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NEW COLUMNIST: P Z MYERS

CELEBRATING REASON AND HUMANITY December 2011/January 2012 Vol. 32 No.1

TRANSFORMING HUMANITY: Fantasy? Dream? Nightmare? JOHN HUGHES RUSSELL BLACKFORD ADRIENNE ASCH and JAMES E. BLOCK RONALD A. LINDSAY JOHN SHOOK

RONALD A. LINDSAY: Religion’s Attraction, Humanism’s Challenge

Introductory Price $4.95 U.S. / $4.95 Can. WENDY KAMINER SHADIA B. DRURY KATRINA VOSS 01 TIBOR MACHAN TOM REES ANDREW FIALA JOHN A. FRANTZ

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We are committed to the application of reason and We believe in the cultivation of moral excellence. to the understanding of the universe and to the solving We respect the right to privacy. Mature adults should be of human problems. allowed to fulfill their aspirations, to express their sexual We deplore efforts to denigrate human intelligence, preferences, to exercise reproductive freedom, to have to seek to explain the world in supernatural terms, access to comprehensive and informed health care, and to look outside nature for salvation. and to die with dignity.

We believe that scientific discovery and technology We believe in the common moral decencies: altruism, can contribute to the betterment of human life. integrity, honesty, truthfulness, responsibility. Humanist ethics is amenable to critical, rational guidance. There are normative We believe in an open and pluralistic society and that standards that we discover together. Moral principles are democracy is the best guarantee of protecting human rights tested by their consequences. from authoritarian elites and repressive majorities. We are deeply concerned with the moral education We are committed to the principle of the of our children. We want to nourish reason and compassion. separation of church and state. We are engaged by the arts no less than by the . We cultivate the arts of negotiation and compromise as a means of resolving differences and achieving mutual We are citizens of the universe and are excited by understanding. discoveries still to be made in the cosmos.

We are concerned with securing justice and fairness We are skeptical of untested claims to knowledge, in society and with eliminating discrimination and we are open to novel ideas and seek new and intolerance. departures in our thinking.

We believe in supporting the disadvantaged and the We affirm humanism as a realistic alternative to disabled so that they will be able to help themselves. theologies of despair and ideologies of violence and as a source of rich per sonal significance and genuine satisfaction We attempt to transcend divisive parochial loyalties based in the service to others. on race, religion, gender, nationality, creed, class, sexual orientation, or ethnicity and strive to work together for We believe in optimism rather than pessimism, hope rather the common good of humanity. than despair, learning in the place of dogma, truth instead of ignorance, joy rather than guilt or sin, tolerance in the place We want to protect and enhance Earth, to preserve of fear, love instead of hatred, compassion over selfishness, it for future generations, and to avoid inflicting needless beauty instead of ugliness, and reason rather than blind suffering on other species. faith or irrationality.

We believe in enjoying life here and now and in We believe in the fullest realization of the best and noblest developing our creative talents to their fullest. that we are capable of as human beings.

*by Paul Kurtz

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December 2011/January 2012 Vol. 32 No. 1

18 Transforming Humanity: Fantasy? Dream? Nightmare? The Debate over Enhancements Introduction Ronald A. Lindsay CELEBRATING REASON AND HUMANITY 22 Enhancement Anxiety Russell Blackford

25 Against the Enhancement Project Two Perspectives Adrienne Asch and James E. Block

34 After Happiness, Cyborg Virtue James Hughes

38 Can We Make More Moral Brains? John Shook

46 Exoplanets and the End of Terrestrial Religion Andrew Fiala

49 Evolutionary for Everyone John A. Frantz

EDITORIAL 14 The Problem of Evil REVIEWS 4 Religion’s Attractions, Part 2: When the Only Defense 58 God of Liberty: A Religious History Humanism’s Challenge Is a Fierce Offense of the American Revolution The Power of Religion’s Message Shadia B. Drury by Thomas S. Kidd Ronald A. Lindsay Reviewed by Debra R. Neill 15 Does Religion Bring Happiness? LEADING QUESTIONS Tom Rees 61 Revolutionary Deists: Early 8 Exposing Dominionism America’s Rational Infidels A Conversation with 16 Let Us Stand in Judgment of by Kerry Walters Rachel Tabachnick Judgment Day Reviewed by Bill Cooke Katrina Voss LETTERS 17 The Evolution Elevator Pitch 63 Sentinels In Honor of 11 P Z Myers Arthur C. Clarke Editied by Gregory Benford OP-EDS DEPARTMENTS and 9 A Discussion Long Overdue 56 Church-State Update Reviewed by Tom Flynn Tom Flynn , Overpopulation, and Our Future 12 What Is a Sound ? Edd Doerr 63 The Conspiracy against Tibor Machan the Human Race, POEM by Thomas Ligotti 13 New Theocrats vs. ‘New Atheists’ 57 Requiem for an Ancestor Reviewed by Tom Flynn Wendy Kaminer Lisa Rosati FI Dec11 Jan12 from home_Layout 1 10/31/11 9:17 AM Page 4

Editorial Staff Ronald A. Lindsay Editor Thomas W. Flynn Editorial Associate Editors John R. Shook, Lauren Becker Managing Editor Andrea Szalanski Columnists Arthur Caplan, , Edd Doerr, Shadia B. Drury, Nat Hentoff, Religion’s Attractions, Christopher Hitchens, Wendy Kaminer, Tibor R. Machan, Humanism’s Challenge P Z Myers, Tom Rees, Katrina Voss Senior Editors Bill Cooke, Richard Dawkins, The Power of Religion’s Message Edd Doerr, James A. Haught, Jim Herrick, Gerald A. Larue, Ronald A. Lindsay, Taslima Nasrin Contributing Editors Roy P. Fairfield, Charles Faulkner, Levi Fragell, Adolf Grünbaum, Marvin Kohl, Thelma Lavine, Lee Nisbet, J.J.C. Smart, Thomas Szasz Ethics Editor Elliot D. Cohen od rewards the faithful, either in of wind, rain, drought, flooding, fertility, Literary Editor David Park Musella this life or the next. The faithful do disease, and so forth, it’s not surprising Assistant Editors Julia Lavarnway not know when these rewards will that they attributed such phenomena to Julia Burke G Permissions Editor Julia Lavarnway come, but they can be confident that they an agent or agents, and obviously such Art Director Christopher S. Fix will come—eventually. Moreover, God agents had to possess powers far exceeding Production Paul E. Loynes Sr. does not ask for much in exchange. God our own. But for modern humans—except re quires only that the faithful be faithful, for those who are ignorant, willfully or oth- Council for Secular Humanism that is, that they trust in him and manifest erwise—the gods explain nothing. their trust by praying, joining in worship Belief in gods has lost any evidence- Chair Richard K. Schroeder Board of Directors Kendrick Frazier services, supporting their church (or based foundation it may have once pos- Dan Kelleher mosque, temple, whatever), and following sessed—hence the reliance on “faith.” Barry Kosmin Angie McAllister his commands—as interpreted by self- The appeal to faith would have no effect, Richard K. Schroeder appointed spokespersons, naturally. Di - however, if there were not a strong motiva- Edward Tabash stilled to its essential core, this is and has tion for belief. Few are going to accept the Jonathan Tobert Leonard Tramiel been the message of most religions from reality of an invisible, undetectable used car Chief Executive Officer Ronald A. Lindsay ancient times to the present. Sure, there based on faith, but many still accept the Executive Director Thomas W. Flynn are variations. Typically each religion now reality of an invisible, undetectable deity. Director, Campus and has a deity instead of deities, and today’s While our epistemic capabilities have Community Programs (CFI) Lauren Becker deity seems more concerned about what matured, humanity’s basic emotions and Director, Secular Organizations for Sobriety Jim Christopher we characterize as moral rules than some desires remain little changed from prehis- Director, African Americans past deities whose concerns focused more toric times. Freud called religion “an infan- for Humanism Debbie Goddard Acting Director of Planning on ritual observance. But these differences tile delusion,” and if one interprets that and Development (CFI) Jason Gross are nuances in the core message. assertion to refer to a stage in humanity’s Director of Libraries (CFI) Timothy Binga And it’s a powerful message. Its power development, Freud has hit the mark. It’s Communications Director Michelle Blackley Legal Director (CFI) Steven Fox is exhibited by the fact that it remains not that the individual believer has the Database Manager (CFI) Jacalyn Mohr attractive to most inhabitants of this mind of a child; rather, the believer seeks Staff Pat Beauchamp, Ed Beck, planet, even when belief in supernatural emotional reassurance in ways similar to Melissa Braun, Shirley Brown, Cheryl Catania, agents has lost all intellectual respectabil- early humans. Eric Chinchón, Matt ity. In the infancy of humanity, belief in It’s a commonplace that humans turn Cravatta, Roe Giambrone, Leah Gordon, Jason Gross, supernatural agents had some empirical to the gods because of anxiety over death. Adam Isaak, Lisa Nolan, justification. The existence of the gods There’s some truth in this observation, but Paul Paulin, Anthony seemed to explain things that otherwise it is both too broad and too narrow. It’s Santa Lucia, John Sullivan, Vance Vigrass escaped our understanding. If our ances- too broad because not all humans, not Executive Director Emerita Jean Millholland tors did not understand the natural causes even all early humans, have associated

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belief in gods with personal immortality. maintain a strict separation between Certainly, many millions today neither church and state. He thinks atheism or believe in the gods nor appear terribly humanism cannot replace religion “except concerned about their inevitable deaths. for small minorities.” (All translations from FREE INQUIRY (ISSN 0272-0701) is published bimonthly by the Council for Secular Humanism, a nonprofit educational The statement is also too narrow because Spanish are my own.) “The majority of corporation, P.O. Box 664, Amherst, NY 14226-0664. Phone it’s not just existential anxiety over death human beings” can find answers to life’s (716) 636-7571. Fax (716) 636-1733. Copyright ©2011 by the Council for Secular Humanism. All rights reserved. No that the gods relieve but also anxiety over existential questions only in religion. part of this periodical may be reproduced without permission the uncertainties of life. How will I support Furthermore, “a democratic society can- of the publisher. Periodicals postage paid at Buffalo, N.Y., and at additional mailing offices. National distribution by Disticor. my family? Will my child be hurt and suffer? not effectively combat its enemies— FREE INQUIRY is indexed in Philosophers’ Index. Printed in Will I find love? Which opportunities should beginning with corruption—if its institu- the United States. Postmaster: Send address changes to FREE INQUIRY, P.O. Box 664, Amherst, NY 14226-0664. Opinions I pursue? Will I have any opportunities? tions are not firmly supported by ethical expressed do not necessarily reflect the views of the editors In ancient times, people would seek values, if a rich spiritual life does not flour- or publisher. No one speaks on behalf of the Council for specific answers to these questions by con- ish in its bosom as a permanent antidote Secular Humanism unless expressly stated. sulting oracles or other messengers from against the destructive forces … that usu- TO SUBSCRIBE OR RENEW the gods. God is more distant now, and ally guide individual conduct when a Call TOLL-FREE 800-458-1366 (have credit card handy). Fax credit-card order to 716-636-1733. most believers accept that God expects us human being feels free from all responsi- Internet: www.secularhumanism.org. to draw up preliminary plans on our own bility.” Finally, “the idea of annihilation Mail: FREE INQUIRY, P.O. Box 664, Amherst, NY 14226-0664. and make some effort to implement them. will continue to be unacceptable for the Subscription rates: $35.00 for one year, $58.00 for two Believers proceed, however, with the ordinary person … who will continue to years, $84.00 for three years. Foreign orders add $10 per year for surface mail. Foreign orders send U.S. funds drawn assurance that, ultimately, they cannot fail. find in his faith hope for a life beyond on a U.S. bank; American Express, Discover, MasterCard, or What may seem like failures to others are death.” Visa are preferred. just transient setbacks and challenges, Whew. I’m not sure you could find a Single issues: $5.95 each. Shipping is by surface mail in U.S. (included). Single issues outside U.S.: Canada 1–$2.07; because, in the end, God will reward the more despairing view of humanity’s limita- 2–3 $4.81; 4–6 $7.00. Other foreign: 1–$4.60; 2–3 faithful. tions outside of Dostoyevsky’s parable of $10.56; 4–6 $13.95.

As indicated, there is some reciprocity the Grand Inquisitor. If Vargas Llosa is cor- CHANGE OF ADDRESS involved. God’s offer of absolute love rect, only “small minorities” of humans will Mail changes to FREE INQUIRY, ATTN: Change of Address, P.O. Box 664, Amherst, NY 14226-0664. comes with a couple of conditions. ever be able to live without false religious Call Customer Service: 716-636-7571, ext. 302. Rewards are guaranteed only if God is beliefs. E-mail: [email protected]. shown proper respect and his rules are BACK ISSUES obeyed. Theists unashamedly point Back issues through Vol. 23, No. 3 are $6.95 each. Back to this reciprocal relationship in issues Vol. 23, No. 4 and later are $5.95 each. 20% discount on orders of 10 or more. Call 800-458-1366 to order or to arguing that religion provides more ask for a complete listing of back issues. secure grounding for morality than REPRINTS/PERMISSIONS any secular worldview. The faithful To request permission to use any part of FREE INQUIRY, write can be relied on to do the right to FREE INQUIRY, ATTN: Julia Lavarnway, Permissions Editor, P.O. Box 664, Amherst, NY 14226-0664. thing—usually—because they “While our epistemic capabilities know God’s favor is conditioned WHERE TO BUY FREE INQUIRY have matured, humanity’s FREE INQUIRY is available from selected book and magazine on their doing so. sellers nationwide. Remarkably, it’s not only the basic emotions and desires ARTICLE SUBMISSIONS religious who buy into this argu- remain little changed Complete submission guidelines can be found on the web at ment. There are some secular indi- from prehistoric times.” www.secularhumanism.org/fi/details.html. viduals, including some well- Requests for mailed guidelines and article submissions should be addressed to: Article Submissions, ATTN: Tom Flynn, FREE known ones, who “believe in INQUIRY, P.O. Box 664, Amherst, NY 14226-0664. belief”; that is, they think it’s LETTERS TO THE EDITOR important for most people to Send submissions to Letters Editor, FREE INQUIRY, P.O. Box retain faith in the gods. It’s also 664, Amherst, NY 14226-0664 or e-mail aszalanski@center forinquiry.net. inevitable. An example of this For letters intended for publication, please include name, viewpoint is a recent essay by address (including city and state), and daytime telephone num- Religion’s Counterfeit Reassurances ber (for verification purposes only). Letters should be 300 words Mario Vargas Llosa—a member of the or fewer and pertain to previous FREE INQUIRY articles. International Academy of Humanism, no I do not think Vargas Llosa is correct, but I The mission of the Council for Secular Humanism is to advo- less—which appeared in the influential will concede this much: for some believ- cate and defend a nonreligious life stance rooted in science, Spanish paper El País. In this essay, titled ers, it’s not sufficient to defeat theism naturalistic philosophy, and humanist ethics and to serve and “La fiesta y la cruzada” (“The Celebration intellectually. At least with respect to a support adherents of that life stance. and the Crusade”), Vargas Llosa com- personal, all-powerful deity—one who ments on the pope’s visit to Spain in answers prayers, performs miracles, and August 2011. In doing so, he argues that can become a man, a golden shower, or a religion is a good thing as long as we burning bush—that battle has been

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fought and won. The evidence against the tence cannot possibly satisfy our human They all project a mode of existence that is existence of a personal deity is over- longings. The reality we live in is dynamic, utterly alien to our lived experience. whelming. Anyone who thinks to the con- ever-changing. If heaven is supposed to Instinctive resistance to death and trary just hasn’t received the news yet. be a continuation of our lives, how can occasional sensations of dread when con- But although arguments against the one reestablish a relationship with par- templating death are to be expected. We existence of gods are sometimes effective, ents, spouses, children, and friends who are animals; moreover, we are animals for many they are unpersuasive. More than died years before? Have they been frozen who have the foreknowledge that there is a few contemporary believers cling to their in time? Have they not changed since a threat to our existence that, ultimately, religion not because of the familiar folk- their deaths? Would they not have estab- we cannot escape. But Vargas Llosa is tales about a personal god but in spite of lished new relationships in their heavenly unduly pessimistic when he predicts that them. They rationalize away evidence abode? Would they even care to see us? the ordinary person can never be recon- against the existence of gods, allowing Similarly, if we were to be eventually ciled to the thought of extinction. There their emotions to determine their beliefs, reunited with loved ones who live on after are already tens of millions of “ordinary” because when believers part with the our deaths, would we retain any emo- people who accept the reality of death, in gods, they may feel that they are also tional connection to them? Would your part because they recognize not only that two-year-old who you left is there no empirical evidence to suggest behind remain a two-year-old continued existence beyond the grave but forever? Wouldn’t you actually that such an existence would have no be meeting a stranger, not the meaning. It is actually condescending to “. . . Tens of millions of ‘ordinary’ child you remember? ordinary persons to assume they are inca- Leave loved ones out of the pable of such a realization. people ... accept the reality of death, picture. Maybe you’re a loner. in part because they recognize not only However, you long for immor- The Challenge for Humanism that is there no empirical evidence to tality because you’ll finally be Secular humanism goes “beyond athe- suggest continued existence beyond able to do what you always ism”—at least that is our claim. Part of wanted to do: write a novel, what is implied by that claim is that we go the grave, but that such an existence discover a cure for lupus, pro- beyond merely arguing against the exis- would have no meaning.” vide medical assistance to those tence of deities. With respect to death, we in need, hold political office, be point out the of the religious a judge. But whatever your per- promise of an afterlife. This promise is not sonal goals or ambitions, only nebulous but incoherent. Further- heaven will not give you the more, we explain how a finite existence opportunity to complete your invests human lives with meaning. Death abandoning their hopes. In many cases, projects or fulfill your ambitions. Your provides the context for our actions: what we must not only make believers under- activities necessarily come to an end with we do matters precisely because we do stand that the hopes they harbor are built your death. Even if in your spiritual realm not get second chances. on fantasy instead of reality, but also that, you were placed in a laboratory with all Of course, fear of death is not the only when examined, those hopes do not pro- the equipment one could possibly want, anxiety connected to religious belief. The vide the desired solace or reassurance. your “work” would be meaningless. complex of psychological attitudes that Religion’s reassurances are counterfeit. You’d just be going through the motions. motivate religious belief includes anxieties They reflect a truncated understanding of It would be as pointless as life in the about many of life’s contingencies. Here the the human condition. Matrix, but with the added burden of your humanist must show that security, consola- Let’s take the fear of death and the awareness that it was pointless. tion, and hope are not the exclusive hope for immortality that is supposed to There is no need to go through all the province of religion; to the contrary, trust in relieve anxiety over death. What is it that various scenarios regarding the afterlife, God should come in a distant second to immortality in heaven is supposed to pro- including theologically sophisticated spec- reliance upon oneself and the assistance of vide believers? Many imagine that it’s ulations about the “beatific vision” or a others. somehow a continuation of life on Earth timeless unity with God. (What’s the dif- Atheism, in and of itself, does not and that the valued relationships they ference between existing without aware- have an ethics; humanism does. Central have had while they were alive will con- ness of time and being dead?) No matter to the humanist ethic is a commitment to tinue beyond the grave. To use the oft- what the story, upon examination we find the worth and dignity of all humans. We uttered phrase, the dead “will see their that none of them adequately addresses recognize that we have obligations even loved ones again.” But this projected exis- death-related anxieties and concerns. to those who are connected to us only

