DOCSLIB.ORG

Islamophobia: a Comparative, Multilevel Analysis of Western Europe

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Islamophobia: a Comparative, Multilevel Analysis of Western Europe Islamophobia: A Comparative, Multilevel Analysis of Western Europe by Serdar Kaya M.A. (Political Science), University of Akron, 2007 M.B.A. (Business Administration) California State University, Los Angeles, 2002 B.Sc. (Business Administration), Istanbul University, 2000 Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Political Science Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences © Serdar Kaya 2015 SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY Summer 2015 All rights reserved. However, in accordance with the Copyright Act of Canada, this work may be reproduced, without authorization, under the conditions for "Fair Dealing." Therefore, limited reproduction of this work for the purposes of private study, research, criticism, review and news reporting is likely to be in accordance with the law, particularly if cited appropriately. Approval Name: Serdar Kaya Degree: Doctor of Philosophy Title: Islamophobia: A Comparative, Multilevel Analysis of Western Europe Examining Committee: Chair: Genevieve Fuji Johnson Associate Professor Laurent Dobuzinskis Senior Supervisor Associate Professor David Laycock Supervisor Professor Derryl MacLean Supervisor Associate Professor Thomas Kuehn Internal Examiner Associate Professor Department of History Rima Wilkes External Examiner Associate Professor Department of Sociology University of British Columbia Date Defended/Approved: May 22, 2015 ii Abstract This study examines the ways in which state policies recognize, accommodate and legitimize immigrant cultures, and analyzes the extent to which state accommodation leads to acceptance and tolerance toward immigrants. The study brings together social psychological and institutionalist perspectives, and argues that state recognition and accommodation of immigrant cultures normalize new practices and traditions by making them a part of the country's cultural landscape. This state-led process blurs group lines, and reduces the likelihood of prejudice against immigrants. In contrast, when a state ignores or actively excludes an immigrant culture, it frames those associated with it as outsiders or lesser-citizens, and makes tolerance toward them less likely. To test that hypothesis, the study focuses on the Muslim immigrants in Western Europe, since their case involves a salient (real or perceived) cultural distance to the host societies. The study employs a mixed-methods research. It first examines the Belgian, British and German cases, and traces the process from state accommodation to tolerance with a special focus on the legitimization of cultural elements by state recognition. Then, it conducts a systematic analysis that covers nineteen countries in Western Europe. Individual-level data for the analysis come from the fourth wave of the European Values Study. On the country-level, the study builds what it calls the Accommodation of Islam (AOI) index to measure the extent to which Western European countries accommodate Islam in a variety of realms. Then, it specifies a multilevel regression model that controls for all major alternative explanations. On the individual level, the findings reveal multiple dimensions of religiosity that have divergent influences on anti-Muslim prejudice. On the country level, they indicate that the individuals in countries that do not accommodate Islam are more likely to be prejudiced against Muslims. Keywords: europe; islamophobia; immigrants; islam; muslims; western countries iii Dedication To Laurent Dobuzinskis iv Acknowledgements I was able to complete this study with the help of many institutions and individuals. My study was funded in part by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (Doctoral Fellowship), the British Colombia Provincial Government (Pacific Century Graduate Scholarship), Simon Fraser University (C.D. Nelson Memorial Graduate Scholarship, and the President's Ph.D. Research Stipend), and its Department of Political Science (Graduate Fellowship). I owe thanks to my senior supervisor Laurent Dobuzinskis, my committee members David Laycock and Derryl MacLean, and external committee members Thomas Kuehn and Rima Wilkes. I am also indebted to Paul Warwick for his valuable evaluation of my analyses. Over the past few years, I have presented parts of this study in several conference and workshop settings in the United States and Canada. I would like to thank the audiences, as well as the following scholars for their helpful feedbacks on earlier drafts: Tavishi Bhasin, Feryal Cherif, Karam Dana, Marc Helbling, Zeki Sarıgil, and Lisa Wedeen. I would like to also thank Artin Arslanian and Douglas Ross for the valuable advices they offered at certain critical stages of this study. Finally, I am particularly grateful to Ekrem Karakoç for his valuable suggestions and true friendship. v Table of Contents Approval...........................................................................................................................ii Abstract...........................................................................................................................iii Dedication.......................................................................................................................iv Acknowledgements..........................................................................................................v Table of Contents............................................................................................................vi List of Tables....................................................................................................................x List of Figures.................................................................................................................xii