A New Astronomically Based Chronological Model for the Egyptian Old Kingdom

Journal of Egyptian History 10 (2017) 69–108

brill.com/jeh

Rita Gautschy University of Basel [email protected]

Michael E. Habicht University of Zurich and Flinders University, Adelaide [email protected]

Francesco M. Galassi University of Zurich [email protected]

Daniela Rutica University of Marburg [email protected]

Frank J. Rühli University of Zurich [email protected]

Rainer Hannig University of Marburg [email protected]

Abstract

A recently discovered inscription on an ancient Egyptian ointment jar mentions the heliacal rising of Sirius. In the time of the early Pharaohs, this specific astronomical event marked the beginning of the Egyptian New Year and originally the annual return of the Nile flood, making it of great ritual importance. Since the Egyptian civil calendar of 365 days permanently shifted one day in four years in comparison to the stars due

* This work was supported by grants of the Mäxi Foundation and the Cogito Foundation.

© koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ��7 | doi 10.1163/18741665-12340035Downloaded from Brill.com09/29/2021 11:59:19AM via free access 70 Gautschy ET AL. to the lack of intercalation, the connection of a date from the Egyptian civil calendar with the heliacal rising of Sothis is vitally important for the reconstruction of chronology. The new Sothis date from the Old Kingdom (3rd–6th Dynasties) in combination with other astronomical data and radiocarbon dating re-calibrates the chronology of ancient Egypt and consequently the dating of the Pyramids. A chronological model for Dynasties 3 to 6 constructed on the basis of calculated astronomical data and contem- poraneously documented year dates of Pharaohs is presented.

Keywords

Egyptian Old Kingdom – heliacal rising of Sirius – chronology – lunar dates – regnal year count

Introduction

The Egyptian civil calendar consisted of 365 days arranged in the three seasons Akhet, Peret and Shemu, each containing four months with 30 days and at the end, five additional days (Epagomenals) were added. This civil calendar was probably introduced in the first half of the third millennium BCE, starting with an assumed observation of the heliacal rising of Sirius (Sothis) on the 1st month of Akhet, 1st day. The heliacal rising of Sirius denotes its first visibility in the morning sky after a period of invisibility. Due to the lack of intercalary days, the Egyptian civil calendar permanently shifted one day in four years (tet- raeteris) in comparison to the stars. As a result, the beginning of the year was moving through the civil calendar: By the end of the Old Kingdom the heliacal rising of Sothis had already shifted into the Peret season and during the Second Intermediate Period and the 18th Dynasty of the New Kingdom the New Year occurred in the Shemu season. In Ramesside times (19th Dynasty) the cycle reached the Akhet season again. This phenomenon is known as Sothis-cycle. The mentioning of a heliacal rising of Sothis combined with a date of the Egyptian calendar therefore may allow quite accurate absolute dating using astronom ical charts.1 Only few Sothic dates are known from ancient Egypt, the oldest complete date so far was the el-Lahun date from the 12th Dynasty.2 Although extremely sparse, these Sothis dates are of highest importance for the chronology of ancient Egypt and ancient cultures of the Near East since the dating of

1 Krauss, Sothis- und Monddaten; Gautschy, “Sirius.” 2 Krauss, Sothis- und Monddaten; Gautschy, “Sirius”; Luft, Chronologische Fixierung; Borchardt, “Kahun.”

Journal of EgyptianDownloaded History from 10 Brill.com09/29/2021 (2017) 69–108 11:59:19AM via free access A New Astronomically Based Chronological Model 71 the Egyptian Middle Kingdom, of the Egyptian New Kingdom, and of neigh- bouring regions depend on them.

The New Sothis Date

Recently a new Sothis date on an ointment jar was discovered.3 The jar mentions the “Forthcoming of Sopdet” and the date of a heliacal rising of Sirius on the beaker. For the stylistic dating of our jar several publications were used.4 Such cylindrical beakers contained perfume oil and were often given to people on special occasions and festivals—a tradition still alive in the Coptic church.5 The jar was stylistically dated into the mid to late 5th Dynasty. Inscription, pa- laeography and the astronomical date also point to the Old Kingdom. The inscription (Fig. 1) starting from the right column is a nominal sentence with pw:

gsw n s3-rnp.t 3bd 4 pr.t ḫft pr.t spd.t 3bd 4 3ḫt pw ḫft wp.t -rˁ

Ointment made for the protection of the year, month 4, Peret-season, for the forthcoming of Sothis, month 4, Akhet-season it is, made for the first day of the month.

The sign “wp.t -rˁ” is a cow’s horn with sun disc and can be translated as “first day of the month” but also as “beginning of the New Year,” most fitting for this festival.6 It mentions the ointment inside the jar, combined with the production date (4th month, Peret). The reason is the forthcoming of Sothis (Sirius) at the date (4th month, Akhet, 1st day). The Peret date, mentioning the protection of the year may refer to the date of production of the oil: the ointment would have been produced ca. ¾ year in advance of the heliacal rising of Sothis. This is a classic production length for the sacred oils in Egypt.7

Old Kingdom Chronology

Historical dating based on information given in king lists, radiocarbon dating, as well as various astronomical dating attempts resulted in different

3 Habicht, et al., “New Sothis Rise.” 4 Aston, Stone Vessels; Günther and Wellauer, Ägyptische Steingefässe. 5 Baligh, “Oil and its importance.” 6 Hannig, Handwörterbuch, 206. 7 Baligh, “Oil and its importance.”

Journal of Egyptian History 10 (2017) 69–108 Downloaded from Brill.com09/29/2021 11:59:19AM via free access 72 Gautschy ET AL.

Figure 1 Drawing of the ointment jar with the Sothis-inscription in the archaeological collection of the University of Zurich, inv. 5821. Copyright: Michael Habicht, digitally reworked and coloured by Patrick E. Eppenberger. chronologies of the Egyptian Old Kingdom with varying degrees of disagreement.8 All these dating methods share that they are heavily influenced by the fact that

8 See, e.g., Shaw, ed., Oxford History; Krauss, “Lunar Dates,” 429–31; Depuydt, “Sothic Chronology,” 183–84; Dee, “Radiocarbon-based Chronology,” 212–13 and 287; Bárta, “Radiocarbon Dates,” 221; Spence “Orientation of Pyramids.”

Journal of EgyptianDownloaded History from 10 Brill.com09/29/2021 (2017) 69–108 11:59:19AM via free access A New Astronomically Based Chronological Model 73 the method of counting years used during Dynasties 3 to 6 is still a matter of debate. The standard theory for many years was that a regular biannual count of regnal years was employed throughout the whole Old Kingdom.9 In the framework of this hypothesis each “year of the xth cattle count” should have been followed by a “year after the xth cattle count.” It has long been noticed that the number of documents containing a “year of the count” and a “year after the count” is not about equal, as one would expect if indeed a biannual year count had been used. Instead—depending on whether graffiti of work- men are included in the statistics or not—the ratio amounts to approximately 2.8:1 and 1.85:1, respectively.10 Disregarding the graffiti results in that a “year after the count” usually occurred approximately every third year, but some- times already every second year. Based on these numbers John Nolan proposed a connection with the original lunar calendar, namely that a “year after the count” was employed if an intercalary month was inserted into the lunar calendar at the end of the preceding year in order to keep it in line with the sidereal and solar year.11 Nolan’s hypothesis requires a reduction of the number of regnal years usually assigned to Old Kingdom Pharaohs by about 21% and hence a shortening of Old Kingdom chronology.

The Lunar Calendar and Intercalary Months

Nolan recently proposed that a regular nineteen-year intercalation cycle comparable to the much later well-known Metonic cycle has been used in third millennium ancient Egypt.12 Although the regular Metonic intercalation cycle may well have been known prior to its first unambiguously documented attes- tation one may doubt that such a cycle was used 2000 years earlier. However, this does no harm to Nolan’s basic hypothesis because the application of a regular intercalation cycle would by no means be a prerequisite for the func- tioning of the whole system. The so-called original lunar calendar was tied to the heliacal rising of the star Sirius.13 This event refers to the first visibility of the star Sirius in the morning sky shortly before sunrise after a period of invisibility in the night sky. A new lunar month began with the invisibility of the lunar crescent in the morning sky. A normal year consisted of twelve lunar

9 Gardiner, “Regnal Years.” 10 Nolan, “Cattle Counts,” 79. 11 Nolan, “Cattle Counts,” 92. 12 Nolan, “Phyle Rotations,” 340–44. 13 Parker, Calendars, 30–50.

Journal of Egyptian History 10 (2017) 69–108 Downloaded from Brill.com09/29/2021 11:59:19AM via free access 74 Gautschy ET AL. months. Since such a lunar year with twelve months is about ten days shorter than a sidereal year an extra month has to be inserted after three years, and at times already after two years, in order to keep the lunar calendar synchronized with the sidereal year.14 The decisive astronomical phenomenon for the insertion of an additional lunar month was the heliacal rising of the star Sirius. As soon as the beginning of the first lunar month of the next year would have occurred too close to the expected date of the heliacal rising of Sirius, an intercalary month had to be inserted. Otherwise the twelfth lunar month, named after the heliacal rising of Sirius, would have ended before the name-giving event occurred. Such a lunar calendar with a simple but clever intercalation scheme can be operated without knowledge of longer intercalation cycles such as the nineteen-year cycle. Observations of the lunar crescent around new moon as well as a prediction of the date of the heliacal rising of Sirius meet all necessary requirements.

Calculations

All beginnings of lunar months and the dates of the heliacal rising of Sirius for the time span 2700 BCE to 2000 BCE were calculated.15 The first actual visibility of Sirius in the morning sky is highly dependent on the seeing conditions. An elevation of Sirius of 2° to 3° above the horizon was chosen with arcs of vision of 9° and 10° to account for excellent to fair observing conditions in the calculations.16 This leaves us with a time range of two to three days for the expected and observed date of the heliacal rising of Sirius. The last visibility and in consequence the first invisibility of the lunar crescent is dependent on the seeing conditions as well, but an additional factor complicates things further: due to the large uncertainty in the clock time error ΔT in the third millennium BCE quite frequently it is not possible to tell unambiguously if a new lunar month started on day x or on day x-1.17 Thus, in some cases one cannot be sure

14 A sidereal year is only slightly longer than the tropical solar year, thus a lunar calendar synchronized with a stellar event like the heliacal rising of Sirius is also synchronized with the solar year. 15 For details about the computations see Gautschy, “Sirius,” 119–20. 16 These values include refraction. 17 The clock time error ΔT is due to the fact that Earth’s rotation is not uniform, but slowing down. The slowdown rate is composed of a regular predictable part and of a fluctuat- ing irregular contribution. The time difference between an assumed uniform rotation of the Earth and the actual one is called ΔT. It can only be determined observationally. The earliest securely dated astronomical observations that can be used to derive values of ΔT for antiquity stem from the 7th century BCE. Prior to the 7th century BCE the ΔT values

Journal of EgyptianDownloaded History from 10 Brill.com09/29/2021 (2017) 69–108 11:59:19AM via free access A New Astronomically Based Chronological Model 75 whether the sequence of lunar months in two successive years was 12–13 or 13–12. Table 2 lists the Egyptian date of the beginning of the lunar month in which the heliacal rising of Sirius presumably occurred for all years between 2636 and 2280 BCE, the dates of the heliacal rising of Sirius for an arc of vision of 9° to 10°, the number of lunar months in an Egyptian year as well as a minimum high chronological option for Pharaohs Khufu (conventionally dated 2589–2566 BCE18) to Pepy II (2278–2181 BCE, see following sections).

