of Planning and Budget estimates annual employment and earnings for counties throughout Utah. The most recent data available for the study area are from 2004. Because total annual employment includes both full-time and part-time jobs, individuals with more than one job are counted twice. The employment estimates include those who are employed by businesses and public entities, as well as individuals who are self- employed. Data were obtained from the DEA Division regarding total annual employment for each county within the study area during 2001 to 2004 in order to examine trends in employment by industry over this period. Figure 3-6 summarizes the employment trends by industry for the study area. Total employment in the study area has increased slightly (less than 1 percent) over the last 4 years from 12,974 in 2001 to 13,100 in 2004.3

3DEA Division uses data from the U.S. BEA and in 2001, BEA changed the basis of data reporting from Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) to North American Industry Classification (NAICS) in 2001. Because of the differences in these two systems, a trend analysis that includes years when both systems were in use is not possible.

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Figure 3-6. Employment Trends by Industry, 2001–2004

3,500 Mining 3,000 Construction Manufacturing 2,500 TTU Information 2,000 Financial Activity Prof. & Bus. Services 1,500 Ed. & Health Services Leisure & Hospitality 1,000 Other Services Government

Full and Part-time Employment Full Part-time and 500 Agriculture

0 2001 2002 2003 2004 Year

Source: Utah Governor’s Office of Planning and Budget, DEA Division website. Non-Agricultural Payroll Employment by the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) Industry (2001–2004), http://www.governor.state.ut.us/dea/HistoricalData.html. Agricultural data from the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) website, Regional Economic Accounts, CA25N Total full-time and part-time employment by industry. Agricultural data for 2004 is an average estimate from the previous year’s data. TTU = Transportation, Trade, and Utilities

Employment by industry for 2004 is shown in Figure 3-7. Government, transportation, trade, utilities, and mining comprise the majority of employment in the study area. According to a study conducted by the University of Utah, approximately 90 percent of the employment in the mining industry for Carbon and Emery counties is due to coal mining, not oil and gas production (University of Utah, 2007). Industries showing the greatest increase in employment include education and health services (151), leisure and hospitality (121), and mining (101). Industries showing the largest declines in employment were government (-140), professional and business services (-101), and construction (-84).

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Figure 3-7. Employment by Industry, 2004

Government 24% Agriculture 5%

Mining Other Services 13% 4% Leisure & Hospitality 8% Construction 5% Ed. & Health Manufacturing Services 2% 7% Prof. & Bus. Services TTU 5% Information 23% 2% Financial Activity 2% Source: Utah Governor’s Office of Planning and Budget, DEA Division website. Non-Agricultural Payroll Employment by NAICS Industry (2001–2004), http://www.governor.state.ut.us/dea/HistoricalData.html. Agricultural data from BEA website, Regional Economic Accounts, CA25N Total full-time and part-time employment by industry. Agricultural data for 2004 is an average estimate from the previous year’s data. TTU = Transportation, Trade, and Utilities.

Earnings by industry in the study area during 2001 to 2004 were obtained from the Utah Governor’s Office of Planning and Budget, DEA Division website. Figure 3-8 summarizes the trends in real gross earnings by industry for the study area. The combined gross earnings for all industries fell by 1 percent during 2001 and 2004.

Industries reporting the greatest percentage increase in earnings during 2001 and 2004 in the study area include agriculture (140 percent); financial activity (20 percent); and leisure and hospitality (17 percent). Industries reporting a percentage decline in real gross earnings during this time include manufacturing (-31 percent) and construction (-25 percent).

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Figure 3-8. Gross Industry Earnings, (2005 dollars)

$120,000

$100,000 Mining Construction $80,000 Manufacturing TTU Information $60,000 Financial Activity Prof. & Bus. Services Ed. & Health Services $40,000 Leisure & Hospitality Other Services $20,000 Government Agriculture Gross Earnings by Inudstry (1,000$)

$0 2001 2002 2003 2004

-$20,000 Year

Source: Utah Governor’s Office of Planning and Budget, DEA Division website. Total Non-Agricultural Wages and Salaries by NAICS Industry ($000) (2001–2004), http://www.governor.state.ut.us/dea/HistoricalData.html. Agricultural data from BEA website, Regional Economic Accounts, CA05N Personal income by major source and earnings by industry. Note: Agricultural data from 2004 was not available. 2004 value was estimated by averaging 2001 through 2003 values.

3.6.8 Economic Base Analysis

An area’s economic base is composed of industries that are primarily responsible for bringing outside income into the local economy. These industries typically export their goods and services outside the region, and, in turn, support ancillary industries such as retail trade, housing construction, and personal services. The location of important industries in certain areas has traditionally been tied to such factors as natural resource base, cost factors (transportation and labor), and existing transportation infrastructure. However, technology has affected these location factors.

To assess the importance of major industries as a basic industry, location quotients were calculated on 12 major industries as listed in Table 3-42. The quotients were derived from data on employment and earnings, discussed in the last section, and obtained from the Utah Governor’s Office of Planning and Budget, DEA Division, and U.S. BEA. A location quotient was calculated for both employment and earnings, and compares each industry’s share of total local employment or earnings with the industry’s State or national share. This quotient yields a value generally between 0 and 2, where 1.0 indicates an equal share percentage between the local and State or national economies. Location quotients greater than 2 indicate a strong industry concentration while those less than 0.50 indicate a weak concentration.