List of Abbreviations and Acronyms...............................................................................xiv Glossary.........................................................................................................................xv Chapter 1. Introduction..................................................................................................1 1.1. The Research Question............................................................................................1 1.2. A Summary of the Literature......................................................................................4 1.2.1. The Literature on Islamophobia.....................................................................4 1.2.2. Theories of Intergroup Threat........................................................................5 1.3. The Country Level.....................................................................................................6 1.4. The Argument...........................................................................................................7 1.5. The Contribution........................................................................................................9 1.6. Mixed-Methods Research.......................................................................................11 1.6.1. Qualitative Analysis.....................................................................................11 1.6.2. Case Selection............................................................................................13 1.6.3. Systematic Analysis.....................................................................................14 1.7. The Organization of the Study.................................................................................15 Chapter 2. Islam In The West.......................................................................................18 2.1. Immigration Inflows.................................................................................................18 2.1.1. Europe.........................................................................................................18 2.1.2. North America..............................................................................................21 2.2. Demographics.........................................................................................................23 2.3. Ongoing Disagreements..........................................................................................29 2.3.1. The Reluctance to Issue Permits for Mosques............................................30 2.3.2. Restrictions on the Use of the Islamic Veil...................................................32 2.3.3. The Education of Muslim Children...............................................................35 2.3.4. Halal Food...................................................................................................36 2.3.5. Cemeteries..................................................................................................37 2.3.6. Chaplaincy...................................................................................................38 2.3.7. Other...........................................................................................................38 2.4. Landmark Incidents.................................................................................................39 2.5. Multiculturalism.......................................................................................................42 2.6. Conclusion..............................................................................................................45 vi Chapter 3. The Literature.............................................................................................47 3.1. Islamophobia...........................................................................................................47
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Institutionalization of Islam in Europe and the Diyanet: the Case of Austria
    The Institutionalization of Islam in Europe and the Diyanet: The Case of Austria Zana ÇİTAK* Abstract The management of religious diversity has become one of the most significant issues facing European societies in the last few decades. The increasing use of religion as an instrument of immigration poli- cies in Europe since the late 1980s has led to various trajectories of institutionalization of Islam in European countries. In an increasing number of cases, institutionalization of Islam entails, among other things, the establishment of Muslim representative institutions. On the other hand, as it has transformed itself, since the early 1980s, from a domestic instrument of control over religion to an external instrument to consolidate national unity among indigenous or im- migrant Turkish communities beyond its borders, the organizations linked to the Turkish Directorate of Religious Affairs (the Diyanet) has become an important actor in various Muslim representative institutions in Europe. This article examines the case of the institu- tionalization of Islam in Austria with a particular focus on the role of the Diyanet in the Islamische Glaubensgemeinschaft in Österreich- IGGiÖ (Islamic Religious Community in Austria). An analysis of the Diyanet’s role in and its perception of the institutionalization of Islam in Austria demonstrates both the advantages and difficulties that the Diyanet faces in promoting ‘Turkish Islam’ in Europe. Keywords: Institutionalization, Islam, Austria, Turkey, Diyanet Avrupa’da İslam’ın Kurumsallaşması ve Diyanet: Avusturya Örneği Özet Dini çeşitliliğin yönetişimi meselesi son birkaç on yıldır Avrupa top- lumlarının en önemli gündem maddelerinden biri olmuştur. Avrupa ülkelerinde 1980’lerden beri dinin göç politikalarında gittikçe artan bir şekilde bir siyaset aracı olarak kullanılması İslam’ın farklı kurum- * Assoc.