Contemporary Sources and Astronomical Data

Contemporary documents from Dynasties 4 to 6 mentioning about 150 different years of Pharaohs are known today.19 Some of these dates are well con- nected to a reign of a king or implemented in a dated architectural context and are generally accepted. Other dates are uncertain in the reading of the year or attributed to several potential reigns. Of special importance are the archives from the mortuary temples of Raneferef and Neferirkare in Abusir.20 Theoretically the majority of the texts from these two archives could date to any king between Shepseskare and Pepy II. But Paule Posener-Kriéger dated most of the documents from the Neferirkare archive into the reign of Djedkare Isesi and Unas. The same applies for the papyri from the Raneferef archive. The conventional attributions of the documents to kings were accepted (see Table 1) and a minimum High Chronology and a maximum Low Chronology from Khufu down to Pepy II was established based on contemporary documented data and our calculations summarized in Table 2. Several attempts have been made in the past to establish absolute dates for Djedkare Isesi and Unas based on different kinds of astronomical data and with varying results.21 On two papyri from the mortuary temple of Raneferef Wagy- feast dates are given: a Wagy date 3rd month […] day 28 in “Document IV” and a second fragmentary date in “Document III” mentioning 1st month of Akhet day 23–29 or 29.22 The latter probably refers to the immovable Wagy-feast of Osiris fixed on the 1st month of Akhet day 18 in the civil calendar that was

are based on extrapolations of data from the 7th century BCE onwards. In 2700 BCE the uncertainty amounts to approx. ±2 hours with a ΔT of 18 hours. 18 Shaw, ed., Oxford History. 19 We used the compilations of Spalinger, “Dated Texts”; Verner, “4th and 5th Dynasty Chronology” and “System of Dating”; and of Gundacker, “Mykerinos.” 20 Posener-Kriéger, et al., Raneferef and Posener-Kriéger, Neferikare. 21 Krauss, “Lunar Dates,” 429–31; Depuydt, “Sothic Chronology”; and Luft, “Wagy.” 22 Luft, “Wagy” and Depuydt, “Sothic Chronology,” 172–74 and 183–84.

Journal of Egyptian History 10 (2017) 69–108 Downloaded from Brill.com09/29/2021 11:59:19AM via free access 76 Gautschy ET AL. celebrated about a fortnight later than the beginning of the New Year on the 1st month of Akhet day 1. The former, however, relates to the moveable Wagy- feast whose feast dates were determined using the lunar calendar. Ulrich Luft derived an assumed heliacal rising of Sothis around the last days of the 2nd month of Akhet during the reign of King Raneferef based on a suggested mis- reading of the date in “Document III” and an interpretation to mean 3rd month of Akhet day 23–29 instead of 1st month of Akhet.23 Leo Depuydt in using the same dates calculated an upper threshold for the heliacal rising of Sirius and reconstructed that the Wagy festival took place on 3rd month of [Akhet] day 28. Thus, since the Wagy feast was celebrated on an 18th lunar day the heliacal rising of Sirius might be dated to 3rd month of Akhet day 10 or earlier. Assuming the latest possible date as 3rd month of Akhet day 10, this event would coincide with 2506–2503 BCE according to Depuydt. According to our own calculations the date III Akhet 10 will be 2504–2491 BCE.24 Rolf Krauss refrained from using such a derived Sothic date on the basis of two arguments: firstly because it is unclear how the date of the moveable Wagy feast during the Old Kingdom was established; and secondly because the resulting chronology would be a rather high one.25 We follow Krauss in neglecting a derived Sothic date, but we take into account the date 3rd month [ ] day 28 as a record for an 18th lunar day that cannot be earlier than year 1 of Niuserre and not earlier than the heliacal rising of Sirius in the respective year. Concerning the amendment of the month name both seasons—Akhet as well as Peret—were taken into account, only Shemu can be safely excluded on first sight as was already argued by Depuydt.26 Posener-Kriéger identified two further lunar dates in the Neferirkare archive that she tentatively assigned to the reign of Djedkare Isesi.27 The document in her Table 2 (Plate 3–4) allows deducing that in the 2nd month of the Shemu season day 18 was a second lunar day. The verso of this papyrus is dated to year 21 or 22 of an unnamed king. The recto was inscribed earlier, presumably about one year earlier. Due to the mentioned high number of regnal years on the verso the attribution of this date to Djedkare Isesi can be considered rather

23 Luft thus assumes that the moveable Wagy-feast was celebrated in the first month after the heliacal rising of Sirius like the fixed Wagy feast although he discusses the Wagy-feast data from the Middle Kingdom Illahun temple archive where the moveable lunar Wagy- feast was demonstrably celebrated in the second month after the heliacal rising of Sirius (Luft, “Wagy,” 41; Krauss, Sothis- und Monddaten, 86–94). 24 For a reference point Memphis, Sirius 2° or 3° above horizon and an assumed arc of vision between 9° and 11°. 25 Krauss, “Wenn und aber,” 56–57 and private communication. 26 Depuydt, “Sothic Chronology,” 173. 27 Posener-Kriéger, Neferirkare, 486–88.

Journal of EgyptianDownloaded History from 10 Brill.com09/29/2021 (2017) 69–108 11:59:19AM via free access A New Astronomically Based Chronological Model 77 certain.28 The document in her Table 1 (Plate 5–6–7A) mentions that in the 4th month of the Shemu season days 17 and 18 were lunar days 1 and 2, respectively. The verso of this papyrus dates to the year 4 of an unnamed king, sug- gesting that the recto was inscribed supposedly one year earlier. This date may belong to either Djedkare Isesi or Unas.29 Recently a new Sothic date from the Old Kingdom has been published by Michael Habicht.30 Unfortunately the name of the king on the jar is missing. The given date, 4th month of Akhet, day 1 allocates the vessel somewhere between 2419–2406 BCE if a reference point of Memphis is assumed. Sty listically, the jar can be attributed to the mid-5th to early 6th Dynasty.31 The stylistic dating in connection with the absolute date given by the Sothic date is in very good agreement with recent radiocarbon determinations that locate the maximum of the probability function of the accession date of Djedkare Isesi to about BCE 2450 and the reign of Unas to about BCE 2420.32

Counting of Regnal Years

After the death of the old Pharaoh the first partial year of his successor was counted as sema ta.wy, as year of unification of the two lands. Afterwards, theoretically a “year of” (rnp.t sp) or a “year after” (rnp.t m-ht sp) the cattle count could follow. To our knowledge it is not clear how the Egyptian counting worked if sema ta.wy was followed by a “year after.” Was it designated as “year after sema ta.wy,” as “year 1 after,” in another way, or was it even impossible to have a “year after” following sema ta.wy? The surviving contemporary documents show that no account of a “year after sema ta.wy” exists, but there are two different phrases that may or may not be interchangeable: rnp.t m-ht sp 1 and rnp.t m-ht sp tpy. So far, they have been treated to mean the same, namely “year 1 after” the cattle count. Years rnp.t m-ht sp tpy are documented for Menkaure, Shepseskaf, Djedkare or Unas, Teti and Pepy II. Years rnp.t m-ht sp 1 are preserved from the reign of Userkaf, Djedkare and Merenre. We see that there exists no overlap between the list of kings with documented years rnp.t

28 Only Pepy I and Pepy II may be theoretically considered as alternatives. 29 Posener-Kriéger, Neferirkare, 486–88 and Krauss, “Lunar Dates,” 430–31 both finally argue for an attribution to Djedkare Isesi. 30 Habicht, et al., “New Sothis Rise.” 31 Habicht, et al., “New Sothis Rise,” 44–46. 32 Dee, “Radiocarbon-based Chronology,” 212–13 and 287.

Journal of Egyptian History 10 (2017) 69–108 Downloaded from Brill.com09/29/2021 11:59:19AM via free access 78 Gautschy ET AL. m-ht sp tpy and rnp.t m-ht sp 1 with the exception of maybe Djedkare.33 For Menkaure, one has a preserved sequence of years rnp.t m-ht sp tpy in the tomb of Meresankh III, rnp.t m-ht sp 2 on a papyrus fragment from Gebelein and rnp.t m-ht sp 3 from another papyrus fragment from Gebelein. If one interprets rnp.t m-ht sp tpy to be a synonym for rnp.t m-ht sp 1 then this sequence can only be explained as a biannual counting system. In connection with a lunar calendar with regular intercalations, it is impossible to have three intercalary months within five years. One would be forced to assume some kind of extra correction for omitted earlier intercalations. If, however, one interprets rnp.t m-ht sp tpy to mean “year after the sema ta.wy” one is faced with a common sequence. The evidence from the reign of Menkaure as well as the fact that barely both phrases from the reign of the same king are preserved leads us to the tentative suggestion that rnp.t m-ht sp tpy indeed means “year after the sema ta.wy.” However, this interpretation does not significantly alter the results presented in the following section.

Resulting Chronological Models

In the first instance, the beginning of all Egyptian lunar months and the expected dates of the heliacal rising of the star Sirius at Memphis were calculated for all years between 2700 and 2000 BCE. The results of these computations provide the information given in the first four rows of Table 2. In a second step the reigns of Djedkare Isesi and Unas were pinned down with the help of the lunar dates from the Neferirkare archive. The obtained data were used once in connection with the lower threshold provided by a reconstructed date of the Wagy-feast in the 3rd month of the Akhet season on day 28 (High Chronology), and once in combination with the upper threshold given in case of a Wagy- feast in the 3rd month of the Peret season on day 28 (Low Chronology). Only then the contemporary documented year dates of Djedkare Isesi and Unas were added to Table 2 and the underlying hypothesis tested that a “year after” was counted if the preceding year contained 13 lunar months. For in total 28 different documented years for these two kings only one disagreement with the calculations emerged in the case of both chronological models.34 In a fourth

33 Theoretically nothing speaks against a documented year rnp.t m-ht sp tpy and a year rnp.t m-ht sp 1 for the same king. Even if not identical years are meant intercalary months after already two years occur from time to time. 34 In our Low Chronology the documented “year 14 after” of Djedkare Isesi cannot be reproduced by the calculations, in our High Chronology the documented “year 4 after” of Djedkare Isesi cannot be reproduced.

Journal of EgyptianDownloaded History from 10 Brill.com09/29/2021 (2017) 69–108 11:59:19AM via free access A New Astronomically Based Chronological Model 79 step the documented dates of the other kings were incorporated in Table 2 with the aim to keep their reign lengths in the chronological models as close as possible to the highest documented year number while still agreeing with the scheme of alternating “years of” and “years after” provided by the calculations. Thus, while the absolute dates of Djedkare Isesi and Unas in the chronological models can be pinned down thanks to the lunar dates and a wealth of dated documents, the absolute dates and the resulting reign lengths of all other kings summarized in Table 3 are less precise—the further away in time a king is located from Djedkare Isesi and Unas the less precise is the data.

Low Chronology

Provided that the Wagy-feast was not celebrated later than in the second month after the heliacal rising of Sirius the earliest possible chronological solution for a Wagy-feast in the 3rd month of Peret on day 28 occurs in 2242 BCE.35 It would have been celebrated in the second month after the heliacal rising of Sirius in the 1st month of the Peret season on days 13–14. The Horus names of kings on preserved seals from the mortuary complex of Raneferef range down to Pepy I. In the reign of Unas the cult began to decline and it died out in the reign of Pepy I according to Posener-Kriéger and collaborators.36 Hence, the end of the reign of Pepy I cannot fall later than 2242 BCE. By means of this initial threshold fits for the two lunar dates from year 20/21 of Djedkare Isesi and year 3/4 of Djedkare Isesi or Unas were sought for. One obtains reason- able fits for both possibilities and in both models we count 36 regnal years for Djedkare Isesi in total.37 Hence, we are not able to attribute the year 3 lunar date to one of the two kings with certainty. Starting from the reign of Djedkare

35 From the archive of Illahun we know that the Wagy-feast was celebrated in the second month after the heliacal rising of Sirius (Luft, Chronologische Fixierung, 217–20). There are several possible solutions later than 2242 BCE but in the following the focus will be on the highest possible Low Chronology. Finally, there is not much leeway left in combination with the lunar dates, otherwise there is not enough time available to accommodate even the shortest estimates for the duration of the First Intermediate Period (about 30 years) as well as Dynasty 11 (106 to 143 years) and the first part of Dynasty 12 (about 110 years) down to the Middle Kingdom Sothis date of Senwosret III in 1866 BCE (High Chronology) or 1841 BCE (Low Chronology). 36 Posener-Kriéger, et al., Raneferef, 321–22. 37 If both lunar dates are ascribed to Djedkare Isesi the year 3 lunar date in 2328/2327 BCE is deviating by one day (month started too early) and the year 20 lunar date in 2301/2300 BCE perfectly fits. If the year 3 lunar date is ascribed to Unas both dates in 2301/2300 BCE and 2290/2289 BCE perfectly match.

