Urban Agriculture Into Planning

Sub-urban development on prime agricultural land, Toronto, Canada Charlie Clark

the Integration of Urban and MAGAZINE NUMBER 4, JULY 2001 NUMBER 4, JULY Peri-Urban Agriculture into Planning

In regions of the world characterised by economic collapse, urban agriculture into urban planning in such as those in East and Southern Africa, the last decade different contexts of the world? has witnessed a tremendous increase in total city area under ❖ In the few instances where integration informal urban food production. Associated with this has is taking place, how has this resolved been an unprecedented increase in worldwide attention to questions of land - access and use - con- urban agriculture (Bakker et al. 2000; Mbiba 2001). Yet, the flicts? What lessons if any, can we learn overall picture shows that formal recognition and integration from these instances? of agriculture into urban planning and city development has hardly changed, save for a reduction in prohibitive or anti- DETERMINANTS FOR CHANGE urban agriculture interventions. The change from prohibitive to facilitating approaches and integration of urban agriculture into urban planning and roblems and conflicts remain that development requires (and is dependant constrain integration into planning. In many urban areas, the transfor- P A differentiated and mation of city responses from prohibitive models towards permissive or enabling flexible approach is needed Editorial ones has hardly materialised nor been for- malised. The perceptions and responses to urban agriculture among actors in a upon) structural changes in perceptions,

www.ruaf.org certain city at any given time are not con- in institutional regimes that govern or sistent, and conflict remains the norm. manage cities and in social values upon which production and consumption in In this context, the following questions cities is anchored. The cases in this vol- are pertinent: ume highlight, as other cases do, that ❖ Why does urban agriculture remain these structural changes do not arise pri- marginal in the urban planning process? marily from people’s simple exchange of Beacon Mbiba, Co-ordinator, ❖ What factors determine urban ideas and verbal assent. Instead, structu- Peri-Urban Transformations agriculture’s integration into urban plan- ral changes (and hence the need for inte- Research Network (PeriNET), ning and sustainable development? gration of agriculture into city develop- South Bank University, London, ❖ What is being done, or what should be ment) is partly a consequence of some UK; ✉ [email protected] done, to facilitate the integration of sort of crisis in a given context; this could René Van Veenhuizen, ETC- RUAF, Leusden, the Netherlands URBAN AGRICULTURE be drought, economic collapse (as in East and Southern Africa today), or political and economic change (like in Bulgaria), lack of confidence in current agricultural practices (the Netherlands), waste disposal problems (as in West Africa Urban Agriculture Support Programme for – see no. 3 of the UA-Magazine – and in Madhyapur Thimi Municipality in Nepal

the Philippines) or food insecurity. Traditionally, municipalities in Nepal are defined on the PAGE 28 basis of (the accumulation of) non-farm activities. If we accept this “crisis” model, the ques- Agriculture is considered to be a rural activity, which is one tion that arises is “what would happen to constraint to the promotion of urban agriculture. How this (the attention on) urban agriculture, once problem was overcome is narrated in this article, which the crisis is over?” The European scenario describes the integration of urban agriculture into the land- of allotment gardens from World War 1 use planning of Madhyapur Thimi municipality located in to the present (see Howe and White on the centre of Kathmandu Valley in Nepal. page 11 and Mbiba 1995) suggest that the activity will decline as the crisis disap- pears. However, gardens will re-emerge to serve new needs such as leisure and education (see the article on Portugal and prevailing today, urban agriculture as a THE IMPORTANCE OF URBAN Brazil in this volume), or integrated with land use will be left to compete against AGRICULTURE FOR CITY other uses of the land (see the case on other potential users of the same urban AUTHORITIES Delft, the Netherlands). Planning might spaces (as is illustrated in the case of According to Fainstein (1999) the reality cease to give it significant standing and Lusaka, Zambia). It is an environment of planning is one of conflicting interests planners will move on to deal with new where power prevails and planning has in a very unequal society; planning pro- crisis issues. Hence even in European to be understood accordingly. There is a vides justification to the interests of the cities where urban food production was need for innovative approaches in the powerful while giving token attention to once a key aspect of national survival urban planning process to enhance a sus- the rest. The testimonies from articles in strategy (see Garnett 1996) most planning tainable and equitable development of this volume endorse a picture where departments have no ‘space’ for urban cities. urban agriculture is marginal to/in city agriculture. As concluded by Martin and Marsden (1999: 389) for England and Wales, planning departments are hardly engaged in the broader aspects of the politics and local economy of urban food Dear Readers issues and there is a progressive decline in allotment provision. In the capitalist Again, the amount of articles submitted to the magazine was very high, for production-consumption environment which we thank you. It was decided to accept quite a lot of these articles, since the wealth of experiences is illustrated and the broad topic could only be covered sufficiently this way. The guest editor for this issue was Beacon Mbiba from Zimbabwe, Co-ordinator of PeriNET (Peri-Urban Transformations Research Network), South Bank University, London, UK. Further input was received from Axel Drescher, from the University of Freiburg, Germany. The latter reports on the FAO-ETC E-Conference session on Planning (held in September 2000) in this issue. We offer you sixteen articles on a diversity of topics surrounding the theme; Integration of Urban Agriculture into Urban Planning. Articles cover all regions again, although West-Africa is not represented sufficiently this time.

Great news from Latin America: the first edition of the UA-Magazine in Spanish PAGE 14 has been released by our colleagues in Quito, Ecuador. Spanish readers are suggested to contact UMP-LAC (see page 35). Urban Agriculture and City Planning in Bulgaria Current urban planning and development in Bulgaria You are invited to contribute to future issues of the Urban Agriculture Magazine. does not take into account the existence of urban and Same of the topics considered for 2002 are given on the back-page of this maga- peri-urban agriculture. The SWAPUA project, operating zine. As suggested in the Editorial Board we welcome your contributions on any in 10 cities in five CEE countries, has identified subject. Articles would ideally be up to 2,500 words in length, and preferably characteristics of the various types of farming and the main accompanied by illustrations (digital and of good quality), references and an problems associated with urban and peri-urban farming, with abstract. an emphasis on soil and water management issues. Here, the case study of the Bulgarian city Trojan is presented. Looking forward to hearing from you. The Editor

2 UA-Magazine Efforts towards planning; of no importance to city lead- engaging rather than ers, not competitive vis à vis other urban abandoning planning land uses such as housing, and remains incidental rather than a primary consideration in city programmes. The questions ever work. What seems to work, and generally asked have to do with what city what will lead to integration is a more authorities and planners should do for differentiated approach. Firstly, this urban agriculture to flourish. However, should be considered per activity; for In this issue the way forward may be to ask the ques- example, crop production versus live- tion from the other side: “what can urban stock, but even further: vegetables versus 4 Interviews 7 Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture agriculture do for cities, city authorities cereals and large animals versus poultry, on the Policy Agenda, Report of and planners?” For example, what differ- and so on. The cases and other papers in the E-Conference ence can it make to the fortunes of a local earlier issues of the UA Magazine clearly 9 Why We Need New Urban councillor and to the city budget? It is show that authorities and by-laws favour Planning Concepts; Insights from furthermore important to understand the crops in the city, especially vegetables; South Africa planning process, the constraints and cities world over will not promote live- 11 Awareness and Action in the UK opportunities, and how urban agriculture stock within their borders, but rather 13 Support for Urban Agriculture in could assist in improvement. From the envisage animals (save some poultry per- St Petersburg case study of St Petersburg (and others) haps) in the peri-urban areas: see for 14 Using Urban Agriculture for Sustainable City Planning in the problem of insufficient budgets is instance in Accra, Hubli-Dharwad, Bulgaria: the Case of Trojan highlighted. Agricultural activities could Havana and Dar es Salaam (Bakker et al. 17 The Urban Planning Dilemma in assist in overcoming part of this problem 2000). Harare, Zimbabwe (see also the case study on Trojan, 18 The Women and Land Lobby Bulgaria, and the proposal to re-develop Secondly, there is a need to differentiate Group in Zimbabwe suburban areas in Toronto, Canada). The by spatial focus; the consideration of 19 The Marginalisation of Urban evidence from the papers is that, unless urban agriculture in built-up areas (on- Agriculture in Lusaka urban agriculture can perform better on plot), on large city spaces (off-plot) or on 22 Integration of Agriculture in City these questions than other, competing the more rural interfaces (peri-urban). Development in Dar Es Salaam 25 Incorporating Urban Agriculture activities, its integration into planning Again city authorities and planners have In Gaborone City Planning will not materialise. always promoted peri-urban agriculture 28 Urban Agriculture Support and on-plot vegetable production. It is in Programme for Madhyapur Thimi THE NEED FOR A FLEXIBLE the off-plot category where there is Municipality in Nepal APPROACH AND DIFFERENTIAL greatest disagreement. Consequently, to a 30 Urban Farming and Land-Use TARGETING very large extent the city cases show that Planning in the Dominican The papers in this volume further illus- urban agriculture (if specified) has Republic trate that regional- and local-level diver- already been dealt with in urban plan- 32 The El Panecillo Pilot Project in sity influences the success of integration ning worldwide. Quito, Ecuador 33 Multifunctional Land Use: an of urban agriculture into planning. But, Opportunity for Promoting Urban there is more to it. Proponents of urban Thirdly, the beneficiaries have to be clear: Agriculture in Europe and peri-urban agriculture tend to it must be specified whether the activity 36 Planning for Urban Agriculture in present these activities as one homoge- is for subsistence and for the poor, or for Suburban Development in nous industry and expect wholesale the market and exports. Evidence from Canada acceptance and integration of the activity the articles in this magazine underlines 38 Supportive Policies from Two into cities; this is not reality, nor will it that when urban agriculture produces for Distant Cities: Lisbon (Portugal) the latter ends, city authorities are ready and Presidente Prudente (Brazil) to integrate the activity and increase land 40 Planning in a Changing Environment: the Case of Marilao security to the farmers (cases in in the Philippines Gabarone and Bulgaria). In this form, the 42 Further reading 44 Websites 45 News and Networking

Multifunctional Land Use: an Opportunity for Promoting Urban Agriculture in Europe Politicians and planners are faced with many competing claims for the use of scarce land in and around cities in industrialised countries. Multifunctional land use – combining different functions within one area – offers a solution. On the basis of a case study in the heavily populated west of the Netherlands, the authors aim to demonstrate that urban agriculture can be promoted as one

PAGE 33 element land-use offering valuable functions to society. july 2001 3 activity has something positive to offer to the city balance sheet. But as confirmed Planning in a Changing

by the Gaborone paper, where UA is Environment: the Case of Marilao PAGE 40 commercial and capital investments are in the Philippines high, the participation levels decrease Marilao, located on the fringe of Manila in and claims of direct benefits to the poor the Philippines, faced a typical peri-urban become more doubtful. dilemma a few years ago, when its mayor could not find affordable land for a new ENGAGE WITH PLANNING, waste disposal site. There were more than 850 business firms and housing NOT ABANDON IT projects that competed for the use of municipal land. Not only the question Comprehensive land use planning is still of where to bring the waste was a problem, also what to do with recycled dominant in the cities reported here, and waste and changes in policy and urban management needed to be tackled. evidence suggests that this will remain so in the near future. In this context, efforts should be towards engaging with, rather into those plans; for example in the maximum differences where, according to than trying to abandon, planning. Urban by-laws (Gaborone, Dar es Salaam, Quito Healey (1997: 3), planning is about “man- agriculture could be integrated better if and Santiago de los Caballeros). Also, aging our co-existence in shared space”. efforts were to be made to increase the innovation in conflict resolution comes up Rather than claiming space for urban agri- participation of diverse groups in the as a recurring theme in the articles (e.g. culture, ways to share urban space with planning process to determine what goes Marilao, Lusaka). Cities are domains of other users has to be sought.

Views from Municipalities Interviews with planners and policy-makers

For this issue on integration of urban agriculture in planning, we asked our partners to interview planners What is your personal view on urban agriculture, and policy-makers of a number of cities and ask them and how did you get involved in the subject? about urban agriculture and planning related issues. The solid waste disposal in the city was a major concern to me.When the solid waste management project was able to generate compost from biodegradable What follows are quotations from the interviews, waste, I consulted non-government organisations and community residents if they brought together by the editors under specific questions. were interested in bringing back some of the greeneries.When I got a resounding positive respond, I knew urban agriculture would be defined and shared by this desire of my constituents. (Mayor Duran, Marilao, Philippines) The interviews we received are from Ghana, the Philippines and Zambia with: To me, urban agriculture is an issue of land. People grow vegetables for their own consumption, to be self-reliant. In my backyard I also grow cassava, okra, sweet Dr. Daniel Sackey - , head of the Directorate for potatoes and vegetables. Urban farmers are not supported because of fear of mos- Food and Agriculture, Accra, Ghana quitoes. (Judith Simuzya, Lusaka, Zambia) (interview by Dagmar Kunze and Pay Drechsel) - Mayor Duran, Marilao Philippines, Urban planning does not institutionalise agriculture in the city.To do that, there are (interview by Joseph Batac) profound changes in legislation necessary.And one has to consider the planning process, since it means re-planning the city all the time. Like any other form of agri- - From Lusaka, Zambia: Mrs Judith Simuzya, culture, its urban form requires land, which has attained a value since 10-15 years Councillor for Lubwa Ward; Mr Fisho Mwale, ago. Few people will afford land for urban agriculture. (Fisho Mwale, Lusaka, Ex-Mayor, Lusaka City Council; Mr T. Hakuyu, Zambia) Assistant City Planner; Mrs Phiri, Housing and Community Services; Mr Enock S. Mwape, Urban agriculture is firstly a small backyard garden, like mothers who go out on Chief Housing Officer, Peri-Urban Areas land not utilised.Then there are the weekend farmers, who live in town and go out to their plots on land leased from the government.The constraint is that land does (interviews by Beacon Mbiba). not belong to the cultivators. One would be happy to have secure tenure, because agriculture contributes to food security. (Mrs Phiri, Lusaka, Zambia) Full text interviews can be found on www.ruaf.org Urban agriculture is a means of securing incomes, and therefore has an important Dr. Sackey (left) handing an award to a farmer at the 2000 role in urban planning. Urban agriculture also converts idle laying land into green Farmer’s Day space, and green zones and green belts are important for the city authorities. (Daniel Sackey,Accra, Ghana) Celebration How is urban agriculture perceived in the Council or Municipality? In Accra, the biggest group practising agriculture is the group of fishermen and women.Their contribution to the economy of the city is very important.The livestock holders, we rather try to discourage within the city boundaries.They are

Min. of Information, Accra 4 UA-Magazine Generally, and more so in the case of urban Philippines, Accra, Ghana and Lusaka, or deliberate practitioner but to remain agriculture, planning is continually criti- Zambia, illustrating other issues not very bureaucratic. Thus, if the breadth of cised. Therefore, the editors had wished touched in this editorial, nor in the papers. new knowledge in urban agriculture is to this volume to provide an exchange make a difference in how cities are platform for planner practitioners and the Planning is an environment in which planned, we must address not only the other urban actors. Our efforts to get there is little incentive to be a reflective politics, spirit and purpose of planning participation of urban planners have been limited. This is crucial for we know that criticism ignores that planners are over- REFERENCES loaded with diverse demands, work in - Bakker N, Dubbeling M, Gündel S, Sabel-Koschella U and de Zeeuw H (eds). 2000. Growing Cities, Growing under-resourced offices and an environ- Food: Urban Agriculture on the Policy Agenda. Feldafing: Deutsche Stiftung für internationale Entwicklung. - Forester J. 1999. The Deliberate Practitioner. Boston/London: MIT Press. ment that gives little time or encourage- - Garnett T. 1996. Growing Food in Cities: a report to highlight and promote the benefits of urban agriculture in ment to keep abreast with expanding the United Kingdom. London: National Food Alliance and Sustainable Agriculture, Food and Environment (Safe). - Healey P. 1997. Collaborative Planning. London: Macmillan. knowledge frontiers upon which planning - Martin R and Marsden T. 1999. Food for urban spaces: the development of food production in England and innovations depend. We were happy to Wales. International Planning Studies 4 (3): 389-412. - Mbiba B. 1995. Urban agriculture in Zimbabwe: implications for urban management and poverty. Aldershot: receive the articles on Dar Es Salaam, Avebury. - Mbiba B. 2001. The Political Economy of Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture in Eastern and Southern Africa: Harare, Marilao written by, and other arti- Overview, Settings and Research Agenda. Keynote Paper for the IDRC & Municipal Development Programme, cles written with city authorities. Going East and Southern Africa workshop, “The Political Economy of The Political Economy of Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture in Eastern and Southern Africa”, Harare, February 28 - March 3. with this editorial are excerpts from inter- - Schon D. 1983. The Reflective Practitioner. New York: Basic Books. views with the representatives of Marilao,

encouraged in the peri-urban areas. Many poultry producers are now moving into Which issue triggered off the interest and what were the main activities these areas, which is not so much an effect of our strict control, but more of their by the Municipality? ability to acquire land outside their private grounds and to keep a proper hygienic We wanted to teach the community how to grow vegetables as a source of micro- and good environmentally healthy atmosphere to prevent Zoonosis. (Daniel Sackey, nutrients, as well as the benefits of the practice of segregation of household Accra, Ghana) wastes.We handed out the compost substrate and the potted flowers and vegetable seedlings, with the message that these materials can be used to re-green their We see urban agriculture, including horticulture and forestry, as a more sustainable surroundings and to raise safe and nutritious food for the family and the community. way for urban greening. Urban agriculture is the fruit of good solid waste manage- At first, the farmers thought we were crazy, but now the urban growers are more ment and a practical way of improving urban areas and addressing food supply and than happy since this is additional income for them, and they are urgently request- distribution. (Mayor Duran, Marilao, Philippines) ing guidelines on the use of the compost and crop choice. (Mayor Duran, Marilao, Philippines) The council does not promote agriculture on open spaces, but on smallholdings 5km away from the city.Agriculture encountered on open spaces, is discouraged Urban agriculture is regulated by by-laws, which regulate and support certain but we do not slash crops. Support for smallholdings is through NGOs.The major activities, such as vegetable production or fish handling and trading, and ban other problems are water, street lighting and the lack of government grants.There is a activities, such as livestock keeping within the city boundaries.The Directorate problem of party cadres illegally allocating land, some even for financial gain. collaborates with many of the other 31 Directorates within AMA. For example with (Judith Simuzya, Lusaka, Zambia) the Directorate for Town and Country Planning, who are doing an aerial survey to determine all government land, which should be given to farming. So far, we have Firstly, there are smallholdings (5 to 20 acres) around, but within the boundary of, zoned 40 ha in Teshie and 60 in La area. Current activities are the construction of 6 Lusaka, then there are the people in the peri-urban areas who rent land from the markets, access roads and parking space under the Village Infrastructure Program. owners of open spaces in the city. People use it for agriculture until it is taken over In conjunction with the Ghana Export Promotion, UNDP and the International Trade by town planning.There are also kitchen gardens confined to the house.Within Centre, Geneva we are promoting a fish processing plant at Teshie, mushroom these areas, people are warned not to grow maize within the housing areas production for export to Europe and the USA, and the production and pre-packaging because of the mosquito risk. (Enock S. Mwape, Lusaka, Zambia) cut flowers, also for export.AMA further contributed financially to the supply of pipe born water to vegetable producers to avoid health hazards of the use of unsafe Is there an institute or institution, which facilitates (or facilitated) water in agriculture.A further step will be the aerial zoning plan of green spaces the process of integration? and government lands and the respective by-law that we are about to push The Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA) has a planning unit, to which all the yearly through. (Daniel Sackey,Accra, Ghana) projects and budget proposals have to be submitted for approval. In respect of the by-laws as well as zoning, the Directorate for Food and Agriculture is playing a lead- How did the urban farmers participate? ing role. Generally, we have much support within AMA, but less support from the The committee on export promotion under AMA consists of members from Town Ministry of Food and Agriculture, especially in terms of funding.We are on the brink and Country Planning, City Engineers, Parks and Gardens,Architects, EPA of getting a by-law for the green belt - green zone areas passed, which will allow (Environmental Protection Agency), Ghana Standard Board and our Directorate plus these spaces to remain green and only permit farmers to use them, until the 2 farmers representatives who are active in this committee.The vegetable growers Government decides otherwise. (Daniel Sackey,Accra, Ghana) are represented by their General Association.The fishermen and women by their Community based Management Fisheries Organisation”, which also includes the Open space policy is at two levels: a Central Governance Policy and City Council pol- chiefs of the respective areas.The zoning of government land and the occupation of icy In practice urban agriculture is excluded in the City Council policy.There is no this land, is left up to the farmers to decide, since most land is already being culti- regional plan to guide urban-peri-urban area relations.The Ministry of Agriculture vated.We only want to make sure that no additional house construction is taking has taken up the role to fill the vacuum left by the Ministry of Local Government and place on government land.Women’s role in urban agriculture in Accra is explicitly Housing. Planners do not control urban agriculture, and have not taken up the chal- on the marketing side. In livestock and vegetable production they are a minority. lenge. (T. Hakuyu, Lusaka, Zambia) Women are represented in the farmer’s association. If loans are to be given, the

july 2001 5 but also the internal environment within integration is possible from multiple urban agriculture is also highlighted in which planners work. Simply put, in entry points that are very much context- the Dar es Salaam, Madhyapur Thimi, many circumstances, our planner practi- specific. In the future, ‘private developers’ and Gaborone papers. Drescher tioners are not the villains but rather the must also be engaged, whose activities summarises the discussions in the victims of the systems within which they and investment decisions influence how FAO/ETC e-conference, and gives a operate (see the article on South Africa). land will be developed and whether range of other tools to facilitate the The need for more information for city urban and peri-urban agriculture will integration of urban and peri-urban planners on the subject is further shown have space in their development agriculture into planning processes. in interviews held in the UK. schemes. With the possible exception of the Toronto case, the articles have little to There are 16 experiences described in The contributions have a word on collab- say on these crucial actors. this issue, of which two from Asia, two oration and partnership not only among from Latin America, five cases from cities local institutions or cities within one PLANNING TOOLS in Southern and Eastern Africa, two from country (see the article on Marilao in the In our call for contributions, we asked for CEE countries, two West European and Philippines) but also among cities in experiences on using zoning, GIS, and one from Canada. As a package, these different countries (the case of Santiago participatory approaches to integrating articles elaborate on the complex web of de los Caballeros in the Dominican urban agriculture into planning. As can variables that impinge on the integration Republic) and incentives by donors (see be seen from the different maps from of urban agriculture into planning. for instance the cases of Dar es Salaam Dar, Gaborone, Delft and Madhyapur and Harare). The articles underline that Thimi, GIS is used extensively. Zoning for Reactions: [email protected]

new government is now leaving the decision to the agriculture subcommittee to With secure land ownership, people invest: build houses and small shops and use decide and men and women equally qualify. (Daniel Sackey,Accra, Ghana) these as income sources other than agriculture. Most of the land in Lusaka is title land, which is for a 99 year lease.There is competition for land in the city. We build models in several areas.We bring the potential adopters of urban agricul- The question is:“who are the stakeholders?” Is it the guy growing vegetables ture to these models and ask them how they can do the same.We subscribe to the around his house, or is it the farmer in a designated small area around the city? I old notion that people will do it when they see, feel and believe in it.We invest in the think the second case is more appropriate for Lusaka in terms of policy focus. replication process by having staff for education campaign and logistics support. (Fisho Mwale, Lusaka, Zambia) Also, we had to develop the compost substrate in a way that suites each type of crops. (Mayor Duran, Marilao, Philippines) No spaces are designated for agriculture except on the fringe of the city, as created by the Ministry of Agriculture and Lands.The City has no relationships with these What Factors Determined Success and Failure? smallholdings.The implications of the recent (1995) policy changes on land, is that To integrate agriculture into urban planning, you need some kind of established everyone has to pay rates, meaning income for the city council, but also that office with the responsibility to lobby for the farmers. Sometimes we have visitors now there is a open land market. Squatters move into areas that have not been from other assemblies, where agriculture has no voice and I am asked how I have developed. Evictions become an issue since the invasions are politically motivated been able to get the Food and Agriculture Department integrated into AMA. at the local level e.g. by ward political leaders who want to wield power through (Daniel Sackey,Accra, Ghana) land allocations. (T. Hakuyu, Lusaka, Zambia)