    [Show full text]
  • Multicultural Analysis in Australia from Socio-Demographic Perspective
    Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies Copyright 2020 2020, Vol. 7, No. 1, 1-19 ISSN: 2149-1291 http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/280 Ethnic or Religious Identities?: Multicultural Analysis in Australia from Socio-Demographic Perspective Yaghoob Foroutan1 Department of Social Sciences, University of Mazandaran, Iran Abstract: Focusing on the data of ethnic and religious identities in a multiethnic and multicultural context, this paper provides research-based evidence to explain whether and how significantly such data could be reliable from a social and demographic perspective. The explanation is based on population census that also provides unique nation-wide data sources on ‘religious affiliation’. The field of this study is the multiethnic and multicultural context of Australia that holds a large variety of ethnic, religious and cultural groups from throughout the world. According to the findings of the present analysis, this paper argues that if ethnic migrants belonging to the same category of religious affiliation are considered as a single group without taking their ethnic origins into account, this will lead to insufficient, incomplete, and misleading knowledge. Keywords: ethnic and religious identities, multicultural Australia, social and demographic characteristics. Introduction Dealing with data on ethnic and religious identities in a multiethnic and multicultural context, this paper provides research-based evidence to explain whether and how significantly such data could be reliable from a social and demographic perspective. It presents research- based evidence to examine this key research question: ‘how reliable would our analysis on ethnic migrants’ religion be if we used official data sources?’. In particular, this paper provides empirical evidence to explore the existence and the extent of the reliability of studies on immigrants’ religion based on official data.
    [Show full text]
  • Populism As a Problem of Social Integration
    Populism as a Problem of Social Integration Noam Gidron and Peter A. Hall Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, Robertson Hall, Princeton University, Princeton NJ 08544. [email protected] Minda de Gunzburg Center for European Studies Harvard University 27 Kirkland Street Cambridge MA 02138 [email protected] Abstract We contend that contemporary support for populist parties, especially among their core voters in developed democracies, stems from a set of economic and cultural developments that have severed the connections that usually bind people to their society, leaving many feeling ‘left behind’. Building on an important ethnographic literature, we assess whether populism can be seen as a problem of social integration through an examination of political attitudes and electoral behavior in 26 developed democracies. Using subjective social status as an indicator for the social integration of individuals, we find that people who feel more marginal to society, because they lack social engagement or a sense of social respect, are more likely to be alienated from mainstream politics and to not vote or vote for parties of the populist right or radical left. Using multi-level models, we find that people with relatively low levels of income or education are more likely to feel marginalized when national levels of income inequality or enrollments in tertiary education are high. The implication is that support for parties of the populist right and radical left has both economic and cultural roots and should be addressed, not only as an issue of economic deprivation requiring redistribution, but also as an issue of social integration requiring efforts to expand social recognition.
    [Show full text]
  • In Russia We Were Germans, and Now We Are Russians." - Dilemmas of Identity Formation and and Communication Among German-Russian Aussiedler