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through our shared humanity. These obli- amples. Secularization (just like religious gations include unwavering support for belief) is too complex a phenomenon to certain fundamental freedoms—such as have any one cause, but community sup- freedom of speech, freedom of associa- port for those in need is likely to play tion, freedom of conscience, and freedom some role in weaning people from reli- to pursue a profession or career—that gion. Those troubled by misfortune have guarantee an individual will have the to turn somewhere, and if we do not help autonomy to shape his or her own life. them, they will entreat the gods. Begging I would also maintain that these obli- for help from an imaginary being doesn’t gations imply a commitment to provide seem quite so silly if the only alternative is material assistance to others simply silence and indifference from one’s fellow because they are humans in need. Liberty humans. is a fundamental good, but one must have As humanists, we must confront reli- the means to make use of one’s liberty if gion not only at the intellectual level, but one is to have a fulfilling life. Humanism also at the emotional level. We must does not have a detailed economic or respond to human needs and vulnerabili- social program; humanists can have legiti- ties to establish that hope for a fulfilling mate differences over fiscal policies or the life can be a realistic expectation. Reason structure of our social safety net. But that can carry us only so far. If humanists do we should have a safety net of some sort not address the motivations for religious seems to me beyond dispute. belief, then in much of the world, only Some sociologists have argued that “small minorities” will be able to resist there is a connection between the breadth religion’s seductive message. and strength of a society’s safety net and the extent to which its popula- tion is irreligious. Scan dinavian Ronald A. Lindsay is president and CEO of the Center countries are often cited as ex - for Inquiry.

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Leading Questions

Exposing Dominionism A Conversation with Rachel Tabachnick

Rachel Tabachnick is a researcher and American evangelical churches are com- war fare. The first is exorcising demons writer who monitors the religious Right. monly independent and democratically from individuals; they believe that even Recently, she has focused on the New governed: deacons or elders—members born-again Christians have demons. They’ve Apostolic Reformation (NAR), a new strain of the church—govern the church and opened up demon deliverance centers all of Dominionists—Christians who believe, make the decisions about the pastor, for over the country and around the world. The basically, that they ought to be running instance. In Apostolic government, this second level of SLSW is the occult level. This this country. The NAR helped organize a changes to authority under apostles and refers to those demons that they claim are prayer rally last summer for Texas gover- prophets in the movement. According to the cause of Eastern religions, witchcraft, nor and presidential candidate Rick Perry. the leadership of the movement, God des- and Free masonry. The third level is strategic After ward, Tabachnick talked with Point ignates who these apostles and prophets level spiritual warfare. The NAR claims that of Inquiry cohost Chris Mooney about the will be. They cannot be voted out by a the highest-level demons control entire peo- NAR’s goals and how seriously the organ- church government. ple groups and entire geographic areas. izations should be taken.—EDS. MOONEY: So an apostle is someone MOONEY: How many Christians in the who has a “revelation” and thinks God CHRIS MOONEY: Tell us about the New Apo - United States actually believe such things? has told him or her to lead one of these stolic Reformation and what it wants. TABACHNICK: It’s hard to quantify, be - groups? RACHEL TABACHNICK: The movement cause they are drawing primarily from TABACHNICK: Yes. apostles and proph - evolved out of the independent charis- the independent charismatic and Pente- ets are there because they feel that God matic sector of Christianity, which is made costal sectors. Worldwide there are now has called them to be an apostle and then up of nondenominational churches and supposedly 500 million people who fall they become recognized as such by their ministries brought together into loose into these sectors, with the larger part of peers and community. “relational networks.” The NAR has that being the independent charismatics. Apostlolic authority is held to extend changed the structure of these churches “Pente costal” used to refer to established not just over the nuclear church, but all and their ideology. The ideology is Pen tecostal denominations like Assem - areas of society. The movement has the “Dominionist”: followers believe that they blies of God and so forth. But this is Seven Mountains Campaign, in which have to take control over the institutions not something where you carry a card seven mountains of society and govern- of society and government before Jesus that says “I am a member of the New ment have to be conquered or taken— can return. The change in structure is Apostolic Reformation.” arts, business, education, family, govern- Apostolic government of the church. One of the things we can say is that cer- ment, media, and religion. tainly Rick Perry, who is a savvy politician, MOONEY: They believe decided that it was worth taking the risk to that they have to do this have the support of this movement in the “Apostolic authority is held to extend because they think that these United States. The movement has a very sectors, these “mountains,” not just over the nuclear church but all well-developed fifty-state network of what are demonically possessed, areas of society. The movement has the they call “prayer warriors.” Perry’s prayer isn’t that right? event called “The Response” in Houston on Seven Mountains Campaign, in which seven TABACHNICK: Yes. The pro - mountains of society and government cess through which they August 6, 2011 was organized and led by people from this movement. Apostle after have to be conquered or taken—arts, believe they will rid the world of rule by these demonic apostle was seen on the stage. business, education, family, government, forces and people who are MOONEY: What are the other strains media, and religion.” controlled by demonic forces of Dominionism, and how is the NAR is called “strategic level spiri- different? tual warfare” (SLSW). There (Continued on page 52) are three levels of spiritual

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Tom Flynn OP-ED

A Discussion Long Overdue

According to the , the It’s too often assumed that overpopu- ers like Paul Ehrlich foresaw—we’re not world’s has passed seven billion. lation as a topic went out of fashion thirty living in a Mad Max horror-world scoured by (The U.S. government says that milestone years ago or even that it’s taboo. So what food riots—yet—but we should scarcely will occur early in 2012.) Just twelve years better time than humanity’s passing of the imagine from that that we’ve ducked the ago, the number reached six billion; twelve seven-billion mark to move this critical Malthusian bullet altogether. years before that, it passed five billion. subject back to center stage? The By any reasonable criterion, such United Nations launched an initia- growth is unsustainable. Consider that 48 tive titled 7 Billion Actions “to percent of the globe’s population is living renew global commitment for a on less than two dollars per day; if all healthy and sustainable world.” seven billion humans lived like Americans, Closer to home, the Tucson-based you’d need five planet Earths to supply Center for Biological Diversity dis- “Even in the United States, whose what we’d consume. Even in the United tributes condoms whose packaging population swelled by about 10 per- States, whose population swelled by links birth control with environmen- about 10 percent between 2000 and tal preservation: “Wrap with care, cent between 2000 and 2010, much of 2010, much of the growth has been con- save a polar bear,” says one. The the growth has been concentrated in centrated in regions where everything Pop ulation Media Center and the regions where everything from fresh- from freshwater supplies to electrical gen- Population In stitute have started a erating capacity is already stressed. (With campaign of their own called water supplies to electrical generating the economic downturn, unemployment Population 7 Billion: It’s Time to Talk. capacity is already stressed.” is now higher in the Sun Belt than in the Talking may be only a first Rust Belt, yet the South and Southwest step, but it’s an important one. continue to attract the majority of immi- We’re not likely to get anything grants, legal and otherwise, seeking work done about our still-growing pop- in the United States.) ulation crisis if we don’t talk By many criteria, America may not about it first! seem overpopulated. Yet even here, fur- Most of all, we need to recognize that So let me spark a conversation among ther population increase genuinely threat- overpopulation is not a problem that went secular humanists by taking a traditional ens both national and global welfare. In out of fashion with rust-colored shag rugs third rail firmly in my teeth. The U.S. birth - part this is because Americans consume so and avocado appliances. Our world was rate is 2.0 per woman, just slightly below profligately; a recent Oregon State Uni - overpopulated in the sixties; it was even replacement rate. So why did the popula- versity study found that over time, an more overpopulated in the seventies; and tion swell 10 percent in the last decade? American child will generate seven times it’s desperately overpopulated now. In all Immigration, legal and illegal, accounts for as much carbon dioxide as a Chinese child likelihood there has been a “too many most of it. In addition to the numbers they and 169 times as much as a Bangladeshi people” problem since experts began add simply by entering the country, immi- child. This study also found that the great- expressing systematic misgivings on the grants to the United States tend to start est contribution individual Americans can subject in the 1950s. In large part, our having children earlier in life, and to have make to fighting climate change is to have world of today bears the marks of our past more children, than the general population. fewer children (or none). failures to come to grips with population If not for immigration, America would have Yet when was the last time you heard issues. From rush hour in Atlanta to starva- a static or even a slowly declining popula- an earnest discussion about overpopula- tion in South Sudan, we are living in the tion, like many countries in Western Europe. tion? When did you last hear terms like dystopian future that sixties “population So like it or not, if the United States has a population bomb mentioned in a contem- bomb” prophets predicted. Granted, con- porary context? ditions aren’t quite as apocalyptic as writ- (Continued on page 52)

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Letters

ful listening, advocacy for human rights at least, one glaring elephant in the room: and justice, and “doing what is good and there should not be chaplains in the military right.” This repre sents classic chaplaincy, or anywhere else in government whose pay minus the preaching. Yes, we need good and benefits are on the taxpayer’s dime. therapists as well, but knowledgable, free- In the 1983 case Marsh v. Chambers, thinking chaplains can balance the evan- Ernest Chambers, a member of the Ne- gelists by sharing their “chapels”—pre- braska legislature, challenged the practice of senting alternative places set aside for offering a prayer at the beginning of each quiet, reflective thought and building legislative session by a chaplain who was inclusive interrelationships. chosen by the state and paid out of public Having served as a chaplain with reli- funds. In a 6–3 decision, the Supreme Court gious and nonreligious people in diverse set- ruled in favor of the Nebraska legislature. tings, I now teach graduate students who Chief Justice Warren Burger’s majority opin- seek to be chaplains that we have to be ion noted that the custom “is deeply careful when using words like chaplain, embedded in the history and tradition of this ministry, spiritual—continually defining country from colonial times and the found- these terms for both theists and nontheists. ing of the republic.” Further, the Court held (Personally I can live with Carl Sagan’s state- that the use of prayer “has become part of ment that since spirit comes from the Latin the fabric of our society,” coexisting with Humanist Chaplains? for breath “there is no necessary implication “the principles of disestablishment and reli- in the word ‘spiritual’ that we are talking of In his editorial “Humanist Chaplains in the gious freedom.” Justice Burger further noted anything other than matter . . . on occasion, Military: A Bridge Too Close?” (FI, that in such circumstances, an invocation for I will feel free to use the word.”) Likewise, I October/Novem ber 2011), Tom Flynn states: divine guidance is not an establishment of think the title and the term chaplain is still “Discussions with the chaplain are pro- religion. “It is,” he wrote, “simply a tolerable useful and even healthy, if the one assuming tected by clergy confidentiality. Your com- acknowledgment of beliefs widely held that honorable position can learn to breathe manding officer will not learn that you among the people of this country.” (Both the same (secular or sacred) air as other sought help, and the visit won’t go into your the U.S. House of Representatives and the human beings, especially when that air is personal file. ... A servicemember’s request U.S. Senate have chaplains who start each filled with suffering. I deeply respect anyone for secular mental-health services is the daily session with a prayer, as do most, if not who can do that, whether they call upon opposite of confidential. Not only must it be all, state legislatures.) God or Good. reported up the chain of command, but the But Justice Burger’s opinion turned the Chris Highland request alone can be grounds to modify a establishment clause on its head. The San Rafael, California employment of chaplains in state and fed- security clearance or end a military career.” eral legislatures is a blatant violation of It’s sad to see that secular counseling that provision and is unconstitutional for can be held against the servicemember Tom Flynn completely misses the point. the same reason we can’t have chaplains while believing in an invisible presence in Separation of church and state would sug- in public schools to start each day with a the sky cannot. It should be the other way gest that, if religions want to proselytize prayer and/or conduct Bible study. The around. Let’s push for that. the captive audience in the military, they Court cannot argue that the Consti tution David Klement at least should have to pony up the bucks should be dismissed or ignored due to Oconomowoc, Wisconsin to pay for the privilege. Even decades after some “tradition.” The Court has clearly leaving the military, I’m still angered when established religion in government, includ- I recall all those chaplains wandering ing the military, by fiat. Tom Flynn may be unaware of the emerg- around aimlessly while the rest of us made Therefore, if the atheists/humanists/ ing role of creative chaplaincies based on far less and had far more to do. freethinkers argue for establishing their pluralistic, inclusive models. One can Name Withheld Upon Request own chaplaincy in the military, then it choose to get “hung up” on the terminol- Spicer, Minnesota seems to me that they are tacitly endors- ogy or just be more humanistic. There will ing the Supreme Court’s ruling in Marsh. always be a need for “chaplains” in some Indeed, I think nontheist groups can make form—competent, well-educated women I very much enjoyed Jason Torpy’s article on a compelling case that chaplains should and men who are readily available to listen humanist chaplains (“Humanist Chaplains: not be on the government payroll at all and help in times of crisis, who see chap- A Litmus Test for Equal Protection,” FI, but treated like the press. Reporters are laincy as a practice of being “present” with October/November 2011) and Tom Flynn’s people where they are, deep and respect- thoughtful analysis thereof. There is, to me (Continued on page 64)

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Tibor Machan OP-ED

What Is a Sound Atheism?

o what is this atheism that upsets so as minds, concepts, thoughts, etc.? Strictly the mind. Whether the mind exists is many people? It is really just the re- construed, it does not. Nature could well something we could well discover about Sfusal to believe in God because of contain a great variety of stuff; so as far as nature. The matter is not something we the absence of sufficient reasons. It is a what exists in the world, atheism is open to can settle a priori. If evidence shows the nonbelief—not something believed to be whatever type and kind of existence is dis- existence of different types and kinds of the case. Thus there can be atheists with a covered to exist by rational means. beings—for example, biological, chemical, great variety of different outlooks on innu- Furthermore, atheism does not imply mathematical, musical, or whatever there merable topics. They are all united on just anything about whether ethics is part of might be in the world, including minds, one negative proposition—“I do not be- human life. That, too, must be left to be feelings, thoughts, abstractions, and so lieve in God.” determined by means of science and other forth—that would be that. Atheism does Very little follows from this as far as naturalist approaches by which human not require rejection of any of these realms beings study the world. Some athe- or reality. That must remain a matter of ists are reductive materialists and what the various sciences discover and altogether deny ethics because identify. “... Atheism does not imply anything ethics presupposes choice, some- A few years ago, two very prominent about whether ethics is part of thing on the order of free will. “new” atheists suggested that atheists human life. That, too, must be “Ought” implies “can,” so that if might gather into a group, perhaps called human beings have various ethical “Brights.” A problem with this was that left to be determined by means or moral, even political, responsibil- simply too many varieties of atheists are to of science and other ities or obligations, it must be the be found, many of whom would be quite naturalist approaches by which case that they are free either to ful- uncomfortable in the company of fellow fill or to neglect them on their own atheists who hold drastically different human beings study the world.” initiative. This is precluded if nature philosophical, ethical, and political posi- is fully deterministic, as reductive tions. Secular humanists, for example, materialism takes it to be. An tend to hold positions on matters other emergent view of nature, how- than whether there are reasons to believe metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, politics, ever, whereby different types and kinds that God exists. If they are atheists (some aesthetics, or other disciplines are con- of beings can exist, not all reducible to are agnostics), they are just one variety. cerned. However, atheists do all decline to just one sort, could make room for choices It appears, then, that atheism per se is affirm the existence of God and closely and, thus, for ethics and other normative best not overloaded with beliefs apart related supernatural entities and events. realms. from the simple one of nonbelief in God’s Another crucial (and controversial) issue This is also the case where mentality is existence. The rest is best left to what is related to atheism is whether rejecting belief concerned. Some hold that atheism implies discovered to exist—to be true and right in God implies anything at all about the that no minds, distinct from brains, can and good. world other than that it is completely natu- exist, but that, too, is wrong. Take, for ral and accessible to study by the means example, the late best-selling deployed in the sciences and in ordinary Russian-born author Ayn Tibor R. Machan holds the R.C. Hoiles Chair at Chapman understanding. For example, does atheism Rand. She was an atheist but Uni versity and is a research fellow at the Hoover Institution of imply materialism? Does it imply physical- did not deny the existence of Stan ford University, both in California. ism? Does it preclude mental entities such consciousness, specifically

