PACIFIC ISLANDS COOPERATIVE ECOLOGICAL STUDIES UNIT Department of Botany 3190 Maile Way Honolulu, Hawaii 96822 Technical Report DRAFT ETHNOGRAPHIC ASSESSMENT and OVERVIEW NATIONAL PARK of AMERICAN SAMOA Jocelyn Linnekin, Terry Hunt, Leslie Lang and Timothy McCormick The CESU is a cooperative program between The University of Hawaii and U.S. National Park Service November 2006 Ethnographic Assessment and Overview The National Park of American Samoa Table of Contents List of Tables and Figures iii List of Slides v Preface: Study Issues vi Maps vii Key to Maps x I. The Environmental Context 1 Climate and Vegetation 1 The National Park Environments 4 II. Archaeology and Samoan Prehistory 8 Early Settlement 8 Later Inland Settlement 9 Late Prehistoric Period 9 European Contact and the Historical Period 10 Archaeology in the National Park Units 10 III. Research Methodology 15 Documentary Phase 15 Field Research 15 Limitations of the Research 17 IV. Ethnohistory 22 Myths and Legends Relevant to the Park 22 The European Contact Period 25 Western Ethnohistorical and Ethnographic Reports 31 V. Agriculture and Domestically Useful Plants 46 Tutuila Unit 46 Ta'u Unit 49 Ofu Unit 51 Summary 52 VI. Marine Resources 53 Tutuila Unit 53 Ta'u Unit 57 Ofu Unit 58 Summary 61 i VII. Medicinal Plants 63 Ofu Unit 63 Ta'u Unit 66 Tutuila Unit 66 Summary 67 VIII. Analysis of Freelist Data 75 Crops and Cultivated Plants 76 Medicinal Plants 81 Fish and Marine Species 84 Animals and Birds 86 Summary of the Freelist Results 88 IX. Sites, Trails, and Cultural Landmarks 144 Settlement Sites 144 Sacred and Legendary Sites 145 Trails 148 Caves 149 Water Resources 150 X. Conclusions 152 Summary of Findings 152 Local Perceptions of the Park 153 Recommendations for Further Research 154 Annotated Bibliography 156 Appendices 167 1 Sample Survey Forms 168 2 Samoan and Taxonomic Names: Crops and Cultigens 172 3 Samoan and Taxonomic Names: Marine Species 174 4 Samoan and Taxonomic Names: Medicinal Plants 178 5 Samoan and Taxonomic Names: Fauna 183 ii List of Tables and Figures Table Page 1 Informants by Village and Gender 20 2 Surveys by Village, Topic, and Gender 21 3 Medicinal Use of Plants 68 4 Crops and Cultivated Plants, Tutuila 89 5 Crops, Tutuila: Correlation of each respondent with group 90 6 Crops and Cultivated Plants, Ta'u Unit (Fitiuta) 92 7 Crops, Ta'u: Correlation of each respondent with group 92 8 Crops and Cultivated Plants, Ofu Unit 94 9 Crops, Ofu: Correlation of each respondent with group 95 10 Crops and Cultivated Plants, All Units Combined 97 11 Crops and Cultigens, by Village and Unit 99 12 Woods Gathered on Park Land, by Village and Unit 101 13 Crops and Cultigens, All Units: Correlation of each respondent with group 103 14 Medicinal Plants, Tutuila Unit 104 15 Medicinals, Tutuila: Correlation of each respondent with group 105 16 Medicinal Plants, Ta'u (Fitiuta) 107 17 Medicinals, Ta'u: Correlation of each respondent with group 108 18 Medicinal Plants, Ofu Unit 110 19 Medicinals, Ofu: Correlation of each respondent with group 111 20 Medicinal Plants, All Units Combined 113 21 Medicinal Plants, by Village and Unit 115 22 Fish and Marine Species, Tutuila Unit 117 23 Marine Species, Tutuila: Correlation of each respondent with group 119 24 Fish and Marine Species, Ta'u Unit (Fitiuta) 121 25 Marine Species, Ta'u: Correlation of each respondent with group 122 26 Fish and Marine Species, Ofu Unit 124 27 Marine Species, Ofu: Correlation of each respondent with group 126 28 Fish and Marine Species, All Units Combined 128 29 Marine Species, by Village and Unit 131 30 Animals and Birds, by Village and Unit 136 31 Animals and Birds, Tutuila Unit 138 32 Fauna, Tutuila: Correlation of each respondent with group 139 33 Animals and Birds, Ta'u Unit (Fitiuta) 140 34 Animals and Birds, Ofu Unit 141 35 Animals and Birds, All Units Combined 142 iii Figure Page 1 Cluster Analysis, Crops and Cultigens, Tutuila 91 2 Cluster Analysis, Crops and Cultigens, Ta'u 93 3 Cluster Analysis, Crops and Cultigens, Ofu 96 4 Cluster Analysis, Crops and Cultigens, All Units 102 5 Cluster Analysis, Medicinal Plants, Tutuila 106 6 Cluster Analysis, Medicinal Plants, Ta'u (Fitiuta) 109 7 Cluster Analysis, Medicinal Plants, Ofu Unit 112 8 Multidimensional Scaling Plot, Marine Species, Tutuila 120 9 Cluster Analysis, Marine Species, Ta'u Unit (Fitiuta) 123 10 Multidimensional Scaling Plot, Marine Species, Ofu Unit 127 11 Cluster Analysis, Marine Species, All Units 134 iv List of Slides Number (Original no.) Description Page Ref. 1 (67) "Sister" rock at Luama'a, near Fitiuta 24 2 (9) Vatia plantations in Park, on Tiatauala Ridge 47 3 (47) Ta'amu