    A Service of Leibniz-Informationszentrum econstor Wirtschaft Leibniz Information Centre Make Your Publications Visible. zbw for Economics Pfetsch, Barbara Working Paper "In Russia we were Germans, and now we are Russians." - Dilemmas of identity formation and and communication among German-Russian Aussiedler WZB Discussion Paper, No. FS III 99-103 Provided in Cooperation with: WZB Berlin Social Science Center Suggested Citation: Pfetsch, Barbara (1999) : "In Russia we were Germans, and now we are Russians." - Dilemmas of identity formation and and communication among German- Russian Aussiedler, WZB Discussion Paper, No. FS III 99-103, Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin für Sozialforschung (WZB), Berlin This Version is available at: http://hdl.handle.net/10419/49827 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Terms of use: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Documents in EconStor may be saved and copied for your Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. personal and scholarly purposes. Sie dürfen die Dokumente nicht für öffentliche oder kommerzielle You are not to copy documents for public or commercial Zwecke vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, öffentlich zugänglich purposes, to exhibit the documents publicly, to make them machen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen. publicly available on the internet, or to distribute or otherwise use the documents in public. Sofern die Verfasser die Dokumente unter Open-Content-Lizenzen (insbesondere CC-Lizenzen) zur Verfügung gestellt haben sollten, If the documents have
    [Show full text]
  • 2010 Census Redistricting Data (Public Law 94-171) Summary File— (Name of State) [Machine-Readable Data Files]/Prepared by the U.S
    2010 Census Redistricting Data (Public Law 94-171) Summary File Issued January 2011 2010 Census of Population and Housing PL/10-2 (RV) Technical Documentation U.S. Department of Commerce U S C E N S U S B U R E A U Economics and Statistics Administration U.S. CENSUS BUREAU Helping You Make Informed Decisions For additional information concerning the Census Redistricting Data Program, contact the Census Redistricting Data Office, U.S. Census Bureau, Washington, DC 20233, or phone 301-763-4039. For additional information concerning the DVD and software issues, contact the Administrative and Customer Services Division, Electronic Products Development Branch, U.S. Census Bureau, Washington, DC 20233, or phone 301-763-7710. For additional information concerning the files, contact the Customer Liaison and Marketing Services Office, Customer Services Center, U.S. Census Bureau, Washington, DC 20233, or phone 301-763-INFO (4636). For additional information concerning the technical documentation, contact the Administrative and Customer Services Division, Electronic Products Development Branch, U.S. Census Bureau, Washington, DC 20233, or phone 301-763-8004. 2010 Census Redistricting Data (Public Law 94-171) Summary File Issued January 2011 2010 Census of Population and Housing PL/10-2 (RV) Technical Documentation U.S. Department of Commerce Gary Locke, Secretary Rebecca M. Blank, Acting Deputy Secretary Economics and Statistics Administration Rebecca M. Blank, Under Secretary for Economic Affairs U.S. CENSUS BUREAU Robert M. Groves, Director SUGGESTED CITATION FILES: 2010 Census Redistricting Data (Public Law 94-171) Summary File— (name of state) [machine-readable data files]/prepared by the U.S.
    [Show full text]
  • Years of Austrian Legislation on Islam
    YEARS OF AUSTRIAN LEGISLATION ON ISLAM 1878 1912 1918 1945 2012 1294 1330 1336 1364 1433 1295 1337 1434 YEARS OF AUSTRIAN LEGISLATION ON ISLAM an essay by Richard Potz 100 YEARS OF AUSTRIAN LEGISLATION ON ISLAM Koran fragment Parchment, ascribed to the second half of the 9th century and the Abbasid-Tulunid region due to the artistic style of writing and the especially rich ornamentation. Austrian National Library ©ÖNB Content Foreword 7 Minister for Cultural and Religious Affairs Karl Count Stürgkh 9 The background: Austria-Hungary occupies Bosnia 13 The annexation of Bosnia and the Austrian Islam Act 19 The establishment of the Islamic Community in Austria 31 The development of the Islamic Community until the 2010/11 elections 34 Conferences of Imams 38 The future of the Islam Act 41 Imprint 42 5 Foreword By adopting the Islam Act of 1912, Austria created unique conditions for integrat- ing people of Muslim faith in society that are unparalleled in Europe. This early recognition of Islam thus established the basis for an orderly and respectful co- existence. Present-day experience illustrates that the structures that have devel- oped over 100 years and govern the way in which Muslims and the Austrian state cooperate and interact with each other are of decisive benefit in solving inter-faith and inter-cultural issues. The Islam Act of 1912 established the basis for the official recognition of Islam as a religious denomination in Austria. It is a special feature of Austrian law that the granting of legal recognition to a religious community is linked with its recogni- tion as a legal entity under public law.