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Table 3-42 indicates that the two-county study area in many ways mirrors the State’s economy as a whole. The one industry that shows a very strong concentration in the study area and thus is an important base industry is mining, which includes such activities as coal mining and oil and gas development. Three industries that are weak in the study area, compared with the State, are manufacturing, financial activity, and professional and business services. When compared with the national economy, mining shows a strong concentration in employment and a very strong concentration in earnings. Again manufacturing, financial activity, and professional and business services show weak concentrations compared with the national economy.

Table 3-42. Location Quotients—2003

Employment Earnings Industry Location Quotient Location Location Location (UT) Quotient (U.S.) Quotient (UT) Quotient (U.S.) Farm and Agricultural Services 3.06 0.41 0.59 0.00 Mining 18.50 4.01 21.75 27.98 Construction 0.82 10.26 0.92 0.95 Manufacturing 0.24 0.38 0.20 0.19 Trade, Transportation, and 1.23 2.32 1.42 1.64 Utility Information 0.75 0.10 0.47 0.44 Financial Activity 0.42 1.03 0.25 0.19 Professional and Business 0.49 0.62 0.31 0.29 Services Education and Health Services 0.75 0.54 0.64 0.60 Leisure and Hospitality 0.80 0.54 0.55 0.54 Other Services 1.40 0.42 1.75 1.28 Government 1.41 3.86 1.13 1.32 Sources: Utah Governor’s Office of Planning and Budget, DEA Division website. Non-Agricultural Payroll Employment by NAICS Industry and Total Non-Agricultural Wages and Salaries by NAICS Industry, Agricultural and U.S. data from BEA website, Regional Economic Accounts, CA05N Personal income by major source and earnings by industry.

3.6.9 Public Finance and Government Services

Lands and U.S. mineral estate managed within the study area affect local, State, and U.S. Government budgets to the extent they produce mineral royalties, taxes, payments in lieu of taxes (PILT), fees, and other revenues, or result in government expenditures for management, law enforcement, and other activities. These topics are discussed below, beginning with revenues that accrue to each level of government.

Revenues to the U.S. Government

The U.S. Minerals Management Service (MMS) collects royalties and rents from leases of U.S. lands for production of coal, oil, gas, and other minerals. For coal leases issued or readjusted after August 4, 1976, the royalty rate is 8 percent of the value of production for underground mines and 12.5 percent for surface mines. Annual rents are $3.00 per acre. For oil and gas leases issued after December 22, 1987, royalties

Price RMP 3-113 Chapter 3 Proposed RMP/Final EIS are 12.5 percent of the amount or value of production. Rents are $1.50 per acre for the first 5 years, and $2.00 per acre for subsequent years (U.S. Minerals Management Service 2004a). Royalties and rents are collectively referred to as lease revenue. The U.S. Government also collects bonuses on certain leases. Of the lease and bonus revenue collected, the MMS returns 50 percent to the state of origin. In Utah, these revenues are channeled through the Utah Department of Community and Economic Development to various State funds and other State and local agencies. The U.S. Government’s Reclamation Fund (managed by the Bureau of Reclamation) receives 40 percent of the MMS collections, and 10 percent goes to the U.S. Treasury (U.S. Minerals Management Service 2004b).

Table 3-43 provides cost figures on a county basis for mineral revenue collections by MMS and subsequent disbursements to the State. These figures encompass all U.S. lands and mineral estate in the two counties and represent the most recent data available. Tracing revenues and disbursements to BLM lands in particular was not feasible for this study. However, the BLM controls 66 percent of the surface land in the two counties and administers subsurface mineral estates in both counties. Over the 4 fiscal years, as shown in Table 3-43, U.S. Government collections of mineral revenues averaged $89.8 million per year for the entire State of Utah with $16.4 million per year from Carbon County and $11.5 million per year from Emery County. The U.S. Government retained 50 percent of these revenues.

Table 3-43. Mineral Lease and Bonus Revenues Collected and Disbursed by the U.S. Government for the State of Utah, FY01–FY04 (2005 dollars) State Fiscal Year and Carbon Emery Study Area State Total Collections/Disbursements County County Total 2001 U.S. Mineral Lease Collections $15,600,850 $16,778,124 $32,378,974 $99,668,639 U.S. Mineral Bonus Collections $2,557,328 $380,101 $2,937,428 $7,255,175 Total U.S. Collections $18,158,177 $17,158,225 $35,316,403 $106,965,648 Total Disbursed to State $9,079,088 $8,579,113 $17,658,201 $53,482,824 2002 U.S. Mineral Lease Collections $6,049,341 $3,912,039 $9,961,380 $28,625,608 U.S. Mineral Bonus Collections $43,842 $186,507 $230,348 $3,736,345 Total U.S. Collections $6,093,183 $4,098,546 $10,191,729 $32,361,952 Total Disbursed to State $3,046,591 $2,049,273 $5,095,864 $16,180,976 2003 U.S. Mineral Lease Collections $9,148,458 $7,588,816 $16,737,274 $66,550,044 U.S. Mineral Bonus Collections $7,766,556 $685,967 $8,452,524 $16,407,358 Total U.S. Collections $16,915,015 $8,274,783 $25,189,798 $82,957,402 Total Disbursed to State $8,457,507 $4,137,392 $12,594,899 $41,478,701 2004 U.S. Mineral Lease Collections $19,898,338 $13,467,288 $33,365,626 $117,461,330 U.S. Mineral Bonus Collections $4,603,584 $3,343,428 $7,947,013 $19,702,740 Total U.S. Collections $24,501,923 $16,810,716 $41,312,638 $137,164,071 Total Disbursed to State $12,250,961 $8,405,358 $20,656,319 $68,582,035

