Islamophobia: A Comparative, Multilevel Analysis of Western Europe by Serdar Kaya M.A. (Political Science), University of Akron, 2007 M.B.A. (Business Administration) California State University, Los Angeles, 2002 B.Sc. (Business Administration), Istanbul University, 2000 Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Political Science Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences © Serdar Kaya 2015 SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY Summer 2015 All rights reserved. However, in accordance with the Copyright Act of Canada, this work may be reproduced, without authorization, under the conditions for "Fair Dealing." Therefore, limited reproduction of this work for the purposes of private study, research, criticism, review and news reporting is likely to be in accordance with the law, particularly if cited appropriately. Approval Name: Serdar Kaya Degree: Doctor of Philosophy Title: Islamophobia: A Comparative, Multilevel Analysis of Western Europe Examining Committee: Chair: Genevieve Fuji Johnson Associate Professor Laurent Dobuzinskis Senior Supervisor Associate Professor David Laycock Supervisor Professor Derryl MacLean Supervisor Associate Professor Thomas Kuehn Internal Examiner Associate Professor Department of History Rima Wilkes External Examiner Associate Professor Department of Sociology University of British Columbia Date Defended/Approved: May 22, 2015 ii Abstract This study examines the ways in which state policies recognize, accommodate and legitimize immigrant cultures, and analyzes the extent to which state accommodation leads to acceptance and tolerance toward immigrants. The study brings together social psychological and institutionalist perspectives, and argues that state recognition and accommodation of immigrant cultures normalize new practices and traditions by making them a part of the country's cultural landscape. This state-led process blurs group lines, and reduces the likelihood of prejudice against immigrants. In contrast, when a state ignores or actively excludes an immigrant culture, it frames those associated with it as outsiders or lesser-citizens, and makes tolerance toward them less likely. To test that hypothesis, the study focuses on the Muslim immigrants in Western Europe, since their case involves a salient (real or perceived) cultural distance to the host societies. The study employs a mixed-methods research. It first examines the Belgian, British and German cases, and traces the process from state accommodation to tolerance with a special focus on the legitimization of cultural elements by state recognition. Then, it conducts a systematic analysis that covers nineteen countries in Western Europe. Individual-level data for the analysis come from the fourth wave of the European Values Study. On the country-level, the study builds what it calls the Accommodation of Islam (AOI) index to measure the extent to which Western European countries accommodate Islam in a variety of realms. Then, it specifies a multilevel regression model that controls for all major alternative explanations. On the individual level, the findings reveal multiple dimensions of religiosity that have divergent influences on anti-Muslim prejudice. On the country level, they indicate that the individuals in countries that do not accommodate Islam are more likely to be prejudiced against Muslims. Keywords: europe; islamophobia; immigrants; islam; muslims; western countries iii Dedication To Laurent Dobuzinskis iv Acknowledgements I was able to complete this study with the help of many institutions and individuals. My study was funded in part by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (Doctoral Fellowship), the British Colombia Provincial Government (Pacific Century Graduate Scholarship), Simon Fraser University (C.D. Nelson Memorial Graduate Scholarship, and the President's Ph.D. Research Stipend), and its Department of Political Science (Graduate Fellowship). I owe thanks to my senior supervisor Laurent Dobuzinskis, my committee members David Laycock and Derryl MacLean, and external committee members Thomas Kuehn and Rima Wilkes. I am also indebted to Paul Warwick for his valuable evaluation of my analyses. Over the past few years, I have presented parts of this study in several conference and workshop settings in the United States and Canada. I would like to thank the audiences, as well as the following scholars for their helpful feedbacks on earlier drafts: Tavishi Bhasin, Feryal Cherif, Karam Dana, Marc Helbling, Zeki Sarıgil, and Lisa Wedeen. I would like to also thank Artin Arslanian and Douglas Ross for the valuable advices they offered at certain critical stages of this study. Finally, I am particularly grateful to Ekrem Karakoç for his valuable suggestions and true friendship. v Table of Contents Approval...........................................................................................................................ii Abstract...........................................................................................................................iii Dedication.......................................................................................................................iv Acknowledgements..........................................................................................................v Table of Contents............................................................................................................vi List of Tables....................................................................................................................x List of Figures.................................................................................................................xii List of Abbreviations and Acronyms...............................................................................xiv Glossary.........................................................................................................................xv Chapter 1. Introduction..................................................................................................1 1.1. The Research Question............................................................................................1 1.2. A Summary of the Literature......................................................................................4 1.2.1. The Literature on Islamophobia.....................................................................4 1.2.2. Theories of Intergroup Threat........................................................................5 1.3. The Country Level.....................................................................................................6 1.4. The Argument...........................................................................................................7 1.5. The Contribution........................................................................................................9 1.6. Mixed-Methods Research.......................................................................................11 1.6.1. Qualitative Analysis.....................................................................................11 1.6.2. Case Selection............................................................................................13 1.6.3. Systematic Analysis.....................................................................................14 1.7. The Organization of the Study.................................................................................15 Chapter 2. Islam In The West.......................................................................................18 2.1. Immigration Inflows.................................................................................................18 2.1.1. Europe.........................................................................................................18 2.1.2. North America..............................................................................................21 2.2. Demographics.........................................................................................................23 2.3. Ongoing Disagreements..........................................................................................29 2.3.1. The Reluctance to Issue Permits for Mosques............................................30 2.3.2. Restrictions on the Use of the Islamic Veil...................................................32 2.3.3. The Education of Muslim Children...............................................................35 2.3.4. Halal Food...................................................................................................36 2.3.5. Cemeteries..................................................................................................37 2.3.6. Chaplaincy...................................................................................................38 2.3.7. Other...........................................................................................................38 2.4. Landmark Incidents.................................................................................................39 2.5. Multiculturalism.......................................................................................................42 2.6. Conclusion..............................................................................................................45 vi Chapter 3. The Literature.............................................................................................47 3.1. Islamophobia...........................................................................................................47