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Wendy Kaminer OP-ED

New Theocrats vs. ‘New Atheists’

oes God hate Texas? As I write this the Republican presidential nomination is mysterious ways. In any case, despite the in early September 2011, the state is dominated by Christian nationalism, Tea Party’s reported unpopularity, the Dbeing ravaged by wildfires after suf- which Rick Perry is either leading or newly ascendant religious Right exerts fering through a devastating drought dur- exploiting. Even Mitt Romney, who has inordinate influence on politics and poli- ing the historic heat wave of the spring generally focused more on capitalism than cies through its inordinate influence on and summer. Is God laughing at Texas? Christ (and is suspect among conservative the Republican Party. The fires have been fueled by the winds of evangelicals in part because of his The irreligious continue to organize in tropical storm Lee, which is flooding Mormonism) promised Tea Party support- the wings while religious extremists strut Louisiana and Mississippi. Does God hear ers that he would govern prayerfully, mak- across the stage; but while the new athe- a Texan’s prayer? In April 2011, Texas gov- ing decisions “on my knees.” ism has increased the visibility of secular- ernor and presidential candidate Rick Perry Yet a mere two years ago, issued a proclamation designating three former New York Times col - “days of Prayer for Rain in the State of umnist Frank Rich wishfully Texas.” A few months later, Perry led a characterized the culture war “The irreligious continue to organize controversial mass prayer rally in Houston, as a casualty of economic cri- in the wings while religious extremists begging God to heal the nation’s ills and sis, a “luxury the country—the strut across the stage; but while the declaring that he loved America only a lit- GOP included—can no longer tle less than he loved the living Christ. But afford.” A 2008 Pew Forum has increased the visibility the nation continues its decline, while survey found in creased public of secularists and humanists, Texas burns. Is God wise to Rick Perry? resistance to the marriage of it has not increased their clout.” Perhaps even an agnostic can hope. religion and politics, with “a I pose these questions at the risk of narrow majority of the public being deemed insensitive, at best, to the saying that churches and deaths and damages caused by droughts, other houses of worship should keep out of ists and humanists, it has not increased fires, hurricanes, floods, and other acts of political matters and not express their views their clout. A minority of House and nature; in fact, I am simply trying to view on day-to-day social and political matters.” Senate members will privately admit they these disasters from a prayerful perspective. Majorities may still be wary of sectar- do not believe in God but don’t dare If God exists and hears the prayers of peo- ian policy making (and the Tea Party is acknowledge their disbelief publicly. It’s ple who love the living Christ, then you have generally viewed unfavorably). To a secu- still impossible to imagine an avowed to ask why he hasn’t answered them. larist or religious moderate, the sectarian atheist making a feasible run for president Maybe insufficient numbers of people are culture war may indeed look like a luxury or any high office. Meanwhile, sectarian praying; or maybe insufficient numbers we can’t afford, but, especially during eco- laws and policies abound: abortions are have come to Jesus—especially insufficient nomic and environmental crises, religion is widely unavailable and abortion rights are numbers of political leaders. Congress - also a necessity in which many find solace, seriously imperiled because of a successful woman and aspiring president Michele as well as explanations: Maybe God is sectarian assault on reproductive choice. Bachmann has suggested that by sending punishing America because of our god- Religious organizations still receive direct us earthquakes and hurricanes, God is try- less, hedonistic inclinations; maybe God is taxpayer support under the bipartisan ing to “get the attention of the politicians.” testing America or sending us a series of faith-based funding initiative, and the Whatever. The theocrats have surely disasters to scare us back to church; (Continued on page 52) gotten our attention. So far, the race for maybe God is simply working in his usual

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Shadia B. Drury OP-ED

The Problem of Evil Part 2: When the Only Defense Is a Fierce Offense

f God is powerful enough to stop earth- offense. It seems to me that Lewis’s predica- grounds that killing heretics was necessary quakes, hurricanes, floods, and tsunamis, ment is a microcosm of the historical to defend the salvation of the faithful. Ithen why doesn’t he? In the first part of predicament of Christianity: the only way to Now that the Church is no longer this essay (FI, October/November 2011), I make people accept these feeble apologies powerful enough to kill, scourge, or terror- argued that C.S. Lewis, in his efforts to for the Christian God is to cripple human ize those who threaten its faith with logic, resolve this “problem of evil,” ends up intelligence. It was therefore necessary to it must find other means to silence criti- defending a hideous God who purposely outlaw clearheadedness. Long before the cism. Christian apologists like Lewis have inflicts gruesome suffering and death on fierce offensive of the Albigensian Crusade adopted a new offensive strategy to para- innocent men, women, children, and ani- (1209–1229) against heretical Christians, lyze human rationality and shame human mals. I explained that the arguments made and long before the establishment of the beings into silence. To that end, Lewis by Lewis to justify God’s conduct could Inquisition in 1232, Christianity found it deploys two ingenious tactics. The first is equally well have been made by a teenage necessary to go on the offensive. Arius to identify reason with arrogance and vain- psychotic (as inspired by Avril Lavigne’s (256–336), the Libyan theologian, was glory. Lewis is a firm believer in the “sins of music video, Girlfriend): they both display demonized and his writings were destroyed intellect,” which include making reason- the same murderous ferocity, megaloma- for arguing that God can’t be the Father able objections to Christian theology. nia, and implausible appeals to selfless and the Son at the same time. Arius died According to Lewis, this “sin of intellect” is altruism. Instead of solving the “problem of under suspicious circumstances—his follow- a manifestation of intellectual conceit— ers believed that he was poi- Eve’s sin—and the root of all evil in soned. Jovinian, a fourth-cen- Christianity. It is proof that human pride tury monk, was censured for and vainglory have no bounds. pointing out that the Blessed Lewis’s book The Great Divorce is a “C.S. Lewis’s predicament is a Virgin must have lost her vir- continuous scold that goes something like microcosm of the historical predicament ginity the moment she gave this: God has reasons for doing whatever birth to Christ and asserting he does; reasons that you cannot hope to of Christianity: the only way to make that monkish virginity is not grasp with your puny little brain. Any people accept these feeble apologies necessarily superior to mar- objections you inconsequential beings may for the Christian God is to cripple riage. His work was destroyed, have to the way God governs the world is his body was scourged with proof that you are vain, flawed, worthless human intelligence.” leaden whips, and he was creatures who refuse to let his will be exiled to the isle of Boa. done—you insist that your will be done. From its earliest begin- Your pride and pomposity makes you think ning, Christianity has never you can plumb the depths and fathom the evil,” I believe that Lewis makes it even been able to withstand the slightest wisdom of God. If his governance of the more intractable. degree of rational scrutiny. Even the most world seems dreadful to a nonentity like The arguments Lewis offers on behalf infinitesimal application of logic was a you, too bad! Your conceit has shattered of God are paradigmatic of the arguments threat to the faith. And since faith is inte- any hope of redemption. Off you go to the made by Christian apologists throughout gral to salvation, people have to believe dungeons of hell! And don’t you dare the ages. Like apologists before him, the the unbelievable to be saved. It follows blame God for that. You are the architects bankruptcy of Lewis’s arguments forces him that those who threaten irrational beliefs of your miserable fate. You have chosen to to go on the offensive—which leads me to threaten salvation. Thomas Aquinas there- surmise that his only defense is a fierce fore defended the Inquisi tion on the (Continued on page 54)

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Tom Rees OP-ED

Does Religion Bring Happiness?

he putative link between religion bly thinking that this picture does not hardship. In places like Egypt and Bangla - and happiness is fiercely contested. describe you at all. Your lack of religion desh, where many people report facing TRichard Dawkins is on record as call- doesn’t trouble you in the slightest—in difficult life circumstances, those who ing it “dangerous nonsense,” while fact, you feel better off for it! Well, you’re were most religious got a big boost from Christopher Hitchens opines that religion right. The story is not really as simple as it religion. In countries like Sweden, Japan, does “not make its adherents happy.” appears on the surface. and France, the religious are no happier And yet if you take a broad cross sec- Take, for example, another of Diener’s than the nonreligious. In fact, in the 25 tion of Americans and ask them if they are findings. He showed that people’s personal percent of countries with optimum living satisfied with their lives, you’ll find that, circumstances are actually a fairly minor conditions, as in the least-religious coun- on average, the more-religious folks are factor when it comes to understanding why tries, the nonreligious report having fewer happier than the less-religious ones. some people are religious. Far more impor- negative feelings than the religious. Let’s look farther afield. When Ed tant is the society in which they Diener, a psychologist at the University of live. Diener found that nations Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, trawled are relatively homogenous through the massive Gallup World Poll when it comes to how religious (which, from 2005 to 2009, interviewed their citizens are. True, wher- “Ed Diener ... at the University of over 455,000 people from 154 countries), ever you are in the world, he found that religious people were, on those in vulnerable personal Illinois at Urbana–Champaign ... found average, slightly less satisfied with their situations tend to be some- that religious people were, on average, lives. The reason for this is simple. People what more religious than those slightly less satisfied with their lives. facing difficult life circumstances are often who are more secure. Overall unhappy and turn to religion because of it. what’s far more important is The reason for this is simple. However, when Diener controlled for how many people in that People facing difficult life circumstances life circumstances (factors such as educa- nation feel that they are inse- are often unhappy and turn tion, income, and life expectancy, as well cure or in hard circumstances. as other things such as whether they had In countries where average liv- to religion because of it.” enough money for food and shelter, ing conditions are tough, every - whether they felt safe walking alone at body—rich and poor alike—is night, and whether they had recently been more religious. That’s confirma- the victim of an assault or a theft), he tion that there is a strong social found that, yes, when you aggregate aspect to religion. People like to conform, Diener went on to show a similar effect across the whole world, the religious are and they like others who conform. Likely as among U.S. states. Those states with the happier than the nonreligious. The link is a result of this, the nonreligious in highly highest levels of hardship are also the most very weak, but it is real. religious countries tend to be unhappy. In religious. However, after controlling for the Taken at face value, the explanation the least-religious countries, however, the effects of hardship, people living in states seems straightforward. For those who can nonreligious are no less happy and actually with higher levels of religion also had higher believe, their belief in a god brings conso- report fewer negative emotions (worry, sad- levels of well-being—regardless of how reli- lation, happiness, and contentment. For ness, depression, anger) than the religious. gious they themselves were. those who cannot, life will be tinged with What’s more, religion improves well- (Continued on page 53) a little sadness. At this point you’re proba- being only in societies with higher levels of

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Katrina Voss OP-ED

Let Us Stand in Judgment of Judgment Day

n the weeks leading up to May 21, The “Judgement Day” Facebook page with similar vitriol, many 2011, billboards boasted that the end of administrator, with a tone of controlled theorists look down their intelligently Ithe world as we know it—the “Rap - exasperation, carefully explained to his designed noses at old-school creationist ture,” to be exact—was upon us. Harold coreligionists that the Rapture would begin riffraff who think the Earth is six thousand Camping, a Christian radio broadcaster during the evening of May 21 but that to years old. The “more-scientific” IDers like and self-proclaimed eschatologist who specify a time was blasphemous because to to point out that—duh!—the real age of previously had predicted judgment days do so would be to try to read God’s mind. the Earth is closer to ten thousand years. on May 21, 1988, and September 7, (Just allow the poignant irony of that state- 1994, had decreed the new 2011 date, ment to wash over you, dear reader, before s the date approached, the “Judge - and his followers had created Facebook moving on.) The chosen would be raptured Ament Day” page brimmed with activity. pages to discuss the finer points of calen- up in a steady process that would begin Many of my fellow atheists and free- dric wizardry. According to one enthusiast during the evening hours at the Inter - thinkers “liked” the page, simply to try to who posted on the inimitable Rapture-pre- national Dateline. One by one, the devout engage the Rapture-ready faithful in paredness Facebook page, “Judgement would be sucked skyward as the Rapture thoughtful discussions about their beliefs. Day,” the glorious event would begin proceeded across the Earth in a wide Other nonbelievers found it far more enter- around 6 p.m. (time zone unspecified), sweeping motion from east to west as the taining to post condescending and witty just as Camping himself had declared. sun slowly set. Eventually, the process comments. Among the cleverest was a link would come full circle back to to an after-Rapture pet-care service. (Certi - its initiation point where no fied blasphemers would be available to more rapturable candidates care for any soulless nonhumans left remained. (Apparently, the behind by raptured owners.) Another was Rapture works like a cosmic a Rapture-day weather forecast (“Chance “The ‘Judgement Day’ Facebook page vacuum cleaner.) of judgment: 100%”)—my favorite thanks administrator, with a tone of controlled Of course, the “liberal” to my background as a broadcast meteor- Rapture-ready had a thing or ologist. I too joined the fun, making a pas- exasperation, carefully explained to his two to say about the silliness time of correcting the grammar of coreligionists that the Rapture would of any attempt to figure out Rapture-ready believers who posted on the begin during the evening of May 21 but God’s plan. They pointed out site. “How miraculous! My wife and I’s that while the Rapture indeed anniversary is May 21!” posted one visitor. that to specify a time was blasphemous will happen, perhaps even Helpfully, I schooled him on the proper use because to do so would be to try to read soon, “real” Christians know of possessive pronouns. God’s mind. (Just allow the poignant irony that the date is meant to Of course, May 21 came and went remain an incalculable mys- without credible reports of cosmic vacuum of that statement to wash over you, tery, as stated in Matthew cleaners descending to Earth. So did the dear reader, before moving on.)” 24:36 (“But of that day and revised October 21 date, which according hour knows no man, no, not to some of Camping’s followers was the the angels of heaven, but my date he really meant. Now, as 2011 closes Father only.”). One Facebook and the new year begins, panic has resur- visitor’s “zing” post—“Hello? faced about a 2012 global cataclysm as God works in mysterious predicted by the Mayan Long Count cal- Another visitor to “Judgement Day” ways”—earned him a healthy seventeen endar (along with dedicated Facebook claimed that it would begin closer to 9 “likes” from fellow visitors to the pages and a renewed taste for fun-mak- p.m. and specifically on Christmas Island. “Judgement Day” page. Alas, the bicker- ing). Still, many fellow nonbelievers con- Yet another claimed that earthquakes ing among “real” Christians, precise date- demn such teasing. Their message seems would herald the Rapture during the wee and-time calculators, and the page admin- to be that these poor slobs need some- hours of May 20, 2011, and that the istrator himself was reminiscent of another tremors would continue through May 21. bizarre Christian-on-Christian squabble: (Continued on page 54)

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P Z Myers OP-ED

The Evolution Elevator Pitch

pparently, this is all the rage the process that took so long to culminate retroviruses, nucleotide sequences that are among the cool kids nowadays: in us; that is, science was the tool he used relics of ancient viral infections that A condense a subject down to such a to build the universe. But in that case, if inserted themselves into our chromo- short summary that you could explain it science is sufficient, what’s the point of somes, and many of them are shared during a short elevator ride. On the one dragging a god into the story anyway? (I’m between us and the apes—they are evi- hand, it shortchanges ideas that take years not even going to bother trying to engage dence of infections that afflicted our com- to even adequately grasp and panders to a creationist who believes the earth is less mon ancestors. short attention spans. On the other hand, than ten thousand years old on the subject Once again, science has a simple, clear it’s an interesting challenge. of evolution. Those types aren’t ready to explanation: we inherited these arbitrary So let’s imagine that I’ve stepped into talk about biology until they’ve had a good shared characters, and we share a com- an elevator with an obstreperous creation- dose of remedial physics, remedial geology, mon deep framework for our develop- ist, and I’m going to try to quickly hit him or and while we’re at it, remedial sanity.) ment because our distant ancestors her with a few snappy explanations for why Molecular propinquity. A good, chewy, invented these tools and passed them on I accept evolutionary theory and reject cre- eight-syllable phrase is just so satisfying, to their descendants. Creationists have no ationism. It’s not at all my style—I’m more isn’t it? Right now in biol- the kind of guy who’d rather hammer the ogy, the most powerful evi- critic with point after point of evidence for dence for common descent “... We have such an overwhelming volume a few hours—but just for a change, I’ll try is found in the relationships to be succinct. I’ll restrict myself to just two between molecules. and density of information that we points out of a multitude. Compare animals that can steamroll any discussion; Time. The universe is over thirteen bil- superficially seem incredi- all that the other side has in any lion years old, the earth is 4.5 billion years bly dissimilar: a human old, and life emerged on the planet within and a fruit fly, for instance. quantity is ignorance and misinformation, a few hundred million years of its conden- Despite the gross differ- and its only hope is to distract and derail.” sation. has no explanation for ences in appearance and why the creator dawdled so long before the apparent unrelated- creating the putative purpose of all of his ness of the two, when we examine the explanation other than the whims of a efforts—us. An omnipotent being spent building blocks of form—the basic mole- capricious deity whose intent we can not an unimaginably long period of time cules that regulate the shape of the organ- probe and definitely cannot question. We watching rocks and clouds of gas before ism—we find unity. The genes that specify see patterns of relationship. You can’t use conjuring us into existence in the last up and down in a human are the an unconstrained, incoherent, inherently 0.007 percent. Why and what was he same genes that specify up and down in a patternless being to explain them. waiting for? Meanwhile, science and evo- fly embryo. (But reversed! That’s a story lution both require and make use of that for a different day.) The genes that define ’d stop there. We’re probably at the for- vast span of time; the creative powers of the head and tail in a fly are found doing Itieth floor already, and I’m holding the physics and chemistry and geology and the same job, with the same arrangement door open while haranguing my poor vic- biology weren’t just idle but were incre- on the chromosomes, in human . tim. I know I haven’t even touched on the mentally sculpting the content of stars and Even more telling, mistakes are shared real-time observations of adaptive evolu- planets and, eventually, life itself. between different lineages. We have a tion in Darwin’s finches, described by Peter The scientific explanation makes sense. broken gene for synthesizing vitamin C and Rosemary Grant, or the details of bac- The religious explanation, which postulates decaying in our genome, like the rusted terial evolution in a test tube worked out a miracle-working all-powerful creator out hulk of a car on blocks in a yard. So do by Richard Lenski. Then there are the who doesn’t bother to perform the most chimpanzees and all the other apes. ancestral sequence reconstructions done important miracle of all until the last They’re all broken in similar ways and by Joe Thornton or Fry’s provocative work instant . . . not so much. I already know stashed in similar places on the chromo- the standard excuse: the creator created somes. We carry a load of endogenous (Continued on page 55)