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State Fiscal Year and Carbon Emery Study Area State Total Collections/Disbursements County County Total 4-Year Averages U.S. Mineral Lease Collections $12,674,247 $10,436,567 $23,110,814 $78,076,405 U.S. Mineral Bonus Collections $3,742,828 $1,149,001 $4,891,828 $11,775,405 Total U.S. Collections $16,417,074 $11,585,567 $28,002,642 $89,862,268 Total Disbursed to State $8,208,537 $5,792,784 $14,001,321 $44,931,134 Source: Utah Division of Housing and Community Development, Department of Community and Economic Development, spreadsheets on receipts of U.S. mineral lease and bonus revenues (Schmeling 2004). State receipts data grossed to U.S. collections based on an equal State/US. split (U.S. Minerals Management Service, 2004b). All figures are in nominal dollars.

The U.S. Government also receives some mineral bonus revenue from former U.S. lands exchanged with the State of Utah’s SITLA as part of the Utah School and Lands Exchange Act of 1998 (Public Law 105- 335). Both Carbon and Emery counties produce significant mineral lease or bonus revenue from exchanged lands. Table 3-44 shows the U.S. Government mineral bonus revenue from the combined two- county exchange lands. A bonus bid associated with leased exchanged lands ended in 2003, causing the mineral bonus revenue to be considerably lower for FY04.

Table 3-44. U.S. Mineral Bonus Revenue From Study Area Exchanged Lands, FY01–FY04 (2005 dollars) FY01 FY02 FY03 FY04 FY05 Mineral Bonus $2,603,079 $2,504,776 $2,594,129 $51,227 $493,314 Revenue Source: Interview with Lisa Schneider (801-538-5120), Finance Director for the State of Utah’s SITLA. January 2006.

The PFO collects fees and other revenue for various uses of BLM lands. These revenue sources include ROW rents, recreation fees, mineral material sales, vegetative material permit fees, and grazing fees. A large majority of revenue from sales of land and vegetation and minerals materials, along with ROW rents go to the U.S. Treasury, whereas recreation fees are retained by the PFO. Grazing permit fees associated with U.S. AUMs generate revenue for the U.S. Treasury, 12.5 percent of which is returned to the local Grazing Board via the state in which the AUMs are located. Using a 40/60 matching-funds formula, this money is then disbursed to local ranchers through the local Grazing Board for use in range improvements and maintenance projects (Taylor Grazing Act, Section 10).

Revenues to State Government

As noted above, the U.S. Government, through the MMS, pays the State of Utah 50 percent of the mineral lease and bonus revenues it collects from lands in Utah. During the same 4 fiscal years, the State received an average of $8.2 million per year from U.S. lands in Carbon County, and $5.7 million per year from U.S. lands in Emery County. These disbursements are shown in Table 3-43. In addition, for FY01 to FY04, Utah received about $7.8 million from SITLA-administered State exchange lands in the study area.

In addition, the State of Utah collects several taxes and fees that derive from natural resources on private lands and public lands (Utah does not have a State severance tax on coal):

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• Mining Severance Tax. This tax is 2.6 percent of the taxable value of all metals or metalliferous minerals sold or otherwise disposed of (Utah State Tax Commission 2004a). Every person or business engaged in mining metals or metalliferous minerals must file an annual report with the Utah State Tax Commission. However, the first $50,000 of value is exempt from the tax. No mines in either county of the socioeconomic study area have paid mining severance taxes to the State within the last several years (Peterson 2006). • Oil and Gas Severance Tax. This tax is 3 percent or 5 percent, depending on the value at the well per barrel of oil or per million cubic feet of gas, and 4 percent for natural gas liquids, minus certain credits and reductions (Utah State Tax Commission 2004a). Statewide severance tax revenue totaled $27,831,318 (2005 dollars) in FY03 and $37,404,857 (2005 dollars) in FY04 (Utah State Tax Commission 2004). The State does not report this revenue on a county basis. However, production from the socioeconomic study area for FY00 to FY04 averaged about 16.3 percent of total production for gas and was 0.02 percent for oil (Utah Division of Oil, Gas, and Mining 2000–2004). Thus, oil severance tax revenue to the State from the socioeconomic study area has been negligible in recent years whereas gas production contributed to the severance tax. • Oil and Gas Conservation Fee. This fee is 0.2 percent of the value at the well (Utah State Tax Commission 2004a). Statewide conservation fee revenue totaled $2,022,685 (2005 dollars) in FY03 and $2,751,047 (2005 dollars) in FY04 (Utah State Tax Commission 2004). The State does not report this revenue on a county basis. Conservation fee revenue to the State from the socioeconomic study area has been negligible for oil while gas contributed in recent years for the reason noted for the severance tax. • Income Taxes. There are various State income tax rates, depending on such elements as individual or corporate status, type of corporation, and taxable income. The State requires 5- percent withholding on most mineral production income (Utah State Tax Commission 2004a). State income tax revenue derived from income on natural resources is not reported on a county basis by the State and cannot be reliably estimated for this study.