There is need for managerial and political appreciation of capacity problems.With a Ghana introduced the “Farmer’s Day” as a national holiday 16 years ago, on which stronger institute, more pressure can be applied. People are not aware of town we honour our farmers and fishermen throughout the country and where awards planning – even internally in the city council there is little awareness.This has are given to best urban and peri-urban farmers too.There are awards to individuals caused lack of reviews of the 1975 plan - until the World Bank came in to draw up in the groups of local and exotic vegetable production, fishing, fish processing, the Lusaka Integrated Development Plan. (T. Hakuyu, Lusaka, Zambia) poultry, the best IPM farmer, and also to the best Agricultural Extension Agent. In 2000 we introduced awards for the best farmers in secondary schools, since we Slowly, the farmers are beginning to use the technology we have developed for want to promote agriculture for schools and we also introduced a category of rabbit urban agriculture, which include drip irrigation system, grafting, netting structures and bee keeping and mushroom growing.Apart from the quality and quantity of the and green housing.The process is about doing, rather than talking. produce, we also judge the application of techniques, the use of safe water in vege- (Mayor Duran, Marilao, Philippines) tables, the hygiene in animal keeping, the type of shelter construction, fodder and water supply, and the degree of self-organisation. (Daniel Sackey,Accra, Ghana) To secure land ownership and use of land, we are passing a by-law.We want the available land in Accra to be placed into a zoning plan, so it can be visible for Some summarising issues from the interviews are: everyone who intends to construct on this land to know that such a land is reserved ❖ Interest from planners and policymakers is often triggered by personal interest for urban and peri-urban agriculture as well as parks and gardens. Generally, there or a crisis situation; is less risk for farmers to be pushed from the land, if they grow high value crops ❖ This interested party is a major facilitator in the process of integration of and contribute more to the urban economy.This is why we promote export crop urban agriculture in urban planning until a (usually one) lead institution can take this production such as mushrooms and flowers. (Daniel Sackey,Accra, Ghana) facilitating role; ❖ Land is the most relevant issue for planning in relation to urban agriculture; ❖ Urban agricultural activities seem more interesting for planners when related to crisis management or when the activity is an important economic activity (high output); ❖ In that sense one could say that urban arable farming is often allowed, livestock is generally pushed to the periphery, and greening/forestry, fishery or high value crops are stimulated and regulated;

Mayor L.S. Duran 6 UA-Magazine Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture Report of the E-Conference on the Policy Agenda

Director of Food and Agriculture, Accra, handing over an award to a fisherman, at the A virtual conference on “Urban and peri- Farmer’s urban agriculture on the policy agenda” Day was jointly organised by FAO and ETC- Celebration RUAF, from August 21 - September 30, 2000. The conference was divided into three main themes: Household Food Security & Nutrition; Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture (UPA), Health & Environment; and UPA and Urban Planning. The conference attracted 720 participants from around the world (45 countries). This short article will revisit some issues regarding the nature of planning, the diverse opportunities for intervention and potential

UPA enhancement tools. Min. of Information, Accra

lthough it is difficult to tive conflict resolution skills and into policies should be capture the rich information approaches within which the approached from the context of A generated in the discussions, poor can organise for enhanced conflicts relating to the use of any interpretation should cap- political power. these resources. The participants ture/recognise both political as emphasised that land access, well as technical/procedural ele- THE LAND QUESTION AND ownership and tenure make a big ments of urban planning. Many ITS MANAGEMENT difference in the profitability of contributions stressed that differ- Consensus was observed in the UPA. ences between local contexts and central importance of land cultures should underpin the resources, specifically of open PARTICIPATION FAO/ETC joint understanding of the nature of spaces, the soil, water, forests; The need for the participation of Electronic Conference planning and of the opportunities and in the conclusion, that the all involved in planning and sub- August 21 - September 30, for integrating UPA into planning. integration of urban agriculture sequent activities was also 2000 This requires not only a grasp of Reflections on the Discussion agricultural production issues but Group on Urban and also of a range of interrelated Recommendations for action by the participants: Peri-Urban Agriculture and matters, like urbanisation, social ❖ Strengthen the organisation of UPA practitioners (farmers’ Urban Planning change, culture, planning, groups, farmers’ associations, clubs, etc.). governance and gender. ❖ Connect UPA to ongoing urban programmes (Sustainable City Programme, Urban Management Programme, Local It was noted that, to a large Agenda 21). extent, planning represents and ❖ Strengthen institutional capacity at the local level. reflects a given society’s social ❖ Develop guidelines for land-use regulations that protect contours of power, resource urban agriculture uses, encourage investment in UPA and mobilisation and distribution. make credit use viable. In both political and technical ❖ Assess land and water tenure / access conditions - terms, urban planning endea- develop policy reform proposals and tools. vours to reduce or manage con- ❖ Develop training materials related to planning for UPA ______flicts associated with different (including use of GIS and remote sensing for urban planning). A.W. Drescher users or competing uses of limit- ❖ Organise regional workshops on the integration of UPA into ✉ [email protected] ed space. Integration of UPA into urban planning with the broad approach of considering food urban planning will require adap- security, health, environment issues, and sustainable city development.

july 2001 7 emphasised. However, in practice, an democratisation process. Approaches are essential to assure safe food production exclusionary status quo reality prevails. needed that focus on process rather than in urban and peri-urban environments. The reality of inequities between North product so that participation by the poor Another window of opportunity was versus South, men versus women, elites is enhanced. Participants noted that for seen in sustainability and waste manage- (including researchers, donors, techno- that participation to be meaningful, some ment. In order to contribute to sustain- crats) versus the poor were among those political organisation would be required. able city development, UPA needs to be pointed out. An example is the need for more than just agriculture that happens planning tools that are anchored in local The creation of urban farmers’ associa- to be in or next to built-up areas. contexts. tions might be an important step into a Embedding UPA into the greater context more participatory process of urban of sustainable urban development forces planning. One lesson learned from this urban administrators to review their anti- Focus on process conference is the need to claim these UPA planning principles. Thus in the rather than product rights, and that urban agriculture has to Philippines, solid waste had been served be negotiated just as any other city devel- as one entry point to UPA and over time Indeed local contexts, history and culture opment issue. To “sell” the idea of UPA to created the chance “to modify efficiently may dictate that “urban agriculture is not policy-makers and planners, appropriate the traditional hierarchical system of city necessarily a desired activity by the poor”. arguments must be used, such as its con- management.” Linking UPA to Sustain- In the context of the collaborative city tribution to the welfare of people in small able City Development Programmes is a planning model (e.g. the cases of the cities (thereby reducing migration); major issue for integration of agriculture Philippines and Tanzania in this issue), urban habitat improvement and biocul- into educational, recreational and efforts have been made to enhance par- tural diversity; the creation of markets for environmental issues. ticipation of the poor. But in Dar es local produce or the recycling of “green Salaam, Tanzania, results show that these wastes” into compost. PLANNING APPROACHES AND efforts seem not to have made much dif- PLANNING TOOLS ference. INTEGRATION OPPORTUNITIES In procedural and technical terms, Within the matrix of linkages that UPA Geographical Information Systems (GIS) THE INSTITUTIONAL CONTEXT has with other citywide processes, and remote sensing were identified as It was seen that UPA needs to be a more diverse opportunities exist for integra- tools potentially useful for integrating “official” or “formal” activity in and tion. A single blueprint cannot be pre- UPA into planning. The use of GIS could around cities, in order to be integrated scribed for this, as future activities would also act as an obstacle, because of high into urban planning processes. However, have to select a spatial and sectoral focus purchasing costs and difficult mainte- little was said on the role of institutions relevant to the local context. nance. However, it is necessary to say with respect to UPA, a topic, which could that costs of simple GIS applications are be an important entry point into the dis- The role of education and information is reasonable today. The advantages of such cussion. As historical experience from underestimated. School gardens, garden systems are the avoidance of double Europe proves, institutionalisation of exhibitions, educational materials (books, work, allowing integrated planning, and UPA has been one precondition to videos, press releases, etc.) are important the establishment of an urban database achieving greater land security, higher means to creating awareness of UPA in that would otherwise have to be placed participation of farmers in policy deci- the public and among policy-makers. on other computers. sion-making and the stimulation of the Changes in the extension approaches are The process of integration also requires other tools for problem analysis and diagnosis. Examples like Participatory Technology Development (PTD) or Sustainable Livelihoods Analysis (SLA) were given. Furthermore, tools for conflict management, communication information exchange, impact assessments (such as Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA)) were suggested.

The introductory and final papers, and the discussion of the e-conference can be found on the FAO website: www.FAO.org/urbanag or on the RUAF website www.ruaf.org/news_and_agenda_fr.htm Magaret Armar-Klemese Discussing the future of the neighbourhood

8 UA-Magazine Newbuilt low-cost housing area with minimal space for gardens near the houses. Missionvale, PE, South Africa

This article is a synthesis of insights from a short period of participation in a

Lena Jarlov comprehensive urban planning project (Sida fund- The western concept for urban planning used today is developed to fit a ed) in Kimberley society of labour-based employment. In many growing cities in the and Port Elizabeth Third World, however, the vast majority of the inhabitants is unemployed and has to (South Africa) in survive in other ways. There is a need for a more flexible planning 1998 and 1999. concept that enables other means for livelihood security such as from urban All statistics used agriculture. Both politicians and planners keep up the idea of a western consumer in this article origi- lifestyle as the blueprint for development, even though it is unrealistic for the nate from the First majority of urban inhabitants in the developing world. Comprehensive Urban Plan (draft), City of Port Elizabeth (May Why We Need 1999). Insights from South Africa New Urban Planning Concepts

ccording to basic knowl- PLANS WITHOUT POWER be attracted to employ all the edge, the aim of physical Planners, however, seem to be unemployed as well as all the A planning should be to unaware of this fact. Their main newly arriving poor people organise the system of mainte- goal continues to be to try to migrating in from the countryside nance of a human society in develop these cities as industrial every day. space. The agricultural society cities with a functional separation has its own characteristics, which between housing areas, working are different from those of the areas and shopping areas and a industrial society. The meaning focus on the transport system. and function of work, recreation, This planning concept leads to housing, working place, consu- extremely dense housing areas, mer and producer differ between with very little space left over for the two. However, the cities of agriculture and other productive South Africa represent neither of activities near the dwellings, these two types of society. They space that could be used by are not agricultural societies as unemployed people without the majority of the inhabitants do means of transport, and women

not own or have access to any with children to look after. Lena Jarlov ______means of agricultural production Inhabitants of a peri-urban squatter Lena Jarlov, Associate like land or animals; neither are Unfortunately, the planners have camp are planning to develop Professor (retired), they industrial, as the majority is no power to attract the necessary a settlement with agriculture. Dalana Research Institute, not employed, has little or no industries to the planned areas! Joe Slovo Settlement, Port Elizabeth Falu, Sweden income, and limited consump- They simply devise schemes and ✉ [email protected] tion. They represent an exception hope and pray, and in some ways and therefore need to be handled facilitate for the investors to in a different way by the planners. come. Many big investors need to july 2001 9 DECREASING EMPLOYMENT IN majority of people will depend on pro- The driving forces are complicated mix- SPITE OF A HIGH ECONOMIC duction by a minority is not sustainable, tures of cultural and economic factors. GROWTH RATE especially not if the precondition is a per- Many strong forces drive the industrial In 1998, the growth rate of the popula- manent extreme growth rate of 6 %. The planning concept. The attitudes among tion of Port Elizabeth was estimated to be discussion about jobs in the informal sec- ordinary people today are highly affected increasing from approximately one tor and the areas for small industries and by global influences through the televi- million to 2.3 - 2.9 million by the year handicrafts, is still within the concept of sion. The western lifestyle stands as an 2020. At the same time, the formal sector the industrial society. Urban agriculture ideal for many people in the developing employment was estimated to rise to is mentioned, but in practice it is not giv- world. It is the ideal of consumption, sup- between 95,000 and 285,000 persons en requisite attention in the plan. Urban ported by strong commercial forces. But (depending on the economic growth rate: gardening can be applied in allotment clearly, this lifestyle will never be 3 % or 6 %). The draft Comprehensive areas in some places where the space is achieved by the majority. This is most Plan (1999) states: not needed for anything else. The private obvious in developing countries, where plots for housing are planned to be conditions will continue to be very rudi- “Both scenarios assume a higher growth in extremely small in order to obtain high mentary or deteriorate if the physical the total economy than over the last 25 years. density. planning of their cities remains based on The gap between employed in the formal principles that have been developed for a sector and the rest of the population will tend NEW PLANNING CONCEPTS to increase in both scenarios. However, in Maintenance systems that are more suit- Strong forces the High Growth scenario the public sector able to the cities of South Africa as well as drive the industrial will have the economic capacity to increase other parts of the developing world, must planning concept transfers and maintain services for the entire be systems that enable not only entre- population. The assumption is that it will be preneurs and employed people, but also difficult in the Low Growth scenario.” unemployed people without the resourc- completely different maintenance es to earn a decent living. Instead of the system. Politicians often take on the role The above thinking reflects a very fragile industrial city concept, it ought to be a of optimists, encouraging their people. foundation for the physical planning of mixture of agricultural, industrial and The main criticism of the comprehensive the future society. A society where the handicrafts systems, where the limits plans for Port Elizabeth and Kimberley is between producers and consumers, work this unfounded optimism, or rather the and recreation, housing areas and work- illusions it supplies, including the illusion Unemployed men, preparing for ing places are weakened or nullified. that the people will become well-adapted vegetable Allocation of land for food production members of a consumption society. gardens must be an important part of the infra- on a structure and as important for the design Another part of this topic is the influx to temporarily of the city as the transport system. the cities. In the townships of Kimberley vacant site. and Port Elizabeth, one would doubt the Walmer CONSUMPTION-BASED MODEL prevailing view of the positive connection township, AND GLOBALISED CULTURES between urban growth and living stan- PW. To change the prevalent planning con- dard. As long as this connection is taken cept will certainly not be easy. It will also for granted and is spread by authorities not be enough because the development who do not provide strategies for devel- of societies is not conducted by theories. oping the countryside, rural people without assets will go on setting their hope on a new and better life in the city. If access REFERENCES Municipality of Port Elizabeth. 1999. The First Comprehensive Urban Plan (draft). to land for small-scale farming and basic Port Elizabeth: City of Port Elizabeth. services in the countryside and small towns were to be increased, a great part of the rural population would stay there Women in a rather than moving into a dense town- township have invited ship in a big city. a councillor to ask for gardening land. Furthermore, in order to ensure a global New Brighton, PE. sustainable future, people in the richer world must also adapt their consumer lifestyle for one that takes greater care of nature, the resources and our fellow people in the less well-off parts of the world. All of these variables impact (directly and indirectly) upon the prevailing planning model and the options for alternative ones. Lena Jarlov 10 UA-Magazine Awareness and Action in the UK

Recently, richer industrial nations began to consider the possibilities of urban agriculture and its potential benefits to relevant policy-makers (Garnett 1996, Howe and Wheeler 1999). This literature highlights the value of urban food growing projects as a powerful vehicle for tackling intimately linked social, economic, educational and environmental concerns, arguing that the rationale for urban agriculture has never been stronger. In the UK, there is increasing awareness of the interlinked benefits of urban food growing. Planning, as an inclusive, future oriented vocation, which seeks to enhance the liveability of localities is ideally placed to strengthen community food systems. Nevertheless, the role played by UK local planning authorities in regulating urban agriculture has received only scant attention to date (Howe 2001, Martin and Marsden 1989).

his paper redresses this deficit by presenting findings T from a UK Government Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) funded survey Allotment examining the role played by garden planning in regulating urban agriculture on allotments, community

gardens and city farms. The sur- Sustain vey of all metropolitan planning authorities produced 32 usable replies, representing a response with 22 % claiming to have a high specifically for urban food. This rate of 46%. The survey was con- level of awareness. suggests a tendency for planners cerned with: ❖ Sustainability targets and to view issues purely from a land- ❖ exploring planners’ attitudes health were seen as being the use perspective. to and knowledge of urban food most significant potential benefits production; and of urban food schemes (22 %). THE REGULATION AND ❖ examining the regulation and ❖ Fifty percent regarded urban COORDINATION OF URBAN coordination of urban food pro- food growing as having a signifi- FOOD PRODUCTION duction. cant role in environmental fac- In examining the regulation of tors, 41 % in social factors, 47 % urban food production, the Planning conditions in education and 22 % in urban survey initially explored the with regards to health issues regeneration. planned local coverage of urban acquires considerable importance ❖ Of minor importance is the food (see box). economic role of urban food pro- Respondents varied in seniority, duction, according to 21 percent. The plan coverage provides a ranging from Principal Planning strong indication of the way in Officer to non-planners involved The data suggests that a link may which urban food production in urban food schemes. exist between the claimed level of might be viewed by the land-use awareness of urban food issues planning system and, to a signifi- PLANNERS’ ATTITUDES TO and the perception of the relative cant extent, sets the context with- AND KNOWLEDGE OF importance and benefits of urban in which it is to be regulated. URBAN FOOD PRODUCTION food growing. While clearly a small sample, the The survey revealed that there potential difference in treatment was an encouraging awareness, It also appears that a distinction by the planning system of allot- and perceived significance, of may be drawn between planners’ ments, community gardens and ______urban food issues amongst plan- knowledge of the issues sur- urban farm sites resulting from Joe Howe and Iain White ners (more details are given on rounding urban food production this division in policy coverage University Of Manchester, the RUAF website in tables of the and their knowledge of land-use may also be significant. The differ- Manchester, UK. survey results): issues, notably on allotments. A ent plan coverage raised the ques- ✉ [email protected] ❖ Of the respondents, 47 % number of the comments made tion of whether planning protec- claimed to have low levels of by respondents point to a higher tion strategies and mechanisms awareness regarding food issues, level of land-use knowledge than would differ between various july 2001 11 REFERENCES - Garnett T. 1996. Harvesting the Cities. Town and Country Planning 65 (8): 264-265. - Howe J. 2001. Nourishing the City. Town and Country Planning 70 (1): 29-31. - Howe J and Wheeler P. 1999. Urban Food Growing. Sustainable Development 7 (1): 22-36. - Martin R and Marsden T. 1999. Food for Urban Spaces. International Planning Studies 4 (3): 389-412. urban food sites or whether the dichotomy between the planning regulation of allotments and urban farms and community gardens would persist. framework neither encouraged nor ❖ Conflict regarding urban food sites discouraged the development and had arisen in 12 districts. Of these, nine Essentially, none of the responding protection of urban food production, related to pressure to develop on allot- planning departments appears to treat though a significant proportion (31%) ment sites, particularly where these were urban food production as a discrete issue said their policy framework actively considered under- used. specifically within the statutory planning encouraged this. No respondent thought arena. This is reinforced by the com- their framework actively discouraged These issues of demand for, and potential ments of a number of authorities, and in urban food schemes. changes of, use at urban food producing several instances, the siting of urban food ❖ 47% considered that their local policy sites are related to the issue of conflict production as a “Local Plan” or “plan- framework gave urban food about the between food production and other ning” issue was questioned. Two respon- right level of significance, than gave too forms of land use, either during plan dents suggested that the Local Agenda 21 little (28%). preparation or in development control. process was a more likely arena for this ❖ At the national level, this situation was Since this relates directly to land use, this issue, and one questionnaire was passed reversed: 38% of respondents thought the issue appears particularly salient to the from the planning department to a national policy framework gave too little planning system. In addition, the pos- community allotments’ officer for com- significance to urban food production sibility of planning conditions with pletion. Nonetheless, it remains clear that against 25% who considered its signifi- regard to health issues acquires consider- a number of planning departments are cance about right. able importance in the context of the use involved in schemes which do relate of brownfield sites and seems to be an specifically to urban food and extend In relation to development control, the area in which the land-use planning beyond purely land-use considerations. survey revealed that: system can exert a direct effect through Significantly for the input of the statutory ❖ Only one authority suggested that a its statutory powers. land-use planning system it appears from planning application had been received the data concerning revised development specifically for development on an urban CONCLUSION plans that certain steps are now being food site. The rising interest in food growing as a taken towards identifying urban food ❖ Planning conditions were imposed on recreational activity combined with production as a planning theme in its urban food sites in three authorities. consumers’ desires and indeed the need own right. This suggests a potentially These related mainly to health issues, e.g. for healthy food are combining to make significant impact upon the input of the the condition of the soil at the site. urban agriculture an emerging and planning system into the regulation and ❖ If the demand for urban food sites was dynamic activity. However, the develop- coordination of urban food, with more no longer sufficient, the majority of ment of urban agriculture is dependent focused statutory treatment accompanying respondents stated that retaining some upon the supply of land. Urban land is a the broader framework for contribution. form of open space or recreational area highly prized, and priced, commodity would be desirable. One authority stated and urban food production faces fierce In considering the response of the plan- that sites might be used mainly for competition for land and financial ning system to urban food, the survey residential development, since they were resources from land uses with higher revealed that: primarily located in areas denoted in profiles or offering greater returns, such ❖ The greater number (44%) of the development plan as “primarily as housing and industry. This puts pres- respondents thought that their policy residential use.” sure on urban food producing sites, and it is for planning to legitimate their position within the urban environment. ❖ Of the 32 authorities responding to the questionnaire, 26 had policies in their development plans relating to allotments. Only four had policies relating to urban farms; three to In general, planning’s direct role in rela- community gardens, and eight to various “others”, notable among which were open/green tion to food growing is relatively small in space policies, and policies dealing with rural agriculture in boroughs containing rural land. the UK. Indeed, urban agriculture sits ❖ Of the 20 respondents providing details of the development plan chapter headings under uncomfortably within the UK planning which specific allotment policies fell, 14 cited headings broadly relating to leisure and recre- framework. Nevertheless, planning’s ation; four related to the environment, and two to open/green space. apparent low level of involvement is per- ❖ Only three respondents regarded their development plans as specifically designating haps perplexing given the significance of sites for urban food production. food to the metropolitan system. Cities ❖ Of the four authorities whose current plans contained no policies aimed at any form of are complex, dynamic entities within urban food sites, two said future plan revisions were likely to contain such policies and two which food production and consumption thought they were not. are important components. The challenge ❖ Of the 28 respondents whose development plans contained policies relating to at least for the statutory framework is to recog- one form of urban food site, 12 said that no policies specifically related to urban food pro- nise and integrate every aspect of the duction were to be introduced. The other cases, however, suggested that policy in this area urban system, including food production, is to be developed further. into sustainable development strategies.