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Transforming Humanity: Fantasy? Dream? Nightmare? The Debate over Enhancements

Introduction

Ronald A. Lindsay

hrough drugs and implanted medical devices, we can now the topic of enhancements contribute articles to this special sym- enhance the capacities of humans. The changes brought posium. Their articles present diverse perspectives, highlighting the Tabout so far are still relatively minor (for example, using most important considerations we must take into account when Ritalin to increase the ability to concentrate), but it’s highly likely coming to our own conclusions about the wisdom and morality of that we will develop the means to modify an increasing variety of enhancements. I will introduce each of the authors and articles human traits within ten to twenty years. Were we able to perfect below, but first, I want to clear away some of the underbrush. the techniques for safe, effective, targeted genetic modification, Much of the debate over enhancements has, until recently, the possibilities for human transformation would be enormous. been driven by ill-reasoned objections to the use of enhancement We could improve our cognitive capacities; increase our immunity technologies in general. Leon Kass (Ageless Bodies, Happy Souls); to disease; retard the aging process; augment our strength and Michael Sandel (The Case Against Perfection); and Francis Fuku - endurance; and alter our dispositions, moods, and behavior. yama (Our Posthuman Future), among others, have argued that, The prospect of significant enhancement of human capacities, in various ways, biomedical enhancements are intrinsically prob- physical or mental, has sparked an intense debate in the last decade, lematic, immoral, or unwise. In academic circles, at least, these both in ethics and at the level of public policy. One of the major objections have not usually been found to be persuasive. They reports produced by President George W. Bush’s Council on Bioethics raise spurious concerns. Nonetheless, it is worth considering them was devoted to the topic. (As one might expect, the 2003 report, because doing so will accomplish two things. One, it will indicate titled Beyond Therapy: Biotechnology and the Pursuit of Happiness, where the focus of our discussion of enhancements should be took a rather dim view of enhancements.) However, it is not just aca- located. Two, it will serve as a useful reminder that a number of demics, lawyers, and policy makers who have been debating the people have an almost visceral reaction against enhancements. If issues presented by enhancements. A not-insignificant portion of the enhancements are ever to become openly and widely available, general population has been captivated by the topic—although, the public must be convinced that they are acceptable. This may admittedly, some of this interest arises more from than be more difficult than some academics imagine. an objective analysis of advances in biomedical sciences. Before proceeding further, let me explain how I will be using There is a transhumanist movement that welcomes, indeed the term enhancement. First, unless stated otherwise, I will use encourages, the development of a wide range of human enhance- enhancement to mean a biomedical enhancement. A biomedical ments and, in general, takes the position that humans should be enhancement is one in which the mechanism of enhancement is able to transform themselves in radical ways, such as exponential integrated in some fashion into the human body, such as enhanc- increases in cognitive capacity or dramatic increases in healthy life spans. On the other hand, there are bioconservatives who ing one’s capabilities through ingestion of a drug, gene modifica- adamantly oppose any substantial alteration of our capacities, either tion, or the insertion or attachment of a device. This does not because they be lieve enhancements are intrinsically wrong or that mean there is a morally relevant difference between biomedical they will have devastating consequences. And, of course, there is a enhancements and what are sometimes referred to as “external wide array of positions in the middle. One example would be the enhancements,” such as computers. But even though the distinc- views of Nicholas Agar, the New Zealand philosopher who has tion may not ultimately carry much normative weight, a rough argued for the right of parents to choose to have their children factual distinction may be made; we may be skewing the discus- enhanced but who recently wrote a book, Humanity’s End, in which sion from the beginning if we ignore the factual differences he sets forth a case against radical enhancement. between the two types of enhancements. Two things are indisputable: this is a topic that needs to be An enhancement is something that improves some existing addressed, and it needs to be addressed in the context of secular human capacity or creates some new capacity that improves the ethics. Religious ethics has nothing to offer on the issue of human functioning of a human. The improvement may come about enhancements. This is not surprising, as the novel questions posed through the partial or complete suppression of some existing by human enhancements were not matters of concern two thou- capacity. Improvement is defined by reference to the statistically sand years ago. Only the most morally obtuse dogmatist would try normal range of functioning for a human or the actual function- to find guidance in the Bible or Qur’an on this issue. ing of a human individual who functions above the statistically We are fortunate to have some of today’s leading scholars on normal range. (I emphasize that this is a working definition only.)

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Are Enhancements Intrinsically Objectionable? be enhanced sufficiently that he or she can become a skilled sur- Several different arguments have been made against enhance- geon in less than a year. According to those opposed to enhance- ments. I will consider three, which I believe are representative. ments, the shortcuts provided by enhancements will not only First, Harvard professor Michael Sandel has argued that the cheapen and trivialize our accomplishments but will also sever the desire for enhancements manifests a profoundly misguided quest connection between ourselves and our accomplishments. Our for mastery over the circumstances of our existence. Sandel con- accomplishments will be inauthentic. tends it is important to maintain a sense of “giftedness,” which This argument is unconvincing. Enhancements will not elimi- he explains is the sense that who we are “exceeds our control.” nate a sense of achievement by making our objectives more acces- Enhancements may destroy an appreciation of the gifted charac- sible, at least if we can rely on historical evidence. Throughout ter of human powers and achievement. human history, and especially in the last two centuries, we have To begin, I do not believe Sandel anywhere provides an expla- developed and utilized numerous techniques and devices for nation for the high value he places on giftedness or, for that mat- accomplishing a wide range of tasks more rapidly and with less ter, the enormous negative normative weight he places on the effort. Think of airplanes, microwaves, and computers, to name desire for mastery. But I do not want to spend time debating just three examples. There has been no discernable loss of our Sandel’s evaluation of giftedness or the desire for mastery. Even if sense of achievement or any perceptible dulling of our drive or we assume that the sense of giftedness has significant value, ambition. A chef who uses a blender still takes pride in preparing Sandel is mistaken in arguing that enhancements necessarily a delicious meal, just as the surgeon who uses an array of instru- would deprive us of that sense. ments and machines and a team of assistants in a specialized facil- The sense of giftedness, according to Sandel, implies accept- ity still takes pride in a successful operation. ance of the fact that certain aspects of our lives remain outside of our control. So what is the problem with enhancements? No matter how we are enhanced, certain aspects of our lives “. . . A number of people have an almost visceral reaction will remain outside of our control, in part against enhancements. If enhancements are ever because we are continually being affected by occurrences that we have no hope of control- to become openly and widely available, the public ling, from natural disasters to disease out- must be convinced that they are acceptable. breaks to the unpredictable actions of others. This may be more difficult than some academics imagine.” Enhancements may help us cope with contin- gencies better than we do now; they will not eliminate contingencies. The wheel of fortune will continue to turn in an enhanced future. Indeed, the most radical contingency that any of us experience Of course, the examples I have given deal with external will continue to be in play in an enhanced future. No human will enhancements, but there seems no principled moral distinction ever have any control over the genetic endowment she or he is between biomedical enhancements and external enhancements provided with at conception or the environment in which she or with respect to the assistance they provide in accomplishing tasks he is nurtured and raised. We are, and always will be, thrown into or the effect they might have on our sense of accomplishment or this world. We may seek to improve ourselves later, but our initial character. If an implant gave a physician the ability to determine a conditions have been established either by chance or the decisions patient’s vital signs, there would seem to be no relevant difference of others and will always remain beyond our reach. Our existence with respect to authenticity between use of such a biomedical will remain “gifted,” whether we like it or not. enhancement and use of external equipment that provides the A second global objection against enhancements is that same result. Similarly, there seems to be no relevant difference another important aspect of human life, namely our sense of with respect to authenticity between use of a computer to per- achievement, will be undermined or destroyed. This concern is form a calculation and use of one’s own enhanced brain to per- sometimes described as an objection based on loss of authenticity form the same calculation. If anything, the fact that the task is or deformation of our character. For example, Kass has main- performed exclusively through one’s own modified body may pro- tained that with enhancements, “the relations between the vide a greater sense of accomplishment. knowing subject and his activities, and between his activities and A key point that Kass and other opponents of enhancements their fulfillments and pleasures, are disrupted.” Instead of self-dis- overlook is that even if one has enhanced capacities, one still has cipline and substantial investments of time and energy as the to apply the knowledge and skill one has acquired. Changing the means for attaining some objective, we will rely on some set of means by which we accomplish a goal does not eliminate the enhancements to provide us with a relatively quick and easy path goal. Furthermore, increasing our capacities to achieve existing to our goal. For example, a person’s memory, powers of concen- goals will surely—again, if human history is a guide—result in tration, hand-eye coordination, and other relevant capacities may both the opportunity and the desire to achieve other goals, some

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of which cannot yet be imagined. Whatever benefits an enhance- wrong with that? It seems to me that to successfully defend the ment may provide, there will always be goals that will motivate position that a change in a person’s nature is intrinsically immoral, and prove challenging. Enhancements will not inevitably turn us one would have to base one’s argument on the premise that we into disheartened slugs motivated solely by instant gratification. have an obligation to limit ourselves to the capacities that evolu- The favorite catchall objection to enhancements is, of course, tion has provided us. But this premise contains an unjustifiable that they are “unnatural.” Implicit in this objection are the claims assumption and is self-contradictory. This premise assumes that that there is a human nature and that changes to human nature evolution has provided us with the optimal mix of capacities. or a human’s nature, at least when done deliberately, are illicit or Surely, that is open to question. Second, evolution itself has immoral. changed, and presumably will continue to change, our capacities. In addressing this objection, first let me note that realistically, So this argument is internally inconsistent, or it has to be modified in the near term, enhancements will, at most, alter the nature of to maintain that change in human nature is permissible so long as a number of individuals, not the nature of the human race. The we do not deliberately do anything to change our nature but concept of human nature is one that encompasses the entire instead leave it subject to random mutations. human population. Billions of humans would have to acquire a However, this modified argument cannot withstand scrutiny significant new capacity before we could claim that human nature either. To begin, of course, there is no justification for this pur- had been changed. ported moral distinction between guided and unguided evolution. Why is chance so much better than choice that the latter can be deemed immoral? We do not usually consider the spinning of a roulette wheel as the ideal way for determining which “An enhancement is something that improves some of several possibilities will become reality. Furthermore, this distinction is unworkable, existing human capacity or creates some new as it ignores the reality that the choices humans capacity that improves the functioning of a human.” make inevitably influence the traits that become part of human nature. Evolution reflects human conduct. Domesticating animals that produced dairy products resulted in the spread of a muta- tion that allows many humans to digest lactose as adults. There is no indication that the dissem- With respect to changing the nature of individuals, we must ination of this mutation was the direct result of a deliberate choice, first reach a consensus on the core traits and capacities that make but it was caused, in part, by a deliberate choice. Surely, consum- an individual a human being. In doing so, we must distinguish ing ice cream—as bad as that might be for our waistlines—cannot between a capacity and variations in the range of the exercise or be condemned as immoral on the ground that it is unnatural manifestation of that capacity. Enough humans have short-term because adult humans were never meant to eat dairy. memory, and this capacity supports enough functions that we I believe one of the underlying reasons some oppose enhance- consider important, that one could argue this capacity is part of ments in general is their deep-seated anxiety about the unknown human nature. But human individuals already differ widely in their changes that enhancements will bring. This anxiety is expressed as ability to exercise this capacity, so it is implausible to maintain that a concern about the nature-altering potential of enhancements. those with enhanced short-term memory will have ceased to be Admittedly, we do not have much experience with biomedical human. Most enhancements will not implicate any change to the enhancements, and we cannot really predict with confidence nature of an individual because they will be improving an existing what transformations may result from such enhancements. But capacity and those improvements will likely be within the range of we do have some experience, and that experience does provide what we consider a human capability. To change the nature of an some assurance that we can deal with sweeping social changes individual, we would have to increase, or decrease, a capacity to caused in part by enhancements. such an extent that it would no longer be recognizably human; or Indeed, for fifty years we have lived with the consequences of we would have to endow the individual with an important capac- a remarkable enhancement that has provided many with a new ity hitherto not possessed by humans. An increase of 10 percent capacity. Opposition to this enhancement was initially fierce in in the content or accuracy of a person’s short-term memory would some quarters, and this opposition was based, to some extent, on be a significant improvement, but it is not going to change the the claim that this enhancement was unnatural. However, that nature of that individual. opposition has now largely, although not entirely, faded. I am But let us assume we can give humans entirely new capacities referring, of course, to birth control pills, which have given many and that doing so arguably changes their nature. What exactly is women substantial control over ovulation.

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Transforming Humanity: Fantasy? Dream? Nightmare?

To say that ovulation is a key bodily function, and that control sively on the alleged benefits to individuals without paying suffi- over this function provided women with a critical new capacity, cient attention to the effects that enhancements will have (or fail would be an understatement. Having a reliable means of prevent- to have) on human relationships. Individual capacities may be ing pregnancy vastly increased the ability of women to control the improved, but how exactly are those enhanced capacities sup- direction of their lives and enabled them to accomplish much posed to translate into “genuine human and societal improve- more than they would have been able to do otherwise. Just com- ment”? In a word, enhancements are overvalued. Block reinforces pare the status of women in the workplace in 1960 with the sta- and expands this point, arguing that enhancements represent a tus of women today. Moreover, although women were the direct “quick fix” that diverts us from the need for real social transforma- beneficiaries of the enhanced control over their bodies that oral tion. We’ll take pills instead of engaging in politics. contraceptives provided, society as a whole also benefited greatly The essay by James Hughes should, if possible, be read in con- from this enhancement. The entry of women into careers previ- junction with the essay by Asch and Block as they join issue on a ously closed to them resulted in significant increases in our intel- number of points. Hughes, executive director of the Institute for lectual capital and in our economic productivity. Ethics and Emerging Technologies and a lecturer at Trinity College, Oral contraceptives demonstrate that a significant alteration in is a noted transhumanist. Although, as he discusses in his essay, the capacity of a number of individuals is not necessarily accom- his thinking on some issues has changed, he still embraces the panied by catastrophic consequences. To the contrary, the benefi- prospect of radical enhancements. He believes, however, that cial social consequences may be enormous. Of course, this does transhumanists should aim for virtue instead of “happiness.” not imply that all significant enhancements will have beneficial Unlike, Asch and Block, Hughes sees no inconsistency in pursuing social consequences. Different enhancements will bring about dif- enhancements while simultaneously working for social change. As ferent types of changes. However, in the near term, it is unlikely he puts it, “moral enhancement is . . . something that requires we will witness an enhancement with such a profound impact as conscious changes to both our brains and our social fabric.” oral contraceptives—and we survived that impact. But who decides whether a change in moral behavior actually To sum up this argument: a fair assessment of the global makes one morally “better”? John Shook, director of education objections to enhancements is that they fail to establish that all and senior research fellow at the Center for Inquiry, notes that enhancements should be prohibited or even discouraged. while modifications of human brain chemistry that we can regard The alternative to wholesale condemnation or wholesale as therapies (for example, eliminating psychopathic personalities) approval of enhancements is evaluation of enhancements on a may be relatively uncontroversial, enhancing moral capacities will case-by-case basis. Put simply, we should determine whether the result in disagreement over the standard of moral conduct to benefits of a particular enhancement outweigh its costs. For apply in evaluating enhancements. Is something an enhancement example, does a drug that improves short-term memory have if it provides a person with firmer dispositions to follow his exist- unacceptable side effects? ing moral beliefs—even if his moral beliefs are flawed by some “objective” standard? If we allow the free market to control the Our Contributors and Their Arguments availability of moral enhancements, will this not result in the rein- Russell Blackford is an Australian philosopher (conjoint lecturer, forcement of conventional moral beliefs and standards of con- University of Newcastle) who has written widely on topics in duct? Whether this is would be a good or bad development bioethics, including human enhancements. In his essay, Blackford depends on one’s moral perspective, and we come back again to agrees that the notion of condemning or embracing enhance- the problem of deciding what’s good and what’s bad. ments wholesale makes no sense. As he puts it, there is not a The prospect of enhancements presents novel questions, and, debate about enhancements but rather debates. The value of an in part because of their novelty, these questions are both fascinat- enhancement depends on the particular technology being consid- ing and troubling. But whether these questions pique one’s inter- ered. He warns against yielding to instinctive reactions against est or make one uneasy, they cannot be avoided. Ultimately, we new technologies, which may result in restricting or prohibiting will be the ones who will determine whether human enhance- technologies before we have had an opportunity to consider care- ments remain a fantasy, fulfill our dreams, or make our nightmares fully their benefits as well as their harms. In doing so, he reminds a reality. us of the difficulties of predicting with precision the consequences of implementing new technologies, especially ones that may cause radical changes, and of the conservative bias against novel Ronald A. Lindsay is president and CEO of the Center for Inquiry. He technologies that results from uncertainty. received his PhD in philosophy from Georgetown University and his JD Adrienne Asch (professor of bioethics at Yeshiva University) and from the University of Virginia School of Law. He is the author of Future James E. Block (professor of political science at De Paul University) Bioethics: Overcoming Taboos, Myths, and Dogmas (Prometheus Books, present a powerful combined critique of the “enhancement proj- 2008). ect.” Asch maintains that enhancement proponents focus exces-

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Enhancement Anxiety

Russell Blackford

problem with the current debates about emerging tech- lowed the Dolly announcement will make it even more difficult to nologies is that they really are debates—plural. Reasonable argue for tolerance and legislative restraint the next time some Apolicy approaches to embryonic sex selection, for example, technological or social innovation excites widespread fear and or to human reproductive cloning, if it were available, might not repugnance. A new, publicly conspicuous precedent has been cre- generalize to more radical technologies that could reverse the ated for enacting directly coercive laws whose primary motivation aging process, dramatically increase our cognitive capacities, alter is essentially illiberal and irrational. the gross morphology of human bodies, or merge our brains with In general, there is little reason for Western democracies to for- sophisticated cybernetic devices. People of reason should see each bid such innovations as reproductive cloning and embryonic sex of these varied prospects as raising its own specific questions. selection. Whatever problems sex selection might cause in such Consider reproductive cloning. Over the past fifteen years, countries as China and India—where it is the underlying social Western policy makers have squandered a golden opportunity causes, not the technologies, that need to be addressed—all that came their way in February of 1997, when the birth of Dolly research to date indicates that sex selection is unlikely to be used the sheep was announced in the leading science journal Nature. in Western nations in ways that would skew sex ratios or under- In principle, the somatic cell nuclear transfer technique used to mine the welfare of women. These technologies may seem unde- create Dolly could have been applied to human beings, though sirable from the viewpoint of one or more of the many contestable this has not happened in practice because of technical difficulties. moralities that people are free to live by within the pluralistic soci- Their attention seized by the entirely hypothetical prospect of eties of the West, but they are unlikely to cause the sorts of direct human cloning, priests and pundits thundered about playing God harms to people’s ordinary civil interests that provide the least con- or violating the natural order, about the threat of a Brave New troversial basis for legal bans. What, however, about the more radi- World and the alleged wisdom of repugnance. In response, many cal and futuristic prospects that I’ve already mentioned—such as age legal prohibitions were enacted in jurisdictions around the world. reversal or mergers of brains and machines? Here, the story is differ- ent, but again the fears are exaggerated. We need to step back a little and obtain some perspective.