    [Show full text]
  • “Clustering:” Redistricting in Geographic Perspective
    UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO Introducing “Clustering:” Redistricting in Geographic Perspective A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in Political Science by Justin Mark Levitt Committee in charge: Professor Thad Kousser, Chair Professor Christopher Elmendorf Professor Gary Jacobson Professor Gerry Mackie Professor Isaac Martin 2016 This Dissertation of Justin Mark Levitt is approved, and it is acceptable in quality and form for publication on microfilm and electronically: Chair University of California, San Diego 2016 iii DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to the memory of my grandfather, Nissel “Sol” Levitt. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Signature Page ..................................................................................................................................... iii Dedication ............................................................................................................................................ iv Table of Contents ................................................................................................................................. v List of Tables ....................................................................................................................................... ix List of Figures (including Maps) ........................................................................................................ x Acknowledgements ...........................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Muslims in Europe. the State of Research. IMISCOE Working Paper
    UvA-DARE (Digital Academic Repository) Muslims in Europe. The state of research. IMISCOE Working paper. Buijs, F.J.; Rath, J.C. Publication date 2006 Link to publication Citation for published version (APA): Buijs, F. J., & Rath, J. C. (2006). Muslims in Europe. The state of research. IMISCOE Working paper. Universiteit van Amsterdam. http://www.imiscoe.org/publications/workingpapers/documents/MuslimsinEurope- Thestateofresearch.pdf General rights It is not permitted to download or to forward/distribute the text or part of it without the consent of the author(s) and/or copyright holder(s), other than for strictly personal, individual use, unless the work is under an open content license (like Creative Commons). Disclaimer/Complaints regulations If you believe that digital publication of certain material infringes any of your rights or (privacy) interests, please let the Library know, stating your reasons. In case of a legitimate complaint, the Library will make the material inaccessible and/or remove it from the website. Please Ask the Library: https://uba.uva.nl/en/contact, or a letter to: Library of the University of Amsterdam, Secretariat, Singel 425, 1012 WP Amsterdam, The Netherlands. You will be contacted as soon as possible. UvA-DARE is a service provided by the library of the University of Amsterdam (https://dare.uva.nl) Download date:01 Oct 2021 IMISCOE Working Paper Muslims in Europe: The state of research Frank J. Buijs and Jan Rath IMES Introduction1 Islam is one of the fastest growing religions in Europe today. A massive influx of workers and other migrants from the Middle East and former colonial territories in Africa, Asia and the Caribbean region led to a growing presence of Muslim residents within Europe.
    [Show full text]
  • “Plan Against Gender-Based Violence in the Immigrant Population”
    PLAN AGAINST GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE IN THE IMMIGRANT POPULATION “PLAN AGAINST GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE IN THE IMMIGRANT POPULATION” 2009–2012 PLAN AGAINST GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE IN THE IMMIGRANT POPULATION TABLE OF CONTENTS BACKGROUND 03 1. JUSTIFICATION 04 2. STRATEGIC FRAMEWORK OF THE PLAN 08 3. STRUCTURE OF THE PLAN 09 4. MEASURES INCLUDED IN THE PLAN 12 PLAN AGAINST GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE IN THE IMMIGRANT POPULATION BACKGROUND Organic Law 1/2004, of 28 December, on comprehensive protective measures against gender-based violence (hereinafter, Comprehensive Law), sets out that one of the priority lines of action to prevent, eradicate, and prosecute gender-based violence, as well as to protect its victims, is to address the specific situation of immigrant women. In this regard, Article 17 of the Comprehensive Law guarantees the rights of all women victims of violence regardless of origin, religion, or any other social or personal circumstances. In addition, collaboration efforts planned by public authorities to achieve the objective of preventing, addressing and prosecuting acts of gender-based violence must, in accordance with Article 32 of the Comprehensive Law, give special consideration to the situation of women who, due to personal and social circumstances, may be at greater risk of suffering gender- based violence or have greater difficulty accessing the services provided for in this Law. Since the passing of the Comprehensive Law, a variety of actions targeting the immigrant population have been implemented. In the area of immigration law, following approval by Royal Decree 2393/2004, of 30 December, of the Regulation governing Organic Law 4/2000, of 11 January, on the rights and liberties of foreign nationals in Spain and their social integration, it was established that in cases of family reunification, victims of gender-based violence issued with a protective court order may receive independent residence authorisation.