12 UA-Magazine Opening-ceremony of community garden

Urban farming currently consists of 154 community gardens within urban boundaries, and the authorities consider these to be part of the urban landscape, as one official separate zone. This is a serious

Oleg Moldakov step towards the integration of urban agriculture into urban planning. However In Russia, agricultural activities of the urban inhabitants are taking place at there have been, and still are, no function- significant distances from their urban homes (see Moldakov 2000). The term al zones taken up in city planning, for the “urban agriculture” refers more to agricultural activities of city dwellers than to development of urban agriculture. City agricultural activities within the city boundaries only. The agricultural sites, usually authorities believe that, with the improve- with a house, are called dachas and are located between 6 and 60 km from the city. ment of the economic situation in Russia, the use of temporary plots of land will lose status and will decline on its own, to be replaced by further development of Support for Urban Agriculture private and community gardens without In St Petersburg the need of support by authorities. City authorities do not mention, nor care about (though at least they do not ban), he importance of agricultural inhabitants because of the need for waste informal agricultural plots along the less activities, especially the production recovery and health services, extra pres- important roads, under electricity lines, T of food for subsistence consumption sure on the rural roads, and the increase on land bordering upon railway tracks, or for urbanites increased after the disinte- in public transportation, water discharge, on other open spaces that are not needed gration of the Soviet Union. The demand etc. They would like to win support from in the short term. These places however for land by those without dachas became the city administration, something they have no agricultural future. so high after 1991-92 that urban author- do not currently receive. ities started to organise small plots on The open spaces (land with poor soil) on open space (non-building development In 1995, “The Gardening Office” (Depart- the urban outskirts are temporarily author- sites) within the urban territories. ment for the Development of Horti- ised for agricultural purposes to selected This was then followed by other urban culture and Gardening in St Petersburg groups (veterans and pensioners). Other inhabitants who started to occupy land and the Leningrad Region) was created. poor land around the cities is informally adjacent to motorways and railroads, The Gardening Office coordinates, used, unsanctioned by the authorities. without permission from the authorities. together with other departments, the development of urban agri-culture, The St Petersburg’ experience shows the Federal law defines how local administra- activities of state agencies, local govern- important role of the The Gardening tions use city budgets for the necessary ment, private enterprises, and other Office within infrastructure in these areas (like health organisations in St Petersburg. the municipal and safety services). The organisation of administration. REFERENCES - Moldakov O. 2000. The Urban the plots outside city boundaries results Urban farmers themselves have created However, there Farmers of St Petersburg. Urban from negotiations and agreements public organisations like the “Union of is an important Agriculture Magazine 1 (1): 24-26. between the municipal and regional (rural) Gardeners”. Gardeners discuss their prob- and necessary administrations. The St Petersburg city and lems within their units (Community role for NGOs, regional administrators were sensible and Garden or Dacha Cooperatives), whose like the Union of Gardeners to provide clever enough to organise, regulate, and chairpersons report to the Union of further support to the gardeners. Training formalise the access-to-land process. Gardeners’ meeting with “The Gardening programmes and extension on agricultu- Office”, which will further act on the ral technologies need to be financed part- These two administrative units have dif- problems in need of support from urban ly from urban administration and partly ferent motivations. City authorities have authorities and coordinate with sectoral from payments based on fees collected by an interest in (peri-)urban agriculture departments. regional and urban branches of the Union mainly to solve social problems, but their of Gardeners from their members. interest is focused on practices outside URBAN PLANNING AND official city boundaries. They assist in AGRICULTURE The integration of urban agriculture into organising plots close to the city, but not This positive story about support of urban urban planning and development will within the city. The regional (rural) agriculture is, however, not fully reflected only be feasible when the majority of the administration however, does not really in a firm integration of agriculture in people living in the city, consider agricul- welcome new plots and new summer urban planning and land zoning. The tural activities not only as a means of emphasis of the St Petersburg/ Russian additional income and self-maintenance, ______urban planners still lies with industry, but also as a necessary element of the Oleg Moldakov, St Petersburg Urban Gardening tourism, services, science and education. sustainable development of the city. Club, Russia ✉ [email protected] july 2001 13 Current urban planning and development in Bulgaria does not take into account the existence of urban and peri-urban agriculture. The urban planning guidelines included in the Law for Territorial Development (2001) refer to zoning, densities for buildings, heights, distances and other technical parameters related to construction, roads and green open space, property issues and control. Issues related to farming and livestock breeding in the city are not treated as they are not expected to occur in urban areas. However, reality is different. In most cities in Bulgaria, urban agriculture is a common and permanent phenomenon There is a need for innovative

urban planning approaches. Antoaneta Yoveva Gardening in Sofia Using Urban Agriculture for The Case Of Trojan Sustainable City Planning in Bulgaria

n the last decade, Bulgaria has FARMING IN AND The production of vegetables gone through a process of AROUND TROJAN is very intensive. Chemical fertil- I political and economic transi- About 80 % of the houses in isers and pesticides are hardly tion. The share of agriculture Trojan have their own yards, used, but organic fertilisers are within the GDP increased signifi- which, in general, are used for applied (about 1 ton or more/ha). cantly (up to 26 % in 1999). As a agricultural production. However, Vegetables are grown by 88 % of response to the economic decline agricultural activities are not the the interviewed households, with and the introduction of open basic occupation of the urban on average a total area of less market principles in this transi- gardeners, who usually have than 100 m2. Fruits are cultivated tion period, the importance of another job (small tradesmen, by 75 % of the interviewed house- urban agriculture for the subsis- technicians, office clerks) or are holds and grapes by 13 %. Many tence of many urban households retired. Most urban gardeners families also raise animals, mainly has also increased substantially. and farmers are between 50-75 poultry (63 %, with on average 18 Agriculture increasingly functions years of age. About 15 % of the fowl) and cattle (50 % of the farm- as a social safety net for the poor- population of Trojan is older than ing households breed an average er sectors of the urban population 60 years, while the unemploy- of 3-5 animals), but also sheep or and forms an important complement rate is about 17 %. goats (25 %), and/or pigs (38 % ment for middle income groups. In general, the urban garden- keep an average of two animals). Agricultural production in urban ers and farmers are less educated Most animal feed is produced on- ______and peri-urban areas also has an and have below average income. farm. Cultivation practices are Antoaneta Yoveva, important potential for urban The majority of urban agricul- rather basic: crop rotation is Architect, Sustainable World landscape management, nature turists garden for self-consump- hardly practised, and animal hus- Foundation, Sofia, Bulgaria; conservation, recreation and eco- tion, which on average satisfies bandry practices are primitive ✉ [email protected] logical education, as will be over 50 % of the household food and not monitored by contempo- and shown later on. needs (and in this way allows for rary veterinary services. Plamen Mishev, Professor, Here, the case study of the important savings). Only 15 % of University for National and Bulgarian city Trojan is present- the interviewed households have TENDENCIES IN URBAN World Economy, Sofia, ed, and some guidelines for the income generation as their main FARMING Bulgaria; integration of urban agriculture motive, selling their produce Most of the farmers and garden- ✉ [email protected] into urban policies and develop- directly from the garden or farm ers interviewed do not have clear ment planning are presented. to consumers. ideas regarding future develop-

14 UA-Magazine The SWAPUA project (Soil and Water management in Peri-urban and Urban Agriculture in CEE countries) is operating in 10 cities in five CEE countries. Its aim is to explore the presence the needs and problems and to generate combination with development of agro- and impacts of urban and peri- ideas on required actions and policy tourism and landscape conservation. urban agriculture and to facilitate measures. In general, the findings of the This draft action plan was first discussed the development of local policies survey were confirmed. A problem of and revised with the local farmers during that accommodate, and plan special interest to the farmers was the follow-up meetings. The action plan was for, urban agriculture as an shortage of land for grazing the animals presented and discussed at the Trojan integral part of sustainable city or to grow fodder. The interest of the Municipal and Citizens’ Forum, in which development. peri-urban farmers in the provision of all major local groups were represented credit and assistance in marketing was to advise on priority issues for the city. higher than found in the survey. The During the first meeting, the plan and ment. Most want to continue in the planning team also consulted experts and regulations were presented and later present way. Only 8% of the farmers are representatives of a variety of local published in the local newspaper. In the looking for ways to improve and/or organisations. second meeting, the plan was discussed enlarge the scale of their agricultural and it was accepted for the development activities. About 5 % want to specialise On the basis of the results of these meet- of peri-urban agriculture in this zone. more. The very low percentage of farm- ings and a review of the changes in land ers willing to take out a loan indicates use and other tendencies in the southern THE ACTION PLAN that the group which would invest in periphery of Trojan, the planning team The action plan includes a number of urban agriculture (including willingness revised the outdated urban development activities, indicating the organisation(s) to take entrepreneurial risks) is very plan for the southern zone of the city and responsible for implementation, the small. This might be explained by the drafted new municipal regulations for source of financing, the period of imple- main motivation (growing food for self- urban agriculture. The new development mentation and the expected results. The consumption), or by the low profitability plan focuses on organic agriculture in most important ones are summarised of market oriented farming under the below: present conditions. Specific urban rules and standards for The Municipality will play a coordinat- PARTICIPATORY PLANNING urban agriculture in Trojan ing role, to stimulate and regulate urban Based on the results of the city survey, a and peri-urban agriculture through: participatory process of policy and action ❖ integrating urban agriculture in the planning was initiated, starting with an general municipal development plan; inventory of the stakeholders involved, in ❖ adopting a set of specific norms and one way or another, in the use and manage- regulations regarding urban agriculture ment of this territory. Subsequently, a for different zones of the city; meeting with representatives of these ❖ improving access to land for urban stakeholders was organised, where the agriculture by selling and renting munici- results of the survey were presented and pal land to family farms and providing their participation in a policy and action land, directly or through gardening asso- planning process was requested. The ciations, for temporary agricultural use meeting resulted in an agreement to coop- (medium-term leases), to those households registered as “being in need”; Agricultural production has an ❖ encouraging organic production and important potential for regulation of the application of fertilisers urban landscape management Parks and pesticides; ❖ Industrial zone periodically monitoring of the degree erate in the planning process initiated by Central zone (no animals allowed) of pollution of soils and water in the urban the SWAPUA-project and to meet periodi- Mixed residential (restricted animal breeding) agriculture plots, applying the municipal cally. It was decided to focus the participa- Peripheral villiges (animal breeding allowed) regulations regarding use of fertilisers and tory process on the southern periphery of Prevailingly residential (restricted number of pesticides, and preventing ecological the city, which is the contact zone adjacent domestic animals) damage and public health problems; River to the “Central Balkan” National Park. A planning team was formed consisting of the Bulgarian SWAPUA-team member, a Trojan is a typical Bulgarian town - about 50 % of Bulgarian cities have very similar local consultant (a professor in econom- characteristics. The population of Trojan counts 25,260 persons. Agriculture is one ics), a planning expert from the municipal- of the leading economic sectors, both in the region and in the city. Around the city ity and the deputy director of the Research centre there are two belts of residential zones varying in density and characteristics. Institute for Mountainous Animal In the peri-urban zones, some villages have more traditional farming functions (see Breeding located in Trojan. map). Trojan is implementing the project “Civil development and local self-government”. Because of its geographic location, size, economic activities and scale, Meetings with local farmers and garden- Trojan was selected for the implementation of the exploratory survey. Respondents ers were organised in the area, to discuss came from the various farming types and from both urban and peri-urban areas. july 2001 15 REFERENCES - Government of Bulgaria. 2001. Law for Territorial Development. Sofia: State Gazette, No 1, 2.1.2001 - Government of Bulgaria, Main problems encountered by the urban Ministry of Health Care. 1992 ❖ (amended 1994, 1996 and assisting in the identification and gardeners and farmers in Trojan 1997). Regulation N7. Sofia: solution of marketing problems, amongst ❖ lack of feed and inputs (25 %); State Gazette N46. - Government of Bulgaria. others by creating the infrastructure for ❖ lack of capital (50 % - nearly 100 % replied no 1997. Law on Limitation of to taking out a loan if possible); Harmful Influence of Waste a local farmers market and by further Upon the Environment. facilitating arrangements between local ❖ lack of labour (38 %); Sofia: State Gazette N86. ❖ - Government of Bulgaria. farmers and schools, hospitals, and lack of marketing (38 %); 1969, 1997. Law on Waters. restaurants in Trojan and the ❖ lack of transport (25 %); and Sofia: State Gazette N29 and N 87. neighbouring city of Lovetch; ❖ lack of access to land or fear of eviction (50 %) - Government of Bulgaria. ❖ improving the roads; 1963 and 1998. Law on Pro- tection of Waters, Air and ❖ facilitating the provision of credit; Soils from Pollution Sofia: ❖ stimulating the processing of local publications, farm demonstrations, tech- State Gazette N84 and N11. produce (canned, frozen, pickles and nical advice and training, and will pro- other forms); vide credit support and supervision, and ❖ stimulating the (regulated) use of will assist in the regional marketing of of urban and peri-urban farming whilst semi-public open spaces for urban farming products. preventing associated ecological and agriculture for educational purposes health problems. The zonification also and consumption in schools, hospitals, The Tourism Association Central includes a set of norms regarding agricul- kindergartens; and Balkan and the Trojan Tourism Bureau will tural land-use and guidelines for urban ❖ including provisions for landscape support the development of agro- and planning. The rules are still experimental development, recreation and gardening eco-tourism in the region, both by assist- and await endorsement by the municipal in building plans. ing farmers in providing recreational ser- council. vices as well as by attracting tourists and The Research Institute on Mountainous organising educational tours of students CONCLUSION Livestock Breeding and the National and schools. The Trojan case illustrates a number of and Local Extension Services will be important issues: active in providing technical advice and ZONIFICATION AND MUNICIPAL ❖ Urban agriculture is widely practised training to urban agriculturists on organ- REGULATIONS REGARDING URBAN in Trojan, a city that is representative of a AGRICULTURE large group of cities in Bulgaria. Agricultural activities and their influence ❖ Urban agriculture plays an important The rules on the settlements are covered by role in the food security of a substantial are still experimental Regulation N7 of the Ministry of Health number of households and has provided Care, which defines the mandatory a safety net during the transition period; requirements and standards for the pro- for a smaller group, urban agriculture is ic farming techniques, fodder production, tection of health and sanitation. For an important source of income. animal reproduction, prevention of example, it delineates seven zones of san- ❖ A relatively limited group of urban ecological damage, performing soil and itation levels, depending on the number farmers and gardeners in Trojan is inter- water analyses, farm planning and and type of animals allowed in different ested in further growth and development information on available credit lines. types of residential areas. The Law for into commercial farms. The Central Balkan National Park, in coop- Territorial Management includes a spe- ❖ Rather than excluding urban farmers eration with the State Forestry Division, cific supplement on sanitation-hygiene and gardeners from city development will provide permits to the peri-urban requirements for agriculture for various plans (as is current practice), they must farmers for grazing of animals, harvesting types of urban territories. be integrated into urban planning to pre- of herbs, forest fruits, and mushrooms, On the basis of these legal requirements vent negative impacts from unregulated etc. in the territory of the National Park. and the information generated in the urban agriculture. Optimal use can also SWAPUA city survey on the presence and be made of the role urban farmers and The Swiss Foundation for Support of character of urban agriculture in the vari- gardeners can play in the protection of Sustainable Development of Farming in ous districts of the town, the planning nature, landscape management, provi- Bulgaria and the Bulgarian Swiss team developed zonification for urban sion of recreational services to urban citi- Foundation FAEL will promote organic agriculture in Trojan. This aims to facili- zens and ecological education of the farming methods through distribution of tate backyard gardening and other forms youth and citizens. ❖ When a participatory and multi-actor approach is applied, with relatively little financial means, a good quality plan can be made and implemented, combining expertise and resources of various local actors, including the urban farmers.

Open space in Sofia Antoaneta Yoveva UA-Magazine The growth and geographical spread of urban agriculture in Zimbabwe is largely attributed to the harsh effects of economic structural adjustment programmes (ESAP). The negative impact of ESAP has been manifest by the erosion of basic wages, escalating prices of basic commodities and the widening of the gap between rich and poor households. Studies by ENDA-Zimbabwe (1994) indicated that the total land under cultivation in the City of Harare increased dramatically, by 92.6% between the years 1991-1994. This period coincides with the early phases of ESAP launched in 1991. The land under cultivation has also increased under the economic hardships of the last years. The responsiveness and actions of urban local authorities in addressing the pressing needs of the

urban community has become of utmost significance. Beacon Mbiba Women selling maize in Harare The Urban Planning Dilemma in Harare, Zimbabwe

n Zimbabwe, the nature and practice of are thereby caught up in a jigsaw puzzle Furthermore, the promotion of free mar- agricultural activities within the urban in which, on one hand, they are expected ket operations in the distribution of urban I environment are posing chronic head- to address the current needs of the urban land entails the poor and powerless being aches to the largely conservative urban citizenry, whilst on the other hand, pro- completely pushed out of the urban eco- planners, who are keen to observe and tecting and preserving the urban ecologi- nomic operations. perpetuate the status quo. Traditionally, cal and physical environments in tandem urban environments have been identified with prescribed notions of urban man- One would expect the role of the planner by the absence of agricultural activities as agement. In most instances, matters per- to be an advocacy role, by deliberately these are more aligned to the rural forms taining to the livelihood systems of the setting aside land for agricultural produc- of settlement (Mbiba 1995). urban populace, mostly the poor, have tion by the poor, but the institutional often taken second fiddle to inflexible environment in which the urban planner Urban farming activities in Zimbabwe environmental planning considerations. operates is a major obstacle to responsive broadly fall into two categories: intra- and innovative planning. urban farming activities and peri-urban Food produced within the urban environ- farming activities carried out on the out- ment is primarily consumed by produc- INSTITUTIONAL PROCESSES AND skirts of the urban environment. Whilst all ing households, whereas the surplus is URBAN LAND-USE PLANNING farming activities are of great concern to sold to the urban market. Next to pro- Historically, urban planning in Zimbabwe local urban planning authorities, the duction-related problems, planners have has been guided by rigid Master and off-plot mode of intra-urban agricultural to grapple with marketing aspects of agri- Local Plans, which tended to stifle rele- production is the most contentious and cultural produce. In the cities of Harare problematic in urban planning practice, and Gweru, local authorities have been and officially illegal. engaged in incessant conflicts with fruit, Local authorities have been vegetable and crop vendors who sell their engaged in incessant conflicts The uncontrolled encroachment of products in undesignated areas often in ‘traditional’ cultivation practices upon conflict with other urban land uses. environmentally sensitive land, and the Urban land and water resources are criti- vant adaptations to emerging and unfore- ill-advised use of chemicals in vegetable cal in the development and practice of seen urban socio-economic needs, while and crop production are often put for- urban agriculture. Accessibility of such the urban planner is also faced with polit- ward as reasons why urban agriculture resources to the urban poor farmers is ical pressures that tend to be concerned should never be considered as a serious curtailed by intense competition from with short-term political gains. urban land-use option. Urban planners other urban land uses such as housing and industrial developments. Planners in A review of local authority response to ______most Zimbabwean urban centres view urban planning would show that political I. Chaipa, Zimbabwe Education Trust, Harare. urban open space cultivation as standing forces have been at the forefront in deter- ✉ [email protected] in the way of urban development. mining the course of urban agriculture. july 2001 17 REFERENCES - Chaipa I. 2001. Institutional Bottlenecks in Urban Poverty Alleviation: The case of urban food production by the poor and the local governance system in the City of Gweru. Draft MPhil Thesis, University of Zimbabwe. - ENDA-Zimbabwe. 1994. Urban Agriculture in Harare. Harare: ENDA-Zimbabwe. For instance, the City of Harare promoted Parliament, even the worst environmental- - Mbiba B. 1995. Urban Agriculture in Zimbabwe: urban farming ‘cooperatives’ as far back as ly damaging practices of urban agriculture Implications for Urban Management and Poverty. Avebury: Ashgate Publishing Limited. 1985 following a directive from the have been permitted to continue. Minister of Local Government and Town Planning. These farming ‘cooperatives’ The urban planner operates in an institu- never functioned as cooperatives in the tional environment that is at the centre of Act. A further critical shortage of skilled true sense of the word, but more as group- diverse political interests. The fact that planners also hampers innovative and ings for the purposes of acquiring land. urban planning officials are accountable responsive planning. The farming ‘cooperatives’ were more of a to politically elected councillors, most of manifestation of the ruling party’s experi- whom have no relevant urban planning The successful and sustainable integra- mentation with socialist ideologies, than a and management expertise restricts devel- tion of urban agriculture into urban land- deliberate and carefully thought out plan- opment of innovative ways for integrating use systems in Zimbabwe is a complex ning intervention to address the needs of agricultural activities into the urban land- task requiring a multi-stakeholder the citizens. Similarly, toleration of urban use system. Consequently, most practising approach with the urban professional agriculture in other urban centres such as planners are content with observing the planners taking a leading role and provid- Gweru, could be seen as being more politi- status quo by implementing development ing a conducive operational environment. cally motivated than as a conscious plan- control according to laid down procedures This requires intensive public and politi- ning intervention. In election years for local and standards and provisions of enabling cal awareness-raising and strict obser- government, councillors and Members of legislation such as the Urban Councils vance of ethics of good urban governance.