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Isesi, a Low Chronology based on the preserved documented years of kings was established. Our aim was to stay as close as possible to the highest attested years. Table 3 lists the number of years counted for each Pharaoh in our model. The Wagy-feast date in 2242 BCE would fall in year 15 (corresponding to “year 9 of the cattle count”) of Pepy I. 35 of 38 different documented “years after the xth cattle count” from Khufu down to Pepy II can be reproduced. Seven belong to years where the actual seeing conditions on the day of the theoretical heliacal rising of Sirius would have been decisive if the year consisted of 12 or 13 lunar months. In cases where the predicted heliacal rising of Sirius occurred very closely to the beginning of a new lunar month one expects that a simple scheme with a shift by one day every four years in the Egyptian calendar for the heliacal rising of Sirius was decisive instead of actual observation. Other wise the date of the start of a new lunar calendar year would have been known in the short-term only which seems improbable. Hence, one has to count three or four of these seven occasions as disagreements too.38 Thus, in total 31 or 32 of 38 “years after the xth cattle count” (81.6% or 84.2%) can be reproduced correctly. The approx. 110 different documented “years of the xth cattle count” unfortunately does not help in testing the model. It is worth noting that it was not possible to find another fit of comparable quality of the lunar data and the documented “years after” for lower chronologies that still fulfil the criterion that the minimum distance of years to accommodate for the First Intermediate Period, Dynasty 11 and the first part of Dynasty 12 down to the Sothic date from the Middle Kingdom must be available.39 A higher “Low Chronology” is impossible if our following two basic assumptions are correct: 1) the Wagy-feast date from the mortuary temple of Raneferef cannot stem from a reign later than Pepy I, 2) it is not celebrated later than in the second month after the heliacal rising of Sirius.

High Chronology

The latest possible chronological solution for a Wagy-feast in the 3rd month of Akhet on day 28 celebrated in the first month after the heliacal rising of Sirius

38 Three out of seven can be explained with an arc of vision of 10° for the heliacal rising of Sirius, the remaining four with an arc of vision of 9°. 39 The minimum distance we defined to be 30 years for the First Intermediate Period, 106 to 143 years for Dynasty 11 and 103 to 120 years from the start of Dynasty 12 to the beginning of the reign of Senwosret III. For the Sothic date of the Middle Kingdom see, e.g., Luft, Chronologische Fixierung, 58; Krauss “Sothic Dates,” 448–50 and Gautschy, “Sirius,” 124–25.

Journal of EgyptianDownloaded History from 10 Brill.com09/29/2021 (2017) 69–108 11:59:19AM via free access A New Astronomically Based Chronological Model 81 and not occurring earlier than the reign of Raneferef is in 2489 BCE.40 Starting from this threshold one obtains a perfect fit for the lunar data in 2464 BCE for “year 3” of Djedkare and in 2436 BCE for “year 20 after” of Djedkare. The year 3 lunar date may also belong to Unas, in that case it would deviate by one day (month started too early) in 2428 BCE and correspond to “year 2 after” of Unas. The Wagy-feast date in 2489 BCE in this chronological model would fall in year 2 (corresponding to “year 1”) of Niuserre. 37 of the 38 different documented “years after the xth cattle count” can be successfully reproduced, 12 fall in years where the calculations cannot predict the sequence of years with 12 and 13 lunar months (12–13 or 13–12) with certainty.41 Thus, in total 31 of 38 “years after the xth cattle count” (81.6%) can be explained correctly with our chronological model.

Low Chronology Versus High Chronology

Our Low and High Chronologies are separated by ca. 130 years. The small amount of available astronomical data as well as the documented years of kings do not allow for a justifiable decision to favour one of the two chronological models. One has to state that our Low Chronology with the end of an assumed 54-year reign of Pepy II in 2150 BCE aligns well with the assumption about a short duration of the First Intermediate Period (30 to 60 years) if 143 years are counted for Dynasty 11 and 110–125 years for Dynasty 12 until the Sothic date in year 7 of Senwosret III in 1866 BCE or 1841 BCE. However, recent radiocarbon data seem to contradict such a low chronology.42 On the other hand, the date of Khufu in our model (2504–2475 BCE) coincides with the dating of this Pharaoh suggested by Kate Spence based on the alignment of his pyramid with the help of observations of simultaneous transits of two circumpolar stars (ζ Ursae Minoris and β Ursae Minoris in ca. 2478 BCE).43 In the Low Chronology model the jar with a Sothic date day 1 of the 4th month of the Akhet season (2419–2406 BCE) in Zurich would fall in one of the reigns of Shepseskaf, Thamphitis or Userkaf and hence in the transition between

40 In 2489 BCE the heliacal rising of Sirius fell on day 11 of the 3rd month of the Akhet season if the seeing conditions were good. The beginning of a new lunar month coincided with this day. 41 Six out of twelve can be explained with an arc of vision of 10° for the heliacal rising of Sirius, the remaining six with an arc of vision of 9°. 42 See, e.g., Dee, “Radiocarbon-based Chronology.” 43 Spence, “Orientation of Pyramids.”

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Dynasties 4 and 5. On stylistic grounds an attribution to the later 5th Dynasty would seem better.44 The presented High Chronology with the end of an assumed 54-year reign of Pepy II in 2282 BCE is only compatible with the highest estimates about the duration of the First Intermediate Period (about 150 years) and the High Chronology of the Middle Kingdom with year 7 of Senwosret III in 1866 BCE. It aligns well with recent radiocarbon data. The jar with the Old Kingdom Sothic date would stem from the reign of Unas or Teti, a dating that is in line with the stylistic dating of the vessel.

Comparison with Other Models

The relative chronology of the Old Kingdom together with discussions of the imbalance between documented “years of” and “years after” has been the subject of different studies.45 The two chronological models presented in this paper are based on the results of these studies. With the help of the few available astronomical data two absolute chronologies are established. Concerning the ratio of documented “years of” to “years after” for Dynasties 4, 5, and 6 our numbers slightly deviate from the ones given by Miroslav Verner due to our tentative assumption that rnp.t m-ht sp tpy and rnp.t m-ht sp 1 do not denote the same year.46 For Dynasty 4 the ratio of documented “years of” to “years after” amounts to 19:9 (68%:32%), for Dynasty 5 to 34:15 (69%:31%), and for Dynasty 6 to 15:13 (54%:46%).47 The calculations show an expected ratio of 64%:36% which is rather close to what the preserved documents from Dynasties 4 and 5 indicate. However, the documented year dates from Dynasty 6 are not easily reconcilable with these numbers, although it is possible to explain all but one mentioned “years after” in both chronological models. The assumption that a regular biannual counting system was used in Dynasty 6, as presumed by Jürgen von Beckerath, would eliminate our Low Chronology: according to the highest documented years at least 50 years for Pepy I, 12 years for Merenre and 66 years for Pepy II would have to be counted. This results in an end of reign of Pepy II in 2128 BCE at earliest. The minimum

44 Habicht, et al., “New Sothis Rise,” 44–46. 45 See, e.g., Spalinger, “Dated Texts”; Helck, “Teti”; Verner, “4th and 5th Dynasty Chronology” and “System of Dating”; Nolan, “Phyle Rotations.” 46 Verner, “System of Dating,” 26–38. 47 Documents for 23 out of 36 years exist for Djedkare Isesi, and for 5 out of 19 years for Unas. Taking only these two comparably well documented kings into account the ratio between “years of” and “years after” amounts to 19:9 (68%:32%).

Journal of EgyptianDownloaded History from 10 Brill.com09/29/2021 (2017) 69–108 11:59:19AM via free access A New Astronomically Based Chronological Model 83 duration for the remaining kings of Dynasty 6 (3 years), of Dynasty 8 (46 years), the First Intermediate Period (30 years), Dynasty 11 (106 years) and for Dynasty 12 until the beginning of the reign of Senwosret III totals 285 years—this would date the accession of Senwosret III in 1843 BCE at earliest which is too late according to the Middle Kingdom Sothic date from el-Lahun. However, in connection with our High Chronology a transition to a regular biannual counting system in Dynasty 6 would help to lower the number of years one has to attribute to the First Intermediate Period. Table 4 lists the absolute dates of selected Pharaohs from our chronological models, from the handbooks of von Beckerath, Ian Shaw, and Erik Hornung et al., as well as from recent C14 measurements.48 All these chronologies are strongly dependent on the amount of years allocated to each Pharaoh.49 The two chronological models presented in this paper differ from the rest insofar as the number of calendar years counted for each king from Dynasty 4 to 6 is shortened by about 20% due to the assumption that no regular biannual counting of years was employed. However, the basic information about the reign lengths of kings in all these chronologies stems from the same sources: annals, Turin King List, Manethonian tradition and contemporary sources. The different resulting absolute dates in the models of Hornung et al., Shaw, and von Beckerath are due to varying assumptions about the duration of the First Intermediate Period and the absolute dating of the Egyptian Middle Kingdom. On the contrary, in the C14 model of Michael Dee and in our chronological models the length of the First Intermediate Period is a result of the modelling, not a basic parameter. Table 4 shows that the absolute dates of our Low Chronology are close to or up to 25 years lower than the ones given by Hornung et al. Our High Chronology dates resemble very closely the upper boundary defined by the C14 model of Dee and they are about 30 to 60 years higher than the higher dates of von Beckerath. The dates of Shaw and the lower dates of von Beckerath comprise a compromise between high and low chronologies: these are not supported by the lunar dates under our basic assumption that the Wagy-feast was not celebrated later than in the second month after the heliacal rising of Sirius.

48 Beckerath, “Chronologie,” 187–88; Shaw, ed., Oxford History, 480; Hornung, Krauss, and Warburton, eds., Chronology, 490–91; Dee, “Radiocarbon-based Chronology,” 209–17 and 287. 49 The C14 accession dates are obtained with the help of the wiggle matching method. In the modelling, information about the succession of kings as well as about their reign lengths enters the model.

Journal of Egyptian History 10 (2017) 69–108 Downloaded from Brill.com09/29/2021 11:59:19AM via free access 84 Gautschy ET AL.

Conclusions

Two different chronological models—a minimum High Chronology as well as a maximum Low Chronology—of Dynasties 4 to 6 are presented on the basic assumption that Nolan’s theory about the connection of the occurrence of a “year after the cattle count” with the insertion of an intercalary month in the original lunar calendar is correct. With the help of three lunar data the reigns of Djedkare Isesi and Unas were pinned down. The two chronologies differ in that in the case of the High Chronology the missing month name of the lunar Wagy-feast date was emended to 3rd month of the Akhet season and in the case of the Low Chronology to 3rd month of the Peret season. Afterwards the reigns of the kings up to Khufu and down to Pepy II have been modelled based on the documented contemporary data and the preserved information from king lists. It was aimed at to stay as close as possible to the minimum attested year number and to account for the documented “year after the cattle count” years. It has to be stressed that the further away in time a Pharaoh is located from Djedkare Isesi the more uncertain are his modelled absolute dates. Both chronologies can explain about 82% of the documented “years after.” The Low Chronology is consistent with a short duration of the First Intermediate Period (30 to 60 years), but disagrees with recent radiocarbon determinations. On the contrary, the High Chronology is in line with the radiocarbon data but it can only be a serious solution if the First Intermediate Period lasted about 150 years.

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Table 1 List of all documented years of pharaohs Khufu to Pepy II known to us, their source and possible remarks Abbreviations used: PKVV—Posener-Kriéger, et al., Raneferef; PKdC—Posener-Kriéger and de Cenival, Abusir Papyri; BD—Baud and Dobrev, “Nouvelles Annales”; V06—Verner, et al., Raneferef Pyramid; DS—Dunham and Simpson, Mersyankh III.

