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The Calendars of Ancient Egypt

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The Calendars of Ancient Egypt oi.uchicago.edu THE ORIENTAL INSTITUTE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO STUDIES IN ANCIENT.ORIENTAL CIVILIZATION" NO. 26 THOMAS GEORGE ALLEN, EDITOR" ELIZABETH B. HAUSER, ASSOCIATE EDITOR oi.uchicago.edu oi.uchicago.edu THE CALENDARS OF ANCIENT EGYPT BY RICHARD A. PARKER Internet publication of this work was made possible with the generous support of Misty and Lewis Gruber THE ORIENTAL INSTITUTE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO STUDIES IN ANCIENT ORIENTAL CIVILIZATION NO. 26 THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS CHICAGO ILLINOIS oi.uchicago.edu THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS, CHICAGO 37 Cambridge University Press, London, N.W. 1, England W. J. Gage & Co., Limited, Toronto 2B, Canada Copyright 1950 by The University of Chicago. All rights reserved Published 1950. Composed and printed by THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS, Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A. oi.uchicago.edu PREFACE Early in the course of my work on the text volume to Medinet Habu III: The Calendar, a project upon which Dr. Harold H. Nelson and I intend to collaborate, it became evident to me that I could not successfully grapple with the problems of Ramses III's temple calendar without a thorough investigation into all the calendarial phenomena of ancient Egypt. Once started, my own predilection for the subject led me farther and farther, so that what was originally intended as a page or two of footnotes has grown to the proportions of the present volume. Not all of what I shall present in these pages is new. My obligations to those chronological giants, Brugsch, Meyer, and Borchardt, are manifold; and I have ransacked the literature in order to avoid claiming as my own what had long ago been proposed. For some earlier propospls I have more proof to offer and may convince where others failed. Other propositions are mine and must stand on their own merits. Calendars and chronology are not of themselves difficult subjects, but they are frequently made so by the as- sumption of their devotees that everyone understands always what they are talking about. I intend to take the op- posite extreme and shall assume almost no special knowledge on the part of my readers. I shall not shrink from extended explanation or from repetition whenever understanding may be furthered. In the Introduction I shall pre- sent some of the basic astronomical and calendarial concepts with which we shall have to deal in later pages. Practiced chronologers may go on to the first chapter without concern, but I would urge all others to read the Introduction carefully. In the following pages I hope to demonstrate that the Egyptians had three calendars, two lunar and religious, one civil. I shall begin with a consideration of the lunar day and month, pass on to an analysis of the later lunar calendar, then discuss the probable nature of the early lunar calendar, and, finally, suggest a possible origin for the civil calendar. In three excursuses I shall offer solutions to various problems which arose naturally out of the calendarial material. The end product of our investigations will be, I hope, to persuade the reader to accept my present conviction that the lunar calendar is an essential key to a proper understanding of Egyptian festivals and thus in some meas- ure of Egyptian religion. In the preparation of these studies I have had the inestimable advantage of frequent discussion with my colleagues in the Oriental Institute. Professor Henri Frankfort permitted me to present my views for the criticism of his seminar. Professors John A. Wilson and Keith C. Seele and Dr. G. R. Hughes read the manuscript in preliminary form and made many valuable suggestions. Professors Otto Neugebauer of Brown University and William F. Al- bright of Johns Hopkins University gave penetrating criticism. My debts to Dr. Abd el-Mohsen Bakir of the Cairo Museum and to Professor G. Posener are acknowledged on the appropriate pages. Dr. T. George Allen has given me welcome editorial criticism. The drawings are the expert and painstaking work of Sue Richert. To all of them and to others not named I am deeply grateful. RICHARD A. PARKER Brown University May, 1950 oi.uchicago.edu oi.uchicago.edu TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.................................... ix LIST OF TABLES.......... ....... xi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS.................................. xiii INTRODUCTION ......................................... 1 §§ 2-3. The Celestial Sphere. § 4. The Ecliptic. § 5. The Vernal Point. § 6. The Moon. SS§7-8. Lunar Months. §9. The Synodic Month. §10. The Phases of the Moon. §§ll-16. New Crescent Visibility. § 17. Old Crescent Visibility. § 18. Sequence of Lunar Months. § 19. Full Moon. § 20. Tables for Calculating the Moon. § 21. Heliacal Rising of Sirius. § 22. The Civil Calendar. §§ 23-24. Other Calendars I. THE BEGINNING OF THE EGYPTIAN LUNAR MONTH.......9 § 25. The Problem. §§ 26-31. Earlier Views. §§ 32-35. The Beginning of the Day. §§ 36-43. The Names of the Days of the Month. §§ 44-48. The Astronomical Basis for the Names of the Days of the Month. §§49-64. The Lunar Calendar of Papyrus Carlsberg 9. §§ 65-107. Double Dates Involving Lunar Days. § 108. Conclusion II. THE LATER LUNAR CALENDAR............................... 