and banana plantation at Saua, inside the Park 49 4 (25) Fitiuta resident weaving a fine mat using lau fala from her plantation near Saua, inside the Park 50 5 (53) Young fala plants along the road through Saua 50 6 (21) Fitiuta resident making coconut sennit 50 7 (113) Newly planted fala and bananas at To'aga, Ofu 51 8 (5) Paopao at Vatia 54 9 (1) Fua'o stick used by Afono people 56 10 (61) Fishing in the Park with a throw net (Fitiuta) 57 11 (63) Reef gathering in the Park near Fitiuta 57 12 (20) Bottles of matapisu and alili (Fitiuta) 57 13 (15) Uu caught in Park near Fitiuta 58 14 (83) The reef at To'aga, Ofu, at low tide 58 15 (91) Reef gathering in the Park, Ofu 58 16 (79) 'Enu fish trap, Ofu 59 17 (93) Woman at To'aga with her catch of four fe'e 59 18 (75) Medicinal plants (Ofu): lau mamae, 'ulu straw, and ti root 64 19 (17) Dried ma'anunu, Fitiuta 65 20 (105) Medicinal plants growing at To'aga, Ofu: fue fue saina (on left, smaller leaves), fue sina (on right, larger leaves), tae'oti (background, oval, serrated leaves) 65 21 (59) Old foot path running from Fitiuta village through the Saua plantation area 148 22 (13) Rock outcropping in the uplands of Afono where two caves are located 148 v Preface: Study Issues The Ethnographic Assessment and Overview of the National Park of American Samoa was commissioned to document the ethnohistorical background and cultural context of Park localities, as well as modern resource use within the Park, as a guide to policy making. The investigation has focused on the historical and cultural significance of Park areas and on how Samoans today utilize lands, forests, reefs, and offshore fisheries lying within the Park boundary. A detailed discussion of our research methodology is presented in Chapter III. After discussing the environmental, archaeological, and ethnohistorical contexts of the National Park of American Samoa, the report addresses agriculture, marine resource use, medicinal plants, and culturally significant sites. Quantitative analyses of systematic interview data on these topics are presented in Chapter VIII. The report concludes with a summary of findings, a discussion of how local residents perceive the Park, and with suggestions for future research. In order to maintain the anonymity and confidentiality of our informants, we do not name particular individuals in this report. However, we wish to thank collectively all of the residents of the villages participating in the Park for their hospitality, kindness, and cooperation during our study. We particularly thank the Park Service staff in Pago Pago-- Superintendent Christopher Stein and Chief Park Ranger Leota Vaea Ainu'u--for their unflagging assistance and support. Field work for this report was conducted in the early 1990s and the draft report completed in 1995. vi Key to Maps Map 1. Tutuila Unit. 1 Purported site of the village of Vatia in pre-Christian times. There are said to be a number of graves in this area, dating from 1800 or earlier. 2 Television tower. 3 Footpath from Pato Pago to Vatia. An adjoining path runs along the ridge to the TV tower. 4 Flat area used by Afono people as a refuge during attacks. 5 Area along Olo Ridge referred to as Asifelefele. There are graves in this area. 6 Two caves at an outcropping where someone from Afono used to stand watch to warn of attacks from the sea. 7 Footpath from Pago Pago to Afono. Map 2. Ta'u Unit. 1 Papalaina. A woman lived here in the late 1950s. 2 The stream that marks the Park boundary on the mountain side of the road is the stream that Pava floated down on his way to meet Tagaloa for the first 'ava ceremony. 3 Unmarked burials. Skeletons were discovered when the stone path through Saua was being built, ca. 1950. Some were reburied here by one person who was interviewed. The skeletons are reputed to be people killed in four battles with Ta'u, ca. 1817. 4 The 'sacred sand,' oneone le tanumia, from the creation legend. 5 Luama'a, site of the two rocks in the creation legend. 6 Area of large ta'amu plantations. 7 A well, on the mountain side of the road. 8 Cleared area where someone lived for about six years. Skeletons were discovered here and reburied in one corner of the clearing. 9 Ulufala Point, where the first Tagaloa and the first Tui Manu'a lived. A legend tells of all the people of the Pacific gathering here in their boats. 10 Former taro plantations and old village site. 11 Laufuti Stream, once popular for fishing and swimming, but less frequented since the hurricanes destroyed the access road. 12 Area described as the best fishing grounds. Map 3. Ofu Unit. No specific land sites were recorded in this Unit.