The Women and Land Lobby Group in Zimbabwe

Urban agriculture is an important social rather than by purchasing it. As in many ians, the municipal government, city and economic activity providing nutritious other developing countries, urban agricul- council officials, urban council associa- food, employment and income to a large ture is a necessity as it is practised to sup- tions, relevant NGOs and the urban culti- number of people in urban areas, especial- plement household food supplies, unlike vators themselves. Once a policy frame- ly women. This importance has increased in developed countries where it is prac- work governing urban agriculture is put in as a result of Economic Structural tised as a leisure activity. place and when legalisation is expected, Adjustment Programmes (ESAP) initiated the Women and Land Lobby Group will in Zimbabwe since the 1990s, because of Urban agriculture has only recently been carry on to the second stage of its strategy. the sharp rise in the cost of living due to identified as an activity area for the In partnership with other organisations the removal of subsidies on basic com- Women and Land Lobby Group, in which such as the Farmers’ Development Trust, modities. This period also saw an increase the focus is more on the poor sector of the the Extension Service and Compassionate in urban agriculture and the commercial- community because these are the people Ministries, they will assist cultivators to isation of the activity. Research has shown who practise the activity out of need. undertake urban agriculture in a sustain- that, in Zimbabwe, the majority (90 %) of Also, these people live in the high-density able and viable manner. urban cultivators is women who are suburbs, and as a result, most of their engaging in urban agriculture as a strategy activities are carried out on municipal, Female farmers will be assisted through for poverty alleviation. Households save state or privately owned land that is the provision of agricultural training in money by consuming their own produce vacant. This land is not designated for farming techniques and management agriculture, and agricultural activities are practices, and by offering low-interest therefore considered to be illegal. loans (from the Farmer Development Vegetable production Trust Input Loan Scheme). in URBAN AGRICULTURE STRATEGY Mbare Several problems are associated with The ultimate goal is to have urban agricul- high urban agriculture in Zimbabwe, related to ture included in urban land-use planning density policy and land-ownership issues, produc- in Zimbabwe’s urban areas and to have the area tion techniques, marketing and the nega- activity realise its full potential in terms of tive environmental impacts. The Women food security for the urban population. and Land Lobby Group has a two-stage strategy to bring attention to the need for a relevant policy. The first stage relates to The mandate of the Women and Land lobbying for the legalisation of urban agri- Lobby Group is to advocate and lobby for

Beacon Mbiba culture through stakeholder workshops, gender-sensitive land policies and promote ______to highlight its importance and to map out women’s economic empowerment through Abby Mgugua, Women and Land Lobby Group; strategies to have it legalised. The key tar- the equitable access to and control of land. ✉ [email protected] gets in this regard are the parliamentar- The organisation is concerned with ensuring that policies affecting women’s access to land are effectively translated into prac- 18 tice and implementation. Fruit market in Harare Beacon Mbiba

70% of the city’s population The Marginalisation resides on 20% of the land, thus pointing to a dual city comprising of extremely high density areas of Urban Agriculture in Lusaka co-existing with spacious low population density zones (Muwowo 2000, Lusaka City In 1987, Sanyal suggested that Lusaka, Zambia, was the capital city Council 2000). Planning for of urban agriculture (UA) in Africa. This was at the peak of Zambia’s Lusaka since the 1970s has largely economic crisis when residents took up UA as a form of employment and revolved around programmes to to improve their nutritional status. Travelling in the region today, one upgrade the ‘compounds’ in terms will easily agree that Harare, Zimbabwe, has taken over as the capital of of provision of improved housing, urban agriculture and that the activity may not be as widespread in roads, social services, water and Lusaka as observed by Sanyal in the 1980s. sanitation infrastructure. This is a domain in which large multina- tional donors and local NGOs here is no longer abundant the local planning institutions are play a significant role (see for maize growing outside the weak; the planning department example, Agyemang et al.1997, T boundary fence of the ele- lacks the capacity to plan and Lusaka City Council 1999, Nippon gantly designed Hotel Interna- most of the current strategic Koei Co. Ltd. 1999). tional. In addition, there is little planning is carried out by donor integration into planning. In fact, agencies and their externally The spatial growth of the city to urban and peri-urban agriculture appointed consultancy firms date was supposed to be guided has been marginalised out of (especially from South Africa)1. by the 1975 ‘Greater Lusaka planning; it is not considered a Development Plan’ whose full priority by the city authorities The combined effect of these implementation was however and is being gradually squeezed determinants in Lusaka is to constrained by limited capacity out by residents seeking lodgings marginalise agriculture in the and financial resources, due to a to rent, as well as developers. planning processes (institutional shrinking economy since the late Under these circumstances, a marginalisation) while also push- 1970s. Recently, signs of econom- recurring question is ‘what factors ing it towards the periphery of ic stability and recovery have determine the integration (or the city: peri-urban agriculture emerged, buttressed by donor otherwise) of urban agriculture (spatial marginalisation). funding. A new strategic plan for into city planning’? the city has been identified as SOCIO-ECONOMIC necessary to guide these new ______The integration of UA into plan- SETTINGS AND LUSAKA’S developments. Whereas, the legal Beacon Mbiba, Co-ordinator, ning is determined not only by STRATEGIC PLANNING requirement is that the master Urban and Peri-Urban Research the character of planning and Lusaka’s current population is plan be reviewed every five years, Network (Peri-NET), Faculty of the planning institutions in a given about two million people, over this has never been undertaken Built Environment, South Bank place but also by socio-political half of whom reside in peripheral for the 1975 Development Plan. University, UK; dynamics relating to access and ‘compounds’, largely unplanned Thus over the years, land use has ✉ [email protected] control of land resources. In previously informal or squatter developed in unforeseen direc- Lusaka, it can be observed that settlements. Reports suggest that tions hence the need for a new july 2001 19 The result is that UA is pushed out of the more central areas THE “COMPACT CITY” PERSPECTIVE AND IMPLICATIONS FOR URBAN AGRICULTURE strategic plan. However, despite all these boundary, where close to 90% of the Urban agriculture in Lusaka will also be obvious reasons, local actors in Lusaka actors are possibly foreign business affected by the “compact city perspective” allege that the impetus for this plan came people3. The plan supports a vigorous adopted in the strategic plan (also seen in from the World Bank which provided the environmental approach to management Nairobi and Harare) and described as financial resources and appointed a team of these activities. part of the ‘new urbanism’ (Mbiba 2001). of South African consultants to prepare Section 2 of the Lusaka Integrated it2. A draft strategic plan was then sub- However, other than the environmental Development Plan captures this as fol- mitted in June 2000 and was still awaiting view of these activities, the study to the lows: “Before Lusaka expands outside the ministerial approval as of March 2001. plan did not capture the political and eco- current district boundary, it is imperative nomic dimensions of UA and its poverty that infilling of residential and commer- THE NEGLECT OF URBAN alleviation potential. It seems to have been cial areas takes place.” This implies that AGRICULTURE IN THE STRATEGIC influenced by a modernisation philosophy all vacant land within residential areas PLAN leading to a strategic perspective that fails should be used for building development Generally, little direct mention is made in to draw out employment potentials in the sites before further expansion outwards. the plan, on urban and peri-urban agri- sector as initially identified in another sec- The rationale is that such open spaces are culture. It appears that there was no tion of the plan. This issue could be better serviced (with water, roads and attempt to conduct a detailed primary gleaned in section 3 where it is stated that: sewer lines) relative to more peripheral survey of the activity, though the report sites and therefore cheaper to develop. by Agyemang et al. (1997) which included Agriculture is a major employer in the Lusaka economy. However, as Lusaka is a The result is that agriculture is pushed built up urban area and more and more out of the more central areas towards the agriculturally productive land is taken up periphery of the city; these sites demand for urban purposes, it is not believed that longer travel times not available to poor there is any scope for long term growth in urban residents. This peripheral future of this sector. urban agriculture was endorsed in an interview with Councillor Judith Simusya The plan thus fails to interrogate the issue of Lubwa Ward 29 who indicated that: further. Yet maps produced show that a lot of open spaces exist which could be “As council, we have not tackled UA. We do comprehensively used for agriculture, to not have a strategy as such…. For us, we boost growth and employment. Secondly, provide UA on smallholdings 5 km away no synthesis and strategy to protect agri- from the city… that we promote. On open culturally productive land from being spaces within the city, we discourage it but

Beacon Mbiba replaced by building development sites is do not slash crops”. (Interview 08/03/2001) Roasted Maize cobs sold given. Lusaka still has untapped potential along the major roads in Harare for upward growth, an approach that However, even in the smallholdings, the would draw away pressure from existing council does not provide any material open spaces. support. Instead, this support comes a small section on UA was used. Even in terms of secondary data, the plan did not draw on the large literature base that REFERENCES - Agyemang OA (Kofi), Chirwa B and Muya M. 1997. Managing the Sustainable Growth and Development of Lusaka: exists on the topic for the city of Lusaka. An Environmental Profile of the Greater Lusaka Area. Report prepared for Lusaka City Council, UNDP, UNCHS and Government of the Republic of Zambia. Lusaka. - Government of Zambia. 1975. Land (Conversion of Titles) Laws of Zambia. Chapter 289. Lusaka: Government Urban agriculture was discussed in the Printer. context of open space management and - Lusaka City Council. 1999. Annual Report of the Housing and Social Services Department, Lusaka City Council. Lusaka. the need for sustainable environmental - Lusaka City Council. 2000. Lusaka Integrated Development Plan 1999 (Final Draft, June 2000). Prepared by V3 Consulting Engineers. Lusaka City Council Lusaka. development. In section 1.8.4.3, the plan - Lusaka City Council. 2000/2001. Report of the Adhoc Committee on Improper Land Allocation in Lusaka. Lusaka recognises the presence of open spaces City Council. Unpublished Report. - Mbiba B. 2001. The Political Economy of Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture in Southern and Eastern Africa: and agricultural land amounting to Overview, Settings and Research Agenda. Presentation for the MDP/ESA workshop, ‘The Political Economy of 400,000 hectares in the form of agricultu- Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture in East & Southern Africa’ in Harare, Feb.-March 2001. - Muwowo P. 2000. Environmental Problems and Gardening in Urban and Peri-urban Areas of Lusaka, Zambia. ral smallholdings at the periphery and Insight (Incorporating Lusaka City News) 9 (December): 7. Lusaka: Sustainable Lusaka Programme. - Nippon Koei Co. Ltd. 1999. The Study on Environmental Improvements of Unplanned Urban Settlements in Lusaka: kitchen gardens, where a variety of crops Inception Report. Lusaka: Japan International Co-operation Agency (JICA) and Ministry of Local Government and such as potatoes, cassava, maize and veg- Housing. - Sanyal B. 1987. Urban Cultivation Amidst Modernisation: How Should we interpret it? Journal of Planning Education etables are grown. Aspects of livestock and Research 6 (3): 187- 207. production and commercial horticulture -The Times of Zambia. 1999. Illegal Plot Developers Given Ultimatum (14 October). - -The Times Zambia. 1999. Chainama Land Row Brewing (21 September). were also identified. The latter is largely -The Sunday Times. 1999. Comment: Land Issue A Serious Business (7 November). found in areas outside the Lusaka District -The Times. 2000. Illegal Settlers Invade Kanakantapa (11 July). -The Times. 2000. Illegal Occupations: Police Evict Squatters (6 July).

20 UA-Magazine Crop production along the road in Dar Es Salaam

income option appears more attractive than the benefits derived from agricultural activities.

Urban Vegetable Promotion Project Vegetable Urban CONCLUSION Grey literature and anecdotal interview evidence from Lusaka highlight that The rental income option appears more attractive among other things, the conduct and than the benefits derived from UA content of current strategic planning efforts coupled with formal and informal land market dynamics reinforce the from NGOs who work with cultivators Kalingalinga residential area, and so on. exclusion of agriculture rather than its and community groups. (b)Investments and investors take land integration into urban planning and from the poor or get preferential treat- development. Current efforts at strategic SOCIO-POLITICAL CONTEXTS AND ment vis à vis the poor and UA. planning in Lusaka are largely managed LAND DIMENSIONS (c) Land is being sold illegally by officials by external agencies driven by a western The view by councillor Simusya that and politicians. modernist view of the city. These have “urban agriculture is an issue of land’ is (d)Conflicts between different groups tended to ignore the urban agriculture shared by many in Southern and Eastern and competing claims on the same piece reality. Although these efforts have strong Africa (see Mbiba 2001). The urban land of land occur. concerns for ‘environmental biodiversity’, on which agriculture does or can take (e) Illegal development of houses for rent they have missed opportunities to place could be used for many other is taking place. explore and develop urban agriculture as purposes. Ownership, access and (f) There are rising levels of land dis- a sector within which to tackle issues of perceptions of good use of land are all putes. urban economy and poverty alleviation. socially contested matters that do not The plans and planning exclude rather favour it. Prevailing processes in Lusaka The Times of Zambia has reported on than integrate urban agriculture. seem to confirm this view. many of these processes while the City Council in 2000 set up a Committee to Urban agriculture is further excluded by As from 1975, land ownership and access investigate the ‘rampant’ illegal land deal- ongoing social and political processes in Zambia was governed by the Land ings by its officials and councillors around issues of control and access to (Conversion of Titles) Act (Chapter 289) (Lusaka City Council, 2000-2001). The land in the city. The priority seems to be which abolished land sales, transfers, Times of Zambia reported on July 6th 2000: to focus on the conversion of undevel- alienation of land for value and restricted “Police in Lusaka Yesterday evicted over oped sites (both formally and informally) agricultural landholdings. This act was 500 squatters who invaded 40 acres of for building site development and away repealed in 1995 restoring value to University of Zambia land and demarcat- from UA. Given these processes and the undeveloped land. As a result of these ed it into residential plots on the border context, it seems that Lusaka’s agricul- statutory changes, public perceptions with Kalingalinga Township.” At the ture will become more active at the changed on how to use land, as well as on time, the land being reserved for future periphery (peri-urban agriculture) than the importance of ownership, control expansion of the university was being in other city open spaces. Consequently, and access to land sites for building used for agricultural production by some there is a need for a formal process to development. A real estate market residents. explore and put in place a peri-urban emerged and is now growing steadily agriculture review programme as an with an emphasis on building site But this article clearly shows that the ‘res- extension or complement to the just development and not on urban agri- idential movement’ and demand for completed Lusaka Integrated culture. Key processes observed are: houses by the poor seem to be stronger Development Plan. (a) Open spaces are used for prestigious than that for agriculture. Other press arti- commercial and residential develop- cles and the Lusaka (2000/2001) report ments with involvement of international suggest that powerful local politicians capital such as at Manda Hill Out of and patrons use the poor to invade urban NOTES Town Shopping Centre, the upcoming open spaces not only for political patron- (1) A view expressed by officers in the City Council OAU Complex in Long-acres, housing age but also as a way to access sites on and confirmed by a cursory review of planning and programme documents for the city. developments in the Ibex area, the which to built structures from which to (2) A view expressed by Mr F Mwale, former mayor Chinese Trade/Cultural Centre near generate rental incomes. The rental of Lusaka City (Interview discussion, March 2001). (3) The team of consultants comprised of V3 Consulting Engineers, LASCO Engineers, Urban Dynamics and Urban Econ. july 2001 21 Integration of Agriculture in City Development in Dar Es Salaam

A number of forces have driven the mushrooming of urban farming and livestock keeping. In Dar Es Salaam. They include poverty; decreasing formal employment; proximity to markets; availability of services; government policy; culture (like livestock keeping as part of the culture) and non-enforcement of laws, regulations and by-laws. Urban Vegetable Promotion Project Vegetable Urban Cropproduction in a valley in Dar Es Salaam

n the Tanzanian context urban Despite substantial growth, sultation in 1993 to deliberate on agriculture is commonly urban agriculture received very agriculture. In the consultation, I referred to as “farming activi- limited recognition from the stakeholders agreed that agricul- ties in the built-up areas where authorities in the past ten years. ture in the city contributed sub- open spaces are available as well Of late, professionals and politi- stantially (almost 30%) in house- as livestock keeping in the cians have realised that if urban hold food supplies and that is had built-up and peri-urban areas”. agriculture is taken seriously and become integral part of urban Farming and livestock keeping in properly organised, it can be livelihood strategies. A Working the city of Dar Es Salaam is effective land management. The Group was formed to work out undertaken either in the back- city of Dar Es Salaam further strategies for putting urban yard, near homes, in vacant lots recognises the need to develop agriculture on the city agenda. around the city, and in the peri- strategies that can enhance urban urban areas. Substantial farming agriculture in order to ensure sus- takes place in the many valleys tainable human development, in and swampy areas. Size of the support of the Local Agenda 21 plots increase as one moves away and the Habitat Agenda. The National Human Settlements from the centre to the periphery, Policy states that; The Government while intensification moves in the INTEGRATION OF URBAN Shall: opposite direction. Crops include AGRICULTURE INTO URBAN ❖ Designate Special areas within vegetables (spinach, cabbages, PLANNING planning areas whereby people will tomatoes etc.); fruits (papaya, In 1992 the city of Dar Es Salaam be granted legal rights to engage oranges, quaver); paddy; maize; adopted the Environmental themselves in agricultural activities; cassava; sweet potatoes; and Planning and Management (EPM) ❖ Continue to regulate and bananas. Table 1 below shows the Approach in the City Consultation. research on the urban agriculture growth in animals kept in the city. This new approach has been the and will ensure that it does not dis- engine of change in many aspects rupt planned urban development; ______amongst others related to urban ❖ Review existing laws to facilitate Martin D. Kitilla, Sustainable Cities Programme, agriculture. Environmental planned agriculture e in the city; Urban Authorities Support Unit (UASU) of the Planning and Management advo- ❖ Facilitate the construction of Presidents’s Office, ✉ [email protected] cates dialogue and participatory appropriate infrastructure to miti- Anasteria Mlambo, Sustainable Dar es Salaam city planning. Under this new gate/prevent land degradation, Project , Dar Es Salaam City Council approach the city held a mini-con- water pollution and health and safety hazards in areas whereby agriculture is permitted. 22 UA-Magazine The Working Group included representa- successful demonstrations is the Mbutu Strategic Urban Development Plan Framework tives from various segments of urban Agricultural project. Findings of the for Dar Es Salaam dwellers (the urban poor, men, youth and working group included results of these women groups); Village governments projects and were a basis of deciding (especially in the peri-urban areas); vari- where and to what extent agriculture can BAGAMOYO ous government ministries; institutions be practised in the city as reflected in the Indian Ocean of higher learning; the Dar Es Salaam City Strategic Urban Development Plan (SUDP). Council Popular sector groups; NGOs In this plan, special land zones have been and CBOs (both, within the city and designated for agriculture (See Map) KIBAHA active in urban villages). The size of the Ideas necessary for revising municipal group depended on the issue being by-laws and regulations were also addressed. The Dar Es Salaam City worked out and a platform for co-ordina- Council was the co-ordinating institution tion established and enhanced. KISARAWE and guided the operations in the urban In Dar es Salaam UA has received

context. Other members provided infor- attention on various policy levels and is Highly available areas for city expansion mation and ideas from their respective accepted as a land use in the city. The Moderately available for city expansion localities. Conflicts of interest were mini- SUDP also has deliberately set apart sev- Less available for city expansion mum. The members knew failure to eral areas to be used for large and medi- Swampy area/not available for city expansion address interests of a section of city resi- um scale urban agriculture in the future Forest reserve and mangroves dents would be detrimental. Differences and gives corresponding development Builtup area in opinion were managed in a participa- conditions. This is contrary to the earlier tory way. “zonification” where an area could only The results of the whole process, from be considered for Agricultural activities whereas the SUDP considers it to be an action plan preparation, implementation while it awaited to be assigned other uses important activity and has a very impor- of demonstration projects and further like residential or industrial areas. The tant contribution to its citizens. integration of agriculture in the cities major difference is that a Master Plan Recognition of urban agriculture has urban zonification was good. One of the considered UA as a transitional land use contributed significantly to the quality and quantity of foodstuffs in the city, which in turn lowered prices, thus Mrs Mlambo presents enhancing the purchasing power of the findings urban majority. A negative impact of the though, of agriculture in the city, is the Sustainable uncontrolled growth, hindering efforts to Dar Es develop land in a way that could benefit Salaam many citizens. With the decreasing Project Special land zones have been designated for agriculture

number of jobs both in public and private sector, intra-urban and peri-urban agriculture calls for strengthened efforts to organise the activity.

Urban Vegetable Promotion Project Vegetable Urban Recognition is reflected in several laws and regulations, among them are the Agricultural and Livestock Policy (1997) The Working Group applied the following steps (as part of the EPM Approach): and the National Human Settlements ❖ Clarifying the issues to be addressed; Development Policy (Jan 2000). ❖ Involving those whose cooperation is required; ❖ Setting priorities; ACCESS TO LAND ❖ Agreeing on priority issues Getting land in the city of Dar Es Salaam ❖ Initiating and implementing demonstration projects in collaboration with has always been difficult. The urban poor respective institutions. have consistently sold their land to the ❖ Monitoring and evaluating progress and making periodic adjustments to rich on the pretext that they do not have WG proposals; and sufficient funds to develop it themselves. ❖ Providing input to the Strategic Urban Development Plan Through the Environmental Planning and Management Process, communities july 2001 23 REFERENCES - Ministry of Lands and Human Settlements Development, Government Notices, Orders, Technical Instructions and Circulars Commonly TABLE 1: Animals reared in Dar es Salaam City Referred To in Pursuance of Human Settlements Development – Compiled by Human Settlements Division, Ministry of Lands and Human Settlements Development Year Dairy Layers Broilers Local Ducks Pigs Goats - Dongus, Stefan. Vegetable Production on Open cattle fowls Spaces in Dar Es Salaam – Spatial Changes from 1992 to 1999, Albert Lewis University of Freiburg/Germany Institute of Physical Geography 1985 3,318 221,920 146,205 88,720 4,900 6,795 1,361 Section of Applied Physio-geography in Tropics and Sub-tropics (APT0 with assistance of Ibraham Nyika, 1986 4,200 292,000 180,500 93,389 6,800 8,601 2,617 Ministry of Agriculture & Cooperatives, Tanzania. - Sawio, Camilus L. Proposition Paper Managing 1987 5,278 390,000 194,500 98,304 8,100 10,454 3,820 Urban Agriculture in Dar Es Salaam Department of Geography, University of Dar Es Salaam in Collaboration with SDP Urban Agriculture Working 1988 7,105 445,000 237,000 103,341 10,449 13,383 5,764 Group.

1989 8,597 551,800 282,083 108,508 13,479 15,658 8,531

1990 10,402 664,232 335,624 113,933 17,388 18,946 12,626

1991 12,586 824,448 399,393 119,630 22,431 22,925 18,686 WORKSHOP ON URBAN 1992 15,229 1,027,275 475,276 125,611 28,936 27,739 27,655 AGRICULTURE Dar es Salaam, 11-13 june 2001. 1993 18,286 1,225,392 565,579 131,891 37,327 33,564 40,930 This workshop, organised by the Urban Vegetable Promotion Project (UVPP) under the Ministry of Agri- are now aware that if they are empow- It is recommended that a thorough culture and Food Security and the ered to better plan and manage their study to ascertain the potentials and limi- University of Dar es Salaam, together environment in a more coordinated man- tations of urban agriculture be carried with the Municipal Development ner, they can contain many of the prob- out. The results of this survey will be a Programme (MDP) based in lems they face. basis for continued - informed - decision Zimbabwe, under the RUAF To improve access to land the city making, and to prevent detrimental Programme, looked at issues of plan- authority is encouraging vertical expan- effects to the residents and the environ- ning and policy for urban agriculture, sion of buildings, to free some space in ment. The shortage of affordable and existing activities and initiatives as the built up areas and in potential areas reliable transport also needs due atten- well as the communication, informa- for city expansion. tion. Efforts to facilitate urban agriculture tion and training needs of stakehold- should incorporate elements to enhance ers. One important aim of the work- CONCLUSION AND low cost mobility, like bicycles, which shop was to close the gap between the RECOMMENDATIONS will ease the work involved in distribu- policy makers and the practitioners at There is no one single way of organising tion of the produce. farm level. Representatives of the most urban agriculture, and success very much The approach piloted in the city of important stakeholders were invited depends on adaptation to local condi- Dar Es Salaam has been widely accepted to the workshop, amongst others from tions. In Dar Es Salaam, it is shown, that by the Ministry responsible for Land the Ministry of Agriculture, the agriculture can be effectively integrated Development. The ongoing process to Ministry of Lands, the International in Urban Land Use Plans. The city has prepare other Strategic Urban Labour Organisation (ILO), UVPP, integrated urban agriculture in urban Development Plans in the nine The University of Dar es Salaam and planning through a bottom-up approach, Municipalities with replication of the Sokoine University of Agriculture under the Environment Planning and Environment Planning and Management (SUA) in Morogoro and the University Management Process. Agriculture in the Process provide evidence of its integra- College of Lands & Architectural city is recognised as one of the land uses tion at national policy level. The Strategic Studies (UCLAS). Next to presenta- and an important informal opportunity Urban Development Plans will give due tions and working groups on special for the unemployed population. attention to urban agriculture. subjects mainly pertaining to the question of mainstreaming urban A homegarden agriculture and the identification of a possible urban agriculture coordinat- ing office, a small market was organised where some farmers displayed their products. One important conclusion was that urban agriculture should be seen as an urban management tool, another was that participatory techniques were necessary for the promotion of sustainable urban agriculture. Further information and the workshop proceedings may be obtained from [email protected] or from [email protected] .