    [Show full text]
  • Promoting Social Integration – a Brief Examination of Concepts and Issues Prepared by M
    Promoting Social Integration – A Brief Examination of Concepts and Issues Prepared by M. Sharon Jeannotte for Experts Group Meeting July 8-10, 2008 Helsinki, Finland Introduction Social integration is one of a constellation of “social” terms that is being used widely in contemporary policy development to describe concepts whose aim (as stated by the Copenhagen Declaration and Programme of Action) is to foster societies that are stable, safe, just and tolerant, and respect diversity, equality of opportunity and participation of all people. Other terms that often invoked in support of this goal are “social inclusion”, “social cohesion” and “social capital”. All of these are contested terms, which often results in fruitless debate about what is meant when the terms are used. More seriously for policy makers, they are also notoriously difficult concepts to measure and operationalize, which is a distinct disadvantage in the current context of “evidence-based policy making”. This short paper is intended to highlight some of the main conceptual, contextual and policy issues surrounding the use of the terms. It is likely to raise more questions than answers, but that may be appropriate as a point of departure for a series of brainstorming sessions focused on the problems of promoting social integration. While participants at these sessions were encouraged to conclude their papers with policy recommendations, the conclusions at the end of this paper should be considered in the same light – as provisional and as points of departure for further discussion. Conceptual issues Social inclusion Study of the concept of social inclusion in Canada was initiated by the Laidlaw Foundation in 2002 in the context of policy debates on the needs of children and families.
    [Show full text]
  • A French Islam Is Possible
    A French Islam is possible REPORT SEPTEMBER 2016 About the Institut Montaigne A non-profit organisation based in Paris, the Institut Montaigne is a pioneering independent think tank established in 2000, which aims to play a key role in the democratic debate. It is a platform for reflections, proposals and experimentations dedicated to public policy in France. It elaborates concrete proposals for the improvement of social cohesion, competitiveness and public finances. Aimed at public authorities, its work is the product of a method of research open to cross-country comparisons and rigorous data analyses. The Institut Montaigne brings together business leaders, government officials, academics and leading figures from wide-ranging horizons to promote all of its actions (proposals, public policy evaluations, participation of citizens, experimentations) by publishing reports and organising high level events. Its activity is supported by over 100 companies of different sizes in different industries. Its funding is based exclusively on private contributions, none of which exceed 2% of its annual budget (circa 3.5 million euros). A FRENCH ISLAM IS POSSIBLE There is no desire more natural than the desire for knowledge 2 A FRENCH ISLAM IS POSSIBLE ABOUT THE AUTHOR An Ecole Normale graduate and with an agrégation in geography, Hakim El Karoui taught at the Lyon II University before joining the cabinet of the Prime Minister in 2002 as speech writer. After serving within the Ministry of Finance, in 2006 he integrated the Rothschild bank, where he led the Africa Practice together with Lionel Zinsou. In 2011, he joined the strategy consulting firm Roland Berger, where he was joint head of the Africa and French Government advisory sectors.
    [Show full text]
  • Official Islam As a Threat? the Paradigm Shift in Austria's Security Politics
    OFFICIAL ISLAM AS A THREAT? THE PARADIGM SHIFT IN AUSTRIA’S SECURITY POLITICS FARID HAFEZ PERSPECTIVE SEPTEMBER 2019 . NUMBER 56 • What is the history of Austria’s security politics vis-à-vis Islam? • What are the factors explaining the new security politics? • What are the implications of the new security politics? • What can be done to counteract this new development? INTRODUCTION the Islamic Religious Community as a partner against For a very long time Austria has been known as one extremism and especially Jihadism. This seems to have of the most open and progressively accommodat- profoundly changed with the new annual report of the ing countries in terms of Muslim life and practice. security agency BVT; the yearly report is entitled Ver- With the Islam Act of 1912, which goes back to the fassungsschutzbericht (literally: Report on the Protec- Habsburg monarchy, Austria was one of the very few tion of the Constitution). countries to legally recognize Muslims as a religious In the past, Islam as a religion had never been re- community. On the other hand, in more recent times, garded as a threat. Rather the opposite, the Staatspo- Austria has become infamous for the anti-Muslim pro- lizei (State Police) had clearly regarded the Islamic paganda in party politics, spearheaded especially by Religious Community (IGGÖ, Islamische Glaubens- the right-wing extreme Freedom Party that previously gemeinschaft in Österreich), which is the legally recog- governed the country together with Sebastian Kurz’s nized denomination of Muslims based on the Islam newly branded Conservatives (OVP). Especially the Act of 1912, as the main institution of Muslims.
    [Show full text]