Revenues to Local Governments

Much of the State’s MMS and SITLA mineral revenue is disbursed to local government. The major means for the disbursements are as follows (Anderson 2004; Schmeling 2004; and Utah State Code):

• Utah Department of Transportation (UDOT). Utah’s share of U.S. public land mineral lease revenue is deposited in the State Mineral Lease Account. In addition, 39.5 percent of State exchange land mineral lease revenue (minus 3 percent taken by SITLA for administration) is deposited in the Mineral Lease Account. Forty percent of the funds in the Mineral Lease Account is returned to the county of origin through the UDOT, in proportion to the amount generated by each county. • Community Impact Fund. A total of 32.5 percent of the revenue in the Mineral Lease Account (sources as noted above), plus a remainder after other funds are paid, if available, goes to this special fund set up by the Utah State Legislature to award grants and loans to State and local agencies that are socially or economically affected by mineral resource development. In addition, 70 percent of U.S. public land mineral bonus revenue and 12.16 percent of exchange lands bonus revenue go into the Community Impact Fund. The funds are awarded competitively and can be used for planning, construction, and maintenance of public facilities, and for provision of public services.

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• Special Service Districts. Five percent of the revenue in the Mineral Lease Account is distributed to 11 counties that are affected by mineral extraction but receive limited funds through UDOT or the Community Impact Fund. Each county receives an equal base payment and a portion based on population.

Only UDOT funds are directly proportional to the U.S. mineral revenue produced by each county. Table 3-45 shows distributions of mineral revenues through this fund for the most recent years that data were available for the study area.

Table 3-45. Distribution of Mineral Revenues by Utah Department of Transportation, FY01–FY04 (2005 dollars) State Fiscal Year Carbon County Emery County Study Area Total State Totals 2001 $5,547,029 $3,130,064 $8,677,093 $22,238,540 2002 $2,395,120 $1,804,896 $4,200,016 $11,780,612 2003 $3,364,983 $2,298,026 $5,663,009 $16,880,149 2004 $5,531,565 $3,837,884 $9,369,449 $26,084,311 2005 $7,023,570 $4,067,196 $11,090,766 $33,509,361 Source: Utah Department of Transportation. Mineral Lease Fund Distributions. Internet. 2005. http://www.dot.utah.gov/index.php/m=c/tid=135. Accessed December 31, 2005.

Another source of local funds based on natural resources is taxes on natural resource properties. Although local governments assess real and personal property, the State of Utah assesses the value of natural resource property—specifically, oil and gas wells, metal mines, coal mines, sand and gravel mines, and non-metal mines. County treasurers then set and collect taxes from these properties. On public lands, the values and taxes are based on the higher of (1) the value of equipment on the site or (2) discounted cash flow from production if the well or mine is producing. Table 3-46 shows the assessed value of natural resource properties in the study area in 2004, while Table 3-47 shows the amounts collected. These figures reflect all lands in the two counties; a breakdown for only BLM lands is unavailable. Carbon and Emery counties’ assessed natural resources are primarily oil and gas wells and coal mines. The total taxes charged against natural resource properties in the study area were $11,184,255 in 2004. Natural resource properties are a significant source of tax revenue for local government. Table 3-48 shows the property taxes charged against all classes of property in the study area in 2004. The $11,411,556 in natural resource property taxes represents 29 percent of the $39,123,006 in total property taxes collected.

Table 3-46. Assessed Value of Natural Resource Properties, 2004 (2005 dollars) Oil and Gas Metal Sand and Non-Metal Total Natural Area Coal Mines Extraction Mines Gravel Mines Resource Carbon $671,869,604 $0 $202,441,879 $661,899 $374,136 $875,347,518 Emery $139,990,714 $13,510 $108,336,590 $744,816 $683,169 $249,768,799 Study Area $811,860,318 $13,510 $310,778,469 $1,406,715 $1,057,305 $1,125,116,316 Source: Utah State Tax Commission, Property Tax Division. 2005. Internet. Utah Property Tax 2004 Annual Statistical Report. http://propertytax.utah.gov/finalannualstats/2004annual.pdf. Accessed December 31, 2005.

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Table 3-47. Property Taxes Charged Against Natural Resource Properties, 2004 (2005 dollars) Total Oil and Gas Metal Sand and Non-Metal Area Coal Mines Natural Extraction Mines Gravel Mines Resource Carbon $6,710,176 $0 $1,967,244 $7,010 $3,616 $8,688,045 County Emery $1,526,459 $147 $1,181,302 $8,154 $7,449 $2,723,511 County Study Area $8,236,635 $147 $3,148,545 $15,164 $11,065 $11,411,556 Source: Utah State Tax Commission, Property Tax Division. 2005. Internet. Utah Property Tax 2004 Annual Statistical Report. http://propertytax.utah.gov/finalannualstats/2004annual.pdf. Accessed December 31, 2005.