“We can imagine in rich detail what practices ven the most rational people can become anxious and institutions might be transformed or lost as Ewhen considering extreme scenarios, and that a result of technological advances and their social should not be surprising. Over the past few cen- turies, we have come to expect that future societies uptake—these practices and institutions already will have forms of social and economic organization exist, after all, and are familiar to us—but we cannot radically different from our own and underpinned by imagine in any detail what might replace them.” new kinds of technology. We have become increas- ingly conscious of ourselves as a species with an unknown future—and the unknown can be a fright- ening place. A rational and liberal-minded approach to the prospect of Our current understanding of human history is itself a rela- human reproductive cloning would have focused on concerns tively recent historical development, and we have not developed about safety and efficacy and the possible exploitation of vulner- the capacity to predict exactly what form any future society will able people who might want to employ the technique or act as take. As a result, we can imagine in rich detail what practices and experimental subjects. There was no need for the sweeping, dra- institutions might be transformed or lost as a result of technolog- conian laws that appeared around the planet, calculated to demo- ical advances and their social uptake—these practices and institu- nize and repudiate the whole idea of reproductive cloning even tions already exist, after all, and are familiar to us—but we cannot before the technology was developed. In short, policy makers had imagine in any detail what might replace them. We do not know, an opportunity to reaffirm the value of liberal tolerance, but many and cannot know, what things might be valued in any future soci- of them did precisely the opposite. ety very different from our own, what might give its inhabitants The moral panic and subsequent legislative frenzy that fol- joy and a sense of connection with each other (or with other

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Transforming Humanity: Fantasy? Dream? Nightmare?

aspects of their world), or what activities they might find mean- what form they might take. Rather, he fears that the lives of radi- ingful. The attempts of science-fiction writers may sometimes be cally enhanced people would lack elements that are valuable by our impressive, but they usually appear rather thin and unconvincing current standards, or by what he thinks of as human standards. He in comparison to our lived reality. claims that radical enhancement would diminish us; alienate us Thus, we can elaborate vividly on the things that we stand to from much that is valuable by these standards; and produce lose as a result of technological change, but we can think only in unprecedented forms of conflict or tyranny, since the enhanced and general terms of what we stand to gain—even though the gains unenhanced could not live together peacefully and equally. might turn out to be greater than the losses, if only we could iden- On the final page of his book, commenting specifically on the tify them and judge them by our existing standards of what makes prospect of greatly increased life spans, Agar states, “We may per- a good society or a good way of life. This asymmetry creates a sist, but only with existences that we properly view as impover- powerful conservative bias for which I believe we need to correct. ished.” How might that be? Humanity’s End offers numerous Compare an example offered by Nicholas Agar in his 2004 examples. For one, we might abandon our current risk-taking book Liberal Eugenics: In Defence of Human Enhancement (Black - approach to life, since our own futures would become greatly more well). As Agar notes, technological development over thousands valuable to us if they were of indefinite duration. As a result we of years has transformed the significance of food and the means might lock ourselves away, avoiding physical activities and social used to procure it. In the past crops could fail, and hunting certain contact. Likewise, we might lose certain kinds of relationships that animals required teamwork and accepting a risk of death. By con- depend on an increasingly untenable assumption that their impor- trast, there is little significance, much less risk, for modern tance will last until death, leading us to regard romance and mar- Westerners when we buy a jar of pasta sauce in a supermarket. Is riage, in particular, very differently from the way we do today. this an example of meaning being extinguished? Surely not. Agar With all these changes and others that he identifies, Agar adds, correctly, that technology has displaced rather than destroyed the significance of procur- ing and preparing food. We prepare Beef Wellington for our guests rather than informing them, “I have meat.” We devote time saved from “... Agar thinks that our lives would be impoverished— hunting and planting to reading novels, watching movies, reflecting on life’s meaning, or going fish- not by the standards that we or our successors would ing—which, as Agar observes, “is usually more apply after a great transformation and not by objective about spending time with nature than bringing it standards that are inescapably binding on all rational home for the cooking pot.” Our distant ancestors were in no position to creatures ... but by our current standards....” predict modern work arrangements, modern ideas of leisure, or modern cuisine. Unfortunately, we may not be much better off when we try to pre- dict even the medium-term future or to imagine the thoughts and practices of hypothetical future people socialized thinks that our lives would be impoverished—not by the standards in environments very different from our own. that we or our successors would apply after a great transforma- Perhaps surprisingly, given that he clearly understands all this, tion and not by objective standards that are inescapably binding Agar’s most recent book argues against extreme changes in human on all rational creatures (we might not be able to justify our capacities, including changes that would make us immortal (or “human” standards to intelligent aliens or radically enhanced rather, halt or reverse the process of aging). In Humanity’s End: “posthumans”), but by our current standards as identified and Why We Should Reject Radical Enhancement (MIT Press, 2010), he clarified through rational reflection. calls such changes “radical enhancement,” which he defines as fol- What should we make of this? Agar is correct that the radi- lows: “Radical enhancement involves improving significant human cally enhanced people of the future might lead lives very different attributes and abilities to levels that greatly exceed what is currently from ours, though his examples are speculative to say the least. possible for human beings.” In fairness, however, Agar thinks that Would my fear of death really increase dramatically if my current enhancement technologies can be implemented without great life expectancy were suddenly increased? That seems to open up problems up to a point: it’s a matter of where to draw a line. numerous questions about human psychology. His general argument is not that our lives, or those of our chil- But let’s concede that radical enhancement would produce dren, would be miserable or lacking in joys and satisfactions if rad- societies and individual lives that would appear strange to us, as ical enhancement technologies transformed them. He agrees that we are now. That granted, how important is it? For a start, it does the joys and satisfactions would be there, although we can’t be sure not mean that we should feel sorry for these people of the future

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as we contemplate the possibilities. As Agar well realizes and n the end, we are confronted by a fascinating situation. First, acknowledges, compassionate feelings are out of place, since Iseemingly scary new technologies such as human reproductive there is no reason to think that these people would experience cloning may not be so scary after all when we think about their lim- lives of pain or hardship. Nor, I must add, need they lack for activ- ited effects on individuals and societies. They may require regula- ities and relationships that they find deeply meaningful and fulfill- tion, but there is no good reason for liberal democracies to ban ing. For all we know, they would continue finding personal signif- them outright. Second, when we think of more futuristic and rad- icance and value in their activities and relationships. Accordingly, ical technologies, the position changes—but not necessarily in a there is no reason, at least on these grounds, to fear an impover- way that justifies draconian legislation. We can imagine scenarios ished future. Not, at any rate, unless we insist that our successors in which radical enhancement technologies change our societies on planet Earth enjoy and find meaning in the same things that deeply, perhaps undermining practices that we currently value. We we currently do. can even describe in detail what some of the threatened practices Nor are our current lives ideal, even if all goes as well as can might be, though we can’t be sure of the actual effects on them. be. Our lives inevitably diminish in many ways as we grow older. But none of this is a reason to step on the brake. Yes, the Though we may live to eighty or ninety years or even longer, we development of new technologies can threaten existing practices function near our peak for only a couple of decades, early in adult- and attitudes, as has happened in the past with the printing press, hood, and at our very best of health and strength for even less. railroads, motor vehicles, the contraceptive pill, the Internet, and Beyond the middle years of life, we are faced with a constant many other examples. But people generally adapt, and new social deterioration of our organs, organ systems, and capacities, which practices develop to incorporate the technology. These can then eventually spirals down into increasingly debilitating fragility. This provide new sources of happiness and meaning. is a kind of routine impoverishment of life that we should Of course, I have not shown that all radical enhancements acknowledge without guilt or shame, despite propaganda about would be innocuous, or that they could be implemented with no “aging gracefully” and the like. social dislocation, or with no downside for people who might miss In his book Better than Well: American Medicine Meets the out. I have not tried to argue in a comprehensive way that all American Dream (Norton, 2003), Carl Elliott discusses a sugges- emerging technologies whatsoever should be accepted politically, tion by David Gems that the problem in growing older is “onto- subject only to minimal regulation (such as for safety). None - logical diminution,” meaning “a flattening of the conditions that theless, it is important to beware of biases that can skew debate, sustain our existence.” Though Elliot is no admirer of enhance- making clear and rational analysis even more difficult. That is the ment technologies, he describes this process of diminution vividly: main point of this essay. the dimming of senses and desires; the loss of capacities; the nar- Often, it is assumed that we face a crisis in responding with rowing of perceptions and possibilities as the future grows more sufficient urgency to the emergence of Frankensteinian technolo- and more constricted. gies. I see things in a different light. If anything, the debates of the There is something like a taboo against saying so explicitly and past decade or two show a crisis for liberal tolerance. We should openly, but the aging process impoverishes our lives in very basic insist—perhaps politely, perhaps more passionately—that policy ways. If we are honest, halting the deterioration of our health, makers in our modern liberal democracies require compelling rea- strength, and capacities is something that we have every reason to sons before they embark on programs of political coercion. We value, and I do mean right now, before any transformation of our can object to distortions of public debate arising from feelings of values that new technologies may bring. We cannot, of course, disorientation or repugnance, undue deference to religious lead- imagine the detail of entire lives without the aging process, but it ers and doctrines, fears of what might be lost from technological seems perverse to complain that removing the process, or drasti- change, and the all-too-common impulse to reach for the crude cally slowing it down to give us more time at or near our peak, tools of the criminal law. would impoverish us. It’s important, no doubt, to identify possible dangers from Agar may well be correct, however, when he suggests that emerging technologies and particularly proposals for radical there is a limit to how much technological change we can absorb human enhancement. But there is always another question we if it happens very abruptly. A series of sudden and radical changes should ask. We should ask why we can’t avoid this danger or that in human capacities might well have a psychological downside. It one while also obtaining the benefits that enhancement technolo- might be shocking and alienating—like the impact of a military gies promise. Why not? invasion by a technologically superior culture. Even so, there would Perhaps we’ll find that we can. be gains. The overall outcome might not be a bad one when all things are balanced and considered. In any event, any radical enhancements of human capacities are more likely to take place Russell Blackford is conjoint lecturer in the School of Humanities and over generations, allowing time for people and cultures to adapt. Social Science at the University of Newcastle in Australia.

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Transforming Humanity: Fantasy? Dream? Nightmare?

Against the Enhancement Project Two Perspectives

Adrienne Asch and James E. Block

Perspective 1 ment, and we join them in opposing all the forms of competitive parenting familiar to those who have struggled about how much Adrienne Asch shaping to do. What is the right school for our child? Should he or she be spending so much time on schoolwork at the expense roponents of so-called moderate genetic enhancements of friendships or sports? Pcontend that we needn’t worry much about possible upgrades These concerns will plague the parents of a genetically to future human beings because they will not be transformative. enhanced child as well, but the parent-child relationship will be Proponents of more radical enhancements endorse possible radi- different. Whether or not children know of their parents’ selection cal changes to humans that might come from their envisioned efforts, parents will know that they sought particular characteris- radical genetic and biotechnological innovations. Like other skep- tics for their children. Even if they are counseled that a child’s tics, we think both moderate and radical enhancement projects genetic predisposition to an activity may not lead to the child’s have dangers. We go further, however, to argue that focusing on interest in the activity, they may be sorely disappointed when the enhancing the traits of individuals will ultimately fail at transform- child with genes for mathematics prefers fashion design. If the ing humanity or human society in positive directions. We have parent or parents didn’t care a lot about getting a particular result, found little explanation of how even enhanced humans would they wouldn’t have bothered to do the selecting in the first place. work together to solve most of the world’s vexing and critical It seems naïve to claim that parents will affirm the child who problems. In short, even if the moderate or radical enhancement doesn’t meet their expectations as much as they respect, love, and projects succeeded, we doubt that the enhanced humans (or appreciate the child who does. If the parents were open to dis - posthumans) would live in a world markedly better than the one covering and fostering their child’s talents and strengths, they we now inhabit. wouldn’t have needed to select particular traits in the first place. In the world of the genetically enhanced, a high school stu- Moderate Enhancement, Parents, dent with genes designed to give her facial beauty, physical coor- and Their Children dination, and a clear speaking voice may still be unable to get Moderate enhancements that proponents have endorsed pertain leading roles. Her parents’ disappointment may be even keener if to immunity to disease, physical size and strength, cognition, apti- she has been enhanced because their plans are thwarted. If their tudes for mathematics or music, and mood. Proponents contend daughter learns that her genetic makeup was selected for a par- that enhanced physical, intellectual, and emotional resources ticular goal, she could face a bewildering array of reactions: she would aid almost any life plan parents could want for their chil- failed her parents despite the work they did to select traits dren or the children could want for themselves. Why wouldn’t designed for success. Living in a body whose characteristics were prospective parents in the United States select safe and effective chosen for her, she may feel that her parents also chose her activ- methods of genetically or prenatally improving their future child’s ities and life course. Drawing on the ideas of Habermas, Bernard ability to avoid hypertension or diabetes, understand the debates G. Prusak explains that whether or not the girl succeeds or fails at around the science of climate change, appreciate Shakespeare living out her parents’ dreams, she may feel that neither her goals and postmodern novels, play the piano or the saxophone, and nor her body are in any sense hers. They were selected before the enjoy life’s variety of experiences? Proponents point out that virtu- people who supposedly love her and are raising her even knew ally all parents try to shape their children by exposing them to par- her! Such a child is deprived of autonomy, authenticity, and the ticular foods, recreation, media, and ideas about the world that sense that her body and talents are hers to use for purposes she matter to those parents. Supporters of enhancement seem unim- selects. The life plan and the body in which she lives were deter- pressed with skeptics who think that all shaping methods are not mined before her parents could have responded to anything they created equal. knew or saw of her. Genetic selection is even more one-sided, less Along with these skeptics, we agree that means of enhance- interactional, and less influenced by the characteristics of the par- ment matter. We concur with the critics that there is plenty of ticular child than anything foisted on today’s children by overly hyper-parenting without genetic and biotechnological enhance- anxious parents.

