Sadomasochism Without Sex? Exploring the Parallels Between BDSM and Extreme Rituals1

Sadomasochism without Sex? (1997) theorizing that masochism provides a method of temporarily Exploring the Parallels between escaping the burdens of selfhood, and 1 BDSM and Extreme Rituals Pitagora and Ophelian (in press) identifying therapeutic benefits of Brad J. Sagarin, Ellen M. Lee, and BDSM. Likewise, Hutson (2014) Kathryn R. Klement reviewed research on why we pursue Northern Illinois University unpleasant experiences, drawing parallels between the motivations for Introduction masochism and the motivations for a number of non-sexual activities such as BDSM (Bondage & Discipline, eating chili peppers and riding roller Dominance & Submission, Sadism & coasters (Rozin et al., 2013), and Masochism) is often defined solely as climbing mountains (Loewenstein, kinky sex. BDSM practitioners 1999). Hutson also notes that sometimes recognize, however, that BDSM can we choose unpleasant activities over encompass more than just sexuality. In pleasant alternatives (e.g., an ice hotel SM 101 versus a Marriot) in order to build our (1996) definition of BDSM includes experiential CV (Keinan & Kivetz, both sexual and non-sexual motivations: 2011). We should note that many of these ideas, although compelling, still The knowing use of need empirical validation. psychological dominance and submission, and/or physical These non-sexual conceptualizations of bondage, and/or pain, and/or BDSM suggest parallels with another related practices in a safe, legal, type of intense physical activity: extreme consensual manner in order for rituals. Extreme rituals (e.g., body the participants to experience piercing, firewalking) have been erotic arousal and/or personal documented historically (Catlin, 1867) growth. (p. 10) and are widely practiced today (Fischer et al., 2014). As with BDSM, extreme Researchers have also begun recognizing rituals require skill and dedication to non-sexual aspects of BDSM, with perform safely. Also as with BDSM, Newmahr (2010) conceptualizing extreme rituals likely facilitate escape BDSM as serious leisure (akin to from the self, given the trances that some mountain climbing and other activities rituals are reported to produce (Pfaff & that require investment, skill, and Simons, 1973; Xygalatas, 2014). Finally, dedication to perform), Baumeister it seems likely that some people

1 We thank the leadership and members supported by grants from Butchmanns, of the Arizona Power Exchange and the Inc., CLAW Corp., the Community- leadership and attendees of the Academic Consortium for Research on Southwest Leather Conference, the Alternative Sexualities (CARAS), and Leather Levi Weekend, and Thunder in the Society for the Scientific Study of the Mountains for making these studies Sexuality (SSSS). possible. These studies were generously

Journal of Positive Sexuality, Vol. 1, November 2015 © 2015 Journal of Positive Sexuality-Center for Positive Sexuality participate in extreme rituals such as disconnect between the physiological firewalking for the social and and the psychological might be psychological benefits they get from indicative of an altered state of being able to tell others (and themselves) consciousness achieved by BDSM that they have done so. Thus, people bottoms and pierced ritual participants appear to pursue BDSM and extreme (see Xygalatas et al., 2013, for a similar rituals, in part, for similar reasons, and disconnect regarding measured and they appear to anticipate similar benefits experienced heart rate among from both. firewalkers). BDSM tops and non- pierced ritual participants (ritual leaders, Parallels between BDSM and Extreme drummers, piercers, observers, etc.), in Rituals contrast, typically showed no change in cortisol and reported decreases in Over the past several years, our research psychological stress. This reduction in team has investigated the physiological psychological stress in BDSM tops and and psychological effects of consensual non-pierced ritual participants suggests BDSM activities and extreme rituals (see that it may not be necessary for all Table 1). Across these studies, certain participants to experience the same level patterns have begun to emerge. These of pain or intensity as bottoms or pierced patterns suggest that the parallels individuals to psychologically benefit between BDSM and extreme rituals from the activity. extend beyond the motivations and anticipated benefits of the activities to The second parallel involves altered the role-specific effects of the activities. states of consciousness. Anecdotally, In this paper, we explore these parallels. both BDSM practitioners and ritual Of necessity, we only briefly summarize participants report that the activities the specifics of each study. Readers sometimes induce altered states of interested in the details are referred to consciousness (e.g., topspace and the papers cited in Appendix 1. subspace in BDSM tops and bottoms; trances in ritual participants). We The first parallel involves stress, assessed two altered states: flow particularly the disconnect between (Csikszentmihalyi, 1991) and transient physiological and psychological stress hypofrontality (Dietrich, 2003), which observed in BDSM bottoms and in we believed might be the states pierced ritual participants. We measured described as topspace and subspace, physiological stress using the hormone respectively. Flow is a highly cortisol (assessed via saliva sample). Not pleasurable and satisfying mental state surprisingly, given the physical pain and involving intense absorption and optimal lack of control often involved, both performance on an activity such as BDSM bottoms and pierced ritual sports or music. In our studies, BDSM participants showed increases in cortisol tops, ritual piercers, and those from before to during the activities. At supporting a specific pierced ritual the same time, however, BDSM bottoms participant reported the highest levels of and pierced ritual participants reported flow, particularly on the optimal decreases in the psychological performance facets of flow. Likewise, experience of stress. We suspect this BDSM bottoms and non-piercer ritual