Urban Vegetable Promotion Project Vegetable Urban UA-Magazine Incorporating Urban Agriculture A Case Study Of Glen Valley In Gaborone City Planning

Training of urban planners

Today, the scale of urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA) in Botswana’s urban settlements is still very limited when compared to the intensive agricultural practices found in other southern African cities like Nairobi, Dar es Salaam, Lusaka, Harare or Johannesburg. However, in the capital of Gaborone, one

of the fastest growing cities in Branko Cavric Africa, several agricultural projects have started that are integrated into its urban development. The aim of this article is to provide more tial and other land uses (Dithebe details on these new initiatives, using a case study of Glen Valley. 1998), which has caused some land speculation and disputes.

he growth of Botswana’s modate urban development (see In the southern part of the city, capital, Gaborone, has neces- the Figure). Of the total area of there are a number of small-scale T sitated encroachment on 19,096 ha of land within the city, poultry farms. Sanitas plant nur- surrounding farmlands (with land agricultural and forested land sery, also located in this area, is being converted into housing and occupied 2,468.12 ha in 1997, both a commercial nursery and a industrial estates) and the sprawl amounting to 17.09 % of the total nucleus of a botanical garden that has been developing since landmass (DTRP/MLHE 1997: exhibiting exotic plants. In addi- independence (1966) has resulted 90). tion, Gaborone City Parks and in dispersed suburban growth Gardens Service has a plant nur- and segregated areas for retail, Gaborone, like many other towns sery in Gaborone West (Ibid residential and commercial/ in Botswana has always been reli- 1997). industrial activities. The city is ant for most of its food (even per- still spreading out, but has now ishable) supplies, on deliveries ENVIRONMENTAL reached its limits in almost every from outside the city boundaries CONSIDERATIONS direction. The recent Gaborone (Mosha & Cavric 1999). Today, A major problem facing the City Development Plan (1997) has limited agricultural production is development of urban agriculture gone so far as to suggest acquir- taking place within the city boun- is the availability of water as rain- ing even more farmland south daries. Most urban commercial fall is erratic and unreliable. The and north of the city to accom- farmers are situated in Gaborone need to make the City of North and are either private ven- Gaborone self-sufficient in horti- ______turers, or from academic or scien- cultural products was recognised Branko I. Cavric, ✉ [email protected] tific institutions. Some restricted many years ago, but the lack of Aloysius C. Mosha, ✉ [email protected] agricultural activities are going on sufficient water has made this Urban and Regional Planning Unit, within the city limits on freehold task very difficult. Department of Environmental Science, farms. However, planning author- University of Botswana ities have consented to change In August 1997, a new sewage the two major large-scale free- treatment plant was commis- hold farms in Gaborone North, sioned, with a design capacity of from agricultural use to residen- 40,000 cubic metres of effluent july 2001 25 water per day (Gibb 1993). The proposal planning. It has also been said that UA access and land-use zoning problems, by for effluent reuse as a source of water for thrives where there is no real effective involving experts from various profes- irrigation came as no surprise. This planning taking place. Indeed, urban sional fields (agriculturists, engineers, potential water supply brought back the planning and land-use controls are very planners, environmentalists) and by con- interest to develop small-scale market tight, and this may be a further indication ducting detailed analyses of the economic gardening in and around Gaborone. as to why UA is so limited (Byerley 1996, components and conditions for attracting Rogerson 1994). investors’ attention. Today, about 20,000 cubic metres of effluent is being generated by the City The participation of farmers is strictly up A CASE STUDY OF GLEN VALLEY Sewage Works per day, which is at the to the individual. Some neighbourhood moment still being discarded as sewage committees, like in White City and Area water. It is now under consideration to Bontleng, have voiced their displeasure Glen Valley is a peri-urban area situated treat this water to the point that it could with the development of agriculture on in north-eastern Gaborone. The sur- be re-utilised as a source for irrigation. open spaces, alleging that the growing of rounding areas are primarily residential, Such huge volumes of water in Gaborone vegetables and other greens attracts recreational or open space. The area is snakes and mosquitoes, reduces playing relatively flat and prone to flooding due The lack of a areas for their children, and utilises pipe to the proximity of river channels. clearly defined policy water at public stands. Their concerns Despite its location, which is relatively far is a limiting factor have been made public in the Ward from the city centre, the site, consisting Development Committee meetings. of 234 hectares, had been viewed as ideal for agriculture. The soils are suitable and with its unreliable water supply, stimu- Gender is an important issue not only in treated wastewater from the nearby lates the idea that Gaborone could Gaborone, but in the whole country. Food treatment plant can be utilised. become self-sufficient in horticultural production is traditionally the respon- production. sibility of women, and logically so in Planning and environmental concerns female-headed households, which cur- The intent of the Glen Valley It was with this in mind that an irrigated rently make up 36% of households in Horticultural Plan was to create a well- agriculture project, using effluent water Gaborone city. Production decisions, pro- designed irrigation project which would from the Gaborone Sewerage Treatment viding labour, and financial control over cater to small-scale commercial agricul- Plant in the Glen Valley Area, was inputs and outputs, are activities pre- tural plots for horticultural purposes with planned. dominantly undertaken by women. some other activities like flower garden- However, the role women play is insuffi- ing and perhaps poultry and small stock INSTITUTIONAL AND POLICY ciently recognised by society, resulting in breeding. The idea was to allocate por- CONSIDERATIONS the lack of any organised support for tions of land to agricultural investors who The lack of a clearly defined policy is female-headed households. were conversant with irrigation systems another limiting factor in the develop- and who would utilise the land to its full- ment of agriculture in Gaborone City. There is no platform for the coordination est potential, in order to produce and There is currently no leading institution of urban agriculture activities among provide fresh agricultural products to the working on its integration into urban Government institutions, who may take City of Gaborone and its surrounding uncoordinated initiatives. For example, areas. Unfortunately, this type of rather the Department of Town and Regional intensive production is aimed at those Glen Valley Area Planning (DTRP) of the Ministry of with the necessary resources, and, as Lands, Housing and the Environment seen in other cities like Harare (Mbiba (MLHE) recently launched a campaign to 1995), the poor become excluded. protect agricultural and open spaces from the encroachment of residential The plan was approved in September developments. Consequently, proper 1998 on condition that an environmental zoning and preparation of physical plans impact assessment be clearly stipulated have been very rare in current planning in the lease contract. The use of the treat- Built up area practice. The case study of the Glen ed water was restricted to specific crops Urban agriculture Open space Valley area is one of the first systematic not used for human consumption, such Water features and interdisciplinary attempts to inte- as seedlings, grass, etc. The planning grate agriculture into the existing urban authority stated that close environmental matrix. The 1998 plan tackles adequate monitoring of the project at the implementation stage was a prerequisite.

Agricultural plots Design principles Civic & community The size of the Glen valley plots varies Open space from 1.5 to 4 hectares. All plots are back- Sewage water works to-back, and so are easily serviced (see

26 UA-Magazine REFERENCES - Byerley A. 1996, UA in Botswana - A Minor Field Study, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Working paper 307, Uppsala. - Cavric B. and Mosha A.C. 2000, State and Perspectives of UA in Botswana, International Symposium UA and Horticulture, The linkage planning authorities, planning agencies CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS OF with Urban Planning, Domäne Dahlem Berlin, 7-9 July. and institutions can capture the full URBAN AND PERI-URBAN AGRICULTURE - Dithebe B.T. 1998, The Impact of the Growth and potential of this integration (Mosha & IN BOTSWANA Expansion of Gaborone on the Surrounding Freehold Farms. Unpublished thesis, University of Cavric 1999, Mougeout 2000, Jarlöv National Veterinary Laboratory, Sebele, Botswana. 2000). The areas that need attention are Gaborone,Botswana, May 28-29, 2001 - Gibb Sir Alexander. 1993, Gaborone Efluent Reuse Study, Vol. 1-111 Feasibility Study for the listed in the box. Various stakeholders including central Long-Term Reuse of Effluent. - GoB. 1997, Gaborone City Development (Draft government, local government, parastatal Final Report), Department of Town and Regional CONCLUSION organisations, NGOs, researchers and inter- Planning (DTRP), Ministry of Lands, Housing and Environment (MLHE) of the Republic of Unlike many countries in the subregion, national organisations like FAO, attended the Botswana, Gaborone. the presence of UA in Gaborone and meeting organised under the RUAF Programme - GoB. 1998, Glen Valley Detailed Layout, Department of Town and Regional Planning Botswana at large is still rather low and is by MDP and MOP. The workshop brought (DTRP), Ministry of Lands, Housing and not integrated into urban development together key stakeholders, facilitated inter- Environment (MLHE) of the Republic of Botswana, Gaborone. planning. Due to the fact that more than action among participants and provided - Hesselberg J. 1993, Food Security in Botswana. In Norsk georg.tidsskr. vol.47, 183-195. Oslo. 40 % of the cityís residents live below the impetus for future collaboration. It was a signal Jarlöv L. 2000, UA as a Concept in Urban Planning poverty line, UA is rather a spontaneous to all stakeholders that UPA is an important, in South Africa: Example from Port Elizabeth, International Symposium UA and Horticulture, activity. As in other cities in Africa, as the relevant issue in Botswana and action needs to The linkage with Urban Planning, Domäne economy gets worse, incomes are eroded be taken. The government has pledged to come Dahlem Berlin, 7-9 July. - Mbiba B. 1995, Urban Agriculture in Zibambwe, and hence people look for alternative up with a policy on UPA and will strive to main- Ashgate Publishing Ltd. Averbury, UK. Mosha A. 1996, Poverty Reduction Initiatives in ways to supplement their income just to stream it in the next national plan due in 2003. Gaborone City, Botswana. A Report prepared for be able to survive (Mosha 1996, 1999). Contact: [email protected] the UNCHS, Nairobi, Kenya. - Mosha A.C. & Cavric. B. 1999, The Practice of UA For quite a number of people, urban agri- in Gaborone, Department of Environmental culture activities help to enhance food AREAS NEEDING MORE ATTENTION Science, University of Botswana Research project. - Mougeout L. 2000, UA: Concept and Definition, security and present an element of self- ❖ The laws and regulations relating to the UA Magazine, Volume 1, No. 1. reliance (Hesselberg 1993, Pile 1999). planning and use of agricultural land in cities - Mougeout, L. 1993, Overview- Urban Food Self- Reliance: Significance and Prospects. In IDRC must be brought into concurrence (e.g. Town Reports, 21, 3: 2-5. - Pile J. 1999, Farming in the city: Greenhouse In the meantime, planning authorities and Country Planning Act, State and Tribal Project, The Greehouse Peopleís Environmental and agencies are cautiously starting to Land Act, Land Control Act, Agriculture Centre, Johannesburg, RSA. - Rogerson C.M. 1994, Women Urban Farmers in open their doors and to accept this activi- Resources Conservation Act). South Africa’s Economic Heartland, University of ty as part of the urban reality. The first ❖ Government inter-departmental committees the Witwatersrand. steps are now being taken to formalise and agencies need to be established. these activities through the preparation ❖ Support needs to be provided to all NGOs, of physical plans. In the current associations and individuals involved in UA. Figure 1). The requirement from the Gaborone City Development Plan (1997), ❖ UA should be introduced as an aspect of the Ministry of Agriculture is to reduce the analyses of land-use patterns point out National Settlement Policy. buffer zone from the Notwane River and the general changes that can be expected ❖ UA needs to be included in the revised ver- its tributaries, in order to utilise the most in the next twenty years. Meanwhile, the sion of the Physical Planning Handbook and fertile soils along the riverbanks. As the detailed zoning of certain locations such the New Physical Planning Manual and site is a floodplain, the investors were as the Glen Valley Area indicate that UA Agricultural Manual. warned of the dangers of possible loss of can be controlled through proper plan- ❖ A Land-Use and Land-Cover Classification investments and properties. Those areas ning. system needs to be developed, and the existing unsuitable for horticultural purposes (e.g. planning DTRP Land Use Code in the section with soil types susceptible to salinisation) A long period of adjustment of interests referring to agricultural zoning, improved. have been planned for other agricultural of various institutions and individuals ❖ A Land-Use Information System to monitor activities, such as the rearing of small still lies ahead. Unfortunately, some indi- the changes in the use of agricultural land in stock, poultry, etc. As a result, 63 plots viduals have neither the time nor the Botswana urban settlements must be developed. have been designed on good soil for hor- means to wait for the formalising of ❖ Regular soil-engineering and soil suitability ticultural purposes and 27 plots for other physical and economic relations as their mapping need to occur. agricultural uses. No permanent resi- livelihood depends on the production of ❖ Aspects of UA should be integrated into the dences are allowed in the project area vegetables or minor stock breeding. As a Terms of References for the preparation of all apart from farm sheds and small quarters result, planning regulations are contra- future settlement development and master to house farm workers. vened, particularly by people building all plans. over their plots, in conflict with those ❖ An instrument of Agricultural Planning FUTURE OPPORTUNITIES who want to cultivate the available land. Permits must be introduced, bearing in mind Opportunities for the future integration In view of this, the paper suggests that a the fragility of the environment in Botswana. of agriculture into urban planning in minimum set of activities are essential for ❖ UA and Planning should be introduced as a Gaborone and the whole of Botswana are establishing a balance between the inter- subject in the School of Planning at the still under review. As this article has only ests of the government, various NGOs University of Botswana, as well as opportu- scratched the surface of this subject, and individuals within the framework of nities for continued research in this field. there are many more questions which the existing urban planning machinery. ❖ Public information, participation and aware- need research before the municipal and ness must continue. july 2001 27 Urban Agriculture Support Programme for Madhyapur Thimi Municipality, Nepal

Traditionally, municipalities in Nepal are defined tlement structure, and urban such as nutrient-rich organic on the basis of (the accumulation of) non-farm sprawl has encroached upon what waste. These programmes will fur- activities with agriculture considered a rural is actually still primarily agricultu- ther focus on integrating agricul- activity. This is one constraint confronted by ral land. ture into the overall urban devel- efforts to promote urban agriculture in opment master plan. Rather than Madhyapur Thimi municipality located in the A principal tenet of the allowing the typical urban/rural centre of Kathmandu Valley. How this problem Madhyapur Thimi municipality’s dichotomy to create rifts within was overcome together with issues of land “Development Guidelines & the community, cooperation and development strategy is narrated below. Building Regulations 2001” is the mutual support will be promoted creation of an Agricultural . Reserve Zone. Most non-urban, THE NEWAR FARMERS and for urban agriculture is fertile agricultural land has been Agriculture has been the primary now a significant component placed in this reserve, while exist- occupation of the Newars for L of the recently completed ing urban areas will be designated hundreds of years, deeply influ- ‘Development Plans and Building as Development Zones. The regu- encing both their society and Regulations 2001’ of the munici- lations mandate the municipality spirituality. Traditionally, Newar pality. The Zoning Plan sets aside to prevent the development of communities have lived in com- just about half of the 11.47 square any kind of urban infrastructure pact settlements on elevated km area as ‘Reserve Zones’. After or utilities within the reserve ground, surrounded by their agri- a two-year planning process, the zones. Only the construction of cultural land. The Newars devel- board of the municipality was temporary structures will be con- oped an intricate system of land convinced of the advantages of an doned. The intent behind this classification, based on soil qual- Transporting agriculture-based Reserve Zone regulation is to curb the loss of ity, extent of irrigation, crop type vegetables and accepted the plan, though prime farmland to unplanned and ownership. to the market with great hesitation. urban development. In recent years, farming families DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES The implementation of these kinds have found it increasingly difficult AND BUILDING of regulations often appears to be to sustain their previous standard REGULATIONS 2001 difficult, especially since in Nepal of living through agriculture alone, The Madhyapur Thimi municipal- the courts give greater weight to thus many farmers have taken on ity, with an area of 11.47 km2 was individual property owners’ rights secondary occupations, resulting established in 1997 by consolidat- than to the enforcement of munici- in the slow deterioration of agri- ing five existing VDCs (Village pal regulations. Unfortunately, cultural knowledge and practice in Development Committees). In landowners often interpret this as the Kathmandu Valley. Decreasing recent years, the municipality’s permission to develop their land in access to irrigation water has fur-

Kai Weise Kai population has whatever manner they desire, ther compromised the economic increased stead- despite the potential degenerative viability of farming. Whereas 20 to implementation of ily to nearly effects this has on the community 30 years ago rivers maintained at regulations often 40,000, and the as a whole. Although a growing least a minimal flow year round, appears to be difficult adjoining larger percentage of the younger genera- now due primarily to an array of municipalities tion has abandoned agriculture, detrimental human impacts on the of Kathmandu, currently 70% of the population environment of the Kathmandu Lalitpur and Bhaktapur have still farms. The success of the Valley, rivers are practically dry exerted mounting pressure as Reserve Zone policy depends during the winter season. These they have also grown at tremen- heavily upon the support of the are just a few of the many factors dous rates. As a result, a lot of new farming community. In recognition which have contributed to an construction has taken place in of this, the overall municipal plan- overall decline of agriculture in the Madhyapur Thimi, in a manner ning concept takes the needs of the Kathmandu Valley. inconsistent with traditional set- farmers into serious consideration. The municipality will initiate sev- ZONING ______eral support programmes, to The basis for the new Madhyapur Kai Weise and Isaac Boyd, increase the profitability of agricul- Thimi municipality zoning plan for Planners’ Alliance for the Himalayan and ture and to take advantage of pres- was conceived in a workshop Allied Regions (PAHAR -Nepal); ently under-utilised local resources arranged by PAHAR Nepal in ✉ [email protected]

28 UA-Magazine Potential strategies for integration as identified in the Programme: ❖ Create general community support for agriculture. ❖ Co-ordinate administrative and management efforts. ❖ Facilitate agronomic production. attuned to economic concerns. Should the denser urbanisation and efficient use of ❖ Develop marketing strategies for specialised goods. disparity between the economic potential space in the Development Zones; ❖ Promote localised processing and production of of the land in the Development Zones (the ❖ proper sewage disposal and manage- agricultural by-products. existing urban areas) and that in the ment of biodegradable solid waste through Reserve Zones grow too large, sufficient compost and manure production methods, political will could set an incremental enhancing agricultural development. This June 1999 with financial support from the release of Reserve Zone land into motion. will turn a potential urban problem into a Swiss Agency for Development and The main attributes of the Reserve Zone valuable agricultural resource and promote Cooperation and with the participation of remain unchanged. The area may only be a community-strengthening interdepen- the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology. developed for agricultural use, with non- The members of the workshop sought permanent, single storey structures. In to determine the factors behind the cur- order to dissuade development, the munic- rent explosive expansion trends of the ipality will not construct roads or provide Kathmandu Valley. Traditionally, Newars utilities such as electricity, drinking water, have constructed their settlements on ele- sewage and telephone connections. vated ground, leaving the fertile lowlands and floodplains almost exclusively for THE RESPONSE agriculture. However, this pattern has The strongest opposition to the Reserve been remarkably altered over the past 30 Zone came from those landowners, years. Building has continued as before on mostly middle-class government employ-

elevated areas, but in addition, new con- ees, who had moved to the Kathmandu Weise Kai struction has also sprung up and bur- Valley and had intended to build their Drying wheat on city square geoned along roads in the previously residences on small plots of land. The undeveloped lowland areas. This indicates municipality is now in the process of that roads act as the primary catalysts for allowing the release of one such area for a new construction. In acknowledgement of housing project. dency between the agricultural and urban this observation and in an effort to realisti- populations; and cally assess potential reserve land, the Both the municipal authorities and the ❖ ensuring that any release of Reserve workshop participants identified the low- farmers are supportive of the concept for Zone land be planned and controlled. land areas with minimal road access as urban agriculture. Preliminary studies target areas for agricultural zoning. Madhyapur Thimi has become an exam- A group of municipality officials fol- ple for urban planning in the Kathmandu lowed up on the workshop over the course Opposition came from Valley. Urban planners and government of the next few months. The municipality’s landowners, who had intended to officials of other municipalities and the planning advisor prepared the build their residences central government have shown great “Development Guidelines & Building interest in the experimentation of inte- Regulations 2001” in close cooperation grating agriculture into the zoning plan with several ward chairmen, the legal show that the promotion of localised pro- of a municipality. advisor and other technical staff. The cessing and production of agricultural Reserve Zone was initially conceived of as by-products and developing marketing PROMOTING A SUSTAINABLE a conservation area, in which no urban strategies will be the most essential com- MODEL OF DEVELOPMENT expansion in the future would be possible. ponents of an “Urban Agriculture The preservation of agricultural land is Elected municipality officials felt that this Support Programme”. The advantages for vital for the sustainability of urban devel- was unrealistic for economic and political further municipal development of the opment in the Kathmandu Valley. The reasons. Eventually a compromise was agriculture-based Reserve Zone are: Madhyapur Thimi master plan will serve reached. The term “Reserve Zone” was ❖ better allocation of limited financial as a positive example of how urban agri- adopted, and the municipality was given resources; culture can be integrated into the devel- the authority to incrementally identify and ❖ focus on “new” growth within the opment scheme of a municipality. The plan out expansion areas within the existing urban areas, which will promote reservation of open spaces within urban Reserve Zone and release them for devel- development areas, combined with the opment in the future. As the preservation active promotion of agriculture as an eco- of agricultural land is one of the driving Location of Agricultural reserve Areas nomically viable source of income for the forces behind the entire concept, a legal farming community and the urban popu- mechanism must be set in place to ensure lation as a whole, will assist in controlling that decision-making remains transparent urban growth. Such a policy will result in and responsible. Such a release of protect- higher land values and assure well-round- ed land would be contingent upon a genu- ed family nutrition. Ultimately, the long- ine, documented need and subject to term prosperity and liveability of the extensive community discussion. On the Madhyapur Thimi municipality will be other hand, this system would also be Reserve Area ensured for many generations to come. Urban Development Area Roads july 2001 Buildings Urban Farming and Land-Use Planning in the Dominican Republic

The municipality of Santiago de los Caballeros, in the Dominican Republic, aims to promote a more coherent and effective inclusion of urban agriculture citywide through municipal management and planning policies, mechanisms and instruments, with the objective to support local environmental management, and strategies for poverty reduction. Jacquelyne Acevedo The mayor of Santiago de los Caballeros, Dr Hector Grullón n 1991, during a participatory Moronta, alongside urban agriculture technicians and workers, analysis and planning exercise carries out the first harvest of the horticultural garden I with urban actors (municipal developed on the grounds of the Municipal Palace. staff, civic organisations and neighbourhood groups), the municipality of Santiago de los al regulation for poverty allevia- legal framework that is required Caballeros identified the follow- tion and environmental manage- for UA development.” (Municipal ing principal problems, which are ment. presentation in Havana, Cuba, May 2001). One of the strategies to counter- The challenge act these problems was the devel- ACTUAL LAND USE now lies in the opment of a (municipal) urban The city of Santiago de los institutionalisation agriculture programme, which Caballeros, with its 500,000 was set up in that same year. This inhabitants, is the second city in programme would focus on more the Dominican Republic. Land use similar to those of many other efficient use of local resources is rapidly changing from agricul- municipalities in Latin America: (like organic wastes) based on the ture towards urban construction. ❖ a significant percentage existing agricultural culture, and of urban an adequate institutional setting To visualise the extent and type population live in conditions of was developed. of urban agriculture activities in poverty and food insecurity Santiago, the city was divided (57%); The municipality has a specific into: the inner city urban area ❖ a large volume of solid organic role to play in this programme: (34.6 km2), the peri-urban area waste negatively affects the urban “The municipality will develop (29.5 km2) and the suburban area environment, and a lack of urban agriculture as the coordi- (130 km2). In the urban area, 33% resources to collect and dispose nator, planner and facilitator of of the vacant or partially con- of them adequately; actions. It will also implement structed areas contain UA activ- ❖ a large amount of urban and direct projects in its different ities1 and another 22% of this land peri-urban plots (both of munici- zones, with support of the various has been classified as suitable for pal and private property); departments (Public Works, agricultural land use. The total ❖ lack of environmental aware- Urban planning, Community agricultural land-use area counts ness; Affairs, Cooperation and up to 315 hectares or 9 % of the ______❖ lack of inter-institutional Development, Environmental total inner urban area, including Jacquelyne Acevedo cooperation and integration to Management, Public Relations patios, backyard gardens, river- Abinader, General solve the above-mentioned prob- and Legal Advice), neighbour- and roadsides and other open Coordinator, Municipal Urban lems; and hoods, the community and in spaces. agriculture Programme, ❖ a weak application of existing cooperation with other entities Santiago de los Caballeros laws and regulations, and the lack (universities, private enterprises, Due to pressure on the land for of a land-use plan and operation- NGOs). It will also guarantee the housing and the high population