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Let us consider the life of an unenhanced girl. She may take to commit oneself to the protection, growth, nurturing, and devel- music lessons, be enrolled in Little League, and attend religious opment of another human being. Parenting has been understood services because her parents insist upon these activities. But at as the giving of oneself to someone whose life we will influence but some point, she can announce that she is not going to practice whose life will take its own direction. On this theory, child-raising the cello anymore, and, as is common, her parents would accept has been understood as differing from the activity of picking friends the decision. Adolescents from some religious families and com- or mates, where the major purposes of the relationship are compan- munities may have a harder time renouncing tradition, but we all ionship and compatability in activities, values, or goals. We are not know of “recovering Catholics,” nonpracticing children from saying that parental love should be, or even can be, unconditional; Orthodox Jewish homes, and (less common perhaps) birthright we’re not at all sure how parents should respond to a child who lies, Quakers who enlist in the armed forces. cheats, steals, rapes, or kills. But we think that what has been The unenhanced and the enhanced may each have disap- accepted as the parental role—to help the child develop the inter- pointed their parents and taken paths contrary to their parents’ ests, talents, and values that are the child’s own—is undermined by dreams for them. But the unprogrammed child disappoints her par- increased parental selectivity. One measure of parental achievement ents, not the bodily fate that was predicted, because there was no is that a child is able to find her or his life path—even if that path bodily fate predicted. The successful enhanced child may not be radically departs from what a parent encouraged. able to take any pride in her accomplishments because she could The enhanced individual will just as easily have someone to feel that she had nothing to do with them; they came to her from envy; there will be someone with greater enhancements or enhancements added to “better” natural endow- ment or someone whose parents picked enhance- ments one would have preferred for oneself but didn’t get. Paradoxically, enhancers don’t seem inter- ested in the fact that even for above-average people, “Providing capacities and powers that the subject does life will include difficulties and disappointments. Yet not play a role in developing ... decreases mastery by we’ve seen no statements about enhancing humans’ creating discontinuities in experience and understanding capacities for handling what cannot be controlled or for adapting to the unexpected and unpredictable. inconsistent with the development of a coherent narra- Perhaps this omission stems from the dream that tive of identity and world.” someday we will be able to control everything; but unless the world becomes unimaginably different from the one we know today, humans and even posthumans will not control everything about their lives. Any serious effort to transform humanity through biological and social means had best include outside herself. Neither her body nor her interests can be said to aiding future generations and societies to deal well with whatever belong to her. Genetic programming will be harder to go against comes up in life. If we worked with our existing psychological and than today’s most ardent and involved stage mother. The program- social means to aid people in dealing with life’s exigencies, there ming is intended to give a child the predisposition to characteristics might be no strong interest in trait enhancement because people parents want and will reinforce. The child will be celebrated for con- would be finding meaning and value in the lives they have. forming with the parents’ desired aptitudes and behaviors. Going I have put forward similar ideas in other writings, and we rec- against community and family norms will be even harder to accom- ognize similarities to the views of Michael Sandel and Dov Fox. We plish if children realize they have been bred for a role. now link and extend this critique of parental projects of selectivity Becoming a reasonably fulfilled and functional adult requires and enhancement to the societal values these projects reinforce children to receive a mix of trust in and acceptance by the people and promote. raising them; they also need the confidence that their caretakers support their exploration of the world. Children need their curios- The Family, the Society, and Suspect Norms ity stimulated, their efforts to learn about the world and them- Individual self-realization is only one significant facet of flourish- selves affirmed, their accomplishments applauded. They also need ing. As long as human beings live in groups, it is at least as crucial to feel that they had something to do with what happens to them, to discover how to live harmoniously with others. Whether chil- as well as to learn that they will not always triumph and that not dren live in a nuclear family, the kibbutz of sixty years ago, or the every wish will come true. world of Marge Piercy’s Mattapoisett nurtured by intended but We are convinced that endorsing greater parental selectivity in unrelated parents, children must learn to get along with and children’s characteristics endangers something central to our under- appreciate other people. They must learn to share space, food, standing of reasonable, not even ideal, parenting—the willingness and adult attention with other people who have different person-

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Transforming Humanity: Fantasy? Dream? Nightmare?

alities, interests, strengths, problems, and needs. memory may be valuable in some situations, but it can also mean The parents who teach their young that only certain personali- never forgetting every personal slight, every failure, every irrita- ties, moods, predilections, and capacities are good enough for tion, every disappointment. Sociability can make it harder to dis- membership in a family are teaching a dangerous lesson in con- cover the gifts of quiet, of time alone. How can parents be so sure formity, intolerance, and exclusion. The family becomes, in Leo that the trait they want to enhance will really serve their child Kittay’s words, “a club” that can be entered only if a child passes throughout the decades and vicissitudes of life? genetic muster. Parents committed to selectivity and enhancement Leaving the individual and going to the group, do we really of only certain attributes will have trouble teaching their children want a society of extroverts and speed demons? What will that people are not all the same, that people with many character- become of people who think there’s something valuable in savor- istics can be appreciated, and that other people’s strengths and ing ideas, experiences, and a few close relationships? We are not problems are as valid and legitimate as the characteristics this fam- complaining because we think that different traits should get ily chose. more respect and attention than the current list in vogue. We’re Seeking to redeem the wisdom of eugenics from its American suggesting that individuals may value different facets of their per- early twentieth-century and Nazi past, Allen Buchanan et al. write: sonalities at different times. We are arguing against the “Reprehensible as much of the eugenic program was, there is enhancers’ desire to pick a list of traits and to decide that a given something unobjectionable and perhaps even morally required in society needs people with more of those traits and fewer people the part of its motivation that sought to endow future generations with some other traits. Society needs people with many different with genes that might enable their lives to go better. We need not traits, and one of the most important tasks of individual, familial, abandon this motivation if we can pursue it justly.” and social life is to respect, nurture, and honor that variety. Despite these authors’ acknowledgment that people can’t be reduced to their genes and that most gene expression is influenced by other genes as well as by the environment, these adherents are still talking about genes making lives go better. They “. . . Ahighschoolstudentwithgenesdesignedtogive are saying that only particular genetic endow- ments can lead to well-being. As I have pointed herfacialbeauty,physicalcoordination,andaclear out elsewhere, there is a wide range of possible speakingvoicemaystillbeunabletogetleadingroles. satisfying lives; with very few exceptions, people Herparents’disappointmentmaybeevenkeenerifshe with less-than-ideal health and people having significant physical, sensory, cognitive, and emo- hasbeenenhancedbecausetheirplansarethwarted.” tional disabilities can and do find their lives rewarding. The more important point is not the debate about disability and quality of life. Rather, it is the danger that a set of philosophers and scientists will decide which characteristics Individual Enhancement and the Social World are favored and endeavor to persuade parents and society to cre- Our problems with the enhancement project go beyond our con- ate more people with the favored set and reduce the number with cerns for appreciating the diversity of human attributes. We don’t a set that is out of fashion. Moderate and radical enhancers have think even successful enhancers will necessarily be solving many their list of attributes they think will make lives go better. All chil- of the problems plaguing the world. Both moderate and radical dren will be above average; in the enhanced future everyone will enhancers seem bent on making sure that people who already be like the people of Lake Wobegon or even better. Sociability is have a lot will have even more. Giving many humans more intelli- favored; shyness is to be avoided. “Moderate” risk-taking is gence, longevity, health, and strength will not produce a world acceptable but nothing too rash. The more radical scenarios have with fewer difficulties. We suspect that enhancement proponents humans or posthumans devouring all of world literature in sec- may not see improving human traits as part of a larger social proj- onds, never forgetting anything, being able to stay awake for at ect of transforming humanity. One of our chief concerns about least twenty of every twenty-four hours, and living for hundreds if “transforming humanity” through the existing notions of not thousands of years. enhancement is that the enhancement project appears entirely To quote the song, “When will we ever learn” that individual individually focused; it ignores the major psychological, social, lives, and group lives, are more complicated than having more or economic, and political problems facing individuals, families, fewer of a list of favored or disfavored traits? nations, and the planet. Even if humans never need to sleep and Even for an individual, the trait we value in one moment can can devour books in a single gulp, they may not use such powers be a problem at another time. Being quick is not always as desir- for anything beyond their own satisfaction. able as taking more time and being thorough. Having a good Individuals in the developed world face boredom, loneliness,

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alienation, disappointment. Moving beyond the attributes and don’t find any discussion of how enhancement proponents go current difficulties of individuals, we can look at the interpersonal from the enhanced individual to the transformed society that fos- and the societal world to note broken friendships and family ters the exercise of such capacities. estrangement, bullied children, and competitive, frequently unco- Will empathic, generous, courageous people automatically operative adults. Violence, discrimination, war, poverty, and create the remedies for interpersonal and world problems? It’s famine plague the world. We want to know how the people who hard to see the paths from genetic to social transformation. would enhance any particular set of individual traits see their bet- Different exemplars of virtue—Mother Teresa, Gandhi, Nelson ter people as using those traits for genuine human and societal Mandela—don’t come up with the same approaches. Enhancing improvement. As we read the enhancement literature, we find one or two such morally desirable traits would not go far toward scant attention to such questions. alleviating human problems. Empathy alone, without the will to Smarter, healthier, harder-working, and more long-lived scientists act on it and the context in which to exercise it, is useless to any- might figure out ways to produce the material goods to end poverty one who might benefit. Feeling another’s pain is self-indulgent and famine. We could actually go far toward doing that now if we and immobilizing if there’s no means for using empathy on wanted to change how we distribute wealth. Perhaps a world of another’s behalf. Social reform takes more than empathy; it takes people with greater “impulse control” would reduce the violence of the will to act in ways that may disturb others, a kind of courage and steadfastness, perhaps an imperviousness to crit- icism. Single-trait enhancement alone could never suffice for creating people with the mix of character- istics that will lead them to turn empathy into a quest for social justice. Moreover, we don’t want or need a “Creating a more just and empathic society society or a world of people with the same mix of and world strikes us as the most powerful way to even “morally superior” traits. Healers, teachers, cru- transform humanity, as contrasted with enhancing saders, scientists, artists, accountants, and firefight- ers all do worthwhile activities in any world and even large numbers of individual human beings.” approach their work and interpersonal relations with a variety of intellectual, physical, and personality characteristics that deserve recognition and respect. But even if we assumed that philosophers could create a list of the most valuable virtues and that sci- the street, but simple impulse control wouldn’t do anything to end entists could deliver means of enhancing them, we would need to death from corporations that sell tobacco and other toxic sub- recognize that exercising desirable traits depends on context. stances. The people who want to enhance physical and cognitive “Decent” people can do terrible things depending upon a given powers don’t explain what valuable purposes are advanced by their situation, and even people with great flaws in some areas exercise projects. Even if reducing ill health and disability by genetic means is heroism in other areas of life, as Oskar Schindler and Martin Luther a worthy goal, we already know a lot about how to prevent and King demonstrate. It is naïve to think that particular moral traits, ameliorate much about what is wrong for people with diseases and absent the contexts for exercising those traits, will conduce to any disabilities, but we don’t use our knowledge for such purposes. kind of improved moral behavior. Improved sanitation, for example, could halt cholera epidemics. Why Save for occasional comments about exacerbating existing do we fail to use the knowledge, the money, and the talent already social inequalities, enhancement proponents rarely demonstrate available in the world to make improvements? any apprehensions about negative consequences of their pro- The answer to such a question does not lie with “moral gram, and they also don’t appear to wonder much about what a enhancement.” Thomas Douglas (and also Ingmar Persson and world of enhanced humans would be like. To date, our quest for Julian Savulescu) endorse a moral enhancement program, scientific and moral progress has always come with unanticipated although even they doubt easy or quick success in engineering new challenges. It would seem appropriate for enhancement traits to create morally superior beings. Perhaps there has been enthusiasts to justify their quest by talking about how humankind relatively less attention to what we’re calling “moral enhance- would really benefit and by framing their claims for benefits with ment” because there’s less agreement among scientists about due recognition that they cannot foresee all the potential difficul- whether particular facets of morality can be genetically or chemi- ties that the enhanced generations would face. cally induced. We doubt the existence of genes for enhancing Creating a more just and empathic society and world strikes us empathy, generosity, respect for difference, and recognition of as the most powerful way to transform humanity, as contrasted commonality across difference. But even if future scientists discov- with enhancing even large numbers of individual human beings. ered mechanisms for such individual attribute enhancements, we Getting to such a transformed society is a large project. Historians

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Transforming Humanity: Fantasy? Dream? Nightmare?

don’t agree about what forces led to clear moral progress such as age our young to engage in deep understanding. The most salient the abolition of slavery or the enfranchisement of women. Some things in our lives, from the lopsided structures of political and of the finest minds of the last century have not agreed about what economic power and the disjunction between rhetoric and prac- a just society is or about the best moral and political theories. tice in society to the disciplinary nature of schooling and families, Libertarians and socialists are equally sincere in their convictions cannot be discussed. Ignorance is demanded from childhood on about what the world needs. Without any such agreement about (we call it “protecting innocence”), along with conformity as a these matters, it seems daunting to envision the best environ- form of learned amnesia regarding our loss of thinking for our- ments for alleviating the interpersonal and world problems we can selves (the psychologist Erich Fromm called it “pseudo-thinking”). now identify. Ending slavery and colonialism have not ended inter- The experiential understanding of our identity, relations, cul- group conflict. In the remainder of this article, we argue that ture, society, and world must involve continuous reworking and enhanced genes for any particular morally desirable traits won’t rethinking if it is to provide sequences leading to higher stages of be useful without a commitment to transforming the institutions growth and integration. Providing capacities and powers that the and environments in which people live and exercise such traits. subject does not play a role in developing, as in the movie Eternal And we think that humility about the consequences of social engi- Sunshine of the Spotless Mind, decreases mastery by creating dis- neering is also required when imagining how to deal with the con- continuities in experience and understanding inconsistent with the sequences of any large-scale genetic and biological engineering. It development of a coherent narrative of identity and world. is to this quest for a social order that we now turn. Greater processing power in a culture that resists efforts to process the complexities of internal and external interactions below the surface can only succeed if the information “crunched” Perspective 2: The Technological is surface data—Malcolm Gladwell’s “blink.” Given the sense of dislocation, disorientation, and isolation facing those who assert Substitute for Political Change heightened insight over and against cultural pressures, claiming that individuals would be simply given tools to face reality more James E. Block directly involves wishful thinking and even self-delusion. Enhancements to emotional processing offer to rectify this his essay asks whether the genetic alteration, nominally an problem. Promoting the capacities to create more powerfully, love Tenhancement, of specific capacities and endowments can be more deeply, engage more fully, without the difficult ongoing understood as transforming humanity. The language of transfor- attention to internal conflicts and setbacks, ambivalences, strug- mation—as opposed to the technical term of modification—is gles, and contestations, and other internal and external barriers, sociopolitical. What then are the likely sociopolitical and social misunderstands the intricacy of emotional growth. The recent psychological consequences of the genetic enhancement agenda, movie Limitless offers just such a magic bullet: enhancements that and why is the term transformation being applied to genetic will overcome all internal barriers and clear the path to super-opti- makeovers? If social transformation involves a distinct set of prior- mal functioning in the world. A deeply conflicted and paralyzed ities, the broader question will be how a transformational agenda young writer embraces enhancement as the way out, only to might be framed in which new technologies contribute to greater become an extraordinarily efficient information processor and cor- social well-being. porate-organizational-political operative. As only his girlfriend realizes, what is missing in this “success story” is any sense of self. Reflections on the Impact of Genetic Transformations But he—and the movie—seem to regard this as an insignificant Technological idealism and political transformation both address price to pay. the same root issue: the quest for greater mastery of the inner and The shortfalls here again arise less because we lack genetic or outer worlds. This part will consider that quest in three contexts: internal capacity than from pressures to adopt simplistic functional individual, relational, and social. poses and mindsets. What are prized in this society are extrover- Individual mastery. What is at stake here is the relationship sional masks and organizational personalities that make us func- between experience and mastery. Can the capacity for better con- tionaries, despite their being deeply incommensurable with ceptual and emotional processing be “built in?” Processing com- greater connection with and unfolding of the resources and petence in this view is an experiential acquisition. In terms of con- potentialities of the inner world. The current demand for false and ceptual processing, the functioning of intellect and memory to simplistic accommodations with set social agendas involves sacri- recall, comprehend, and manipulate experience—if the model is fice of the very personal development and maturity that enhance- more than replicating data-processing systems—first depends on ments claim to provide—but can’t be exercised even now in a the absorption and integration of experience. Individuals now uti- society of enforced psychosocial incapacity. lize only a fraction of their existing capacities, not primarily What is conspicuously absent, for example in No Child Left because of equipment problems but because we do not encour- Behind, Race to the Top, and the meritocratic obsession generally,

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is nurturing young people’s actual desire for and interest in achiev- of creating trust and connectedness. There are words for this, but ing the unfolding and mastery of their lives and processes of love is not one of them. The avoidance of the slow emergence of greater comprehending, synthesizing, creating, and challenging. expansive moral and political capacities to ascend Kohlberg’s Claims that a life of inward mastery and competence, first and stages to independent moral life, endemic as Rousseau knew in most fully imagined by Rousseau in his profound work of educa- traditional and liberal society, only lead to internal insecurity and tion Emile, can be posited not as the result of internal development ineffectiveness. The result of seeking a quick fix (a quick fix being but as the starting point—no education needed—toy with the real- precisely to circumvent the self and its developmental timetable) ities of human maturation. This is the work of years, demanding was compliance and conformity with existing social patterns and much from adults protecting and nurturing emergent capacities external agendas. until the child has the strength to act upon its wishes and insights Social mastery. The impact on society of a culture in which on its own. Rousseau asserted that a child, if allowed and enabled, individuals are led to believe they—and/or their children—can will develop and refine his or her wishes and the capacities to real- have bigger, better, faster enhancements, risk-free, without ize them as a fully achieved individuality and humanity. The func- downsides is toxic. Not appreciating what the potential costs tion of a transformed education would be to enable those dreams might be, they would want more enhancement continually. The to flourish without being defeated by a competitive, envious, com- message is permanent dissatisfaction with one’s situation, to be parative culture, so that the child has space to develop his or her solved by immediate upgrading, the joy coming with the hit from own deep sense of purpose, meaning, and identity. more. This addictive psychology that only more is ever enough produces the inflamed wants, relentless acquisi- tion, and status competition of a consumer soci- ety. Every frustration will be overcome by the promise of endless fulfillment, Ahab’s dread dis- “The question is how we came to imagine that human ease that was for Melville the quintessential transformation was to be the province of improved American psychosis. Rather than look within to technical capacity rather than a deeper understanding find one’s resources for happiness, the solution is to be obtained in the market with myriad of human needs and wishes....” enhancements for every problem or limitation. Given the fantasy that a world of “perfect” and “pure” children, of a “wittier and happier” humanity, of unlimited growth and moral and Relational mastery. The question here is, how are relational rational enhancement for our taking without conflict could only bonds, acceptance, empathy, and community acquired? The idea emerge under present conditions if subjects accept the existing that individuals can obtain enhanced relational capacities without social, moral and rational frames. Real psycho-emotional growth, relational experience, the complex trial-and-error integrating of real creativity out of the box involves an inevitable collision and ulti- feelings and fears, desires and doubts, expectations and evalua- mately confrontation with those frames. The result, unsurprisingly, tions, is fanciful. The promise extended that each will move from would be a continually conflictual and dialogical social world—the baby Einstein to adult Einstein asks us to imagine endless more profound, the deeper the questions and liberation of the par- Beethovens without competition, envy, or inflamed expectations ticipants. To learn how to evaluate and challenge the status quo, (if all are Beethoven, who then is Beethoven?). Simply adding the take a stand, dissent when necessary, involves the complex ascer- best possible relational processors to produce this simply circum- tainment and processing of visible and veiled agendas, negotiating vents—so common in our time—the mutuality of recognition and troubling, often divisive differences, forming and implementing appreciation that relations require, including not least an aware- larger goals and ideals. Unless these are continually nurtured in ness of one’s own limits and the strengths of others. accessible social learning environments, the result, as de Tocqueville Moral depth, as Rousseau understood, involves an ever- foresaw, is a society where citizens—lacking courage and their own stronger sense of the value and distinctiveness of others, learned views—can’t say “no,” that is, citizens today who confuse being in the long course of growth beyond early and developmentally “out of the box” with the bumper sticker. appropriate egoism, made possible by even-greater confidence in one’s own sense of self, capabilities, and ability to achieve per- Contextualizing the Contemporary Transformative Impulse sonal fulfillment. One comes to love and appreciate others better The dream of technological idealists is that the forms of mastery as a consequence of more fully coming to believe in one’s self. that science can offer could be more directly and effectively One could not skip these stages any more than one could fall applied to the larger project of collective well-being. The question instantly into a perfect intimate relationship and avoid all the work is how we came to imagine that human transformation was to be