24 § 109. Foreword. §§ 110-22. The Completion of the Cyclic Calendar. §§ 123-28. The Rule Governing Intercalation and the Position of the Intercalary Month. §§ 129-30. The Lag be- tween Lunar and Civil Months. §§131-39. The First Schematic Calendar. §§ 140-41. The Later Lunar Calendar III. THE ORIGINAL LUNAR CALENDAR............................. 30 §§ 142-49. Earlier Theories. §§ 150-51. The Proposed Original Calendar. §§ 152-54. The Primitivity of a Lunistellar Calendar. §§155-57. Sothis and the Inundation. §§ 158-63. The Moon and Sothis in Texts. §§ 164-75. The Meaning of wp rnpt and Its Equivalence to prt-Spdt. §§ 176-81. The Lists of Feasts in the Mastabas of the Old Kingdom. §§ 182-85. Middle Kingdom Dates of the w3-Feast. §§ 186-87. The Temple Year at Illahun. §§ 188-219. The Ebers Calendar and the Fixed or Sothic Year. §§ 220-2 3. The Astronomical Ceiling in the Tomb of Senmut. §§ 224-25. The Astronomical Ceiling of the Ramesseum. §§ 226-37. The Names of the Months. §§ 238-41. The Feast of Mmn in the Ptolemaic Period. §§ 242-51. The Feast of Renutet in the Esna Calendar. §§ 252-53. Conclusion IV. THE CIVIL CALENDAR .. .................................... 51 §§ 254-55. The Problem before 1938. §§ 256-63. The Problem after 1938. § 264. The Problem at Present. §§ 2 65-72. The Proposed Solution. §§ 273-80. The Fifty-nine Divinities of the Dual Year. § 281. Conclusion vii oi.uchicago.edu oi.uchicago.edu LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figures 1. The Celestial Sphere with the Earth at Its Center ........ ................... 2. The Celestial Sphere with the Sun at Its Center and the Earth in Its Orbit around the Sun, to Demonstrate the Ecliptic........ ................ .......... 3. The Vernal Point, Where the Ecliptic, Going from South to North, Crosses the Equator . 4. The Sidereal and the Synodic Months . .. 5. The Variation in the Length of the Synodic Month . 6. The Effect of the Anomaly of the Moon on Crescent Visibility . 7. The Effect of the Obliquity of the Ecliptic on Crescent Visibility . 8. The Effect of the Latitude of the Moon on Crescent Visibility . 9. The Variability of Time between Conjunction and Full Moon . .. 3 . 14 10. The Beginning of the Lunar Month . 11. The Possible Range of Full Moon . 12. Possible Relation between Lunar and Civil Months . 13. The Mean Relation between Lunar and Civil Months . 14. The Proposed Regulation of the Lunar Calendar . 15. Ivory Tablet of the 1st Dynasty . 16. The Ebers Calendar.. 17. The Calibrations on the Interior of the Water Clock of Amenhotep III . 18. The Fragment of the Geographical Papyrus of Tanis Which Names the Last Month of the Year wp rnpt . .. ........ .. 41 19. The Original Lunar Calendar as Depicted in the Ramesseum Astronomical Ceiling . 44 20. Concurrence of Lunar and Civil Years at Installation of Latter and Shift of Civil Year after Fifty Years . ..... .. .. 54 21. The Last Years of the 12th Dynasty .. .. 69 Plates I. Astronomical Ceiling in the 18th Dynasty Tomb of Senmut at Deir el-Bahri Courtesy Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York II-III. Astronomical Ceiling in the Ramesseum Courtesy Oriental Institute, University of Chicago IV-V. Astronomical Frieze in the Ptolemaic Temple of Edfu Brugsch, Monumens de l'Egypte (Berlin, 1857), Pls. VII-X 1 VI A. A Late Glazed menat in the Cairo Museum Courtesy Cairo Museum VI B. Papyrus Fragment Cairo 58065 from Illahun Courtesy Cairo Museum ix oi.uchicago.edu oi.uchicago.edu LIST OF TABLES 1. Conversion of Julian into Gregorian Dates....8 2. The Days of the Lunar Month............................... 11 3. The 25-Year Cycle as Given in Pap. Carlsberg 9 .. ......................... 15 4. The Double Dates Entered in the 25-Year Cycle. .......................... 22 5. The Completed 25-Year Cycle .. ................................ 25 6. Comparison of Schematic and Observational Years. ............. ............. 28 7. Names of the Months .. ... ............. ................... 45 8. Chronology of the 12th Dynasty. .. ............ ................... 69 Xi oi.uchicago.edu oi.uchicago.edu LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AJSL American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures. Chicago, etc., 1884-1941. 58 v. Ann. Serv. Egypt. Service des antiquites. Annales. Le Caire, 1900- BASOR American Schools of Oriental Research. Bulletin. South Hadley, Mass., 1919-. JAOS American Oriental Society. Journal. Boston, etc., 1849-. JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies. Chicago, 1942-. LD Lepsius, Richard. Denkmaeler aus Aegypten und Aethiopien . Berlin, 1849-56; Leipzig, 1897-1913. 19 v. MH Chicago. University. Oriental Institute. Epigraphic Survey. Medinet Habu I-. Chicago, 1930-. OLZ Orientalistische Literaturzeitung. Berlin, 1898-1908; Leipzig, 1909-. PSBA Society of Biblical Archaeology, London. Proceedings. London, 1879-1918. 40 v. Urk. Urkunden des aegyptischen altertums. Leipzig, 1903-. Wb. Erman, Adolf. Worterbuch der aegyptischen Sprache, im Auftrage der deutschen Akademien hrsg.
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