Date Source

Khufu rnp.t sp 4 (?)3bd [ ] G2130 Khentika (Smith, “Evidence,” 118 Fig. 6, 127 no. 4) rnp.t sp 5 [ ] šmw (?) sw 5 G1203 (Smith, “Evidence,” 118 Fig. 6, 127 no. 2) rnp.t sp 8 3bd I pr.t [ ] loose block near entrance to mortuary temple (Smith, “Evidence,” 119 Fig. 7, 126f. no. 1) rnp.t sp 8 3bd III šmw sw 20 G4000 Hemiunu (Junker, Mastabas, 159 Fig. 24 no. 10, 161, Pl. 24f) rnp.t sp 10 3bd IV pr.t sw 23/24 G4000 Hemiunu (Junker, Mastabas, 161 no. 12; no image) rnp.t sp 10 3bd I šmw sw 10+x G4000 Hemiunu (Junker, “Mastabas, 158–60, 159 Fig. 24 no. 1, Pl. 24c) rnp.t sp 10 3bd II šmw sw 10+x G4000 Hemiunu (Junker, Mastabas, 160, 159 Fig. 24 no. 2, Pl. 24b) rnp.t sp 12 3bd II šmw G2120 Seshatsekhentiu (Smith, “Evidence,” 118 Fig. 6, 127 no. 3) rnp.t sp 12 3bd II [ ] G7130–7140 Khufukhaf I (Smith, “Evidence,” 119 Fig. 7, 127 no. 8) rnp.t m-ḫt sp 13 ṯnw.t jḥ.w aw.t nb.t Inscription of Imeri and Bebi (Kuhlmann, “Oasis,” 138 Fig. 10, 136) Papyrus A Wadi el-Jarf (Tallet, Les papyrus” 160) rnp.t sp 17 (?) Pyramid chamber (Petrie, History, 60; no image) Djedefre rnp.t sp 1 3bd III pr.t [ ] Djedefre’s pyramid in Abu Roash (Valloggia “Abu Rawash,” 426 Fig. 8, 419) rnp.t sp (m-ḫt sp?) 11 (or 10?) 3bd Boat pit at southern side of pyramid in Abu Roash (Abubakr and I pr.t sw 24 Mustafa, “Boat,” 11 Fig. 6 bottom left, 8–12) Chefren rnp.t sp 1 3bd IV 3ḫ.t sw 5 Ostracon Helwan T299 H2 (Saad, Excavations, Pl. 42a left, 106) rnp.t m-ḫt sp 4 ṯnw.t 3bd II šmw Ostracon Helwan T305 H2 (Saad, Excavations, Pl. 42b right, 106) sw 3 rnp.t m-ḫt sp 4 ṯnw.t 3bd II šmw Ostracon Helwan T305 H2 (Saad, Excavations, Pl. 42b left, 106f.) sw 4 rnp.t sp 5 3bd III pr.t sw 22 Ostracon Helwan T335 H2 (Saad, Excavations, Pl. 43b right, 107; probably Chefren) rnp.t m-ḫt sp 5 3bd II šmw sw 8 Ostracon Helwan T322 H2 (Saad, Excavations, Pl. 43a right, 107) rnp.t m-ḫt sp 5 3bd III pr.t sw 22 Ostracon Helwan T322 H2 (Saad, Excavations, Pl. 43a right, 107) rnp.t sp 7 3bd IV pr.t sw 10 G7530–40 Mersyankh III (DS, Fig. 1b, 3) rnp.t sp 7 3bd IV pr.t sw 20 G7530–40 Mersyankh III (DS, Fig. 1c, 3) rnp.t sp 10 3bd III šmw sw 24 Ostracon Leiden J429 (Goedicke, “Ostraca,” 28f., Pl. 5 no. 4) rnp.t sp 10(?)3bd III šmw [ ] G7350 Hetepheres II (Smith, “Evidence,” 119 Fig. 7, 127 no. 9) np.t sp 12 3bd II šmw sw 10 G7650 Akhtihotep + Meretites (Smith, “Evidence,” 119 Fig. 7, 127f. no. 11)

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Table 1 List of all documented years of pharaohs Khufu to Pepy II known to us (cont.)

Date Source

[rn]p.t sp [1]2 jp(w).t jḥ.w a[w.t G8158 Nikaure (Goedicke, Rechtsinschriften, Pl. 3, 21; Chefren or nb.w] Menkaure) rnp.t sp 13 3bd IV [ ] G7650 Akhtihotep + Meretites (Smith, “Evidence,” 119 Fig. 7, 128 no. 11) Menkaure rnp.t sp 1 3bd I šmw sw 21 G7530–40 Mersyankh III (DS, Fig. 2 right part, 7f.) rnp.t m-ḫt sp tpy 3bd II pr.t sw 18 G7530–40 Mersyankh III (DS, Fig. 2 left part, 7f.) rnp.t sp 2 3bd II pr.t sw 22 Mastaba G VI S (Junker, Friedhof südlich, 75 Fig. 35 no. 9, 78 no. 10) rnp.t sp 2 3bd IV šmw sw 22 G7530–40 Mersyankh III (DS, Pl. 1b and Fig. 1e right, 3) [rnp.t sp] 2 [3bd ] pr.t sw 7 G7530–40 Mersyankh III (DS, Pl. 1b and Fig. 1e left, 3) rnp.t m-ḫt sp 2 ṯnw.t jḥ.w 3bd [ ] Gebelein, frag. A (Posener-Kriéger, “Prix,” 320 Fig. 2, 322) 3ḫ.t sw 20 rnp.t m-ḫt sp 3 ṯnw.t jḥ.w Mḥww Gebelein, frag. B (Posener-Kriéger, “Prix,” 320 Fig. 1, 322) Šmaw 3bd III pr.t sw 26 [rnp.t sp] 10 3bd III šmw [ ] Mastaba G7530 (Smith, “Evidence,” 119 Fig. 7, 127 no. 10; Chefren at earliest) rnp.t sp 11 3bd [ ] sw 10+x Mastaba G VI S (Junker, Friedhof südlich, 75 Fig. 35 no. 10, 77 no. 9) rnp.t m-ḫt sp 11 ṯnw.t jḥ.w aw.t Gebelein roll IV (Posener-Kriéger, “Gébélein,” 215f.; no image) nb.w T3-mḥw.j-šma.j [ ] Shepseskaf rnp.t sm3 t3.wj 3bd 4 sw 10 Palermo stone: vs. 1 no. 2 (Schäfer, Annalen, 32f.) rnp.t sm3 t3.wj 3bd II šmw sw 10 G5552 (Smith, “Evidence,” 118 Fig. 6, 127 no. 7) rnp.t sm3 t3.wj 3bd III šmw sw [ ] G7450 (Smith, “Evidence,” 120 Fig. 8, 128 no. 13) rnp.t sm3 t3.wj 3bd IV šmw sw 4 G7450 (Helck, “Teti,” 107f.; no image) rnp.t m-ḫt sp tpy 3bd II pr.t sw 28 Edict for the pyramid of Menkaure (Smith, “Evidence,” 118 Fig. 4, 126 no. 1) Userkaf rnp.t m-ḫt sp 1 n ṯnw.t Cairo frag. no. 1 vs. 2 (Gauthier, “Palerme,” Pl. 26, 45f.) rnp.t sp 3 Palermo stone: vs. 2 no. 2 (Schäfer, Annalen, 34) rnp.t sp 3 3bd III pr.t sw [ ] Sun temple Userkaf (Haeny, “Baumarken,” 42 no. 6, 41) Sahure rnp.t sp 1 Cairo frag. no. 1 vs. 2 (Gauthier, “Palerme,” Pl. 26, 47) rnp.t sp 2 3bd I šmw sw 20 Mortuary temple Sahure (Borchardt, Sahure, 88 M26) rnp.t m-ḫt sp 2 vs. 3 Palermo stone: vs. 3 no. 1 (Schäfer, Annalen, 36f.) rnp.t sp 4 3bd IV 3ḫ.t sw 12 Mortuary temple Sahure (Borchardt, Sahure, 89 M29) rnp.t sp 5 3bd I 3ḫ.t Table A Sun temple Userkaf (Ricke, “Userkaf 1,” Pl. 1b, 77) rnp.t sp 5 3bd III pr.t Table D Sun temple Userkaf (Ricke, “Userkaf 2,” Pl. 4b, 311) rnp.t sp 5 3bd III šmw Table C Sun temple Userkaf (Ricke, “Userkaf 2,” Pl. 4a, 311)

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Date Source rnp.t m-ḫt sp 5 3bd II pr.t Table B Sun temple Userkaf (Edel, “Kalksteintäfelchen,” 2 Fig. 1b, 5) rnp.t m-ḫt sp 6 (or 7?) Palermo stone vs. 4 no. 1 (Schäfer, Annalen, 38f.) rnp.t 12 Pavement mortuary temple Sahure (Borchardt, Sahure, 96f.) Neferirkare rnp.t sm3 t3.wj 3bd II sw 7 Palermo stone vs. 4 no. 3 (Schäfer, Annalen, 39f.) rnp.t sp 5 Palermo stone vs. 5 no. 1 (Schäfer, Annalen, 40) rnp.t sp 5 3bd IV 3ḫ.t sw 4 Pyramid Khentkaus II (Verner, Khentkaus, 43 no. 2, 43–45) rnp.t sp 5 3bd IV Pyramid Neferirkare (Borchardt, Nefer-ir-ke-re, 46 and note 6) Raneferef rnp.t sp tpy 3bd IV 3ḫ.t Pyramid Raneferef (V06, Pl. 2 no. 8, 190 no. 8) Niuserre rnp.t sm3 t3.wj Mortuary temple Raneferef (V06, 280 no. 37; Niuserre or Menkauhor) rnp.t sm3 t3.wj Mortuary temple Raneferef (V06, 281 no. 39; Niuserre or Menkauhor) rnp.t sp 1 3bd I 3ḫ.t sw 10+x Mortuary temple Raneferef (V06, 276f. no. 19; Niuserre or Menkauhor) rnp.t sp 1 3bd tpy 3ḫ.t [ ] Mortuary temple Raneferef (V06, 280 no. 36; Niuserre or Menkauhor) rnp.t sp 2 3bd III šmw sw 10(?) Mastaba of Djedjamankh (Borchardt, Ne-user-re, 139) rnp.t m-ḫt sp 2 3bd III 3ḫ.t sw 24 Mortuary temple Raneferef (Borchardt, Ne-user-re, 145) rnp.t sp 5 (?)3bd III pr.t sw wpw Mastaba Ptahshepses (Verner, Baugraffiti, Pl. 26 no. 194, 110 no. 194) rnp.t sp 7 3bd III 3ḫ.t sw 1 (or 7?) Mortuary temple Raneferef (V06, 276 no. 16) rnp.t m-ḫt sp 7 3bd III (?) pr.t sw Mortuary temple Raneferef (V06, 281 no. 40) 20+x Djedkare rnp.t sm3 t3.wj 3bd III pr.t sw 29 Tomb Wepemneferet (Hassan, Gîza, 189 Fig. 219, 190) rnp.t tpy [ ] Mortuary temple Raneferef (PKVV, Pl. 76A, 300) rnp.t m-ḫt sp tpy Archive Raneferef (PKVV, Pl. 82M, 308; Niuserre to Pepy I) [rnp.t] m-ḫt sp 1 3bd IV 3ḫ.t sw ark Archive Raneferef (PKVV, Pl. 77A, 301; Niuserre to Pepy I) rnp.t m-ḫt sp 1 3bd IV šmw sw 1 Archive Raneferef (PKVV, Pl. 77B, 301; Niuserre to Pepy I) rnp.t sp 1 3bd II 3ḫ.t [ ] Mortuary temple Raneferef (PKVV, Pl. 51A, 270; Niuserre to Pepy I) rnp.t sp 3 3bd IV 3ḫ.t sw 25 Mortuary temple Neferirkare (PKdC, Pl. 13A, 6) rnp.t m-ḫt sp 3 Rock stela Sinai (Gardiner, Peet and Cerny, Sinai, Pl. 7 no. 13, 60 no. 13) rnp.t sp 4(?)ṯnw.t jḥ (aw.t nb.t) Archive Raneferef (PKVV, Pl. 1A, 207) rnp.t sp 4 3bd IV pr.t sw 2 Archive Neferirkare (PKdC, Pl. 11 no. 2, 5; Djedkare or Unas) rnp.t sp 4 3bd I šmw sw arkj Archive Neferirkare (PKdC, Pl. 11 no. 1, 5; Djedkare or Unas) rnp.t m-ḫt sp 4 3bd III šmw sw 15 Archive Raneferef (PKVV, Pl. 76C, 300; Niuserre to Pepy I) rnp.t m-ḫt sp 4 3bd III šmw Archive Raneferef (PKVV, Pl. 69A, 293; Niuserre to Pepy I) rnp.t sp 5 3bd IV 3ḫ.t Archive Raneferef (PKVV, Pl. 76C, 300; Niuserre to Pepy I) rnp.t sp 6 3bd IV pr.t sw 22 Box in tomb of Nefer and Kahay (Moussa and Altenmüller, Nefer, 44 Fig. 11, 43f.)

