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Big Brother Is Watching

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Big Brother Is Watching Big Brother is Watching: Electronic Performance Monitoring in the Knowledge-based Sector MASTER THESIS WITHIN: Business Administration NUMBER OF CREDITS: 30 ECTS PROGRAMME OF STUDY: Digital Business AUTHOR: Magdalena Kaminskaite & Samir Muzaiek JÖNKÖPING June 2021 Acknowledgments "If a machine, a Terminator, can learn the value of human life, maybe we can, too.” Sarah Connor - Terminator 2: Judgment Day We would like to express our gratitude to our tutor - Michał Zawadzki for guiding us through the challenging process of writing our thesis. Also, to the colleagues involved in providing us with useful feedback throughout the way, helping us to maintain focused and critical. Furthermore, we would like to express our gratitude for the wonderful people who took their time to answer our extensive and challenging questions that allowed our research to become a reality. A big thank you goes to our friends and family that were extremely encouraging and supportive throughout the whole process. Finally, we extend our gratitude to Covid-19 for making our lives miserable hell, the whole process stakingly painful, and opening the doors for this research to happen. Samir Muzaiek Magdalena Kaminskaite i Master Thesis in Business Administration Title: Big Brother is Watching: Electronic Performance Monitoring in the Knowledge- based Sector Authors: M. Kaminskaite & S. Muzaiek Tutor: Michal Zawadzki Date: 2021-05-24 Key terms: Electronic Performance Monitoring, Knowledge-based Workers, Organizational Control, Privacy, Technology-mediated Control, Remote Work, Workplace Surveillance. Abstract In light of the global shift to remote work that was prompted by the Covid-19 pandemic - the relevance and use of Electronic Performance Monitoring (EPM) significantly escalated across all sectors. However, the most recent comprehensive literature review on the topic by Ravid et al. (2020) pointed out significant gaps in how EPM is perceived by knowledge-based employees. In line with those defined gaps, we raised two research questions, regarding what the perceptions of knowledge-based workers are towards the implementation and dissemination of EPM techniques, and whether the workplace context (home/office) has an effect on knowledge-based worker’s perceptions towards it. In this paper, we take a critical approach relying on a theory-based typology of EPM characteristics and build on the organizational control theory by elaborating on the technology-mediated control concept. We follow the constructivist grounded theory approach developed by Charmaz (2008) and the data was collected via 20 semi-structured interviews. The key findings of this research showed similarities as well as differences in how knowledge-based employees perceive EPM in contrast to other types of workforce. While overall the perceptions on EPM are negative, they can to some extent be alleviated by introducing a justifiable purpose, being transparent, allowing control over monitoring, and setting clear limits. Moreover, we provided insights into the perceptions of knowledge-based workers in response to EPM within the context of working from home. In such a context, knowledge-based workers show more resistance to EPM techniques and higher expectations of privacy, transparency, and appropriate data handling. Lastly, the authors provided avenues for further research including cross-cultural perspective, access to data, and ethicality and legality of EPM. ii Table of Contents 1. Introduction ................................................................................ 1 2. Problem Discussion ................................................................. 3 3. Research Purpose / Question................................................. 5 4. Literature Review ...................................................................... 6 4.1 Knowledge-based workers .................................................................6 4.2 Electronic Performance Monitoring (EPM)...........................................7 4.2.1 Typology of EPM characteristics ........................................................8 4.2.1.1 Purpose ................................................................................................................ 8 4.2.1.2 Invasiveness.......................................................................................................... 9 4.2.1.3 Synchronicity ....................................................................................................... 10 4.3 The role of EPM in organizations ...................................................... 12 4.4 Psychological and work design effects on EPM ................................. 12 4.5 Privacy ........................................................................................... 14 4.6 Legal / Ethical considerations of EPM ............................................... 15 4.7 Critical theory .................................................................................. 16 4.8 Electronic panopticon ...................................................................... 17 4.9 Organizational Control ..................................................................... 18 4.10 Strategies of Organizational Control ................................................. 20 5. Methodology............................................................................. 22 5.1 Research Paradigm......................................................................... 22 5.2 Research strategy ........................................................................... 23 5.3 Data Collection & Sampling.............................................................. 24 5.4 Data Analysis .................................................................................. 25 5.5 Trustworthiness............................................................................... 26 5.5.1 Credibility ....................................................................................... 26 5.5.2 Transferability ................................................................................. 26 5.5.3 Dependability .................................................................................. 26 5.5.4 Confirmability .................................................................................. 27 5.6 Ethics and Confidentiality ................................................................. 27 6. Empirical Data .......................................................................... 28 6.1 Knowledge-based Worker Perceptions of EPM ................................. 29 6.1.1 Knowledge-based Worker Perceptions of the Purpose of EPM ........... 29 6.1.2 Perceptions Regarding Invasiveness and Control .............................. 31 6.1.2.1 The Perimeter of Monitoring.................................................................................. 31 6.1.2.2 Control ................................................................................................................ 34 6.1.2.3 Protection Measures ............................................................................................ 34 6.1.2.4 Scope of Monitoring ............................................................................................. 35 6.1.3 Data Collection and Delivery Preferences ......................................... 36 6.1.3.1 Span of Collection ................................................................................................ 36 6.1.3.2 Feedback Delivery ............................................................................................... 36 6.1.4 Transparency over Data .................................................................. 38 6.1.4.1 Level of Communication and Knowledge ............................................................... 38 6.1.4.2 Access to Data .................................................................................................... 39 6.1.4.3 Data Ownership ................................................................................................... 40 6.2 Reaction to Monitoring ..................................................................... 41 6.3 Monitoring at Home ......................................................................... 44 6.3.1 The overlap between home and office .............................................. 46 iii 6.3.2 Unorthodox working hours ............................................................... 48 6.3.3 The effect of working from home on EPM preferences ....................... 50 7. Analysis and Discussion ....................................................... 52 7.1 EPM and knowledge-based workers ................................................. 53 7.1.1 Access to Data ................................................................................ 54 7.1.2 Data Collection ............................................................................... 54 7.2 The Context of Working From Home................................................. 55 7.3 Electronic Panopticon ...................................................................... 56 7.4 EPM in the Context of Organizational Control.................................... 57 7.5 Critical Points on the Dissemination of EMP ...................................... 58 7.5.1 The Effect on Productivity ................................................................ 59 7.5.2 Informed consent and the future of consent....................................... 59 7.5.3 Data security, Privacy, and the Risk of Cyber-espionage ................... 61 7.5.4 EPM and Organizational
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