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the province of improved technical capacity rather than a deeper 1960s and 1970s supports this contention. But the problems understanding of human needs and wishes, of human character encountered by these movements for change have never been ade- and the potential for growth, understanding, and connectedness, quately examined, and simply ignoring rather than addressing the of the capacities of improved social processes to provide actualiza- lessons of history does not bode well for surmounting them. Absent tion for individuals and groups. a broader discussion of post-industrial social development, in fact, This agenda of a society of unfolding emotional and creative the prospects for democracy, community, selfhood, and empower- potential, of realized and liberated individuals growing up in col- ment are likely to be set back by a strategy relying on technological laborative affective communities, was tried in the 1960s. While makeovers that replaces rather than mobilizes the public. seemingly possible to some, most of society resisted the resulting We now live in a time of social and psychological retrench- challenge to their basic assumptions. Unprepared to find one’s ment, a staggering return to economic misery, robber-baron elites, own reality and meaning, to face the sense of being on one’s own market mantras, suburban and Sun Belt conspicuous consump- brought on by independence, to resolve the complex relations tion, isolation in electronic cottages, a tattered social safety net, among autonomous individuals, they at the same time were and global war. This determined political and cultural reaction unwilling to undertake the long historical and experiential journey against the 1950s’ prospect of a post-industrial affluent society of psychological and social development required. It was easier to and the 1960s’ initiation of new forms of human individualism imagine this dream of transformation as a form of instant gratifi- and connection rejects efforts to embrace and master the chal- cation. The collapse of such illusions has led Americans over the lenge and opportunity of this incipient economic and social trans- last forty years on a conservative flight to security in the safe har- formation. As a result, this is a time of magical thinking—in reli- bor of routinized, putatively risk-free life and thought. So by now there is a pervading sense in the culture that most Americans cannot imagine—let alone understand and imple- “. . .Thekindofpsychologicalvulnerability ment—an agenda of real human and social toconformity,materialism,theefficienciesofcompliance, growth. Behind the fantasy by elites of genetic transformation lies the wish to skip andpassivitytailoredtothesmoothoperationof the laborious development of full psychoso- themachineagewould—withoutacultivation cial capacity in ordinary citizens. Somehow, ofinternalstrengthandautonomy—produceindividuals new capacities and skills and techniques will be provided, self-empowerment and intheimageofthosemachines....” self-development instilled in the drinking water, as substitutes for those lacking the power to dream and act for transformation. Change will thus be effected without pushing citizens beyond gion, fundamentalistic politics, cultural fantasies, family life, and their comfort zone and without the risks of cultural and social science. In a 2010 collection of essays titled Utopianism and the upheaval transformation normally produces, for there is every like- Sciences, 1880–1930, a number of authors link the speculations lihood they would at this moment want none of the challenges during that period about social utopia arising on the basis of involved. Lamarckian evolution, regenerative life forces, social hygienism, Linking social change to a technological imperative is a beguil- more advanced cultivation of energy and power, eugenics, and so ing vision because it suggests an alternative to the often inconclu- forth to the growing specter of degenerative political and culture sive, too often regressive course of the political processes. In times forces (think of Oswald Spengler). In their view, the entry of the of political reaction, this vision is little less than mesmerizing, untutored masses into European politics was derailing the nine- promising a (dramatic) way forward to reverse the evident—and teenth-century engine of modern progress. A new biologically mounting—failures of society to actualize the capacities for social inspired society would replace the messy and trivial politics of justice, human development, and engaged communities that mass society. Ironically, this Faustian dream of technological trans- appear to lie so closely within reach. The suspicion is that, unable formation eventually made its peace with a mobilized mass poli- to address these questions openly and productively as a society in tics to create the horrors of the following century. a way accountable to the recipients and the community, what is being sought is a substitute for politics. The Longer View The rise of discourses of scientific transformation following the How do we address these issues in a way that avoids the most sin- failure of the movements for political and social change in the ister forms of blowback? We need to begin by localizing and par-

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ticularizing the causes of the present political stalemate underly- sion and despair” at the radical discord between man’s “capacity ing the wish for quick fixes. Things seem so much worse at the to control the forces of Nature and his capacity to subdue his present time—at least by comparison to the stirring images of the social relations to rational direction.” As he muses, “long ago it immense promise of late industrial life a half-century ago, before was said that man can more easily take a city than govern him- something went wrong. And what went wrong is that we had self.” What the 1960s insisted was that external mastery without been handed a technological—post-industrial—utopia in our laps internal mastery would surely fail, that the kind of psychological but weren’t prepared psychically, emotionally, relationally, or commu- vulnerability to conformity, materialism, the efficiencies of compli- nally to handle it. We saw the future before our eyes but couldn’t ance, and passivity tailored to the smooth operation of the take the next step. And yet, unable to walk, we would want to fly machine age would—without a cultivation of internal strength through that door! and autonomy—produce individuals in the image of those Many progressives believed that a new post-industrial society machines, what writer Alan Lightman in The Diagnosis identified would liberate us from onerous toil and stifling hierarchies, but as perfect “information processors,” supremely functional didn’t realize this would demand of us new ways of mastering and appendages of the technological network (or throw away parts) actualizing our own autonomous dreams and desires without the but dead, emotionally and morally, inside. safety net of organizational structures and work disciplines and Individuals have been left in no condition to develop the social roles, external agendas to comply with, and superiors to capacities for internal mastery because of their continued submis- defer to, blame, and depend upon. We would have to know, or sion to the systems of psychological shaping for deference come to know, ourselves better, and identify what makes life employed in the previous age. The creation of a compliant public worth living and values worth sustaining day by day. We would has resulted in liberal institutions and political processes (once have to be capable of forming democratic communities and col- accessible to popular initiative) now used as weapons of attitude- laborative collectives and mutually empowering relations, and to shaping and commitment-manipulation in the hands of those raise the young—all our young—to actualize themselves in new who possess the great system levers of external mastery. With the open and enabling spaces and processes. We would need to let public’s input and empowerment possessed in the early republic in go of America-firstism, of gorging ourselves on the world’s decline, they now find the only outlet to be in individualistic fan- resources, by always replacing more with the good and addictive tasies of a stateless world. Fed this frontier revivalism by conserva- consumption with other forms of activity. We would, finally, have tive opinion makers, of a coming time when free markets and to learn how to create life narratives that speak to the unfolding consumer choice and cowboys will with God’s grace roam unim- of our natures and our common dreams. peded once again, the Matrix grows about and engulfs them as How well are we doing this? And how effectively will new sci- they stay glued to the fantasy screen. Simply inserting within the entific advances, piled upon the massive technical achievements of historical transition from external, worldly, to internal mastery the the past century, aid us in this task? For the 1960s represented the middle step of a scientific mastery and technological enhance- culmination of a three-hundred-plus-year age of external mastery, ment of internal processes is too clever. As in Limitless, the contin- when industrial modernization, organizational integration, and uing commitment to technical solutions and a profound misun- cybernetics revolutionized our relation to the physical world and derstanding of what is required for the growth of modern subjects multiplied ad infinitum our power over it. At that time we entered as capable and self-knowing members of the polity will not break a new era, what I will call the age of internal mastery. The United but reinforce the chains of compliance. States, the first modern nation, was the result of this explosive external mastering impulse (exploration, colonization, and eco- Thoughts (Forward) Out of Season nomic and industrial expansion), and its vaunted individualistic In suggesting a way out of this predicament, we want to affirm our society with its novel popular institutions, economic opportunity, shared belief in human enhancement and mastery, growth and and mobility provided the global spark that has brought the transformation, both individually and collectively. We believe the rewards of worldly mastery into the daily lives of many ordinary cit- way forward is by posing the right questions and suggest that the izens. As the great historian Carl Becker has explained, “Man’s missing term—the inescapable correlative of internal mastery—is effort to control the forces of Nature” led to an “unprecedented empowerment. Never in human history, in the great transformative acceleration in man’s capacity to create material wealth” and religious, social, and political movements, has empowerment been unparalleled increase in ”power and precision” to “supply all that gifted, because it involves the subject’s struggling to affirm for itself is needed” and create lives “like the gods, free from toil and grief.” its own enhanced place in the world and its capacities—and real What went wrong? In Becker’s analysis, the parallel effort to world opportunities—for carrying forth that new role. “regenerate society” in light of these advances by “co-ordinating The lesson of the ages is that there can be no substitute on the the expanding activities of man” failed, leading “only to confu- road to internal mastery for the attainment of competence. We

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cannot turn citizens fearful of their own power and capacity into Further Reading adequate social beings by providing them a shortcut. Nor can we N. Agar. Liberal Eugenics: In Defence of Human Enhancement. Malden, make an end run around their natures to some higher implanted Mass.: Blackwell Publishing, 2004. ———. Humanity’s End: Why We Should Reject Radical Enhancement. or externally cultivated nature. The dream of American idealism Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 2010. from Crevecoeur and Emerson was to strip away the encum- A. Asch. “Why I Haven’t Changed My Mind about Prenatal Diagnosis: brances of tradition, hierarchy, and authority to release the natu- Reflections and Refinements.” In Prenatal Testing and Disability Rights, edited by E. Parens and A. Asch. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown ral individual to his or her full possibility of development. One sign University Press, 2000. of an age of despair is that its wishes for the future are develop- A. Asch. “Disability Equality and Prenatal Testing: Contradictory or Com - mentally discontinuous with what is perceived as our present patible?” Florida State University Law Review 30(2)(2003): 315–42. A. Asch and D. Wasserman. “Where Is the Sin in Synecdoche? Prenatal natures—and thus the encumbrances must be leapt over. Testing and the Parent-Child Relationship.” In Quality of Life and In order to avoid such discontinuities, with the decrease in Human Difference, edited by D. Wasserman, J. Bickenbach, and R. power and efficacy and coherence and comprehension they por- Wachbroit. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005. C. Becker. Progress and Power. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1949. tend and the further retrenchment in fear that would result, we A. Buchanan, D.W. Brock, N. Daniels, and D. Wikler. From Chance to suggest instead reconnecting with that nature, finding the Choice: Genetics and Justice. New York: Cambridge University Press, strengths within our educated and mature society that offer a ful- 2000. R. Cole-Turner. “Do Means Matter?” In Enhancing Human Traits: Ethical crum from which to evolve new skills and capacities and a new and Social Implications, edited by E. Parens. Washington, D.C.: George - sense of adequacy. We are indeed on the cusp of a transformative town University Press, 1998. age, a step forward into post-industrial opportunity and mastery, T. Douglas. “Moral Enhancement.” Journal of Applied Philosophy 25(3)(2008): 228–45. lives liberated from the most onerous toil, global dispersions of C. Elliott. Better Than Well: American Medicine Meets the American power, and forms of education for inner development previously Dream. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2003. regarded as unattainable. What is hindering this advance is not D. Fox. “Parental Attention Deficit Disorder.” Journal of Applied Philosophy 25(3)(2008): 246–61. technological or genetic deficits but fear of how demanding more J. Habermas. The Future of Human Nature. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2003. from our lives and institutions and relationships will unsettle exist- J. Hughes. Citizen Cyborg: Why Democratic Societies Must Respond to the ing forms of social order and organization, identity formation, and Redesigned Human of the Future. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 2004. institutional integration that provide much of the stability and E.F. and L. Kittay. “On the Expressivity and Ethics of Selective Abortion for solidity many hold on to in this rapidly shifting world. Disability: Conversations with My Son.” In Prenatal Testing and Dis- The project of building the internal mastery fit for this new age ability Rights, edited by E. Parens and A. Asch. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 2000. will require new forms of socialization and education, parenting and H. Kohut. The Restoration of the Self. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago teaching, learning and listening, empowering and collaborating. Press, 1977. There are many working on and actualizing these as we speak, but R. Kurzweil. The Singularity Is Near: When Humans Transcend Biology. New York: Penguin Group, 2005. they have been marginalized, given the rigid and tightening logic of M.O. Little. “Cosmetic Surgery, Suspect Norms, and Complicity.” In corporate and organizational routinization. The young must be pro- Enhancing Human Traits: Conceptual Complexities and Ethical tected from this debacle through educations that encourage their Implications, edited by E. Parens. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1998. sense of adequacy (not failures to measure up to the high bar), pur- I. Persson and J. Savulescu. “The Perils of Cognitive Enhancement and the pose (not functionality), and empowerment (not drug-induced qui- Urgent Imperative to Enhance the Moral Character of Humanity.” etism). In the context of a society that prepares democratic citizens, Journal of Applied Philosophy 25(3)(2008): 162–77. B.G. Prusak. “Rethinking ‘Liberal Eugenics.’” Hastings Center Report. scientific advances in the psychology of learning and development 35(6)(2005): 31–42. will become part of the great dreams of the next age and could and M.J. Sandel. “The Case Against Perfection.” Atlantic Monthly. 293(3) should be part of our present consideration. (2004): 50–62. L.M. Silver. Remaking Eden: Cloning Beyond in a Brave New World. New But we must first ask: Could we handle such enhanced indi- York: Avon Books, 1997. viduals—who would make evident to us through their very being L. Walters and J. Palmer. The Ethics of Human Gene Therapy. New York: the compromises and shrinkages of self we have allowed our- Oxford University Press, 1997. D. Wasserman. “My Fair Baby: What’s Wrong with Parents Genetically selves, or undergone without protest? Would we be able to join Enhancing Their Children?” In Genetic Prospects: Essay on them in the call for a more enhanced human, democratic, just Biotechnology, Ethics, and Public Policy, edited by. V. Gehring. social order? Or will we continue to play with our smart screens Lanham, Md.: Rowland & Littlefield, 2003. V. A. Zelizer. Pricing the Priceless Child: The Changing Social Value of and salivate over the images they offer? Children. New York: Basic Books, 1985. Acknowledgment Adrienne Asch is director of the Center for Ethics and the Edward and Robin We thank David Wasserman for valuable discussion and suggestions Milstein Professor of Bioethics at Yeshiva University. James E. Block is professor that have improved this article. The views presented here solely reflect those of the authors. of political science at De Paul University.