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Table 3-48. Property Taxes Charged Against Each Class of Property, 2004

Locally Assessed State Assessed Fee-In Lieu Total Total Local and Area Motor Property Real Personal Total Locally Natural Total State State Assessed Utilities Vehicle Taxes Property Property Assessed Resources Assessed Charged Carbon $7,275,091 $738,576 $8,013,667 $1,998,992 $8,688,045 $10,687,036 $18,700,703 $1,782,222 $20,482,925 County Emery $2,519,563 $232,278 $2,751,841 $12,266,056 $2,723,511 $14,989,567 $17,741,409 $898,672 $18,640,081 County Study $9,794,654 $970,854 $10,765,508 $14,265,048 $11,411,556 $25,676,603 $36,442,112 $2,680,894 $39,123,006 Area Source: Utah State Tax Commission, Property Tax Division. 2005. Internet. Utah Property Tax 2004 Annual Statistical Report. http://propertytax.utah.gov/finalannualstats/2004annual.pdf. Accessed December 31, 2005.

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PILT is a source of local government revenue directly attributable to U.S. lands. The U.S. Government makes PILT to compensate counties for lost property tax revenue attributed to lands owned by the Federal Government. PILT is calculated with a complex formula that considers numerous factors, including acreage of eligible lands, population, and other U.S. transfers such as mineral royalties. Table 3-49 lists PILT payments to Carbon and Emery counties in recent years. In FY05, PILT for all public lands in the two counties totaled more than $1.3 million.

Table 3-49. Payments in Lieu of Taxes, 2000–2005 (2005 dollars) Area 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Carbon County $374,106 $523,547 $544,123 $616,670 $620,180 $620,832 Emery County $428,650 $603,107 $620,074 $703,246 $709,484 $707,338 Study Area $802,756 $1,126,654 $1,164,197 $1,319,916 $1,329,664 $1,328,170 Source: BLM. 2005. Internet. Payments in Lieu of Taxes. http://www.doi.gov/pilt. Accessed January 2, 2006.

Sales and lodging taxes are another source of local government revenue related to natural resources, including public lands within the study area. Users of BLM lands from outside the study area generate tax receipts through their purchases and lodging expenditures. The State estimates that travelers generated an estimated $636,643 (2005 dollars) in local taxes to Carbon County and $260,568 (2005 dollars) in local taxes to Emery County in 2003 (Utah Division of Travel Development 2005).

Government Expenditures

U.S. Government expenditures related to public lands managed by the BLM4 benefit the local economy because of (1) salaries to land management staff who are residing in the socioeconomic study area; and (2) contracts to businesses located in or with employees who are residing in the study area. These salaries and contracts represent an inflow of money to the local economy. During FY01 to FY05, total PFO salaries averaged $2,670,754 (2005 dollars) per year. These were the most recent years that data were available for the PFO. The FY05 PFO expenditures were approximately $3.5 million (2005 dollars) per year for operations, including operation payments to local firms (BLM, PFO, Floyd Johnson 2006).

The management of BLM-administered land may also affect State and local budgets. For instance, recreation on public lands requires some support from local government for road maintenance, law enforcement, and search and rescue. It is difficult to separate expenditures related to BLM-administered land from expenditures related to other local, State, and federal land. The following are types of State and local expenditures that may be affected by public land activities:

• Maintenance of State and local roads • Law enforcement personnel and equipment • Emergency medical services • Search and rescue teams • Conservation and wildlife management • Fire management • Solid waste collection and disposal • Public utilities.

4 Please note that other federal agencies such as the USFS, also have local offices whose expenditures generate economic activity in the PFO.

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3.6.10 Specific Resource Activities

Mineral and Energy Extraction and Indirect Industries

Coal Mining

Coal mining has been a prevalent activity within the study area for more than a century, and it is expected to continue as a major economic contributor. Three major coal fields lie either partially or entirely within the borders of the study area. These are the Emery Coal Field, the Wasatch Plateau Coal Field, and the Book Cliffs Coal Field. Although the Wasatch Plateau has historically been the largest producer of coal in the region, all of the coal fields have active mining activities and are currently forecasted to have production during the life of the study area.

Because of the significant number of years that operators have been mining coal in the region, most of the “easily mined” coal has been extracted from the existing mines. As a result, new techniques and strategies to recover remaining reserves are always under development. As these new techniques mature, new mining opportunities may arise and could have significant impact on the existing forecasts for coal extraction.

Although a majority of the producing mines are on USFS, State, or private lands, the BLM administers the coal leases and has substantial involvement in operations. In addition to the coal mining operations located within the PFO, a number of key indirect industries are affected substantially by the local coal mining. Perhaps the most notable of these industries is electrical power generation. The Huntington, Hunter, and Carbon power generation facilities owned and operated by PacifiCorp are all on lands adjacent to BLM lands administered by the PFO. This constitutes 100 percent of the coal-fired power generation capacity in Utah for PacifiCorp. A smaller, co-generation facility located near the town of East Carbon is also adjacent to existing BLM lands. All of these facilities use coal and coal by-products that are generated within the study area.