Journal of Egyptian History 10 (2017) 69–108 Downloaded from Brill.com09/29/2021 11:59:19AM via free access 88 Gautschy ET AL.

Table 1 List of all documented years of pharaohs Khufu to Pepy II known to us (cont.)

Date Source rnp.t m-ḫt sp 7(?)3bd I 3ḫ.t Archive Raneferef (PKVV, Pl. 76D, 300) rnp.t sp 8 3bd IV šmw Archive Neferirkare (PKdC, Pl. 69A no. 4, 28) rnp.t sp 9 Rock stela Sinai (Gardiner, Peet and Cerny, Sinai, Pl. 8 no. 14, 61f. no. 14) rnp.t sp 10 3bd IV [ ] sw 24 Archive Neferirkare (PKdC, Pl. 72A no. B, 29) rnp.t m-ḫt sp 10 3bd IV šmw sw 21 Archive Neferirkare (PKdC, Pl. 14A no. A, 6) rnp.t sp 11 3bd II 3ḫ.t sw 11 Archive Neferirkare (PKdC, Pl. 53A, no. A, 21) rnp.t sp 11 3bd III pr.t sw 3(?) Tomb of Rawer (Junker, Ostabschnitt, 40 Fig. 12, 39f.; Djedkare or Unas) rnp.t sp 14 3bd tpy šmw Archive Neferirkare (PKdC, Pl. 2A, 1) rnp.t sp m-ḫt sp 14 3bd I 3ḫ.t sw 28 Archive Raneferef (PKVV, Pl. 66B, 290) rnp.t m-ḫt sp 14 3bd [ ] 3ḫ.t Archive Raneferef (PKVV, Pl. 76J, 301) rnp.t sp 15 3bd IV pr.t (sw) wpw Archive Neferirkare (PKdC, Pl. 47A no. A, 19) rnp.t sp 15 3bd IV 3ḫ.t sw 27 Archive Raneferef (PKVV, Pl. 20B, 236) rnp.t sp 15 3bd IV 3ḫ.t sw 28 Archive Raneferef (PKVV, Pl. 20B, 237) rnp.t sp 15 3bd I [ ] Archive Raneferef (PKVV, Pl. 21L, 238) [rnp.t sp] 15 (n) ṯ(nw.t) Archive Raneferef (PKVV, Pl. 3A, 209) rnp.t sp 16 Archive Neferirkare (PKdC, Pl. 1A, 1) rnp.t sp [1]6 3bd IV šmw sw 28 Letter of Isesi to Senedjemmib (Eichler, “Königsbriefe,” 146 Fig. 2, 145–49) [rnp.t] sp 17 3bd III Archive Raneferef (PKVV, Pl. 8D, 217) rnp.t m-ḫt sp 17 3bd I šmw(?) sw 23 Sarcophagus of Idu from Abusir (Verner and Callender, Djedkare, 68 Fig. D6, 68) rnp.t sp 18 3bd III šmw sw ark Archive Raneferef (PKVV, Pl. 45A, 262) rnp.t sp 18 3bd IV šmw sw ark Archive Raneferef (PKVV, Pl. 62A, 284) rnp.t sp 21 (or 22?) 3bd IV 3ḫ.t Archive Neferirkare (PKdC, Pl. 41A no. c, 16) sw 12 Unas rnp.t sp 3 3bd IV 3ḫ.t sw 11 Mastaba L in Abusir (Verner and Callender, Djedkare, 103 Fig. L4, Pl. 24 no. Lf1, 103) rnp.t m-ḫt sp 4 3bd I pr.t Archive Neferirkare (PKdC, Pl. 50A, 20f.) rnp.t sp 6 3bd II šmw sw 28 Archive Neferirkare (PKdC, Pl. 54A no. A, 22) rnp.t sp 8 3bd IV šmw Archive Neferirkare (PKdC, Pl. 54A no. C, 22) Teti rnp.t m-ḫt sp tpy 3bd III šmw sw 3 Archive Neferirkare (PKdC, Pl. 94A no. Aa, 45) rnp.t m-ḫt sp tpy [ ] sw 10+x Archive Neferirkare (PKdC, Pl. 96A, 45) rnp.t m-ḫt sp [tpy or 1? ] 3bd IV Archive Neferirkare (PKdC, Pl. 92A no. Aa1, 44) šmw [rnp.t sp 1] 3bd III šmw sw 3 Archive Neferirkare (PKdC, Pl. 92A, 44)

Journal of EgyptianDownloaded History from 10 Brill.com09/29/2021 (2017) 69–108 11:59:19AM via free access A New Astronomically Based Chronological Model 89

Date Source

[rnp.t sp 1] 3bd III pr.t sw arkj Archive Neferirkare (PKdC, Pl. 95A no. Ab1, 45) [rnp.t sp 2] 3bd III pr.t sw arkj Archive Neferirkare (PKdC, Pl. 94A no. Ab1, 45) rnp.t sp 2 3bd II šmw sw 3 Archive Neferirkare (PKdC, Pl. 92A no. Aa2, 44) rnp.t m-ḫt sp 2 3bd II šmw sw 3 Archive Neferirkare (PKdC, Pl. 93A no. Ab1, 44) rnp.t m-ḫt sp 6 3bd III šmw sw ? Hatnoub graffito (Anthes, Hatnub, Pl. 9 Gr. 1, 18 Gr. 1) rnp.t m-ḫt sp 11 3bd I 3ḫ.t sw 20 Burial date (Kanawati, “Teti,” Fig. 1, 28) Pepy I rnp.t sp 18 South Saqqara annals (BD, 73 Fig. 10b, 37 zone D4) rnp.t m-ḫt sp 18 3bd III šmw sw 27 Wadi Hammamat graffito (Couyat and Montet, Hammâmât, Pl. 27 no. 107, 74–76 no. 107) rnp.t m-ḫt sp 18 3bd IV šmw sw 5 Sinai graffito (Gardiner, Peet and Cerny, Sinai, Pl. 8 no. 16, 62f. no. 16) rnp.t sp 21 3bd I pr.t sw 23 Decree of pyramid complex of Snofru, Dahshur (Goedicke, Dokumente, 57 Fig. 5, 55–56) rnp.t m-ḫt sp 23 South Saqqara annals (BD, 76 Fig. 13c, 38 zone E7) rnp.t sp 25 3bd I 3ḫ.t sw ? Hatnoub quarry inscription (Anthes, Hatnub, Pl. 4 no. III, 13 no. III) rnp.t (m-ḫt?) sp 25 South Saqqara annals (BD, 76 Fig. 13d, 38 zone E8) Merenre rnp.t sm3 t3.wj South Saqqara annals (BD, 77 Fig. 14a, 38–39 zone F1) rnp.t sp 1(+1?) South Saqqara annals (BD, 78 Fig. 15a, 40 zone F3) rnp.t m-ḫt sp 1(+1?) South Saqqara annals (BD, 79 Fig. 16a, 40–41 zone F5) rnp.t sp 5 3bd II šmw sw 28 Cataract inscription (Sethe, Urkunden, 110, 12) rnp.t m-ḫt sp 5 Hatnoub inscription (Anthes, Hatnub, Pl. 5 no. VI, 14 no. VI) Pepy II rnp.t m-ḫt sp tpy 3bd II 3ḫ.t sw 10 Graffito in Elkab (Vanderkerckhove and Müller-Wollermann, Wadi Hilâl, 161 Fig. a, 210–211 no. O144) rnp.t sp 2 3bd III 3ḫ.t sw 15 Letter of king to Harkhuf in tomb in Aswan (Eichler, “Königsbriefe,” 153 Fig. 4, 152–55) rnp.t sp 2 Graffito in Elkab (Vanderkerckhove and Müller-Wollermann, Wadi Hilâl, 146 Fig. a, 183–186 no. O74) rnp.t sp 2 3bd III pr.t sw 27 G7803C (Smith, “Evidence,” 120 Fig. 8, 128 no. 14; 2nd half Dynasty 6) rnp.t sp 6 3bd III šmw Graffito at Tumas (Eichler, Expeditionswesen, 109 no. 245; no image) rnp.t sp 11 3bd I šmw sw 23 Saqqara letter Cairo JdE 49623 (Gunn “Letter,” Pl. 1, 243–244) rnp.t m-ḫt sp 11 3bd II šmw sw 26 Decree for the temple of Coptos (Coptos B; Goedicke, Dokumente, 88 Fig. 8, 87–89) rnp.t sp 12 Graffito at Tumas (Leclant, “Fouilles,” Pl. 39 Fig. 20, 213) rnp.t sp 14 3bd I 3ḫ.t sw 23(?) Hatnoub graffito (Anthes, Hatnub, Pl. 10 Gr. 3, 20 Gr. 3)

Journal of Egyptian History 10 (2017) 69–108 Downloaded from Brill.com09/29/2021 11:59:19AM via free access 90 Gautschy ET AL.

Table 1 List of all documented years of pharaohs Khufu to Pepy II known to us (cont.)

Date Source rnp.t m-ḫt sp 22 3bd IV šmw sw 28 Decree for the temple of Coptos (Coptos C; Goedicke, Dokumente, 120 Fig. 9, 117–19) rnp.t sp 31 3bd III 3ḫ.t sw 3(+3?) Decree for the mortuary temple of Mykerinos (Goedicke, Dokumente, 149 Fig. 12, 148–50) rnp.t sp 31(?)3bd IV pr.t sw ? Graffito in Pepi II’s mortuary temple (Goedicke, “Pepi II,” 114–15) rnp.t m-ḫt sp 31 3bd I šmw sw 20 Hatnoub graffito (Anthes, Hatnub, Pl. 12 Gr. 7, 22–23 Gr. 7) rnp.t sp 33 (or 24?) Decree for the mortuary cult of queen Wedjebten (Goedicke, Dokumente, 154 Fig. 13, 155)

Table 2 List for all years between 2636 and 2280 BCE with the Egyptian date of the beginning of the lunar month in which the heliacal rising of Sirius presumably occurred, the dates of the heliacal rising of Sirius for an arc of vision of 9° to 10°, the number of lunar months in an Egyptian year, the year count of pharaohs Khufu to Pepy II according to our High Chronology as well as the documented regnal years, their source, and remarks (uncertain attributions and astronomical data)

Abbreviations used: V—Verner, “System of dating”; G—Gundacker, “Mykerinos”

Year Begin of Sirius # of Year count of Documented Source Remarks BCE lunar rising (arcvis months pharaohs years month 9°–10°)

2636 1 akhet 10 2 akhet 4–5 12 Sema ta.wy Khufu 2635 1 akhet 29 2 akhet 4–5 13 Y1 2634 1 akhet 18 2 akhet 4–6 12 Y1 after 2633 1 akhet 7 2 akhet 5–6 12 Y2 2632 1 akhet 26 2 akhet 5–6 13 Y3 2631 1 akhet 16 2 akhet 5–6 12 Y3 after 2630 2 akhet 5 2 akhet 5–7 12 or 13 Y4 rnp.t sp 4 V, 26 2629 1 akhet 24 2 akhet 6–7 13 or 12 Y5 or Y4 after 2628 1 akhet 14 2 akhet 6–7 12 Y5 after or Y5 rnp.t sp 5 V, 26 2627 2 akhet 3 2 akhet 6–7 13 Y6 2626 1 akhet 22 2 akhet 6–8 12 Y6 after 2625 1 akhet 12 2 akhet 7–8 12 Y7 or 11

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Year Begin of Sirius # of Year count of Documented Source Remarks BCE lunar rising (arcvis months pharaohs years month 9°–10°)