Journal of Positive Sexuality, Vol. 1, November 2015 © 2015 Journal of Positive Sexuality-Center for Positive Sexuality participants (pierced participants, ritual climbing; accidents of habit, leaders, drummers, observers, etc., but opportunity, and association may not piercers) showed decrements in play key causal roles. (p. 54) performance on the cognitive Stroop test (MacLeod, 1991), suggesting temporary The third parallel involves intimacy. We measured intimacy using the Inclusion function capability consistent with of Other in Self Scale (Aron et al., subspace/transient hypofrontality. It is 1992), in which respondents indicate notable that BDSM tops and ritual their relationship with another person piercers showed no evidence of (their scene partner; their fellow ritual cognitive impairment, suggesting that participants) by selecting one of seven they retained the cognitive capability to pairs of increasingly overlapping circles, perform the technically precise actions required for their roles. across roles, BDSM practitioners and These results have important ritual participants reported increases in implications for safety within BDSM self-other overlap from before to after scenes and extreme rituals. In particular, their activities. BDSM scenes and the temporary cognitive impairment extreme rituals both appear to foster shown by BDSM bottoms and non- intimacy between participants. As with piercer ritual participants suggests that psychological stress, these findings the altered state of consciousness suggest that experiencing pain during achieved by these individuals might these activities may not be necessary to make recognizing personal limits more reap personal benefits. difficult. Fortunately, evidence from BDSM tops and ritual piercers suggests The primary area of distinction we that these individuals retained the concentration and focus necessary to conceptualization of the activities. After perform their roles and to monitor the the activities were over, we asked well-being of their scene partners and participants how sexual, how fellow ritual participants. Furthermore, sadomasochistic, and how spiritual they our data suggest that BDSM scenes and found the activities. For BDSM scenes, extreme rituals might represent multiple tops perceived the scenes as highest in routes to achieving the same altered sexuality, and bottoms perceived the states of consciousness in essence, scenes as highest in sadomasochism. In different paths to the same place. contrast, ritual participants perceived the Baumeister (1988) explored a similar ritual as highest in spirituality. Future question when he linked masochism to work should investigate which elements other methods of escaping the self: of these activities contribute to these different conceptualizations. The question of why someone comes to prefer masochism over Conclusion mountain climbing may be comparable to the question of The topics of BDSM and extreme rituals why someone comes to prefer are disproportionately understudied skydiving over mountain within the scholarly literature and widely