The electricity generation facilities use water from systems of reservoirs and streams that traverse BLM- administered lands. The operators of these facilities have acquired adequate water rights for normal or even moderate to severe drought conditions; however, prolonged drought conditions or other conditions that potentially reduce the flow of water are a constant concern of the operators.

An additional component of the coal industry and the power generation industry is the trucking industry. Highway 10 is the major coal haul route for coal used at the Hunter power plant. Several hundred tractor- trailer combinations are needed on a daily basis to meet the daily burn rate of the plant. The Huntington Canyon power plant is also of note because it occasionally requires coal trucks to deliver coal for blending or to meet other demand concerns.

Trucks also transport coal from a number of mines in the area that is ultimately distributed by rail. These mines currently include the Consol mine near Emery, the Co-Op mine near Huntington, the Genwal mine near Huntington, the Centennial mine near the Price Airport, and the Westridge and Dugout mines near East Carbon.

Natural Gas

Natural gas development is also becoming an important economic activity within the study area. According to the Utah Division of Oil, Gas, and Mining, cumulative natural gas production exceeded 634 million cubic feet (MMcf) in Carbon County and 127 MMcf in Emery County through 2004. These two counties also account for 5 of the largest 25 fields (Drunkards Wash, Helper, Buzzard Bench, Peter’s

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Point, and Nine Mile Canyon) in Utah for gross natural gas production (refer to the Mineral section for historical production).

While natural gas production in the study area has significant implications for tax revenues, the number of jobs supported by the local industry has remained small. For instance, according to the Utah Department of Workforce Service, Workforce Information Division, the number of direct jobs associated with oil and gas development in 2004 in Carbon County was estimated at 64. Employment estimates in Emery County for this industry were not available because of disclosure issues but are also likely to be modest.

Table 3-50 summarizes the physical outputs and value of production for coal and oil and gas in the study area during 2004. Dollar production figures are estimated for oil, gas, and coal using average 2004 prices for each commodity.

Table 3-50. Value of Coal, Oil, and Natural Gas Production in Study Area—2004

Carbon County Emery County Study Area

Units ($) Units ($) Units ($) Oil and Gas Wells Drilled 32 - 4 - 36 - Oil and Gas Wells Completed 24 - 3 - 27 - Oil Production (Barrels)1 4,661 $159,966 4,657 $159,828 9,318 $319,794 $416.6 $91.5 Gas Production (MMcf)2 79.2 17.4 96.6 $508.1 million million million Coal Production (million tons) $155.8 $97.4 8.8 5.5 14.3 $253.1 million 3 million million Sources: Utah Division of Oil, Gas, and Mining, 2005 Drilling Results. 2006 Economic Report to the Governor. 1 - 2004 Price per barrel $34.32; Source: 2006 Economic Report to the Governor. 2 - 2004 Price per cubic foot $5.26 Source: 2006 Economic Report to the Governor. 3 - 2004 Price per short ton $ 17.70 Source: 2006 Economic Report to the Governor.

The production values for each of the resources describe gross sales and were estimated using average annual prices, which were obtained from the (Utah) 2006 Economic Report to the Governor. All revenue generated from production listed in Table 3-50 does not circulate through the study area economy because all of the mining interests produced in the study area are not locally owned and operated. Mining and energy does, however, produce some labor earnings and tax revenue that circulate through the study area economy. According to a University of Utah study on the oil and gas exploration and production industry in Carbon and Emery counties, the average annual wages paid for employees in the oil and gas extraction industry for the study area are approximately $52,000, and oil and gas drilling and service companies were believed to pay about $43,100 in 2006 (University of Utah, 2007). The same study estimates the study area’s annual average wage for coal mining was about $62,666 in 2006 (University of Utah, 2007) Employment and income from mining and energy remain significant components of the local economy but have seen sizeable decreases over the past two decades.

Uranium Mining

During the 1950s and 1960s, and continuing to the early 1970s, uranium mining was perhaps the most critical mineral extraction business in the study area. Both speculative and actual production values of the numerous uranium mines were in the millions of dollars. In addition, the uranium industry is responsible for the vast majority of the road developments in certain sections of the study area. Hidden Splendor, Tidwell Draw, and the Buckhorn Wash roads were primarily developed for uranium activities.

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Although the industry has been dormant for 25 years, there has been renewed interest in developing old mining claims, and hundreds of new claims have been filed locally. New technology also has the potential to greatly affect the use of uranium in the future.

Grazing

As stated earlier, grazing remains an important component both socially and historically in the study area. Livestock grazing and ranching also provide a stimulus for the local economy and provide jobs and income to individuals living in the area.