2624 1 akhet 30 2 akhet 7–8 13 Y8 rnp.t sp 8 V, 26 2623 1 akhet 19 2 akhet 7–8 12 Y8 after 2622 2 akhet 8 2 akhet 7–9 13 Y9 2621 1 akhet 27 2 akhet 8–9 12 Y9 after 2620 1 akhet 17 2 akhet 8–9 12 Y10 rnp.t sp 10 V, 26 2619 2 akhet 6 2 akhet 8–9 13 Y11 rnp.t sp 11 or V, 27 Djedefre? 10? 2618 1 akhet 26 2 akhet 8–10 12 Y11 after 2617 1 akhet 15 2 akhet 9–10 12 Y12 rnp.t sp 12 V, 26 2616 2 akhet 4 2 akhet 9–10 13 Y13 2615 1 akhet 23 2 akhet 9–10 12 Y13 after rnp.t m-ht sp 13 V, 27 2614 1 akhet 12 2 akhet 9–11 12 Y14 2613 2 akhet 1 2 akhet 10–11 13 Y15 2612 1 akhet 21 2 akhet 10–11 12 Y15 after 2611 2 akhet 10 2 akhet 10–11 12 or 13 Y16 2610 1 akhet 29 2 akhet 10–12 13 or 12 Y17 or Y16 after 2609 1 akhet 19 2 akhet 11–12 12 Y17 after or Y17 rnp.t sp 17? V, 26 2608 2 akhet 8 2 akhet 11–12 13 Y18 2607 1 akhet 27 2 akhet 11–12 12 Y18 after 2606 1 akhet 16 2 akhet 11–13 12 Sema ta.wy Djedefre 2605 2 akhet 4 2 akhet 12–13 13 Y1 rnp.t sp 1 V, 27 2604 1 akhet 24 2 akhet 12–13 12 Y1 after 2603 2 akhet 13 2 akhet 12–13 12 or 13 Y2 2602 2 akhet 2 2 akhet 12–14 13 or 12 Y3 or Y2 after 2601 1 akhet 22 2 akhet 13–14 12 Y3 after or Y3 2600 2 akhet 11 2 akhet 13–14 13 Y4 2599 1 akhet 30 2 akhet 13–14 12 Y4 after 2598 1 akhet 19 2 akhet 13–15 12 Y5 2597 2 akhet 8 2 akhet 14–15 13 Sema ta.wy Chefren 2596 1 akhet 27 2 akhet 14–15 12 Y after Sema ta.wy 2595 1 akhet 17 2 akhet 14–15 12 Y1 rnp.t sp 1 V, 27 2594 2 akhet 6 2 akhet 14–16 13 Y2 2593 1 akhet 26 2 akhet 15–16 12 Y2 after rnp.t m-ht sp 2 V, 28

Journal of Egyptian History 10 (2017) 69–108 Downloaded from Brill.com09/29/2021 11:59:19AM via free access 92 Gautschy ET AL.

Table 2 List for all years between 2636 and 2280 BCE with the Egyptian date (cont.)

Year Begin of Sirius # of Year count of Documented Source Remarks BCE lunar rising (arcvis months pharaohs years month 9°–10°)

2592 2 akhet 15 2 akhet 15–16 12 or 13 Y3 2591 2 akhet 4 2 akhet 15–16 13 or 12 Y4 or Y3 after 2590 1 akhet 24 2 akhet 15–17 12 Y4 after or Y4 rnp.t m-ht sp 4 V, 28 or 23 2589 2 akhet 12 2 akhet 16–17 13 Y5 rnp.t sp 5 V, 27 2588 2 akhet 1 2 akhet 16–17 12 Y5 after rnp.t m-ht sp 5 V, 29 2587 1 akhet 20 2 akhet 16–17 12 Y6 2586 2 akhet 9 2 akhet 16–18 13 Y7 rnp.t sp 7 V, 27 2585 1 akhet 29 2 akhet 17–18 12 Y7 after 2584 2 akhet 18 2 akhet 17–18 12 or 13 Y8 2583 2 akhet 7 2 akhet 17–18 13 or 12 Y9 or Y8 after 2582 1 akhet 27 2 akhet 17–19 12 Y9 after or Y9 2581 2 akhet 16 2 akhet 18–19 13 Y10 rnp.t sp 10 V, 27 or 15 2580 2 akhet 4 2 akhet 18–19 12 Y10 after or 5 2579 1 akhet 24 2 akhet 18–19 12 Y11 or 23 2578 2 akhet 13 2 akhet 18–20 13 Y12 rnp.t sp 12 V, 28 Menkaure? or 12 2577 2 akhet 2 2 akhet 19–20 12 Y12 after 2576 1 akhet 22 2 akhet 19–20 12 Y13 rnp.t sp 13 V, 28 2575 2 akhet 11 2 akhet 19–20 13 Y14 2574 2 akhet 1 2 akhet 19–21 12 Y14 after 2573 2 akhet 20 2 akhet 20–21 12 or 13 Sema ta.wy Baka 2572 2 akhet 9 2 akhet 20–21 13 or 12 Y1 or Y after Sema ta.wy 2571 1 akhet 28 2 akhet 20–21 12 Y1 after or Y1 2570 2 akhet 16 2 akhet 20–22 13 Sema ta.wy Menkaure 2569 2 akhet 6 2 akhet 21–22 12 Y after Sema rnp.t m-ht sp tpy V, 29 Shepseskaf? ta.wy 2568 1 akhet 25 2 akhet 21–22 12 Y1 rnp.t sp 1 V, 29

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Year Begin of Sirius # of Year count of Documented Source Remarks BCE lunar rising (arcvis months pharaohs years month 9°–10°)

2567 2 akhet 14 2 akhet 21–22 13 Y2 rnp.t sp 2 V, 29 2566 2 akhet 4 2 akhet 21–23 12 Y2 after rnp.t m-ht sp 2 V, 29 2565 2 akhet 23 2 akhet 22–23 12 or 13 Y3 2564 2 akhet 12 2 akhet 22–23 13 or 12 Y4 or Y3 after rnp.t m-ht sp 3 V, 29 2563 2 akhet 1 2 akhet 22–23 12 Y4 after or Y4 2562 2 akhet 20 2 akhet 22–24 13 Y5 2561 2 akhet 9 2 akhet 23–24 12 Y5 after 2560 1 akhet 28 2 akhet 23–24 12 Y6 2559 2 akhet 17 2 akhet 23–24 13 Y7 2558 2 akhet 7 2 akhet 23–25 12 Y7 after 2557 1 akhet 27 2 akhet 24–25 12 Y8 2556 2 akhet 16 2 akhet 24–25 13 Y9 2555 2 akhet 5 2 akhet 24–25 12 Y9 after 2554 2 akhet 24 2 akhet 24–26 12 or 13 Y10 rnp.t sp 10 G, 32 2553 2 akhet 13 2 akhet 25–26 13 or 12 Y 11 or Y10 rnp.t sp 11 V, 29 after 2552 2 akhet 2 2 akhet 25–26 12 Y11 after or Y11 rnp.t m-ht sp 11 V, 29 2551 2 akhet 21 2 akhet 25–26 13 Y12 & [rn]p.t zp [1]2 & G, 32 & Sema ta.wy rnp.t sema ta.wy V, 29 Spepseskaf 2550 2 akhet 10 2 akhet 25–27 12 Y after Sema rnp.t m-ht sp tpy V, 29 Menkaure? or 11 ta.wy 2549 1 akhet 30 2 akhet 26–27 12 Y1 2548 2 akhet 19 2 akhet 26–27 13 Y2 2547 2 akhet 9 2 akhet 26–27 12 Y2 after or 8 2546 2 akhet 27 2 akhet 26–28 12 or 13 Sema ta.wy Thamphithis 2545 2 akhet 16 2 akhet 27–28 13 or 12 Y1 or Y after Sema ta.wy 2544 2 akhet 5 2 akhet 27–28 12 Sema ta.wy Userkaf 2543 2 akhet 24 2 akhet 27–28 13 Y1 2542 2 akhet 14 2 akhet 27–29 12 Y1 after rnp.t m-ht sp 1 V, 30 2541 2 akhet 3 2 akhet 28–29 12 Y2

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Table 2 List for all years between 2636 and 2280 BCE with the Egyptian date (cont.)

Year Begin of Sirius # of Year count of Documented Source Remarks BCE lunar rising (arcvis months pharaohs years month 9°–10°)

2540 2 akhet 22 2 akhet 28–29 13 Y3 rnp.t sp 3 V, 30 or 23 2539 2 akhet 12 2 akhet 28–29 12 Y3 after 2538 2 akhet 2 2 akhet 28–30 12 Y4 2537 2 akhet 21 2 akhet 29–30 13 Y5 2536 2 akhet 10 2 akhet 29–30 12 Y5 after 2535 2 akhet 28 2 akhet 29–30 13 Y6 2534 2 akhet 17 2 akhet 29–3 12 Sema ta.wy year after or 18 akhet 1 Sahure 2533 2 akhet 7 2 akhet 30–3 12 Y1 rnp.t sp 1 V, 31 akhet 1 2532 2 akhet 26 2 akhet 30–3 13 Y2 rnp.t sp 2 V, 31 akhet 1 2531 2 akhet 15 2 akhet 30–3 12 Y2 after rnp.t m-ht sp 2 V, 31 or 16 akhet 1 2530 2 akhet 5 2 akhet 30–3 12 Y3 akhet 2 2529 2 akhet 24 3 akhet 1–2 13 Y4 rnp.t sp 4 V, 31 2528 2 akhet 13 3 akhet 1–2 12 Y4 after 2527 3 akhet 2 3 akhet 1–2 12 or 13 Y5 rnp.t sp 5 V, 31 Userkaf? 2526 2 akhet 21 3 akhet 1–3 13 or 12 Y6 or Y5 after rnp.t m-ht sp 5 V, 31 2525 2 akhet 10 3 akhet 2–3 12 Y6 after or Y6 2524 2 akhet 29 3 akhet 2–3 13 Y7 2523 2 akhet 19 3 akhet 2–3 12 Y7 after rnp.t m-ht sp 7 V, 31 (or 6?) 2522 2 akhet 8 3 akhet 2–4 12 Y8 2521 2 akhet 28 3 akhet 3–4 13 Y9 or 27 2520 2 akhet 17 3 akhet 3–4 12 Y9 after 2519 2 akhet 6 3 akhet 3–4 12 Y10 2518 2 akhet 25 3 akhet 3–5 13 Y11 2517 2 akhet 14 3 akhet 4–5 12 Y11 after 2516 3 akhet 3 3 akhet 4–5 13 Y12 rnp.t 12 V, 31 2515 2 akhet 22 3 akhet 4–5 12 Sema ta.wy rnp.t sp sema V, 31 year after Neferirkare ta.wy

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Year Begin of Sirius # of Year count of Documented Source Remarks BCE lunar rising (arcvis months pharaohs years month 9°–10°)

2514 2 akhet 12 3 akhet 4–6 12 Y1 2513 3 akhet 1 3 akhet 5–6 13 Y2 2512 2 akhet 20 3 akhet 5–6 12 Y2 after 2511 2 akhet 10 3 akhet 5–6 12 Y3 2510 2 akhet 28 3 akhet 5–7 13 Y4 2509 2 akhet 17 3 akhet 6–7 12 Y4 after 2508 3 akhet 6 3 akhet 6–7 12 or 13 Y5 rnp.t sp 5 V, 31 2507 2 akhet 25 3 akhet 6–7 13 or 12 Y6 or Y5 after 2506 2 akhet 15 3 akhet 6–8 12 Y6 after or Y6 2505 3 akhet 4 3 akhet 7–8 13 Y7 2504 2 akhet 24 3 akhet 7–8 12 Y7 after 2503 2 akhet 13 3 akhet 7–8 12 Y8 2502 3 akhet 2 3 akhet 7–9 13 Y9 2501 2 akhet 21 3 akhet 8–9 12 Sema ta.wy year after or 22 Shepseskare 2500 2 akhet 10 3 akhet 8–9 12 Y1 or 11 2499 2 akhet 29 3 akhet 8–9 13 Y2 2498 2 akhet 19 3 akhet 8–10 12 Y2 after 2497 3 akhet 8 3 akhet 9–10 13 Y3 2496 2 akhet 27 3 akhet 9–10 12 Y3 after 2495 2 akhet 17 3 akhet 9–10 12 Sema ta.wy Raneferef 2494 3 akhet 6 3 akhet 9–11 13 Y1 rnp.t sp tpy Abd V, 32 2493 2 akhet 25 3 akhet 10–11 12 Y1 after 2492 2 akhet 14 3 akhet 10–11 12 Y2 2491 3 akhet 3 3 akhet 10–11 13 Y3 2490 2 akhet 22 3 akhet 10–12 12 Sema ta.wy rnp.t sema ta.wy V, 33 year after Niuserre 2489 3 akhet 11 3 akhet 11–12 12 or 13 Y1 rnp.t sp 1 V, 33 Wagy-feast 2488 2 akhet 30 3 akhet 11–12 13 or 12 Y2 or Y1 after rnp.t sp 2 V, 32 2487 2 akhet 20 3 akhet 11–12 12 Y2 after or Y2 rnp.t m-ht sp 2 V, 32 2486 3 akhet 9 3 akhet 11–13 13 Y3 2485 2 akhet 29 3 akhet 12–13 12 Y3 after or 28 2484 2 akhet 18 3 akhet 12–13 12 Y4

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Table 2 List for all years between 2636 and 2280 BCE with the Egyptian date (cont.)