30 UA-Magazine REFERENCES density, the presence of agriculture in the Agriculture thus occupies about 16 % of - Del Rosario Pedro Juan et al. 1999. Manejo de residuos sólidos poorer neighbourhoods is generally lower the total urban (inner and peri-urban) y agricultura urbana en la ciudad than in middle or high-class neighbour- area of Santiago and is the third most de Santiago de los Caballeros. Presented at Centro hoods. The presence of agricultural land important soil use after residential and Internacional de Investigaciones para el desar- use is relatively high in industrial and vacant land use. In this perspective, rollo (CIID), Santiago de los institutional areas (especially by schools), Santiago is a real agricultural city or mod- Caballeros, October. and in middle-class neighbourhoods that ern “agropolis”, in which agriculture lives are generally expanding and include open in “conflictual co-existence” with urban spaces that are temporarily used for agri- construction. Agricultural land use is “ on culture. the move” (relocates), but does not disappear with urban growth (del Rosario et al. ellite images. Areas are classified accord- The further away from the functional 1999). ing to their location, land tenure (munici- centre of the city, the higher the presence pal, institutional or private), characteris- of urban agriculture. Agriculture is shift- The municipality recognises that agricul- tics (agronomic, physical and environ- ing from the centre to other areas, and is ture has an important and permanent mental) and potential agricultural land characterised by a cycle of location-suburban function - food production and use (agriculture, animal husbandry; tem- stitution-relocation. Only in patios and income generation - and is embarking on porary versus permanent; monoculture along roads and riversides is agricultural a more systematic inclusion of urban versus mixed land use). land use of a more permanent character. agriculture into urban and land use plan- The main presence of agriculture is on ning. This function directly responds to On the basis of this classification, and vacant plots and is of a temporary nature. the fundamental problem of urban food starting at the end of 2000, agricultural security. use of land is being stimulated through Most of the peri-urban area is subject to a the dissemination of the objectives of the process of urbanisation. Agricultural land LAND USE PLANNING: A PROCESS Municipal Urban Agriculture use occupies 29 % of the area (ca. 840 With the support of a Cuban expert in Programme, by radio, television, journal hectares) of which 10 % is dedicated to September 2000, the municipality started articles, and through a number of work- crop cultivation and differs from the to update the classification and identifi- shops, seminars and meetings. Various inner urban area in that an important cation of non- or partially constructed demonstration projects (demonstrative part is dedicated to pasture, cattle and pig plots or areas within the urban area, with gardens, waste recycling and composting, raising (14 %) and tobacco growing (4 %). use of maps, aerial photographs and sat- seed and plant nurseries) are also being implemented with the support of different actors. Agricultural Zoning in Havana, Cuba One way to include urban agriculture into land-use planning is to include it in zoning THE CHALLENGE policies. For the first time, in the “General urban and land-use plan for the city of The challenge for the municipality now Havana” (December 2000), urban agriculture is explicitly mentioned and zoned as lies in the “institutionalisation” of agricul- an “agricultural corridor” around the urbanised area of Havana: tural land use by either including permanent agricultural land use into zoning ❖ Goal plans (see the Box on Havana) and/or - Create the urban and land-use conditions that contribute to reach the goals stimulating multifunctional and tempo- set for agricultural production and commercialisation. rary productive use of non-built-up and ❖ Objectives vacant lands by means of financial or legal - Develop 101 hectares of agricultural land responding to the demand of inter- incentives (for example tax exemption). national tourism. This implementation is high on the agen- - Optimise use of land for animal production in the corridor around the city. da in 2001. The creation of a municipal ❖ Actions department for food security, under which - Elaborate a partial land-use plan for the southern part of the city where agri- urban agriculture is one component and cultural soils are located. field of work, also supports a more perma- - Localise 63 hectares for intensive crop cultivation that will be added to the 38 nent programme, whose survival does not hectares already in use. depend on the interest of only one favour- - Define the perspective of the agro-industrial complex in the city, related to the able political administration. type of production and the use of industrial installations. - Identify the area where the buffalo will be introduced without affecting the aesthetic and environmental values of the south-eastern part of the province. - Solve the water supply to animal production systems through alternative solutions that avoid using groundwater of the city. NOTE (1) Ornamental gardens and non-soil-bound Source: General urban and land-use plan for the city of Havana production (hydroponics) were excluded from Council for provincial administration, Department of Physical Planning, City of Havana, December 2000 the survey.

july 2001 31 The El Panecillo Pilot plants and small fruits (involving 30 families, and mainly women); and Project in Quito, Ecuador ❖ construction of two agro-industries for vegetables and medicinal plants (providing direct employment to 23 families). The Municipality of Quito is challenged by demands to eradicate urban poverty, to improve the urban environment and to promote a participatory Through these initiatives, access to capital style of governance. Urban agriculture is a potential source of food, income and knowledge is provided, but central to and employment, and is part of a multifunctional use of land, and therefore success and sustainability is the provision has an important and strategic role to play in this development. of secured access to land. Actors involved in the pilot programme formulated the following land-use regulations: y way of a participatory city consul- It became apparent during the city con- ❖ use of symbolic rents for municipal tation on urban agriculture, the sultation that there are no specific regula- lands used for agriculture; B municipality embarked upon a pro- tions concerning urban agriculture in the ❖ preferential property taxes for private cess of institutionalising urban agriculture. legal framework of the municipality, in land areas under agriculture (10% dis- This consultation was followed by the for- spite of there being laws and regulations count); and mulation of an action plan, later imple- concerning issues influencing UA, like ❖ long-term (5-10 years) user-right agree- mented into a specific action programme land use and water availability. The gen- ments for municipal lands used for agri- which presently forms a pilot project. It is eral action plan includes the following cultural activities coordinated by producer envisaged that this will be implemented recommendations: associations and the agro-industries. throughout the entire Metropolitan ❖ Urban agriculture is an urban activity District of Quito. and should be recognised, incorporated A series of reports have been published Two systems of urban agriculture (UA) and regulated under specific municipal with additional information and criteria are found in Quito: intra-urban agriculture policies. for the proposed land-use regulations. For and peri-urban agriculture. Intra-urban ❖ Credit and incentive programmes for instance, the implementation of symbolic agriculture is basically a (part-time) family urban agriculture should be developed. rents and preferential property taxes activity, almost entirely aimed at the pro- ❖ Technical support systems and pro- should be principally aimed at the urban duction of vegetables. The farming tech- grammes for the production, processing poor (presently representing 50 % in El nologies are adapted to the distinctive and marketing of produce should be Panecillo). The agricultural production urban conditions (irrigation with drinking developed. should also be oriented towards organic water, hydroponics, and intensive produc- ❖ An urban environmental management farming and should incorporate erosion- tion techniques). In the peri-urban system, system needs to be established. control techniques to avoid landslides (a the entire household is involved in pro- general phenomenon in Quito). duction, with a trend towards exchanging The decision was made to start imple- produce, sometimes for cash. menting the action plan through a pilot To date (May 2001), the programme has programme in the neighbourhood of facilitated the official recognition of urban El Panecillo. El Panecillo is located in the agriculture and its integration into the historical centre of Quito, and was new general Land Use Plan for Quito Maize on selected due to its specific characteristics. (2000-2010). The proposals relating to the steep slopes It has a large area of protected land (regulation of) secure access to lands, in Quito unsuitable for construction and already transformation and commercialisation are includes a family garden project. This at this point at the Municipal Council and project was initiated in 1994 under a will be legalised shortly. The municipality rehabilitation plan with aims to stimulate is also working on the institutionalisation use of municipal land for UA, avoid of a municipal urban agriculture pro- illegal occupation of land and improve gramme, that will be hosted under the livelihood conditions for the people. Department for Social and Economic Development, and will receive a percent- The community of El Panecillo selected age of the municipal budget. four concrete areas for intervention: ❖ setting up of composting and vermi-

M. Dubbeling culture plants (providing direct employ- The pilot project started in September ment to 15 youths); 2000. It is financially and technically ______❖ installation of a community nursery supported by IPES, the Urban Marielle Dubbeling, Urban Agriculture Adviser, for native ornamental and food produc- Management Programme for Latin IPES- Urban Management Programme (UMP-LAC) tion species; America and the Caribbean (UMP- Jesús Loor Bravo, Coordinator Project ❖ supporting the existing family gardens LAC/UNCH-HABITAT/UNDP) and the Management, FONSAL, Municipality of Quito for production of vegetables, medicinal International Development Research Margarita Llerena Cepeda, Social Worker, Centre (IDRC), and is implemented FONSAL, Municipality of Quito by different governmental and non- ✉ [email protected] governmental actors. 32 UA-Magazine While urban agriculture is considered appropriate for cities in developing countries, the potential for local food production in and around cities in industrialised countries is rarely highlighted. Policy to support its development is even rarer. Post-war European agricultural policy has concentrated on the

production of large quantities of cheap Jacques Schievink food to avoid hunger and to ensure Farming in the Upper social stability. Economic arguments dictated that such a policy could be best Bieslandse Polder realised through agriculture practised by as few people as necessary on as large a scale as possible in order to reduce costs per unit and maximise output. These policies have led to monocultures in agriculture and ecology in order to maximise scale and efficiency, with land-use planning subsequently separating functions. Multifunctional Land Use An Opportunity for Promoting Urban Agriculture in Europe

ood production in and attractive living environments for populated area is the case of the around the city did not fit their own citizens. There is a Upper Bieslandse polder in the F into this mould. Policy-mak- growing need to meet a large city of Delft, the Netherlands. ers considered it small-scale, and number of societal needs on therefore inefficient, not econom- scarce urban land. PLANNING IN DELFT ically beneficial and thus undesir- Delft is a city of around 95,000 able for society. Social and envi- MULTIFUNCTIONAL LAND people in the densely populated The plan combined the following ronmental benefits were ignored. USE AS A SOLUTION province of South Holland. The land use functions: Many possible win-win situations region is home to approximately ❖ (organic) dairy agriculture; In Europe, the time now appears exist to meet these challenges as 3.4 million inhabitants and popu- ❖ recreation; ripe for change. At European urban planners seek to create lation density is 1,179 inhabitants ❖ nature (re)development; Union and national state levels, attractive land-use combinations per square kilometre (CBS 2000). ❖ (limited) natural water the negative consequences of and satisfy the many demands As a result, every square metre of treatment; and post-war agricultural policies placed on scarce land in and land has its designation under the ❖ an important awareness-raising have been acknowledged, and the around cities. Many of these com- country’s planning system that and educational function. prohibitive costs of maintaining binations can be based on urban operates at three levels: national, such policies in an enlarged agriculture, for example: regional and local, which all have European Union are recognised. ❖ agriculture combined with roles to play in spatial planning. Many farmers are faced with childcare and educational facilities; obligatory diversification of their ❖ reed production combined In theory, the lower level govern- farms to survive and are seeking a with recreation and wastewater ment should operate within the means of combining agriculture treatment; framework of the objectives set with other means of income. At ❖ aquaculture combined with out in the policy of the higher lev- the same time, cities compete water storage and recreation; els. In turn, the policy of the high- with each other to attract invest- ❖ production of added-value agri- er levels of government should ment, and local politicians seek to cultural products such as cheese, provide general guidelines within create high quality, healthy and jams and cosmetics, combined which plans proposed at lower with recreation and tourism; or levels can be realised. Of course it ______❖ urban forestry, which offers is not always possible to accom- Tjeerd Deelstra, Donald Boyd, health and microclimate benefits, modate the wishes of all. The plan Maaike van den Biggelaar combined with energy crops and for mixed use of the Upper International Institute for the Urban recreation. Bieslandse polder provides an Environment, Delft, the Netherlands; interesting example of integration ✉ [email protected] A good example of combining of land-use functions and policy land use functions in a heavily objectives. july 2001 33 THE UPPER BIESLANDSE POLDER ty’s environmental prize). Agreement on management that benefits nature devel- The Upper Bieslandse polder lies on the a plan was eventually reached between opment and recreation. In addition, eastern urban fringe of Delft (see Figure the six farmers, including Duijndam’s Duijndam receives subsidies from the 1) and comprises a total of some 35 hec- take-over of their tenancy rights. local water board (‘waterschap’) for his tares. Before the realisation of the plan contribution to their integrated water described here, six tenant farmers The Upper Bieslandse polder plan was management operated in the area on one-year leases finalised in March 1997 and, importantly, strategy. In effect,

from the municipality of Delft. Longer was adopted in the manifestos of a num- the farmer carries REFERENCES leases were not granted because the ber of local political parties for the out the work of - Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (Central Statistics municipality wanted to be able to have municipal elections of May 1998. Election the others and Office). 1999. Jaarboek 2000. access to the land on short notice in case of a new ‘green’ administration meant gets paid by them Utrecht: CBS. (in Dutch) - Duijndam J.2001. Personal inter- 1 it should decide to develop the area . For that the plan could go ahead. Work on for that work. view. - European Commission. 1996. the farmers this gave rise to uncertainty the ground to implement the plan began Such subsidies European Sustainable Cities and, with six farmers on 35 hectares, use in the winter of 1999-2000. Total costs of deliver approxi- Report. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the of the land was inefficient in agricultural implementation, excluding maintenance, mately 10% of the European Communities. terms, even though each farmer also were around 250,000 Dutch guilders farmer’s income. - Pederson RM and Robertson A. 2001. Food policies are Essential worked land elsewhere in the area. (US$ 100,000). for Healthy Cities. Urban Agriculture magazine 1 (3) Similar initiatives (March): 9-11. THE PLAN THE ECONOMICS exist elsewhere in - Schievink J. 2001. Personal interview. In 1996 Jan Duijndam, one of the six Duijndam now has a twelve-year lease of the Netherlands farmers, who had for some time been the land from the municipality. He added where local considering converting his business into 30 of the 35 hectares of the Upper authorities have an obligation to provide an organic farm, decided to act. Together Bieslandse polder to the 50 hectares he a certain amount of water storage for with a planner from the Delft Initiatives already farmed organically in the area, to water-management reasons. By paying for Nature group (IND), Jacques improve economic viability. As for many farmers to devote a part of their land to Schievink, discussions were initiated with organic products in Europe, organic milk water storage, the municipality ‘buys off’ the other farmers in the area. Schievink commands a (slight) premium price in its obligation relatively cheaply and, in stood at the base of the plan in 1995, the Netherlands. effect, the farmer gets paid for cultivating when he suggested ecological develop- water. ment and management of the ditches The remaining five hectares Duijndam that regulate water levels for farmland in devoted to nature development, setting CONCLUSIONS the polder (and got the Delft municipali- land aside for traditional Dutch polder The case of the Upper Bieslandse polder landscape features with an ecological shows that urban agriculture can offer function: a water meadow with fluctuat- cities in industrialised countries more The Upper Bieslandse Polder ing groundwater level, reed bed and than “only” food production. Through a marshy woodland. Each gives a habitat to combination of land uses and integration wildlife that is under more and more of policies between different organisa- pressure from rising urbanisation. The tions at different levels, Delft has nature areas are laid out along the edges obtained a viable organic farm, an attrac- of the site to make them visible for visi- tive recreation area and has restored the tors making use of the footpaths, cycling opportunities for wildlife in the urban and bridle paths constructed as part of fringe. Combining land use functions can the plan. This also means that farming deliver extra income for farmers from can be carried out more or less unrestrict- unexpected sources. This in turn provides Upper Bieslandse Polder ed in the centre of the area (see photo). a valuable resource for environmental Urban Area education in a densely populated urban Roads Whilst this land does not bring agricultu- region. Essential benefits in environmen- Highway ral income, it does generate subsidies tal, health, education, recreation and Railroad from the provincial government for land nature terms are provided to the city and Water its residents. Combining land use functions can also deliver extra income for In Europe, almost 80% of the population now lives in urban areas (European farmers from unexpected sources. Commission 1996). Cities have become largely disconnected from their surrounding countryside. Post World War II agricultural policy in Europe has turned agriculture Since food production is not an argument into a ‘food generator’ with which city dwellers have little affinity. The one-dimen- for local politicians and planners to allo- sional role of agriculture is now being challenged by a number of factors: the enor- cate scarce urban land to agriculture, mous cost of the European Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), concern amongst these additional benefits of urban agri- consumers about food quality, worries about and the effects of pesticides and other culture, as ‘host’ of other land use func- chemicals used in food production on health and the wider environment, genetically tions must be made clear. In this sense, modified crops and animal welfare issues (Pederson and Robertson 2001). interpretation of the term urban agricul-

34 UA-Magazine There are limits to the powers of planners. For years now, two nesting site poles have stood in the open space, now farmed by Jan Duijndam in the Upper Bieslandse polder. The aim was to attract storks back to the area, a rare bird in The Netherlands nowadays. Finally, this year the stork has returned to nest in Delft, not on one of the poles, but on a high-rise apartment building on the edge of the city 500 metres away!

ture should be broadened to include cultivation of useful products and perfor- mance of valuable tasks for society.

The Dutch planning system offers little long-term security (twelve years is not a long lease), but perhaps this is inherent in a situation where so many competing land-use demands exist. Inclusion in local land-use plans would provide urban agriculture with a firmer legal basis.

Urban planners must translate politicians’ (still too often) one-dimensional policies into three-dimensional spatial realities on the ground. Realisation of multifunctional land use demands integration of planning between different levels of government. In the highly insti- tutionalised planning systems common Spanish edition to most industrialised countries where national, regional and local plans are drawn up, such an approach even if The UA Magazine has been published in Spanish: La Revista sometimes difficult, should be possible. Agricultura Urbana, No. 1. Soon No. 2 on livestock and No. 3 on This integration should be accompanied health will also be released in Spanish. by the application of innovative econom- From now on the UA Magazine will be released in English, ic instruments, which favour multifunc- Spanish, and French. Furthermore a more regional focus will be tional land use, such as subsidies or tax developed, with a focus on Latin America in the Spanish edition breaks where possible. Farmers should be and a focus on West and Central Africa in the French edition. made aware of the possibilities of such support.

Integration of policy between different TO SUBSCRIBE TO THE SPANISH EDITION, types of organisation is also vital. In the PLEASE TURN TO: Netherlands, for example, independent water boards have a key role to play in Programa de Gestión Urbana water management. Any decision to com- PGU-ALC/CNUAC -HABITAT bine a productive function of urban agri- García Moreno 751, entre y Sucre y Bolivar culture or aquaculture with water stor- PO Box 17-01-2505 age, recreation or a natural park would Quito require agreement between, amongst ECUADOR others, the water board, the province and Email: [email protected] the municipality. Tel/Fax: +593.2.282361/282364/282371

The success of the Upper Bieslandse polder can be at least partly attributed to the fact that representatives of three different TO SUBSCRIBE TO THE FRENCH EDITION, groups of society – farmer, environmen- PLEASE TURN TO: talist and municipality – realised the ben- African Urban Management Institute efits of combining multiple land use in IAGU the area. Dakar SENEGAL NOTE Email: [email protected] / [email protected] (1) For some years rumours had circulated of plans for construction of a high value housing Tel: +.221.824 44 24 development on the site, even though the Fax: +.221.825 08 regional plan did not permit this.

july 2001 35 Planning for Urban Agriculture in Suburban Development in Canada

An examination of suburban development plans and official plan documents revealed that planning for urban agriculture in suburban development planning is non- existent in North American cities. While proponents of urban agriculture seek land for food production on remnants and left-over spaces in the core, built up areas of cities, they ignore the potential to include spaces for urban food production in the settlements of the future, from the outset.

he Greater Toronto Area (GTA), is the fastest growing city in Canada, add- T ing 100,000 new people a year. Between 1976 and 1996, the GTA lost

62,000 hectares of farmland to develop- Vincenzo Pietropaolo ment, with another 40,000 hectares des- Sara Kerr, co-founder, Garden of Friends ignated for development. It is projected that by the year 2026, 40 % of all agricultural land in the GTA will have been lost houses on smaller lots, townhouses, c food is not seen as an environmental to development (Toronto Food Policy ondominiums, and multi-unit housing. amenity that would appeal to new home- Council 2000). These new types of housing provide limit- buyers, despite the fact that genetically ed or no private outdoor space for garden- modified foods and food security is the TORONTO’S ETHNICALLY ing and a scarcity of public open space. subject of daily media reports, and gar- DIVERSE SUBURBS dening is the fastest growing recreational Toronto is often described as one of the This raises questions about suburban activity amongst urban residents. most ethnically diverse cities in North development plans taking into account America. In 1996, 48 percent of the popu- both the ethnic diversity of residents and In a recent study by the author, 30 immi- lation of the city of Toronto were immi- their traditions of food production grant gardeners living in the GTA were grants, and one in five residents arrived in against the reduction of both private and asked about their gardening histories and Canada after 1991. Growing numbers of public open space. However, little practices1. While planners and housing these recent immigrants have settled thought has been given to this aspect of developers continue to assume that sub- directly in suburban municipalities outside land use either by municipal planners or urban gardens are primarily ornamental the core areas of the city. They seem to by private land developers. or for recreational use, it was found that concentrate in particular suburban areas. immigrant gardeners often put their For instance in Vaughan (north of Toronto) It is only recently that natural features gardens to productive use for growing 42 percent of all immigrants are from Italy, such as woods or ponds have begun to be ethno-specific vegetables and herbs. while in Markham, one third of the resi- viewed by developers as elements of the dents claim Chinese as their ethnic origin. landscape to be preserved rather than In some Toronto suburbs, social housing bulldozed. On the outskirts of Toronto, units in high-rise apartment buildings, Next to large single family houses with billboards advertise future housing devel- accommodate new immigrants who have wide green lawns (the stereotype of sub- opments with images of nature and no access to private land for growing food. urban North America), new suburban names of new housing developments In a neighbourhood near York University, housing developments include a wider include “forest”, “wood”, and “lake”. two of my undergraduate students devel- range of housing types, like single family These elements of the natural environ- oped a community garden in the vacant ment contribute to the desirability and lot of a local church. In the Garden of marketability of building lots which Friends, now in its third year, twenty low- ______developers sell at a premium (Marsden income high-rise residents from diverse Gerda R. Wekerle, 2000). However, site plans for suburban parts of the world grow vegetables, which Professor, Faculty of Environmental housing developments in the GTA do not include herbs from Thailand, chillies from Studies, York University, Canada; include space for community gardens or Mexico and bitter melon from China. A ✉ [email protected] urban agriculture. Space for growing few blocks away, the African Food Basket,