An estimate of the amount of grazing that occurs on BLM lands within the PFO was made using the most recent data from the PFO. Table 3-51 summarizes the total number of AUMs that were ‘billed” to permittees each year during 1994 to 2005. Cattle grazing constitutes the greatest percentage of billable AUMs5 in all years, with a small amount of horse and sheep grazing. The total number of AUMs varies greatly from year to year and is dependent on a number of factors, including fluctuating markets and uncertain annual weather reliability. Animal units have declined by about 20 percent relative to the number of animal units for cows and ewes in the 1940s according to a USU study on trend information for livestock industry issues for the Price RMP (Utah State University, 2007). Federal grazing fees reported for 2006 are $1.56 per AUM.

Table 3-51. Livestock Grazing Use (AUMs)—Price Field Office Year Cattle Horses Sheep Total 1994 40,193 1,294 211 41,698 1995 46,147 230 300 46,677 1996 31,628 238 262 32,128 1997 40,555 188 284 41,027 1998 50,461 201 604 51,266 1999 55,272 250 310 55,832 2000 41,168 235 215 41,618 2001 55,741 263 262 56,266 2002 42,218 182 94 42,494 2003 32,627 216 0 32,843 2004 34,518 298 110 34,926 2005 49,716 293 213 50,222 5-yr Ave. 42,964 250 136 43,350 12-yr Ave. 43,354 324 239 43,916

The US Department of Agriculture (USDA) National Agricultural Statistics Service reports livestock production statistics for all counties in the United States. The latest data on cattle inventories and cash receipts for Carbon and Emery counties during 2000 to 2004 are compiled in Table 3-52. Inventories of

5 An AUM is a standardized measurement of the amount of forage necessary for the sustenance of one cow unit or its equivalent for 1 month. Approximately 800 pounds of forage.

Price RMP 3-123 Chapter 3 Proposed RMP/Final EIS cattle remained fairly constant during this 5-year period. However, cash receipts for livestock and livestock products grew steadily from $18 million in 2000 to more than $26 million by 2004 primarily because of significant increases in cattle prices.

Table 3-52. Cattle Production—Study Area, 2000–2004 5-Year Area 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Average Cattle Carbon 12,000 11,000 11,000 9,000 11,000 10,800 Emery 27,000 27,000 27,000 24,000 26,000 26,200 Study 39,000 38,000 38,000 33,000 37,000 37,000 Area Value Carbon $5,412,050 $5,287,270 $5,296,854 $5,931,458 $6,326,005 $5,650,727 Emery $13,474,900 $13,919,549 $13,030,261 $20,291,832 $20,610,531 $16,265,415 Study $18,886,950 $19,206,819 $18,327,115 $26,223,290 $26,936,536 $21,916,142 Area Source: USDA, National Agricultural Statistical Service, and the 2006 Economic Report to the Governor, Utah Governor’s Office of Budget and Planning.

The value of grazing AUMs for cattle was estimated as summarized in Table 3-53.6 For cattle AUMs, data were obtained from the Utah Agricultural Statistical Service, as shown in columns 2 and 3, and include the cash receipts for cattle sold in Utah each year during 2000 to 2004. Total cattle sales were divided by cattle inventories at the beginning of each year, which provided a value per head as summarized in column 4. The value per cow was then divided by an AUM conversion factor, which resulted in an estimated value per AUM per year. An inflation factor was used to convert nominal dollars to real dollars (2005) as summarized in column 7. Using this method, the average value of a cattle AUM in Utah during 2000 to 2004 was estimated to be $47.08.

Table 3-53. Estimated Value of Cattle AUMs in Utah (2005$) Value of Value of Value of Cows that Conversion Value Per Production Production Year Production have Calved to AUMs Cow Per AUM Per AUM (1,000 $) (1,000 Head) (AUMs/cow) (Nominal $) Real (2005 $) 2000 $296,585 450 $659.08 16 $41.19 $45.50 2001 $314,868 450 $699.71 16 $43.73 $47.19 2002 $284,580 450 $632.40 16 $39.53 $41.87 2003 $323,040 430 $751.26 16 $46.95 $48.86 2004 $358,715 440 $815.26 16 $50.95 $51.99 5-year Average $47.08 a Utah Agricultural Statistics b J.P. Workman, Range Economics, 1986, McMillan Publishing, Inc. New York, New York.

6 An economic analysis was not completed on sheep grazing given the small amount of sheep AUMs within the PFO,

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Table 3-54 summarizes the estimated value of cattle production from AUM usage within the study area from 2000 to 2004. A 5-year production average indicates the value of grazing output from study area lands to be approximately $2 million per year. Comparing this value with average annual value of cattle production in the study area (Table 3-53), public land grazing in the study area represents approximately 9 percent of the total average value of livestock production ($21.9 million).

Table 3-54. Value of Grazing Output, Study Area, 5-Year Average 2000–20041

Annual Average Cattle AUMs (2000–2004) 42,964 Estimated Value of Production Cattle (2005 $47.08 dollars/AUM) (5-year average) Value of Cattle Grazing Output from Price BLM Lands $2,022,745 Sources: BLM Price Field Office; USDA, National Agricultural Statistics Service, Utah Agriculture Statistics Service. 1 All dollar figures are 2005 dollars.