Year Begin of Sirius # of Year count of Documented Source Remarks BCE lunar rising (arcvis months pharaohs years month 9°–10°)

2483 3 akhet 7 3 akhet 12–13 13 Y5 rnp.t sp 5 (?) V, 32 2482 2 akhet 26 3 akhet 12–14 12 Y5 after 2481 2 akhet 15 3 akhet 13–14 12 Y6 2480 3 akhet 4 3 akhet 13–14 13 Y7 rnp.t sp 7 V, 32 2479 2 akhet 24 3 akhet 13–14 12 Y7 after rnp.t m-ht sp 7 V, 32 2478 3 akhet 13 3 akhet 13–15 12 or 13 Sema ta.wy Menkauhor 2477 3 akhet 2 3 akhet 14–15 13 or 12 Y1 or Y after rnp.t sp 1 V, 33 Niuserre? Sema ta.wy 2476 2 akhet 22 3 akhet 14–15 12 Y1 after or Y1 2475 3 akhet 10 3 akhet 14–15 13 Y2 2474 2 akhet 29 3 akhet 14–16 12 Y2 after 2473 2 akhet 18 3 akhet 15–16 12 Y3 2472 3 akhet 7 3 akhet 15–16 13 Y4 2471 2 akhet 26 3 akhet 15–16 12 Y4 after or 27 2470 2 akhet 16 3 akhet 15–17 12 or 13 Y5 2469 3 akhet 5 3 akhet 16–17 13 or 12 Y6 or Y5 after 2468 2 akhet 25 3 akhet 16–17 12 Sema ta.wy rnp.t sema ta.wy V, 33 Djedkare 2467 3 akhet 14 3 akhet 16–17 13 Y1 rnp.t sp 1 V, 35 Niuserre- Pepy I 2466 3 akhet 3 3 akhet 16–18 12 Y1 after rnp.t m-ht sp 1 V, 35 Niuserre- Pepy I 2465 2 akhet 22 3 akhet 17–18 12 Y2 2464 3 akhet 11 3 akhet 17–18 13 Y3 rnp.t sp 3 V, 33 2464 BCE (0) 2463 2 akhet 30 3 akhet 17–18 12 Y3 after rnp.t m-ht sp 3 V, 34 2462 3 akhet 19 3 akhet 17–19 12 or 13 Y4 rnp.t sp 4 V, 33 Unas? 2461 3 akhet 9 3 akhet 18–19 13 or 12 Y5 or Y4 after rnp.t m-ht sp 4 V, 35 Unas? 2460 2 akhet 29 3 akhet 18–19 12 Y5 after or Y5 rnp.t sp 5 V, 35 Niuserre- Pepy I 2459 3 akhet 18 3 akhet 18–19 12 or 13 Y6 rnp.t sp 6 V, 33 or 17

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Year Begin of Sirius # of Year count of Documented Source Remarks BCE lunar rising (arcvis months pharaohs years month 9°–10°)

2458 3 akhet 7 3 akhet 18–20 13 or 12 Y7 or Y6 after 2457 2 akhet 26 3 akhet 19–20 12 Y7 after or Y7 rnp.t m-ht sp V, 34 Unas? 7(?) 2456 3 akhet 15 3 akhet 19–20 13 Y8 rnp.t sp 8 V, 34 2455 3 akhet 4 3 akhet 19–20 12 Y8 after 2454 2 akhet 23 3 akhet 19–21 12 Y9 rnp.t sp 9 V, 34 2453 3 akhet 12 3 akhet 20–21 13 Y10 rnp.t sp 10 V, 34 2452 3 akhet 2 3 akhet 20–21 12 Y10 after rnp.t m-ht sp 10 V, 34 or 1 2451 3 akhet 21 3 akhet 20–21 12 or 13 Y11 rnp.t sp 11 V, 34 Unas? 2450 3 akhet 10 3 akhet 20–22 13 or 12 Y12 or Y11 after 2449 2 akhet 29 3 akhet 21–22 12 Y12 after or Y12 or 30 2448 3 akhet 18 3 akhet 21–22 13 Y13 or 19 2447 3 akhet 7 3 akhet 21–22 12 Y13 after or 8 2446 2 akhet 27 3 akhet 21–23 12 Y14 rnp.t sp 14 V, 34 or 26 Y14 after rnp.t sp m-ht V, 34 sp 14 2445 3 akhet 16 3 akhet 22–23 13 Y15 rnp.t sp 15 V, 33 2444 3 akhet 5 3 akhet 22–23 12 Y15 after 2443 2 akhet 25 3 akhet 22–23 12 Y16 rnp.t sp 16 V, 34 2442 3 akhet 14 3 akhet 22–24 13 Y17 rnp.t sp 17 V, 34 2441 3 akhet 4 3 akhet 23–24 12 Y17 after rnp.t m-ht sp 17 V, 34 or 3 2440 3 akhet 22 3 akhet 23–24 13 Y18 rnp.t sp 18 V, 34 2439 3 akhet 11 3 akhet 23–24 12 Y18 after 2438 2 akhet 30 3 akhet 23–25 12 Y19 2437 3 akhet 19 3 akhet 24–25 13 Y20 2436 3 akhet 8 3 akhet 24–25 12 Y20 after 2436 BCE (0) 2435 2 akhet 28 3 akhet 24–25 12 Y21 rnp.t sp 21 (22?) V, 34 2434 3 akhet 17 3 akhet 24–26 13 Y22

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Table 2 List for all years between 2636 and 2280 BCE with the Egyptian date (cont.)

Year Begin of Sirius # of Year count of Documented Source Remarks BCE lunar rising (arcvis months pharaohs years month 9°–10°)

2433 3 akhet 7 3 akhet 25–26 12 Y22 after or 6 2432 3 akhet 26 3 akhet 25–26 12 or 13 Sema ta.wy or 25 Unas 2431 3 akhet 15 3 akhet 25–26 13 or 12 Y1 or Y after rnp.t m-ht sp tpy V, 35 Niuserre- Sema ta.wy Pepy I 2430 3 akhet 4 3 akhet 25–27 12 Y1 after or Y1 2429 3 akhet 23 3 akhet 26–27 13 Y2 2428 3 akhet 12 3 akhet 26–27 12 Y2 after 2428 BCE (−1) 2427 3 akhet 1 3 akhet 26–27 12 Y3 rnp.t sp 3 V, 35 2426 3 akhet 21 3 akhet 26–28 13 Y4 or 20 2425 3 akhet 10 3 akhet 27–28 12 Y4 after rnp.t m-ht sp 4 V, 36 Djedkare? 2424 2 akhet 30 3 akhet 27–28 12 Y5 2423 3 akhet 19 3 akhet 27–28 13 Y6 rnp.t sp 6 V, 35 2422 3 akhet 8 3 akhet 27–29 12 Y6 after 2421 3 akhet 27 3 akhet 28–29 13 Y7 2420 3 akhet 16 3 akhet 28–29 12 Y7 after 2419 3 akhet 5 3 akhet 28–29 12 Y8 rnp.t sp 8 V, 35 2418 3 akhet 24 3 akhet 28–30 13 Y9 2417 3 akhet 13 3 akhet 29–30 12 Y9 after 2416 3 akhet 3 3 akhet 29–30 12 Y10 2415 3 akhet 22 3 akhet 29–30 13 Y11 2414 3 akhet 11 3 akhet 29–4 12 Y11 after akhet 1 2413 3 akhet 30 3 akhet 30–4 12 or 13 Sema ta.wy Teti akhet 1 2412 3 akhet 19 3 akhet 30–4 13 or 12 Y1 or Y after rnp.t m-ht sp tpy V, 36 akhet 1 Sema ta.wy 2411 3 akhet 8 3 akhet 30–4 12 Y1 after or Y1 [rnp.t sp 1] V, 36 akhet 1 2410 3 akhet 27 3 akhet 30–4 13 Y2 [rnp.t sp 2] V, 36 akhet 2 2409 3 akhet 17 4 akhet 1–2 12 Y2 after rnp.t m-ht sp 2 V, 36

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Year Begin of Sirius # of Year count of Documented Source Remarks BCE lunar rising (arcvis months pharaohs years month 9°–10°)

2408 3 akhet 6 4 akhet 1–2 12 Y3 2407 3 akhet 26 4 akhet 1–2 13 Y4 2406 3 akhet 15 4 akhet 1–3 12 Y4 after 2405 3 akhet 5 4 akhet 2–3 12 Y5 2404 3 akhet 23 4 akhet 2–3 13 Y6 rnp.t m-ht sp 6 V, 37 2403 3 akhet 12 4 akhet 2–3 12 Y6 after 2402 4 akhet 1 4 akhet 2–4 13 Y7 2401 3 akhet 20 4 akhet 3–4 12 Y7 after 2400 3 akhet 10 4 akhet 3–4 12 Y8 2399 3 akhet 29 4 akhet 3–4 13 Y9 2398 3 akhet 18 4 akhet 3–5 12 Y9 after 2397 3 akhet 8 4 akhet 4–5 12 Y10 2396 3 akhet 27 4 akhet 4–5 13 Y11 2395 3 akhet 16 4 akhet 4–6 12 Y11 after rnp.t m-ht sp 11 V, 37 2394 4 akhet 5 4 akhet 5–6 12 or 13 Sema ta.wy or 4 Userkare 2393 3 akhet 24 4 akhet 5–6 13 or 12 Y1 or Y after or 23 Sema ta.wy 2392 3 akhet 13 4 akhet 5–6 12 Sema ta.wy Pepy I 2391 4 akhet 2 4 akhet 5–7 13 Y1 2390 3 akhet 22 4 akhet 5–7 12 Y1 after 2389 3 akhet 11 4 akhet 6–7 12 Y2 or 12 2388 4 akhet 1 4 akhet 6–7 13 Y3 or 30 2387 3 akhet 20 4 akhet 6–8 12 Y3 after 2386 3 akhet 9 4 akhet 7–8 12 Y4 2385 3 akhet 28 4 akhet 7–8 13 Y5 2384 3 akhet 17 4 akhet 7–8 12 Y5 after 2383 4 akhet 5 4 akhet 7–9 13 Y6 or 6 2382 3 akhet 25 4 akhet 8–9 12 Y6 after 2381 3 akhet 15 4 akhet 8–9 12 Y7 2380 4 akhet 4 4 akhet 8–9 13 Y8 2379 3 akhet 23 4 akhet 8–10 12 Y8 after

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Table 2 List for all years between 2636 and 2280 BCE with the Egyptian date (cont.)