36 UA-Magazine An Italian gardener from Calabria who moved to Canada in the 1960s, lives in a single family house with a large backyard. He can grow beans, an organisation, which provides Afro- tomatoes, and other vegeta- Caribbean food to subscribers, is housed bles for his extended family. In in what looks from the street like a typical contrast, a Chinese gardener suburban single family house. The back- (see photo) who immigrated in yard is intensively farmed by a community the 1980s lives in a townhouse of gardeners who live in nearby apartment with a backyard about one buildings. They experiment with growing third the size of that of the

foods that are Afro-Caribbean in their ori- Vincenzo Pietropaolo Italian gardener. She grows gins, including callaloo, okra, and yams. Chinese gardener harvesting long squash Chinese herbs and long This intensification of low-density subur- squash, which she overwinters ban open space, which is a recent phe- in the basement. A recent nomenon in Toronto, is hampered by sub- suburbs. Large backyards could become Punjabi resident has an even urban developments like smaller housing community gardens, providing space to smaller backyard, which only lots, more multi-units, and more limited grow food. Empty lots beside libraries or allows her to grow Indian herbs private and public open space. churches can become community gar- and spices in raised beds. dens and public parks can provide allot- STEPS TO ENCOURAGE URBAN ments for growing food. Such changes AGRICULTURE IN SUBURBAN would require a rethinking of the tradi- groups have focused primarily on finding DEVELOPMENT tional suburban landscape with private land for food production in the central As a first step, urban agriculture and open space that is primarily recreational core areas and in established neighbour- community gardens need to be incorpo- or ornamental rather than productive. hoods of the city. Almost no attention has rated into suburban development plans2 been paid to the new settlements that are (2), addressing the preservation of prime Finally, incorporating urban agriculture being planned on the rural-urban fringe. agricultural land for future generations as into suburban development requires out- Yet these are settlements that will absorb community farms or small market farms reach by advocacy groups to suburban population growth and increasingly are and demonstration projects. Brian planners, politicians, and especially to the immigrant reception areas for new Donahue’s recent book, Reclaiming the housing developers, to educate them immigrants. Commons (Donahue 1999), describes a about the desirability and long-term fea- community farm, in a suburb in sibility of preserving productive land for Paying attention to the potential for Massachusetts, which provides training growing food within suburban housing urban agriculture in new suburban devel- for youth as well as local produce. Some developments. Urban-based advocacy opments involves taking a long-term outer London authorities own farms groups for urban agriculture and food view - twenty years into the future - and which are run as commercial enterprises security must extend their interests into learning how to use the planning system. next to accommodating school visits undeveloped and newly developed areas It involves working with planners, politi- (Garnett 2000). on the urban periphery. This means tak- cians, developers and local communities ing a regional perspective and becoming to incorporate principles and objectives Second, the popularity of condominium involved in the development of regional into official plans, making input to devel- developments in North American cities plans, which outline long-term growth opment plans, and creating guidelines, as a form of housing tenure that includes patterns and land-use planning objec- models, and educational tools directed at communally owned and managed com- tives. Advocacy groups for urban agricul- suburban populations living on the urban mon spaces, may also provide opportu- ture must get involved in closely scrutin- fringe. Suburban developments continue nities to incorporate community farms or ising development proposals for new to be built at a rapid rate on the edges of gardens. These could become sub-urban- suburban developments. Citizens, work- our cities. Unless we incorporate urban based models for urban agriculture, espe- ing in conjunction with municipal plan- agriculture and space for community gar- cially if concerns about food security and ners, can point out the desirability of set- dens, these residents and their children access to organic produce intensify. ting aside land for community gardens as will not have the opportunities to grow a way to meet public open space require- their own food or to achieve any form of Third, planners could accommodate the ments and to preserve natural heritage. food security in the future. adaptive reuse of existing and mature (This means that planners must expand NOTES their definition of both open space and 1) This research is presented as an exhibit, REFERENCES - Donahue Brian. 2000. Reclaiming the Commons: Community Farms and Forest in the preservation of nature: not only play- Growing Cultures, at the Royal Ontario a New England Town. New Haven: Yale University Press. ing fields but gardens, and not only Museum, Toronto, May 2000 to January 2002 - Garnett Tara. 2000. Urban agriculture in London: rethinking our food economy. and is co-produced with photographer In: Bakker et al. (eds), Growing Cities, Growing Food (Feldafing: Deutsche Stiftung woodlots but agricultural land for locally Vincenzo Pietropaolo. für internationale Entwicklung), pp 477-500. grown vegetables.) - Marsden Lee. 2000. Developing Environmentally Sensitive Communities. Major 2) The city of Seattle approved a resolution in Project, Master of Environmental Studies, Faculty of Environmental Studies, York University, Toronto. 1992 that community gardens be part of the - Raja Samina. 2000. Preserving Community Gardens in a Growing Community: CONCLUSION comprehensive plan of the city, particularly in A report on the Community Gardens Planning Process in Madison, Wisconsin. In North American cities, including medium and high density areas. In Austin Madison Food System Project Working Paper. (Texas), Minneapolis (Minnesota) and Boston - Toronto Food Policy Council. 2000. Food Secure City. Toronto: TFPC, p. 22. Toronto, food security, urban agriculture, (Massacusetts), there are zoning provisions and community gardening advocacy for community gardens (Raja, 2000). july 2001 37 Cultivator in Prudente

For several years, the Tropical Institute has been surveying intra- urban agriculture, particularly focusing on two categories. Firstly, the home gardens, and secondly the shifting but irresistibly attractive subsistence, mixed and market- oriented gardens Isabel Madaleno Urban Agriculture Supportive Policies Lisbon (Portugal) and Presidente Prudente (Brazil) from Two Distant Cities

he home gardens, which are quite remarkable public pro- bananas and avocados) together usually unsponsored, statisti- grammes, intended not only to with subsistence horticulture can T cally non-existent, but affec- teach but also to promote food be found. In the more peripheral tionately cared for by families, production, processing and mar- neighbourhoods, scarce vacant especially the female members. keting inside towns, cities and plots and small farms (quintas) They are small biodiverse areas metropolitan areas throughout are used to grow vegetables and surrounding houses or inner and the world. raise small livestock (usually con- backyards within residential sumed by the households). Some complexes, in which ornamental This is the case with two quite of these plots are rented from the and fruit trees are combined with different cities, united only by a municipality for a symbolic value, vegetable crops, spices, medicinal common language. Lisbon, the since Lisbon has one of the most shrubs and grasses, and some- capital of Portugal, and expensive urban soils in Europe. times livestock. The subsistence, Presidente Prudente, an urban mixed and market-oriented gardens, centre in the interior of south- The problem is that these idle mainly occupy idle plots in towns. eastern Brazil. While the munici- spaces are becoming scarce. Very often, they are illegally tend- pality of Lisbon accounts for Farmers are compelled to sell ed by the un- or underemployed 700,000 people, Presidente their farms for urban develop- using annual crops, as individual Prudente has about 170,000. ment. Modern and expensive ter- efforts of job creation, food provi- Lisbon has a mild temperate tiary buildings are replacing aging sion or simply a way to enhance Mediterranean climate, whereas property, and consequently, green contact with nature, keep busy, Prudente has a sub-humid tropi- spaces are shrinking. As Lisbon and maintain physical and mental cal one. Per capita income in residents were also aging at an stability. Both types of urban agri- Brazil is less than half that of abnormal rate, the municipality culture have not only a social and Portugal. So it is not surprising began to develop subsidised economic function within city’s that the municipal programmes apartment blocks, much cheaper boundaries, but also remarkable to promote agriculture within and accessible to the youngsters, ecological benefits. their city boundaries in these two at the expense of the “institution- cities have no common goals. alised” peripheral agriculture and Even though urban agriculture ecological zones. On the other has survived, either inside the city PEDAGOGICAL GARDENS IN hand, industrial zones where ______or at the outskirts, it is very often THE PORTUGUESE CAPITAL cleaned and beautified (as hap- Isabel Maria Madaleno, forgotten, or worse denied by for- In the municipality of Lisbon, pened with the Expo 98 area, Tropical Institute, mal planning, underestimated by intra-urban agriculture is a which contributed to revitalising Lisbon, Portugal; urban management policies, and micro-scaled phenomenon but the eastern part of the city). ✉ [email protected] invisible to many researchers. widely practised in inner yards However, as the birth rate has Nevertheless, there are some where fruits like oranges (even been decreasing all over the

38 UA-Magazine country for years, the schools in most of THE FEED PRUDENTE PROGRAMME ative promotion, because the urban agri- the older neighbourhoods of Lisbon are Presidente Prudente is located in the culture practitioners tend to act on a fam- starting to become empty. highly industrialised Sao Paulo State, ily unit basis. Southeast Brazil. Under the municipal Strategies for getting children back into programme, “Feed Prudente”, the use of The plan was to have about 30,000 m2 of these neighbourhoods, such as allowing non-built-up plots for vegetable growing public land occupied by cassava, fol- parents to choose a school near work, by low-income families is stimulated. lowed by several species of beans and creating alternative tasks for teachers as Local authorities lack the funds to main- corn (each with 10,000 m2), while sweet well as attractive activities for pupils, tain these public areas. As seen in 1999, it potatoes and pumpkins should cover were devised by the municipality togeth- is the retired and unemployed, particu- around 5,000 m2 each. By the end of 1999, er with the Ministry of Education. In the larly men, who extensively produce 42 officially supported market gardens 1990s, “pedagogical farming” was pro- sweet potato, cassava and several types of mixed these planned crops and eight moted citywide. All newly built prepara- legumes all year round, using organic fer- plots were exclusively horticultural. tory and primary schools were planned tilisers. Extension services provide Results from the programme were, apart to have their own food garden. All the old ploughing machines, water pumps, and from irrefutable food and profit provi- ones, providing they had some sort of supply free seeds for the first crop, and sion, a raising of interest in organic agri- adequate space, were also given the nec- make efforts to prevent cattle raising culture and produce in poorer neigh- essary equipment. inside the city (Madaleno 2000). bourhoods, and a decline in the number of complaints about insect and rat pro- Environmental education is not only well The initial objectives of the programme liferation within the city boundaries. accepted by adults, but also a way to were to support community gardening, engage them further in the business of to ameliorate the quality of nutrition in CONCLUSION urban agriculture. Parents contribute average households, to provide elders Local governmental programmes inputs for compost and are invited to buy with a sort of occupational therapy, and have been addressing a broad range of organically grown produce whenever to create jobs for the needy, thus fighting there is surplus available. hunger and unemployment at the same time. Composting Success stories of pedagogic gardens are tank such that the municipality (the Green The programme started in 1997, aiming in Cabinet) developed a City Farm in 1996, to reach 200 families. Two years later, it Lisbon where ducks, rabbits, pigs and sheep are had benefited officially only 50, but, as raised and can be visited. The families are was learnt, many other beneficiaries invited to participate in the preparation started with the programme (using the of the farm bread, cheese, and cakes. land, technical and financial impetus giv- More than 100,000 people explore Lisbon en by the municipality) after which they City Farm (Olivais) every year. continued on their own. In fact, city gar- Additionally, 2001 marked the beginning deners tend to only come back for help of a contest sponsored by a public bank whenever they want to increase their cul-

in collaboration with the municipality, in tivated area, which varies between 500 to Isabel Madaleno which a prize will be extended for the 2,000 m2. The Secretary of Agriculture best food garden from the capital city. further provides free legal advice over Eleven schools have applied as have contracts with private plot owners. problems and difficulties posed by city twenty-nine private growers. gardening. In Western Europe, higher per The cultivator on the photo on page 38 capita income permits less involvement These initiatives, both by the municipal- has two plots, both situated close to his of municipalities in food provision and ity and the private sector, are an initial house in a peripheral neighbourhood job creation actions as the poor are usual- effort to reintegrate anonymous but called Garden Itapura, where he grows ly able to get help from national-level numerous and increasing gardeners, into cassava, sweet potatoes, chicory and oth- social programmes. Urban agriculture in urban planning and to revise the munici- er horticultural crops. Lisbon is synonymous with leisure, pal regulations to facilitate multiple uses environmental education, healthy food of land in Lisbon. Another shift from the initial plan was to production and processing, green space give up on community work and cooper- and genetic reserve preservation. On the other hand, the main public goals of urban agriculture programmes in Brazil are to increase income, create employ-

REFERENCES ment, and improve nutrition and health - EFCF. 2000. We are Part of the Earth and the Earth is a Part of Us. European Federation of City Farms. in the less wealthy sectors. Consequently, - Madaleno IM. 2000. City Food and Health in Brazil. Presented in FAO-ETC electronic conference, August 21-September 30. www.fao.org/urbanag or www.ruaf.org the integration of agriculture into urban - Smit J. 1998. What Would the World be like in the 21st Century if Cities Were Nutritionally Self-Reliant? Urban planning is in both cases as diverse as the Agriculture Notes. Vancouver: City Farmer. www.cityfarmer.org - Woodsworth A. 2001. Urban Agriculture and Sustainable Cities. Urban Agriculture Notes. Vancouver: City cities and citizens themselves. Farmer. http://www.cityfarmer.org/alexandraUA.html july 2001 39 Joseph Batac MAFESO (NGO) network meeting on urban Agriculture Planning in a The Case of Marilao in the Philippines Changing Environment

Marilao is a municipality with approximately The problem, however, was that with specific powers, functions 15,000 households located on the fringe of Manila the anticipated involvement of and revenue. The mandate was in the Philippines. A few years ago, Marilao’s the community had to be tested anchored in certain principles, authorities faced a typical peri-urban dilemma. in a country where the style of among which is the pursuit of With only 2,625 hectares of land area, just five municipal governance is predom- ecological balance and participa- kilometres from Metro Manila, Marilao’s mayor inantly administrative-oriented tory processes of managing devel- could not find affordable land for a new waste rather than participatory. opment. Each of these 1,525 units disposal site. There were more than 850 business Planning has purely been a tech- in the Philippines can have their firms and housing projects that competed for the nical matter guided by a corre- own interpretation of these two use of municipal land. sponding manual. However, the principles, given their actual con- preparation of the development ditions and management capacity plan as wanted, required interac- to change them. Within this he answers to the challenge tive consultations with different favourable atmosphere for nearly “Where do we bring our sectors of the community. Most of autonomous local governance, T waste?” posed in 1995 by the the planning officers found it dif- the municipal authority of mayor, involved complex con- ficult to organise such multi-sec- Marilao together with NGOs, cepts high in capital investment toral consultations. The tools and started in 1996 to brainstorm on requirements, but no affordable methodologies required for par- appropriate solutions, more nor practicable ideas. The precar- ticipatory processes had to be stakeholder participation and on ious situation was emphasised adopted from the NGO commu- investment programmes to over- during a series of community nity. It was even more challenging come the waste crisis. It was esti- planning workshops in 1997, in to apply them in an environment, mated that the current landfill search of reducing waste by get- which is traditionally managed in would be full in about 3-5 years. ting all major stakeholders a regulatory style. Moreover, Another study revealed that involved. With the gigantic waste experience has shown that a reg- almost 50% of the current content problems of Metro Manila in ulatory framework alone is hardly was biodegradable waste; 30% mind, Marilao’s authorities decid- effective, even in the Philippines, could be recycled and only 20% ed to go a different way. which has one of the most strin- consisted of non-usable materials. gent environmental laws in Southeast Asia. Both the leaders of the municipal ______local government units and of the Leoncio S. Duran, Jr., Honourable Mayor of Marilao, Thus, a new style of local govern- NGOs decided to look for ways to Bulacan, the Philippines ✉ [email protected] ance was required. The basis for recover the major portion of the Joseph H. Batac, Municipal Planning Officer, Marilao, this new style was given in 1992, waste. Four months later, a pro- Bulacan, the Philippines ✉ [email protected] when municipal local govern- posal was finalised for the munic- Pay Drechsel International Water Management Institute ment units (MLGUs) were man- ipality to establish a composting (IWMI) ✉ [email protected] dated by law to be autonomous facility, while the NGO commu-

40 UA-Magazine nity would address the necessary change 10,000 was allocated for developing mod- tion. At first, the plan targeted appropri- in behaviour of the main waste genera- els on urban agriculture. The investment ate application guidelines, but it had to tor: each and every household. for the collection system reached USD struggle with large inner-urban varia- 15,000. tions in soil quality, and some urban are- To ensure the stable supply of organic as even had no soil at all but only con- household waste, source separation was THE NURTURE PLAN crete. Yet they faced a demand from initiated at the household level in late The regular supply of biodegradable farmers using pots and other containers 1997, followed by different campaigns in waste allowed the municipality to pro- to grow vegetables or flowers. To address the next two years. The activities in these duce compost at a rate of approximately this situation, the municipality carried campaigns involved workshops, cross one ton per day using a compost fungus out a series of practical experiments in visits, seminars, training, video films (on activator to reduce the composting time 1999, which resulted in a standard sub- community cable TV), the playing of jin- from three months to one month. The strate with the compost as the predomi- gles during collection, providing the col- set-up of the technology needs both nant material for pot cultures and raised lection crew with a uniform, heralding waste from urban households and agri- beds with rain shelters. the message of segregation, printing of culture. Initially, the compost was given calendars and community newsletters, to urban farmers together with seeds and The farmers were organised under the and periodic letters from the mayor. The tools. When the municipalities realised umbrella of the Marilao Federation of costs of these activities were shared that the compost supply could not cope Service Organisation (MAFESO). The between the NGOs and the municipality. with the demand, and farmers also asked MAFESO is a network of 75 community- for application guidelines and related based housing associations, church/ In general, principles of marketing were information, the NURTURE plan religious groups, sectoral groups like employed for all activities, starting with (Networking for Urban Renewal Through women and transport workers, and civic an analysis of the clientele as to their Urban Ecology) was established. clubs. In each of these organisations, existing knowledge, attitude and practic- there are numerous members who have es (KAP). The ideal profile of potential cli- The NURTURE plan identified the farm- been actively involved in the activities of ents was formulated and its ‘appeal’ ers who practised solid waste segregation solid waste and urban agriculture. These determined. The distribution channels as and have open spaces within their yards members periodically plan and discuss and/or in the contiguous areas. Three the activities within a working committee strategies were identified on priority under the MAFESO and the Municipal Breaking with crops: (i) food security, (ii) recreation and Development Planning Council (MDPC). traditional training habbits aesthetics, and (iii) livelihood. The farm- The members were critical in technology ers targeted for “food security” are the applications and testing, land access urban poor who cultivate high nutritive arrangements and implementing the well as the promotional activities were crops that supplement for micronutrient investment plan as approved in the then set up. NGOs drove the process of deficiency, especially among children. MDPC. product development for community The target group for “recreation and aes- change. The process utilised participatory thetics” is middle class households who THE MESSAGE IS SPREADING planning techniques that were designed grow ornamentals and plants with fra- Metro Manila launched a segregation by the NGO. The planning interfaces grant flowers; and the ”livelihood strate- campaign that ended in failure just a few again involved both the NGO leaders and gy” addresses farmers with growing pot- weeks later. After a meeting with Mayor the municipal staff, and were placed ted crops/flowers and produce during Duran of Marilao, the chairman of the within the Municipal Development the off-season. Government of Metro Manila instructed Planning Council (MDPC). Each year, a his senior staff to study the Marilao mod- work plan was agreed upon and translat- All three groups encountered the prob- el via one-day cross visits. Several more ed into investment by the municipality. lem of access to land. The NURTURE local governments went to Marilao for a The agreement only takes effect after a plan addressed this by developing com- cross visit to learn about the project. In series of consultations with community pact gardens with standard soil composi- addition, national government as well as stakeholders and the mapping of internal strengths and weaknesses as well as of external threats and opportunities. Then, REACHING HOUSEHOLDS AND URBAN FARMERS the identification of strategies, followed Initially, the adoption of the practice of waste segregation was slow but acceler- by a consensus on the preferred strategy, ated over time. The municipality offered as incentive a predictable and reliable the translation of this consensus into collection of the segregated waste, and a reliable waste collection means a lot activities, and the municipal investments in Marilao. Within three weeks, the 500 households in the area adopted the as well as NGO counterpart to imple- practice, seeing that the waste collection really was predictable and more fre- ment the strategy. These investments quent. After three months, a next area with 400 households decided to adopt included developing models on urban the practice. Another 2,000 households from the contiguous area followed six agriculture and improvements on the col- months later, and the municipality had to buy more collection vehicles to keep lection system for solid waste manage- the promised collection frequency. Today, almost all the 15,000 households of ment. From 1995 to 2000, a total of USD Marilao benefit from the system by providing source separation.

july 2001 41 Books

donor agencies published articles on the PLANNING FOR URBAN AGRICULTURE : A REVIEW OF project, and in April 2000, the wife of TOOLS AND STRATEGIES FOR URBAN PLANNERS Philippine President Estrada visited Quon Soonya. 1999. CFP Report Series. Report 28, International Marilao to learn about urban agriculture. Development Research Centre (IDRC) Ottawa. Officials from the largest NGO in Metro Based on published and “grey” literature and a survey of 26 urban Manila working on solid waste manage- planning professionals from 18 cities around the world, key planning- ment and recycling accompanied her. related constraints facing urban farmers were identified as well as possible responses to these constraints. Land-use issues are of particular All of these interested groups and institu- concern to urban farmers. These issues are compounded by the urban tions had one common question – How planning policy context through, amongst others, a lack of formal did the programme start? The Marilao recognition. Important recommendations cited in literature and from experience showed that the way to suc- planners are changes to the land-use planning policy level, participation cess is a stony one, which challenges old in new multi-disciplinary institutions responsible for all facets of urban structures and planning habits. The agriculture in a community, and establishing records of urban agri- required shift in mindset and style of gov- culture. It was found that urban planners have opportunities to permit and support urban agriculture, given their position as regards decision- making at the various levels. Planners could use their influence for change, forge alliances and facilitate opportunities for urban farmers.

URBAN LAND TENURE AND PROPERTY RIGHTS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: A REVIEW Payne G. 1997. London: Intermediate Technology Publications (ITP). ISBN 1_85339_400_9 : GBP 12.95 (pbk). Payne has provided an annotated and very thorough literature review on a very important aspect of urban agriculture. Indeed, urban land tenure and property rights play an even more vital role than in rural areas. Often, there are frictions between different systems, particularly in

Joseph Batac urban areas where land is scarce and expensive. Access to credit very The compost ‘bed’. much depends on the definition of property rights. Changes in owner- Composting has been The bed layers are ship may have very drastic effects on prices of land and, therefore, its use promoted by the nation- alternatenaly household by the urban poor. In this publication, the main tenure types are cata- al government under a waste and agricultural logued and explained: customary tenure, private tenure, public owner- specific programme waste ship, religious concepts and indigenous vs. imported concepts. The since 1990, but it was author concludes that careful analysis of the existing systems should be more wishful thinking carried out before embarking on major reforms. This is all the more so than implementation. since tenure measures as a policy tool are rather inflexible in comparison Marilao was probably with fiscal and monetary policies. Interestingly, full tenure turns out to the first municipality be not essential to increasing levels of tenure security. In Botswana and actively implementing Indonesia, the establishment of a statutory system (i.e., by the state) was this policy. firmly grounded on traditional principles. At the end, we find an elaborate, annotated bibliography and a very welcome glossary of terms. There is also a typology of the main categories of land tenure. ernance to manage development with community change can only happen AESTHETICS, FUNCTIONALITY AND DESIRABILITY when there is a strong political will. This OF THE SUSTAINABLE CITY is necessary to motivate the NGO com- Culot Maurice 1997. European Foundation for the Improvement of Living munity as well as the households. Once and Working Conditions. Wyattville Road, Loughlinstown, Co. Dublin this political will is in place, the technical Ireland. ISBN 9282749231 aspects can be modified with a greater This publication addresses the renewed focus on the desirability of the degree of tolerance for correction in the city, a phenomenon as essential as ecological perfection and economic context of improvement. The Marilao health for a city to survive in the long run. The author looks at urban experience also showed that Municipal forms placing modern and functional architecture, which breaks with Planning can serve as a focus of develop- tradition and advocates zoning and separation of functions, against ment, as long as the commitment of the European city-building tradition, with its consistent mix of human local government is ascertained, and is activities. The report concludes with recommendations for representa- characterised by a more managerial style. tives and officials making a plea for this renewed pluralism. This This commitment then easily translates renewed interest stems from a too-long reign of functionalism that left into investment for community mobilisa- no space for the human need for buildings that are evidence of an alter- tion and logistics for both short and long native to the destruction and loss of the European city. Briefly put: we term. should strive again for the ‘city of desire’.