Recreation, Off-Highway Vehicles and Tourism

Recreation as an industry has a long history in the study area. The comments received during scoping meetings, as well as those submitted by county officials, suggest that the most popular activities include OHV use, camping, horseback riding, mountain biking, sightseeing, canyoneering, and river running, and all are contributors to the local economy. Public lands provide significant recreation opportunities in the San Rafael Swell, Nine Mile Canyon, Range Creek, Desolation Canyon, Labyrinth Canyon, the Book Cliffs, Cedar Mountain, Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry, and Price Canyon. In addition to recreational areas on BLM lands, 5 State parks (Huntington, Millsite, Scofield, Green River, and Goblin Valley) are available for recreation in the study area. All of these places provide significant recreation opportunities and are actively promoted as tourist destinations.

National trends in recreation and tourism indicate the continued expansion of the tourism and recreation sector. In addition, recreation is expected to be an increasing use of BLM lands. Recreational opportunities in Carbon and Emery counties are also becoming much more popular with outside residents that enjoy the open areas and unique recreational opportunities. Specifically, this area is becoming known regionally and nationally for areas such as the San Rafael Swell, Range Creek, Desolation Canyon, the Book Cliffs, and Nine Mile Canyon.

Recreation and tourism also provides an important economic stimulus to the local economy. Employment provided by recreation and tourism is typically within the leisure and hospitality industry. Total leisure and hospitality earnings during 2003 were $7.7 million (2005 dollars) in the study area (Utah Governor’s Office of Planning and Budget, DEA Division). In addition, the Utah Division of Travel Development estimates that there were 1,511 travel and tourism jobs in the study area during 2003. As stated earlier, leisure and hospitality jobs represent approximately 8 percent of total employment in the study area in 2004.

The Division’s estimates for traveler spending and tourism tax revenues are summarized in Table 3-55. Trends for 2001 to 2003 indicate a decrease in travel to the area and an associated decline in spending and tax revenue. This is likely the result of concerns over travel after the events of September 11, 2001, and the subsequent slow-down in the national economy. The Travel Division’s figures also show that visits to State and national parks declined during the same time period between 1.4 percent and 58 percent. The exceptions were visits to Arches National Park, Millsite State Park, and Capital Reef National Park, which increased slightly during this time from 0.5 percent to 5 percent. Despite this recent downturn, the

Price RMP 3-125 Chapter 3 Proposed RMP/Final EIS demand for recreation in the study area is expected to stabilize and eventually increase as a result of State and regional population growth, new technologies in recreation gear,7 and an aging population that may demand increased opportunities for leisure and recreation. In addition, the most recent data for the leisure and hospitality industry in the study area, as presented earlier, indicate that this industry was one of the fastest growing in terms of total jobs and earnings during 2000 and 2004.

Recreation also has important social implications for local residents and visitors. As a lifestyle, recreation has a long history in the study area. Boating on the Green River has been taken place since the early 1900s, and more traditional activities such as hunting, fishing, and motorized vehicle travel continue to be significant contributors to the local economy. As families and other residents began to recognize the inherent value of wide open, natural conditions, recreational activities continued to develop. Another unique social and geographic activity is “Eastering” which has more to do with enjoying the first spring outing than recognizing the Christian event. OHV use has also been popular in this area and developed out of the need to use motorized vehicles to traverse the sometimes inhospitable terrain in the study area.

Table 3-55. Travel and Tourism Indicators Estimates of Economic Contribution From 2001 2002 2003 Recreation in Study Area Spending by Travelers Carbon $36,902,989 $37,077,978 $30,385,717 Emery $16,725,039 $12,288,701 $12,487,281 Study Area $53,628,029 $49,366,679 $42,872,998 Local Tax Revenues from Traveler Spending Carbon $935,523 $777,154 $636,643 Emery $419,745 $256,686 $260,568 Study Area $1,355,268 $1,033,840 $897,211 Source: Utah Division of Travel Development, Department of Community and Economic Development; 2004 State and County Economic and Travel Indicator Profiles

3.6.11 Environmental Justice

Pursuant to Executive Order 12898, U.S. Actions to Address Environmental Justice in Minority Populations, 59 Reg 7629 (February 11, 1994), the BLM is required to ensure that its programs, policies, and activities do not have the effect of excluding persons (including populations) from participation in, denying persons (including populations) the benefits of, or subject persons (including populations) to discrimination under, such programs, policies, and activities, because of race, color, or national origin. In addition, the BLM must give due consideration to the impacts and benefits of its programs, policies, and activities on low-income populations.

7 New technologies and availability of new gear has opened up new activities in the area. These activities include rafting, kayaking, bouldering, mountain biking, ice climbing, and rock climbing. It can be assumed that new technologies in the recreation industry will continue to increase the use of the resources of the PFO (McCandless 2005).

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Examination of the ethnic composition and economic situation of study area residents was conducted to ensure compliance with environmental justice requirements. The study area shows little or no geographical concentration of minority populations.

Analysis of income structure and distribution reveals only slight variation in the percentage of people below the poverty level in the study area relative to the State and national averages. Based on best available 2003 Census poverty estimates for both Carbon and Emery counties, poverty levels are well below the set threshold for Environmental Justice populations of 25 percent for low-income populations established by the U.S. Department Health and Human Services.

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