Journal of Positive Sexuality, Vol. 1, November 2015 © 2015 Journal of Positive Sexuality-Center for Positive Sexuality misunderstood by the general public. It Baumeister, R. F. (1988). Masochism as escape is our hope that this research can help from self. Journal of Sex Research, 25, 28-59. illuminate the reasons why people Baumeister, R. F. (1997). The enigmatic appeal choose to engage in these types of of sexual masochism: Why people activities and that this understanding desire pain, bondage, and humiliation in might lead to greater acceptance. As sex. Journal of Social and Clinical noted above, people appear to pursue Psychology, 16, 133-150. Catlin, G. (1867). O-Kee-Pa, a religious BDSM and extreme rituals, in part, for ceremony; and other customs of the similar reasons, and they appear to Mandans. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott anticipate similar benefits from both. and Co. And as the results of our studies Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1991). Flow: The illustrate, BDSM scenes and extreme psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper Collins. rituals appear to have similar effects on Dietrich, A. (2003). Functional neuroanatomy of participants. Indeed, even the primary altered states of consciousness: The area of distinction we observed the transient hypofrontality hypothesis. conceptualization of the activities Consciousness and Cognition, 12, 231- might not represent a universal 256. Easton, D., & Hardy, J. W. (2001). The new difference. As Easton and Hardy (2001) bottoming book. Emeryville, CA: observe: Greenery Press. Easton, D., & Hardy, J.W. (2004). Radical Today we are also seeing the Ecstasy. Oakland, CA: Greenery Press. emergence of S/M- often referred Fischer, R., Xygalatas, D., Mitkidis, P., Reddish, P., Tok, P., Konvalinka, I., & Bulbulia, to in this context as "Sex Magic"- J. (2014). The fire- as a spiritual practice. The and physiological responses in an combination of ritual with S/M, extreme collective ritual. PloS one, 9, and the use of strong sensation e88355. and sometimes opening the skin Hutson, M. (2014). Why we enjoy chili peppers, S&M, gruesome movies, and other to achieve transcendent states, unpleasant experiences. Retrieved have led to a potent combination August 21, 2015 from of S/M practice with spiritual http://nymag.com/scienceofus/2014/05/ seeking. (Easton & Hardy, 2001, why-we-enjoy-chili-peppers-and- gruesome-movies.html Keinan, A., & Kivetz, R. (2011). Productivity Radical Ecstasy, 2004) orientation and the consumption of collectable experiences. Journal of References Consumer Research, 37, 935-950. Ambler, J. K., Lee, E. M., Klement, K., R., Klement, K. R., Lee, E. M., Ambler, J. K., Loewald, T., Comber, E., Hanson, S. Hanson, S. A., Comber, E., Wietting, A., Cutler, B., Cutler, N. & Sagarin, B. D., . . . Sagarin, B. J. (2015). Extreme J. (2015). Consensual BDSM causes rituals in a BDSM context: The role-specific altered states of physiological and psychological effects consciousness. Manuscript submitted . Manuscript for publication. submitted for publication. Aron, A., Aron, E. N., & Smollan, D. (1992). Lee, E. M., Ambler, J. K., & Sagarin, B. J., Inclusion of Other in the Self Scale and (2014, May). Hooked together: the structure of interpersonal closeness. Investigating a hook-pull in a BDSM Journal of Personality and Social context. Paper presented at the Psychology, 63, 596-612. Midwestern Psychological

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Journal of Positive Sexuality, Vol. 1, November 2015 © 2015 Journal of Positive Sexuality-Center for Positive Sexuality Lee, E. M., Klement, K., R., Ambler, J. (2009). Hormonal changes and couple K., Loewald, T., Comber, E., Hanson, bonding in consensual S. A., Pruitt, B., & Sagarin, B. J. (2015). Altered states of consciousness during an extreme ritual. Manuscript Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). submitted for publication. Development and validation of brief Loewenstein, G. (1999). Because it is there: The measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Utility Theory. Kyklos, 52, 315-344. Personality and Social Psychology, 54, MacLeod, C. M. (1991). Half a century of 1063-1070. doi:10.1037//0022- research on the Stroop effect: An 3514.54.6.1063 integrative review. Psychological Wiseman, J. (1996). SM 101: A Realistic Bulletin, 109, 163-203. Introduction. San Francisco, CA: Newmahr, S. (2010). Rethinking kink: Greenery Press. Sadomasochism as serious leisure. Xygalatas, D. (2014). Trial by fire: From fire- Qualitative Sociology, 33, 313-331. walking to the ice-bucket challenge, Pfaff, G. (Producer), & Simons, R. (Consultant). ritual pain and suffering forge intense (1973). Floating in the air, followed by social bonds. Aeon. Retrieved October the wind [Motion picture]. United 23, 2014 from States: Michigan State University and http://aeon.co/magazine/society/how- University of Malaya. extreme-rituals-bond-us-for-life/ Pitagora, D. & Ophelian, A. (in press). Xygalatas, D., Schjoedt, U., Bulbulia, J., Therapeutic benefits of subspace. Konvalinka, I., & Jegindo, E. M. Electronic Journal of Human Sexuality. (2013). Autobiographical memory in a Rozin, P., Guillot, L., Fincher, K., Rozin, A., & fire-walking ritual. Journal of Cognition Tsukayama, E. (2013). Glad to be sad, and Culture, 13, 1-16. and other examples of benign masochism. Judgment and Decision Making, 8, 439-447. Sagarin, B. J., Cutler, B., Cutler, N., Lawler- Sagarin, K. A., & Matuszewich, L.

Appendix 1

Studies of BDSM Scenes and Extreme Rituals

Note. The Arizona Power Exchange is a Phoenix-based BDSM organization. The Southwest Leather Conference is an annual BDSM/Leather conference held in Phoenix, AZ. The Leather Levi Weekend is an annual weekend event held in Northern California. Thunder in the Mountains is an annual BDSM/Leather conference held in Denver, CO. Cortisol and testosterone are hormones measured via saliva sampling. The IOS is the Inclusion of Other in Self Scale (Aron et al., 1992), a measure of intimacy or relationship closeness. The PANAS is the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (Watson et al., 1988), a measure of positive emotions (e.g., interested, alert) and negative emotions (e.g., distressed, upset).