42 Books

PLANNING FOR URBAN AGRICULTURE : A REVIEW OF TOOLS AND STRATEGIES FOR URBAN PLANNERS Quon Soonya. 1999. CFP Report Series. Report 28, International Development Research Centre (IDRC) Ottawa. Based on published and “grey” literature and a survey of 26 urban planning professionals from 18 cities around the world, key planning- related constraints facing urban farmers were identified as well as possible responses to these constraints. Land-use issues are of particular concern to urban farmers. These issues are compounded by the urban planning policy context through, amongst others, a lack of formal recognition. Important recommendations cited in literature and from planners are changes to the land-use planning policy level, participation in new multi-disciplinary institutions responsible for all facets of urban agriculture in a community, and establishing records of urban agriculture. It was found that urban planners have opportunities to permit and support urban agriculture, given their position as regards decision- making at the various levels. Planners could use their influence for change, forge alliances and facilitate opportunities for urban farmers.

URBAN LAND TENURE AND PROPERTY RIGHTS IN Spanish edition DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: A REVIEW Payne G. 1997. London: Intermediate Technology Publications (ITP). ISBN 1_85339_400_9 : GBP 12.95 (pbk). The UA Magazine has been published in Payne has provided an annotated and very thorough literature review on Spanish: La Revista Agricultura Urbana, No. a very important aspect of urban agriculture. Indeed, urban land tenure 1. Soon No. 2 on livestock and No. 3 on and property rights play an even more vital role than in rural areas. health will also be released in Spanish. Often, there are frictions between different systems, particularly in From now on the UA Magazine will be urban areas where land is scarce and expensive. Access to credit very released in English, Spanish, and French. much depends on the definition of property rights. Changes in owner- Furthermore a more regional focus will be ship may have very drastic effects on prices of land and, therefore, its use developed, with a focus on Latin America in by the urban poor. In this publication, the main tenure types are cata- the Spanish edition and a focus on West and logued and explained: customary tenure, private tenure, public owner- Central Africa in the French edition. ship, religious concepts and indigenous vs. imported concepts. The author concludes that careful analysis of the existing systems should be carried out before embarking on major reforms. This is all the more so TO SUBSCRIBE TO THE SPANISH since tenure measures as a policy tool are rather inflexible in comparison EDITION, PLEASE TURN TO: with fiscal and monetary policies. Interestingly, full tenure turns out to Programa de Gestión Urbana be not essential to increasing levels of tenure security. In Botswana and PGU-ALC/CNUAC -HABITAT Indonesia, the establishment of a statutory system (i.e., by the state) was García Moreno 751, entre y Sucre y firmly grounded on traditional principles. At the end, we find an elabo- Bolivar rate, annotated bibliography and a very welcome glossary of terms. PO Box 17-01-2505 There is also a typology of the main categories of land tenure. Quito ECUADOR AESTHETICS, FUNCTIONALITY AND DESIRABILITY Email: [email protected] OF THE SUSTAINABLE CITY Tel/Fax: Culot Maurice 1997. European Foundation for the Improvement of Living +593.2.282361/282364/282371 and Working Conditions. Wyattville Road, Loughlinstown, Co. Dublin Ireland. ISBN 9282749231 This publication addresses the renewed focus on the desirability of the TO SUBSCRIBE TO THE FRENCH city, a phenomenon as essential as ecological perfection and economic EDITION, PLEASE TURN TO: health for a city to survive in the long run. The author looks at urban African Urban Management forms placing modern and functional architecture, which breaks with Institute tradition and advocates zoning and separation of functions, against IAGU European city-building tradition, with its consistent mix of human Dakar activities. The report concludes with recommendations for representa- SENEGAL tives and officials making a plea for this renewed pluralism. This Email: [email protected] / iagu- renewed interest stems from a too-long reign of functionalism that left [email protected] no space for the human need for buildings that are evidence of an alter- Tel: +.221.824 44 24 native to the destruction and loss of the European city. Briefly put: we Fax: +.221.825 08 should strive again for the ‘city of desire’.

42 FURTHER READING ON URBAN AGRICULTURE AND URBAN PLANNING

THE EARTHSCAN READER IN SUSTAINABLE CITIES contributes significantly to community health and Satterthwaite David (ed.). 1999. Earthscan Publications, London, Stylus Publishing, welfare and metropolitan economies; connects to LLC. other urban systems such as housing, transportation, Satterthwaite provides an introduction to the field of sustainable cities in 20 land use, economic development and impacts upon articles. Part I brings together a wide range of published articles covering the the urban environment. Existing and potential city key issues. Furthermore, concepts linking sustainable development and cities institutions that could offer a more comprehensive (Part II) as well as sectoral programmes contributing to sustainable develop- management of the urban food system are examined. ment in cities (Part III) are discussed. The section on sectoral programmes These include the city department of food, the policy includes chapters on urban agriculture and planning green cities, waste recy- council, and the municipal planning department. cling and building and designing with nature. Part IV provides case studies on innovative action plans (Local Agenda 21) at the city level, from South and ILLEGAL CITIES : LAW AND URBAN North America as well as information systems and urban sustainability indica- CHANGE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES. tors. The last part (V) places sustainable city development in a wider regional Fernandes Edésio and Varley Ann (eds). 1998. Estover, and global context. (NB) Plymouth: Plymbridge Distributors. ISBN 1_85469_550_7 (pbk) : GBP 14.95. 256 pp. URBAN AGRICULTURE: CAN PLANNERS MAKE A DIFFERENCE? This book provides an important overview of the Greenhow, Timothy. 1994. CFP Report Series Report 12, International role played by legislative and legal institutions in the Development Research Centre (IDRC) Ottawa: way open spaces are occupied in cities. Much of the Greenhow examines the way city planners look at urban agriculture in three content is about how the urban poor gain access to countries: Lesotho, Botswana and Sweden. The basic question is to what extent urban land and housing within the margins of the planning plays a role in influencing the spread of agriculture in urban areas. law. Issues addressed are of a wide range: How is Gaborone, Greenhow concludes, has neither the subsistence need nor the plan- illegality perceived? How are property rights and ning attitude conducive to widespread urban agriculture. In Maseru, inhabi- public control of land use defined? How do informal tants farm out of necessity and suitable preconditions exist that favour urban settlements occur and how are they regularised? agriculture. In Stockholm, policy environment is such that urban agriculture is How does customary law operate? How secure are seen as a valuable component within a new approach to planning, with the land-tenure rights in reality? Such questions have environment and the sustainable city in mind. The paper ends with a number of often met with uncritical treatment in traditional recommendations for urban planners. legal studies. Therefore, this is an important book that brings law and urban change to the attention of SUSTAINING CITIES – ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING AND MAN- a wider audience. After an introductory section set- AGEMENT IN URBAN DESIGN ting the framework for urban legal research and the Leitmann, Josef 1999. McGraw-Hill research record thus far, the remainder of the book A historical transition will take place at the dawn of the new millennium: for the is devoted to twelve case studies from major cities in first time in human history, more than half the world’s population will be living Asia, Africa and Latin America. in cities. These cities currently generate two-thirds of economic wealth and will account for 80% of GDP growth during this decade. Population and economic OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS FOR growth in cities create externalities - more people making more things demand URBAN AGRICULTURE IN BANDUNG, more resources and generate more waste. The resulting set of environmental INDONESIA. problems is known as the “Brown Agenda”: distressed industrial area; eroding Hietkamp Fern. 1995. AURN working paper no. 7. infrastructure; pollution; resource losses; environmental hazards and global Asian Urban Research Network (AURN), Centre for environmental issues (taken from J. Leitmannn and editorial comments). Human Settlements, School of Community and Regional Planning, The University of British PLACING THE FOOD SYSTEM ON THE URBAN AGENDA : THE ROLE Colombia, Vancouver, Canada. 36 pp. OF MUNICIPAL INSTITUTIONS IN FOOD SYSTEMS PLANNING Hietkamp has focused on the competition for space Pothukuchi Kameshwari and Kaufman Jerome L. 1999. Agriculture and Human between urban agriculture and other Values 16(2): 213-224. University of Wisconsin. activities in Bandung, Indonesia. When the author This article takes a perceptive look at the relationship between city planning and states that with the current rate of development, the urban food system in America at the turn of the century. The urban food sys- much of the land now used for food production tem is less visible than other such urban systems. The reasons for its low visibility within the urban area will disappear in the next 15- include the historic process by which issues and policies came to be defined as 20 years, we must realise that this statement was urban; the spread of processing, refrigeration and transportation technology, made before the economic crisis hit Indonesia. The together with cheap, abundant energy; that rendered invisible the loss of farm- author’s suggestion that city administrators should land around older cities; as well as the continuing institutional separation include urban farming more systematically in urban between urban and rural policy. Despite its low visibility, the urban food system planning remains as valid as before, however.

43 News & Networking

FORTHCOMING EVENTS Göttingen, Hohenheim and Kassel- Witzenhausen, as well as by the Council for Tropical and Subtropical Agricultural SUSTAINABLE FOOD SECURITY FOR ALL BY 2020: FROM DIALOGUE TO ACTION Research (ATSAF e.V.), in cooperation with International Congress Centre of the Federal Parliament, Bonn, Germany September 4-6, 2001 BEAF/GTZ. One symposium of this confer- The International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) in close collaboration with the ence is planned to deal specifically with German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) will organise urban and peri-urban production systems. this event. The conference takes stock of the current situation, reviews progress in achieving More information is available at: sustainable food security since the first 2020 Vision conference in 1995, and offers state-of- http://www.uni-bonn.de/akci/dtt_1.htm the-art projections for scenarios in 2020. The meeting will focus on the emerging issues that are most likely to affect the global goal of achieving sustainable food security for all by the URBAN AREAS - RURAL AREAS AND year 2020, and to prioritise actions. For more information and registration, you can visit RECYCLING: THE ORGANIC WAY www.ifpri.org/2020conference. FORWARD Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, DEVELOPMENT STUDIES ASSOCIATION ANNUAL CONFERENCE 2001: Copenhagen, Denmark, August 19 - 21, 2001 DIFFERENT POVERTY DIFFERENT POLICIES This seminar is organised by the working Manchester University, Manchester, UK, September 10-12, 2001 group on Organic Farming of the Danish The sessions of this conference will include issues of poverty and poverty reduction, agrarian University Consortium on Sustainable Land and land reform, urban poverty, livelihood frameworks and poverty analysis, international Use and Natural Resource Management. policy and poverty, e-development and development management. Some of these concepts After a one-day excursion to an organic would be valuable for debates on urban and peri-urban agriculture. For further details, farm and an ecological village, a two-day contact the Conference Secretary, Debra Whitehead by e-mail: [email protected] or visit seminar will discuss ecological development http://www.bham.ac.uk/DSA/events.htm. of post-industrial societies, focusing on themes such as the consequences of local LOCAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT integration of food production (including (LED) POLICY WORKSHOP FOR EASTERN AND SOUTHERN AFRICA urban agriculture); recycling; eco-villages Harare, Zimbabwe, September 10-14, 2001 and local self-sufficiency; local collaboration This workshop, organised by the Municipal Development Programme, is part of its joint between consumers, processors, distrib- programme with the Institute of Social Studies (ISS), the Netherlands, in partnership with the utors and producers; and research needs. University of Zimbabwe. The workshop is meant to bring all strategic players together to More information can be obtained by enable them to share experiences and options for sustainable economic development at the e-mail: [email protected] or telephone: local level. The role of urban and peri-urban agriculture in the LED will be part of the +45 3528 3491 workshop module. For details, please contact the Director, George Matovu by e-mail: [email protected]. IFOAM 2002 ORGANIC WORLD CONGRESS: CULTIVATING RAINWATER INTERNATIONAL 2001 AT MANNHEIM, GERMANY COMMUNITIES 10TH INTERNATIONAL RAINWATER CATCHMENT SYSTEMS CONFERENCE AND Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, INTERNATIONAL RAINWATER FAIR August 21-28, 2002 10-14. September 2001 The IFOAM 2002 Organic World Congress Rainwater harvesting within an integrated water resources management concept is one “Cultivating Communities” will bring important step forwards to a sustainable water future. The conference will reflect on the together representatives of the organic growing realisation that rainwater harvesting offers great potential in solving domestic and movement from around the world, and is agricultural water problems in humid and semi-arid areas and also many critical urban-relat- open to everyone interested in organic agri- ed water issues. It will provide a global platform and an exchange forum for technologies and culture and sustainable development. The concepts across countries and continents. event combines the 14th Organic World More information: http://www.rainwaterconference.org/english/programme.htm Congress, the 4th IFOAM Organic World Exhibition, the 7th International Congress SUSTAINING FOOD SECURITY AND MANAGING NATURAL RESOURCES IN on Viticulture and Wine, and the IFOAM SOUTHEAST ASIA: CHALLENGES FOR THE 21ST CENTURY. General Assembly. Thailand, January 8-11, 2002 For more information about Canadian This international symposium will discuss possible approaches and innovations that should Organic Growers, visit: www.cog.ca. contribute to achieving food security, reducing poverty and raising food production under For more information about IFOAM, visit: sustainable natural resource management in Southeast Asian countries. www.ifoam.org. For more information visit: http: //www. uni-hohenheim.de/symposium2002. REGIONAL TRAINING COURSE ON THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE “ONE WORLD: RESEARCH FOR A URBAN AGRICULTURE BETTER QUALITY OF LIFE” Quito, Ecuador, November 2001 Bonn, Germany, October 9-11, 2001 The “Cities Feeding People Programme” of The Deutsche Tropentag (DTT) 2001 will be held as a two-day conference on tropical and sub- the International Development and tropical agriculture and forestry, organised jointly by the Universities of Bonn, Berlin, Research Centre (IDRC), Canada, is collabo-

45 rating with UMP-LAC/UNCHS-Habitat and ZIMBABWEAN INITIATIVE, UA STAKEHOLDER FORUM its anchoring institute IPES in the develop- MDP Offices, Harare June 18, 2001 ment and implementation of the first This meeting made an inventarisation on what has been happening in UA in regional training course on urban agricul- Zimbabwe. MDP has been asked to further facilitate the process of discussing the ture. Specific support to the project will also subject, which should lead to a policy document on urban agriculture. be provided by ETC-RUAF, NRI-UK and the FAO. The course will allow twenty (20) NATIONAL NEEDS ANALYSIS ON TRAINING AND COMMUNICATION municipal staff members, researchers, NGO NEEDS IN SE AFRICA professionals, and representatives of pro- As part of the RUAF Programme, MDP facilitated National Consultative Workshops ducer or marketing organisations to discuss in June 2001 on the status of Urban Agriculture in Zimbabwe (as well as Zambia, and evaluate proposals for action-research Botswana, Malawi, Tanzania) and the needs of Information, Training and and concrete intervention in urban agricul- Communication. Reports on the workshops in Tanzania and Botswana can be found ture, in order to influence planning and on page 24 and 27. Reports on the other countries will be published in the next issue management of their cities. For more infor- of the UA-Magazine, and on the ruaf website www.ruaf.org mation, contact Marielle Dubbeling, Urban Management Programme for Latin America SUBREGIONAL EXPERT CONSULTATION ‘URBAN AND PERI-URBAN and the Caribbean (UMP-LAC/IPES) by HORTICULTURE IN SOUTHERN AFRICAN COUNTRIES’ e-mail: [email protected] Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa, January 16-17, 2001 The University of Stellenbosch, South Africa under the auspices of the Food and MANAGING BIODIVERSITY IN Agricultural Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations hosted this meeting which AGRICULTURAL ECOSYSTEMS focused on the use of low-cost and simple technologies for crop diversification by Montreal, Canada, November 8-10, 2001 small- scale farmers in urban and peri-urban areas of Southern Africa. A full report This meeting is organised by the United is available on the RUAF www.ruaf.org and FAO www.fao.org websites, or contact Nations University in collaboration with Lizl Hobson at [email protected]. the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, and the Secretariat of the NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS COMMITTEE Convention on Biological Diversity. More (NGOC) OF THE CGIAR information at http://www.biodiv.org/ Durban, South Africa, June, 2001 areas/agro/default.asp This workshop was about how NGO and small-farmer organisations could exert more influence on agricultural research for development - not only by the CGIAR centres but also by other research organisations. Urban agriculture was mentioned as one area in which NGOs are involved in research and development. The mid- REPORTS term meeting of the CGIAR focused on the restructuring of the CGIAR system. If you are interested in further information about regional priority-setting for research in ON PAST EVENTS southern Africa - for CGIAR centres and national, subregional and regional research organisations - you might like to get in touch with PELUM (Mutizwa Mukute) - the URBAN AGRICULTURE AS PART current NGO contact point for the joint efforts of the CGIAR and the Global Forum OF A NEW LANDSCAPE STRATEGY on Agricultural Research (GFAR) in this direction. Email: [email protected]. FOR SUSTAINABLE CITIES University of North London, UK, June 29, 2001 INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP: COPING WITH INFORMALITY As part of the Architecture Week, organised AND ILLEGALITY IN HUMAN SETTLEMENTS IN DEVELOPING CITIES by the Arts Council, the Low Energy Leuven and Brussels, Belgium, May 23-26, 2001 Architecture Research Unit at the University This was the annual event of N-AERUS: Network-Association of European of North London, UK, hosted this confer- Researchers on Urbanisation in the South. Papers presented had relevance to issues ence on Urban Agriculture, which consisted of urban governance and urban agriculture. Further details and papers can be of a series of presentations and short work- obtained at: http://www.naerus.org. shop sessions. Contributors explored urban, architectural, environmental, economic and HABITAT ISTANBUL + 5 social benefits of Urban Agriculture. The New York, USA, June 6, 2001 main issues were: “likely strategies for On June 6 and 8 the Istanbul +5, special session of the General Assembly, took place establishing urban agriculture within urban to evaluate progress five years after the Habitat II. This time it was held in New York regeneration proposals”; “joining existing and convened by the UN Centre for Human Settlements. More information can be research to promote or test the viability of found at http://www.un.org/ga/istanbul+5. Several discussions were organised urban agriculture”; financial viability of simultaneously. One of them was the “Food for the Cities: Food Insecurity and urban agriculture as a means of local food Urban Management” organised by UNCHS, IDRC and FAO. This parallel event had production. the aim of sensitising participants on the issue of urban growth and its impact on More information can be obtained from urban food security. Presentations were given on food distribution, the role of urban Andre Viljoen, Deputy Director of the Low agriculture and cases from Latin America by UMP/LAC. Dialogue was facilitated by Energy Architecture Research Unit by e- a video presentation. More information can be obtained from the respective organ- mail: [email protected] or at: isations, or at: http://www.unchs.org/istanbul+5/pel2.htm www.studioBandV.co.uk.

News & Networking 46 News & Networking

THE AGRICULTURE-URBANISATION planning and management guidelines, and resources. The purpose of the Briefs is to INTERFACE IN COASTAL LEBANON raise awareness, mobilise support for and strengthen capacities and provide ways AND IN THE MIDDLE EAST / NORTH for municipal governments to implement urban agriculture programmes and poli- AFRICA cies. The Briefs will discuss and define strategic approaches for disseminating new The French Cultural Centre of Beirut, Beirut, knowledge and an agenda for change. Draft Briefs will be validated by the target Lebanon, June 13-16, 2001 group, convening the LAC City Working Group on Urban Agriculture and Food The regional information and training needs Security, and the Latin American Chapter of the International Union of Local assessment under RUAF was jointly organ- Authorities (IULA-LAC), the Federation of Municipalities of Central America (FEMI- ised with a workshop on the results of a CA) and the Caribbean Local Governments Association (CALGA). The Briefs will be four-year running research programme in disseminated by sending 20,000 copies (in both Spanish and English) to municipal Lebanon (see UA Magazine no. 3). urban governments throughout the region. The programme was meant as a foundation For more information, contact Marielle Dubbeling, Urban Agriculture Adviser, for broader regional exchanges, which Urban Managment Programme for Latin America and the Caribbean (UMP-LAC/- would cover neighbouring countries in the IPES) by e-mail: [email protected] southern and eastern Mediterranean basin. The coastal Lebanon programme and the NEW EXECUTIVE SECRETARY FOR THE LATIN AMERICAN RESEARCH regional needs assessment are coordinated NETWORK ON URBAN AGRICULTURE: RED AGUILA by Joe Nasr, vice-president of The Urban AGUILA, the network of Latin American and Caribbean institutes and organisations Agriculture Network (TUAN) and research- working on urban agriculture (see earlier issues of the UA Magazine) is again com- er at the CERMOC. CERMOC is also the plete. Since January 2001, the Secretariat of AGUILA has been managed by the main host. The Lebanon programme is Institute for Promotion of Social Economy- IPES, located in Lima, Peru. The new included within the activities of the Executive Secretary who recently started in Lima, is Mario González Novo. Together CERMOC’s Observatoire de with Gunther Merzthal and Maritza León they form the Aguila Secretariat. recherches sur Beyrouth et la reconstruction. For further information, contact Aguila by e-mail: [email protected] For further information, contact: Joe Nasr by e-mail: [email protected] AGROPOLIS Agropolis is the research and training awards programme, coordinated and led by the IDRC on behalf of the Support Group on Urban Agriculture (SGUA). Agropolis supports innovative Masters’ and Doctoral research in urban agriculture around the PARTNERS world. Each award covers field research expenses of up to CA$ 20,000 for the research period (between 3 and 12 months). URBAN FOOD INSECURITY AND VULNERABILITY MEETING The deadline for applying for 2002 awards is December 31, 2001. The FAO Regional Office for East and Agropolis now has its own homepage in three languages. Please link to: Southern Africa based in Harare, Zimbabwe http://www.idrc.ca/cfp/agrhome.html for English is holding periodic meetings on this topic http://www.idrc.ca/cfp/fagrhome.html for French and brings together members from key http://www.idrc.ca/cfp/sagrhome.html for Spanish international development institutions as well as local stakeholders. For further details Agropolis Award themes on these initiatives, contact Farayi Zimudzi AGROPOLIS International Graduate Research Awards in Urban Agriculture or Karori Izumi from the FAO Subregional AGROPOLIS . The AGROPOLIS award recipients for 2001 are: Office for SE-Africa. ❖ CHUO, Adamu Nsangu (Mr.) from Cameroon, on “Urban Agriculture and Email: [email protected] Physical Planning: A Case Study of Zaria Urban Area, Nigeria”; ❖ DANSO, George Kwasi (Mr.) from Ghana on “Perception and willingness to pay FORMULATION OF URBAN for composted municipal waste and night soil by farmers of different urban and AGRICULTURE POLICY ADVISORY peri-urban farming systems in three Ghanaian cities (Kumasi/Tamale/Accra)”; TOOLS FOR LOCAL GOVERNMENTS IN ❖ HOVORKA, Alice (Ms.)from Canada on “Exploring the Effects of Gender on LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN Commercial Urban Agriculture Systems in Gaborone, Botswana”; As part of its “closing the loop” activities, the ❖ ABULO, Grace (Ms.) from Uganda, on “The Assessment of Heavy Metal Pollution “Cities Feeding People” programme initia- To Crops Grown Around Kampala City Kampala, Uganda”; tive will collaborate with the Urban ❖ NGUYEN, Quang Linh (Mr.), from Vietnam, on “The Use of Local Feed Management Programme, Regional Office Resources to Strengthen Animal Smallholdings and Poverty Alleviation in Urban for Latin America and the Caribbean (UMP- Hue, Central Vietnam” LAC/UNCHS- HABITAT/UNDP) and its ❖ SCHAMI, Danielle J. (Ms.), from Canada, on “Planning for Sustainable Urban anchoring institute IPES to produce a set of Food Systems: From Toronto to Guadalajara” seven Policy Briefs known in Spanish as Directrises o lineamientos de Politica, intended This site, on Water and Environmental Health, is managed by the London School of for local governments in the LAC Region. Hygiene & Tropical Medicine and the Water, Engineering and Development Centre, The general content will include: arguments Loughborough University, and further supported by a network of collaborating insti- for better municipal policies on UA, exam- tutions. WELL is a resource centre promoting environmental health and well-being in ples of good municipal practice, practical developing and transitional countries.