Year Begin of Sirius # of Year count of Documented Source Remarks BCE lunar rising (arcvis months pharaohs years month 9°–10°)

2378 3 akhet 12 4 akhet 9–10 12 Y9 2377 4 akhet 1 4 akhet 9–10 13 Y10 2376 3 akhet 20 4 akhet 9–10 12 Y10 after 2375 4 akhet 9 4 akhet 9–11 12 or 13 Y11 2374 3 akhet 28 4 akhet 10–11 13 or 12 Y12 or Y11 after 2373 3 akhet 18 4 akhet 10–11 12 Y12 after or Y12 2372 4 akhet 7 4 akhet 10–11 13 Y13 2371 3 akhet 27 4 akhet 10–12 12 Y13 after 2370 3 akhet 16 4 akhet 11–12 12 Y14 2369 4 akhet 5 4 akhet 11–12 13 Y15 2368 3 akhet 24 4 akhet 11–12 12 Y15 after 2367 4 akhet 13 4 akhet 11–13 12 or 13 Y16 2366 4 akhet 2 4 akhet 12–13 13 or 12 Y17 or Y16 after 2365 3 akhet 21 4 akhet 12–13 12 Y17 after or Y17 or 22 2364 4 akhet 10 4 akhet 12–13 13 Y18 rnp.t sp 18 V, 37 2363 3 akhet 30 4 akhet 12–14 12 Y18 after rnp.t m-ht sp 18 V, 37 2362 3 akhet 20 4 akhet 13–14 12 Y19 2361 4 akhet 8 4 akhet 13–14 13 Y20 or 9 2360 3 akhet 28 4 akhet 13–14 12 Y20 after 2359 3 akhet 17 4 akhet 13–15 12 Y21 rnp.t sp 21 V, 37 2358 4 akhet 5 4 akhet 14–15 13 Y22 2357 3 akhet 25 4 akhet 14–15 12 Y22 after or 24 2356 4 akhet 14 4 akhet 14–15 12 or 13 Y23 2355 4 akhet 3 4 akhet 14–16 13 or 12 Y24 or Y23 after rnp.t m-ht sp 23 V, 37 2354 3 akhet 23 4 akhet 15–16 12 Y24 after or Y24 2353 4 akhet 12 4 akhet 15–16 13 Y25 rnp.t sp 25 V, 37 2352 4 akhet 2 4 akhet 15–16 12 Y25 after rnp.t (m-ht?) V, 37 sp 25 2351 3 akhet 21 4 akhet 15–17 12 Y26 2350 4 akhet 10 4 akhet 16–17 13 Y27 2349 3 akhet 29 4 akhet 16–17 12 Y27 after

Journal of EgyptianDownloaded History from 10 Brill.com09/29/2021 (2017) 69–108 11:59:19AM via free access A New Astronomically Based Chronological Model 101

Year Begin of Sirius # of Year count of Documented Source Remarks BCE lunar rising (arcvis months pharaohs years month 9°–10°)

2348 4 akhet 17 4 akhet 16–17 12 or 13 Y28 2347 4 akhet 7 4 akhet 16–18 13 or 12 Y29 or Y28 after 2346 3 akhet 26 4 akhet 17–18 12 Y29 after or Y29 2345 4 akhet 15 4 akhet 17–18 13 Y30 2344 4 akhet 5 4 akhet 17–18 12 Y30 after 2343 3 akhet 24 4 akhet 17–19 12 Sema ta.wy rnp.t sema ta.wy V, 37 Merenre 2342 4 akhet 13 4 akhet 18–19 13 Y1 rnp.t sp 1 V, 37 2341 4 akhet 2 4 akhet 18–19 12 Y1 after rnp.t m-ht sp 1 V, 38 2340 3 akhet 21 4 akhet 18–19 12 Y2 2339 4 akhet 10 4 akhet 18–20 13 Y3 2338 3 akhet 29 4 akhet 19–20 12 Y3 after 2337 4 akhet 19 4 akhet 19–20 12 or 13 Y1 2336 4 akhet 8 4 akhet 19–20 13 or 12 Y5 or Y4 after rnp.t sp 5 V, 38 2335 3 akhet 28 4 akhet 19–21 12 Y5 after or Y5 rnp.t m-ht sp 5 V, 38 2334 4 akhet 17 4 akhet 20–21 13 Sema ta.wy Pepy II 2333 4 akhet 6 4 akhet 20–21 12 Y after Sema rnp.t m-ht sp tpy V, 38 ta.wy 2332 3 akhet 25 4 akhet 20–21 12 Y1 2331 4 akhet 14 4 akhet 20–22 13 Y2 rnp.t sp 2 V, 38 2330 4 akhet 3 4 akhet 21–22 12 Y2 after 2329 4 akhet 22 4 akhet 21–22 12 or 13 Y3 2328 4 akhet 12 4 akhet 21–22 13 or 12 Y4 or Y3 after 2327 4 akhet 1 4 akhet 21–23 12 Y4 after or Y4 2326 4 akhet 20 4 akhet 22–23 13 Y5 2325 4 akhet 10 4 akhet 22–23 12 Y5 after 2324 3 akhet 29 4 akhet 22–23 12 Y6 rnp.t sp 6 V, 38 2323 4 akhet 17 4 akhet 22–24 13 Y7 2322 4 akhet 6 4 akhet 23–24 12 Y7 after 2321 3 akhet 26 4 akhet 23–24 12 Y8 2320 4 akhet 15 4 akhet 23–24 13 Y9 2319 4 akhet 4 4 akhet 23–25 12 Y9 after or 5 2318 4 akhet 24 4 akhet 24–25 12 or 13 Y10

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Table 2 List for all years between 2636 and 2280 BCE with the Egyptian date (cont.)

Year Begin of Sirius # of Year count of Documented Source Remarks BCE lunar rising (arcvis months pharaohs years month 9°–10°)

2317 4 akhet 13 4 akhet 24–25 13 or 12 Y11 or Y10 after rnp.t sp 11 V, 38 2316 4 akhet 2 4 akhet 24–25 12 Y11 after or Y11 rnp.t m-ht sp 11 V, 38 or 3 2315 4 akhet 21 4 akhet 24–26 13 Y12 rnp.t sp 12 V, 38 or 22 2314 4 akhet 10 4 akhet 25–26 12 Y12 after or 11 2313 3 akhet 30 4 akhet 25–26 12 Y13 2312 4 akhet 19 4 akhet 25–26 13 Y14 rnp.t sp 14 V, 38 2311 4 akhet 8 4 akhet 25–27 12 Y14 after 2310 4 akhet 27 4 akhet 26–27 12 or 13 Y15 2309 4 akhet 17 4 akhet 26–27 13 or 12 Y16 or Y15 after 2308 4 akhet 6 4 akhet 26–27 12 Y16 after or Y16 2307 4 akhet 25 4 akhet 26–28 13 Y17 2306 4 akhet 14 4 akhet 27–28 12 Y17 after 2305 4 akhet 3 4 akhet 27–28 12 Y18 2304 4 akhet 22 4 akhet 27–28 13 Y19 2303 4 akhet 11 4 akhet 27–29 12 Y19 after 2302 4 akhet 1 4 akhet 28–29 12 Y20 2301 4 akhet 20 4 akhet 28–29 13 Y21 2300 4 akhet 9 4 akhet 28–29 12 Y21 after or 10 2299 4 akhet 29 4 akhet 28–30 12 or 13 Y22 2298 4 akhet 18 4 akhet 29–30 13 or 12 Y23 or Y22 after rnp.t m-ht sp 22 V, 38 2297 4 akhet 7 4 akhet 29–30 12 Y23 after or Y23 2296 4 akhet 26 4 akhet 29–30 13 Y24 2295 4 akhet 15 4 akhet 29–1 12 Y24 after peret 1 2294 4 akhet 4 4 akhet 30–1 12 Y25 or 5 peret 1 2293 4 akhet 23 4 akhet 30–1 13 Y26 or 24 peret 1 2292 4 akhet 13 4 akhet 30–1 12 Y26 after peret 1

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Year Begin of Sirius # of Year count of Documented Source Remarks BCE lunar rising (arcvis months pharaohs years month 9°–10°)

2291 1 peret 2 4 akhet 30–1 12 or 13 Y27 peret 2 2290 4 akhet 22 1 peret 1–2 13 or 12 Y28 or Y27 after or 21 2289 4 akhet 11 1 peret 1–2 12 Y28 after or Y28 2288 4 akhet 29 1 peret 1–2 13 Y29 2287 4 akhet 18 1 peret 1–3 12 Y29 after 2286 4 akhet 7 1 peret 2–3 12 Y30 or 8 2285 4 akhet 26 1 peret 2–3 13 Y31 rnp.t sp 31 V, 38 or 27 2284 4 akhet 16 1 peret 2–3 12 Y31 after rnp.t m-ht sp 31 V, 38 2283 4 akhet 6 1 peret 2–4 12 Y32 2282 4 akhet 25 1 peret 3–4 13 Y33 rnp.t sp 33 V, 38 2281 4 akhet 14 1 peret 3–4 12 Y33 after 2280 1 peret 3 1 peret 3–4 12 or 13 Y34

Table 3 Absolute dates and number of counted regnal years in our Low Chronology (left) and our High Chronology (right) of the Old Kingdom.

Low Chronology High Chronology Year Y1 Pharaoh Regnal years Year Y1 Pharaoh Regnal years

2503 BCE 1 Khufu 30 2636 BCE 1 Khufu 30 2473 BCE 1 Djedefre 9 2606 BCE 1 Djedefre 9 2464 BCE 1 Chefren 24 2597 BCE 1 Chefren 24 2440 BCE 1 Baka 3 2573 BCE 1 Baka 3 2437 BCE 1 Menkaure 19 2570 BCE 1 Menkaure 19 2418 BCE 1 Shepseskaf 6 2551 BCE 1 Shepseskaf 5 2412 BCE 1 Thamphitis 4 2546 BCE 1 Thamphitis 2 2407 BCE 1 Userkaf 10 2544 BCE 1 Userkaf 10 2398 BCE 1 Sahure 19 2534 BCE 1 Sahure 19 2379 BCE 1 Neferirkare 14 2515 BCE 1 Neferirkare 14

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Table 3 Absolute dates and number of counted regnal years (cont.)

Low Chronology High Chronology Year Y1 Pharaoh Regnal years Year Y1 Pharaoh Regnal years

2366 BCE 1 Shepseskare 5 2501 BCE 1 6 Shepseskare 2361 BCE 1 Raneferef 6 2495 BCE 1 Raneferef 5 2355 BCE 1 Niuserre 13 2490 BCE 1 Niuserre 12 2342 BCE 1 Menkauhor 11 2478 BCE 1 Menkauhor 10 2331 BCE 1 Djedkare 36 2468 BCE 1 Djedkare 36 2294 BCE 1 Unas 19 2432 BCE 1 Unas 19 2275 BCE 1 Teti 19 2413 BCE 1 Teti 19 2256 BCE 1 Userkare 0 2394 BCE 1 Userkare 2 2256 BCE 1 Pepy I 44 2392 BCE 1 Pepy I 49 2212 BCE 1 Merenre 11 2343 BCE 1 Merenre 9 2201 BCE 1 Pepy II 54 2334 BCE 1 Pepy II 54

Table 4 Absolute accession dates of selected pharaohs in different chronological models. From left to right: our Low Chronology; dates given in Hornung, et al., Chronology; Shaw, Oxford History; von Beckerath, “Chronologie”; the modelled 95% probability C14 accession dates of Dee, et al., “Radiocarbon-based Chronology”; and our High Chronology

Y1 Pharaoh Low Hornung Shaw von Dee High chronology chronology et al. Beckerath (C14: 95%)

1 Khufu 2503 BCE 2509 BCE 2589 BCE 2604/2554 2629–2558 2636 BCE BCE BCE 1 Shepseskaf 2418 BCE 2441 BCE 2503 BCE 2511/2461 2556–2476 2551 BCE BCE BCE 1 Djedkare 2331 BCE 2365 BCE 2414 BCE 2405/2355 2486–2400 2468 BCE BCE BCE 1 Unas 2294 BCE 2321 BCE 2375 BCE 2367/2317 2450–2364 2432 BCE BCE BCE 1 Pepy I 2256 BCE 2276 BCE 2321 BCE 2335/2285 2399–2310 2392 BCE BCE BCE 1 Pepy II 2201 BCE 2216 BCE 2278 BCE 2279/2229 --- 2334 BCE BCE

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Abbreviations

ASAÉ Annales du Service des Antiquités de l’Égypte BIFAO Bulletin de l’Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale BSFÉ Bulletin de la Société française d’Égyptologie GM Göttinger Miszellen JEA The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies RdÉ Revue d’Égyptologie SÄK Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur ZÄS Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde

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