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After Happiness, Cyborg Virtue

James Hughes

hen I was seventeen I was part of a six-week summer in the view that no amount of knowledge of the origin of the uni- seminar at Cornell University on the theme of “the indi- verse or the structure of the mind can reveal the good. For me, Wvidual and the community.” A dozen of us nerdy teens metaethics is still ungroundable and a completely irrational exis- read an intensive diet of John Stuart Mill, Nietzsche, Marx, and tential decision. As Alasdair MacIntyre pointed out, the growing Freud under the tutelage of two philosophy professors. After - postmodern erosion of moral certainty is a huge sociological prob- ward, I was a determined socialist who relied heavily on Mills’s util- lem, breeding both anomie and fundamentalism. itarianism for my ethics, even after I became one of the spokesper- My drift was also not caused by any simple-minded interpre- sons for transhumanism. tation of utilitarian thought. I long espoused a rules-utilitarian Under George W. Bush, we transhumanists had a bête noir in approach that acknowledged the difficulties of calculating utility the President’s Council on Bioethics, headed by the determinedly and the need to create rules of thumb such as “respect individual anti-enhancement Leon Kass and aided by Francis Fukuyama and rights.” I embraced the idea that consequentialists can value the vast right- and left-wing conspiracy of people freaked out by things like “a meaningful life” and “a viable community” as pro- a smarter, healthier, longer-lived future. My first book, Citizen ducing long-term values greater than simple pleasures and happy Cyborg, was an attempt to sketch out a Left-transhumanist per- moods. That idea was of course also embraced by Mills’s post- spective on the ongoing biopolitical debates. In the book I started Bentham weighting of “higher pleasures” over lower ones. I from what I thought was a hybrid Left-Millsian-transhumanist always thought that the Millsian weighting idea was a bit of proposition, but it was really a core Enlightenment tenet: the more kludge, but it wasn’t until I delved into the happiness literature control we have over our lives, individually and collectively, the that I began to realize that Mills had in fact been smuggling in happier we will be. I devoted a chapter to parsing ways that indi- some Aristotle. vidual freedom, social egalitarianism, and neurotechnologies like What Mills was pointing to was that “happiness” is simply too selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) have made and will thin a package into which to shoehorn the full conception of the make us happier. I didn’t interrogate the concept of happiness good life, a full and flourishing existence, without which I have deeply. I discussed the control of physical pain and the treatment become convinced a transhuman future will be tragically impover- of mental illness. Then I discussed the evidence that our happiness ished. My friend David Pearce published The Hedonistic Imperative set-point is genetically determined and suggested that it will be fifteen years ago and birthed a micro-movement within transhu- possible to chemically or genetically increase the average level of manism known as “Abolitionism,” the aspiration to abolish all happiness without negatively affecting motivation. suffering, human and animal. Reading and reflecting on The After Citizen Cyborg I started a second book project, Cyborg Hedonistic Imperative over the years from a Buddhist perspective, Buddha, and began wading into the quickly moving stream of neu- I sought to distinguish how a Buddhist conception of dynamic roscience research to investigate how we may use neurotechnolo- happiness was different from “wireheading,” simply plugging gies to improve moral behavior and spiritual experience. I’m still ourselves into mood control and turning the pleasure dial up to hip-deep and struggling with the torrent of social neuroscience “lotus eater.” David and the Abolitionists have also been careful research. I also began teaching a course on “Happiness and Public to distinguish apathetic wireheading from the kinds of well- Policy” at Trinity College and began educating myself in the grow- titrated dopamine-overdrive that they believe can produce both ing happiness literature. As a result, six years later I am much less serenity and high achievement. enamored of my earlier attempts to rationalize social democratic- But the prospect of a future in which we have ever-better con- politics, transhumanism, or the “technoprogressive” syncretism of trol over our neurochemistry made the proliferation of super- the two with the utilitarian pursuit of happiness. Instead I’ve been methheads and hyper-amped wage slaves far more plausible to drifting toward some kind of postmodern—and posthuman— me. Transhumanist libertarians studiously ignored these dystopian Buddho-Aristotleianism, much to my own chagrin. possibilities, and I was also reluctant to give any cognitive liberty The drift is not because I have suddenly discovered the super- ground to a war on future drugs. But there is a middle path natural rightness of religious injunctions. I remain firmly Humeian between laissez-faire and prohibition, guided by a strong affirma-

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tion of certain ways of being and disapproval of others. What is of character and flourishing that could distinguish enhancement the concept of eudaemonia or flourishing that could enable trans- from diminishment. Nussbaum has made a stab at including a humanists to distinguish between actual cognitive enhancement variety of things into her model of capabilities, such as a connec- and posthuman diminishment? tion to nature and the ability to play. But, like Mills’s higher pleas- Nor is it at all clear to me anymore that the kind of political ures, Nussbaum’s list begins to sound like the smuggling in of economy that I believe is best for human welfare would necessar- some a priori Aristotelian ideas of the good life. It is quite possible ily be the “happiest.” In my happiness class, we have parsed the to imagine a hyper-enhanced future citizen capable of all kinds of arguments for Left, Green, Libertarian, and socially conservative abilities but with no connection to nature or sense of play. Positing interpretations of the happiness data and find enough evidence to that we should want people to have these traits in the future support all sides, depending on the kind of happiness and second- means that we consider them virtues, things important to a flour- ary assumptions. Secular countries are happier than religious ishing existence, things we want to encourage one another to countries, and more equal and free countries are happier than preserve in our transition to posthumanity. more unequal and authoritarian countries. On the other hand, it What might a transhumanist conception of the virtues look appears to be almost universally the case that religious and politi- like? Alasdair McIntyre has given us a socially grounded, postmod- cal conservatives are happier than seculars and people on the Left. ern approach to understanding virtue, one that I think also allows If one key to happiness is to have low expectations, which appears us to connect back to the idea that the good can be achieved to work for the Danes in Europe or the unconnected rural poor, through the enhancement of (post)human capabilities. McIntyre promoting higher expectations for egalitarianism or techno- argued that virtues are only intelligible as the skills necessary for utopian progress may make us more miserable. We need serenity to accept things we cannot change but also profound dissatisfaction with the malleable status quo, be it tyrants and poverty or an eighty-year life span. “... Six years later I am much less enamored This led me to Amartya Sen and Martha Nus - of my earlier attempts to rationalize sbaum’s concept of “capabilities” as a metric for pub- lic policy to replace hedonic utility. Instead of asking social democratic-politics, transhumanism, whether cognitive enhancement or universal health or the ‘technoprogressive’ syncretism of the care will make people happier, the question the advo- two with the utilitarian pursuit of happiness. cates of capability ask is whether these innovations will enable people to achieve the things most people Instead I’ve been drifting toward some want to accomplish in life. The appeal of the capabil- kind of postmodern—and posthuman— ities approach for a social democrat is that it does not Buddho-Aristotleianism, much to my own chagrin.” separate the negative freedom from constraint from the positive social enablement of a capability. People do not have the capabilities that health and long life provide simply from having the right to purchase health care; they actually need to get health care. Capabilities theory is also appealing for transhumanists for the pursuit of goods valued within communities with moral narra- several reasons. First, the capability metric does not depend on tives. Life is only meaningful when we choose to construct that happiness, which could be directly synthesized in the future. meaning within social narratives, and all social narratives propose Second, it embraces the idea that access to biomedical technology experiences and goals that will make a life well-lived. The achieve- is essential to modern well-being. Third, it allows for the evolution ment of individual happiness is one of those goals but only one of new transhuman “beings and doings” that can only be among many. Virtues are character traits that allow us to achieve achieved with enhancement. Although I’m sure many champions these goals. In other words, the virtues are essential capabilities, of the capabilities approach will be horrified at this pro-enhance- whether they ever are amenable to comparative public policy ment interpretation, the capabilities theory is not essentialist measurement. This approach is also very compatible with Bud - about human limits. Producing more capabilities through univer- dhism, in which virtue is discussed as the practice of skills: skillful sal access to safe enhancement technologies is as valuable as thought, skillful speech, skillful work, skillful mindfulness. ensuring that all human beings are capable of walking, reading, Unfortunately we are not all born equal in our ability to cultivate working, and loving. these character traits, and all human brains are currently incapable What the capabilities approach doesn’t provide is a discussion of the achievement of the highest forms of flourishing and virtuous

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achievement. Neuroscience is rapidly making clear that our moral dren shows that evolution figured some of this out already.) sentiments and cognition are deeply flawed, and our capacities for What, then, are some of the virtues that should guide a proj- self-understanding, self-control, and consistently virtuous behavior ect of moral enhancement and against which enhancements are mocked by the flaws in our undesigned brains. Transhumanists should be morally judged? I will briefly discuss seven virtues: tem- not only need to take on a (wide, liberal) model of the good life, but perance and persistence, compassion and fairness, mindfulness neo-Aristotelians need to embrace the possibility that human and intelligence, and transcendence. enhancement is a possible, perhaps necessary, adjunct to achieving Temperance and persistence. The ability to exercise self- the highest forms of virtue, flourishing, or eudaimonia. restraint, in particular in relation to anger, sexuality, intoxication, and other sensual pleasures, has been a virtue in almost every sys- oral enhancement is a rapidly expanding discussion in trans - tem of moral thought. Sôphrosune was a central virtue not only Mhumanist bioethics. Thomas Douglas, Mark Walker, Julian for Plato and Aristotle but also for the Stoics and the Epicureans. Savulescu, Ingmar Persson, Anders Sandberg, and Barbro Fröding Self-mastery and restraint from sensual indulgence is a key goal in have all suggested that the bio-enhancement of moral senti- Hinduism and Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism, and the ments and behavior may not only be possible but perhaps morally Abrahamic faiths. In terms of the model of socially grounded obligatory. In 2009 the journal Politics and the Life Sciences pub- capabilities, it is foundational; without self-control we are unable lished a small collection of articles, mostly hostile, responding to to achieve our other goals. Walker’s lead essay “Enhancing Genetic Virtue.” In early 2012 my Most of us are, however, endowed with less self-control than group, the Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies, will we would like, and that has probably been true since we were cosponsor a seminar at New York University on moral cognition born. Famously Walter Mischel and his colleagues’ work on chil- and moral enhancement. dren’s ability to delay gratification (the Stanford Marshmallow Experiments) demonstrated that a four-year-old’s ability to not eat a marshmallow predicted his or her academic success and likelihood of juvenile delinquency as a teenager. Personality theory has “I always thought that the Millsian weighting identified conscientiousness as one of the “big five” traits, with about 50 percent heritability, idea was a bit of kludge, but it wasn’t until and low levels of conscientiousness are correlated I delved into the happiness literature that with more drug and alcohol use, sexual risk-tak- I began to realize that Mills had in fact been ing, and violence. Low impulse control in turn has been linked to variant forms of dopamine-regu- smuggling in some Aristotle.” lating genes. A variety of drugs and information technolo- gies are already helping us exercise more self- restraint, and more are being explored. Stimulant medications help people with attention deficit dis- Moral enhancement is not just the jacking up of virtue with order with impulse control. Bariatric surgery, posthuman redesign of neurochemicals. It is more broadly taking conscious control of our maladaptive stomachs, is the most effective form of weight control, lives to build the kind of character we want to have. Moral and drugs and devices like stomach pacemakers that suppress enhancement presupposes a moral community within which we appetite will soon be available. Alcoholics can take naltrexone to can receive moral education and receive moral praise and sanc- suppress alcohol cravings, and vaccines that block the effects of tion. Just as intelligence is not just something that happens in the cocaine and nicotine are under development. As Savulescu and brain but in the extended mind of our electronic exocortex and in Sandberg have proposed, drugs like oxytocin and vasopressin might the general architecture of our lives, moral enhancement is also be used to enhance marital affection, while psychiatry is exploring something that requires conscious changes to both our brains and using SSRIs to suppress compulsive sexual behavior. our social fabric. Announcing to a community that you and your Compassion and fairness. has argued that the partner are making the commitment of marriage is an enlisting of differences between conservatives, liberals, and libertarians lie in their moral suasion to back up your moral commitments. their sensitivity to innate, monkey-brain moral sentiments. Liberals Announcing your relationship status on Facebook and taking are more sensitive to the impulse toward fairness and to protect down your eHarmony profile is a moral choice in the exocortex. others from harm. Conservatives are sensitive to these but even Changing the structure of your brain to suppress the impulse of more so to the impulses to protect the in-group, to defer to infidelity is the posthuman extension of these commitments. (The authority, and to have disgust for the profane. Libertarians are recent finding that men’s testosterone falls when they have chil- insensitive to all five of these moral sentiments.

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Transforming Humanity: Fantasy? Dream? Nightmare?

Haidt frames these findings as an argument for cross-partisan deconstruction of the illusory solidity and continuity of the self is tolerance. I prefer to see them as an argument that liberals are the key to liberation. What if technology could accelerate that nascent posthumans using Enlightenment values to parse which insight? Patients with lesions in the temporo-parietal junction lose monkey-brain impulses to suppress (racism, authoritarianism, and the sense of where their body boundaries are and feel more con- disgust for consensual behaviors) and which to make the core of nected to the moment, other people, and nature. The right pos- our ethics (compassion and fairness). (If there are genes that drive terior insula underpins the sense that you own your body. Those libertarians to let selfishness trump all moral sentiment, that may same experiences of boundlessness can be had with focused tran- be something that could be fixed by moral enhancement.) scranial magnetic stimulation that temporarily turns off those As with self-control, there is strong evidence that our capacity parts of the brain. for compassion and empathy is rooted in neu- rological structures like mirror neurons, which cause us to feel the experiences of others, and in neurochemicals like oxytocin, which height- ens our empathy and trust. Giving oxytocin to “Producing more capabilities through universal people with autism and Asperger’s appears to access to safe enhancement technologies is as heighten their empathic capacities, and future neurotechnologies will allow us all to tune our valuable as ensuring that all human beings are compassion for others. For instance, the drug capable of walking, reading, working, and loving.” Ecstasy boosts oxytocin and feelings of love and trust, while boosting serotonin with SSRIs has been found to increase our aversion to harming others. Similarly there is strong evidence that our desire for fairness, or Variations in serotonin receptor genes have been linked to the more precisely our desire to punish cheaters, is biologically innate. personality trait “openness to experience,” which is in turn posi- Research has found the fairness impulse to be modulated by vari- tively linked to one’s likelihood of having mystical or spiritual expe- ations in serotonin receptors and sensitive to the level of serotonin riences, while negatively correlated with religious fundamental- in the brain. Brain scans have also found this impulse to be rooted ism. We have used chemicals to induce mystical experiences for in activity in both the emotion and cognition parts of the brain. thousands of years, and our growing understanding of brain When this aversion is focused on bankers and CEOs as cheaters it chemistry may allow increasingly precise induction of specific spir- can be progressive, but when it is focused on immigrants and itual experiences in the future. minorities it can be reactionary. Moral sentiments are inadequate without moral reasoning, knowledge, and discriminating wisdom. Conclusion A program of posthuman virtue enhancement will require not just In her paper “Cognitive Enhancement, Virtue Ethics and the Good the boosting of certain sentiments but their conscious channeling Life,” published last year in Neuroethics, Barbro Fröding concluded with (neurotechnologically facilitated) moral education. that while a fully virtuous life is biologically impossible for most Mindfulness and intelligence. If we are morally obliged not to people, “if these cognitive shortcomings could be compensated drink and drive because it impairs attention, why are we not also for, or balanced, through the use of safe and voluntary enhance- obliged to enhance our ability to use deadly machinery with neu- ment techniques, then it would be morally desirable to do so. rochemicals like Adderall or Provigil? If it is a virtue to remember Indeed, it could well be the case that a combination of cognitive our past mistakes in order to avoid them, then surely memory- enhancement and virtue could make virtue ethics more convinc- enhancing drugs could improve moral learning. If it is a virtue to ing.” As those concerned with virtue begin to embrace the possi- make accurate choices quickly, the key virtue of practical wisdom, bility of moral enhancement, likewise transhumanists need to con- then drugs and devices that enhance our knowledge and decision cede that not all posthuman possibilities would be the kind of making would also be morally obligatory. Although it may seem enhancement we want to promote. A model of the qualities of difficult to imagine today, in the era of Twitterification of discourse character that we value and want to strengthen will be inescapable and five hundred channels of bread and circuses, few will choose in a future with cognitive enhancement technologies. to remain distracted, forgetful, and foolish when they are given access to cognitive enhancement technologies. Transcendence. Peak experiences are suspect in many virtue James Hughes is executive director of the Institute for Ethics and traditions because they can become addictive and distracting. But Emerging Technologies and a lecturer in public policy studies at Trinity they also give us liberating insights that can strengthen our char- College. acter and the meaningfulness of our lives. For us Buddhists, the

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Can We Make More Moral Brains?

John Shook

mproving the brain’s cognitive performance is the next great Pharmacological treatments are just one kind of inventive technol- frontier for not just the brain sciences but also the wider field of ogy permitting brain/mind modification. Refined surgical tech- Imedical therapy. As soon as some fresh discovery about the niques, genetic modifications for influencing brain development, brain’s functioning is announced, there are novel proposals for nanotechnologies changing individual neurons, or even cybernetic modifying and enhancing that brain process. Therapies that repair fusions of brains with computers are all possibilities closer in the poorly functioning brains are treatments that often have the future than we may expect. There may be very little about our power to enhance those same functions to levels above normal. Is brains and about our conscious selves that will remain beyond the there anything about us—and who we really are—that cannot be reach of these radical technologies by this century’s end. Think improved? Modifying our brains is the modification of the deep- about it: who are you, really? And who would you like to become? est, most personal core of ourselves. What if you could still be you, only better? mproving features of intelligence—from better memory and Cognitive enhancers have already been invented and experi- Iattention to faster thinking and quicker problem-solving—are mentally implemented. Drugs for slowing memory loss in patients without question desirable enhancements. But we are so much suffering from degenerative diseases can also be drugs for increas- more than just our wits. When we think about who we are essen- ing memory retention in healthy people. Helping people suffering tially, other aspects of ourselves are important, such as our from attention deficit disorders soon transfers into boosting other strongest values, our highest priorities, and our deepest relation- people’s length of focused attention to extraordinary degrees. From ships with others. Our values, our priorities, and our relationships the perspective of pharmacology, the only question is how much make us who we are just as much as anything else about us. modification to cognitive functioning is desired. The administration Arriving at the realm of morality, where the brain controls our car- of a treatment to one patient receives the label of a “medical ther- ing and conduct, there is a similar opportunity to turn the dials, apy,” while the same treatment administered to another patient is pull the levels, and change how we morally behave ourselves. This is the area of moral enhancement. Do we want more moral brains? This simple question hides at least three specific questions. “Pharmacological treatments are just one First, do we want there to be more brains that pos- kind of inventive technology permitting brain/mind sess expected levels of moral capacity? This is a modification. Refined surgical techniques, genetic question that involves therapy. Too many brains lack sufficient moral capacity; this is where psychol- modifications for influencing brain development, ogy and psychiatry apply categories such as “psy- nanotechnologies changing individual neurons, chopath,” “sociopath,” “social deviant,” and the or even cybernetic fusions of brains with like. Besides the other character shortcomings of persons afflicted by one of these conditions, we computers are all possibilities closer in the notice how they fail some of our basic moral future than we may expect.” expectations. It is only natural to want more nor- mally moral brains, because we understandably want all people’s behavior to rise to regular moral expectations. Since therapies are treatments that instead called a “pharmaceutical enhancement.” It all depends on seek to restore normal functioning, we can ask for “moral thera- the level of brain functioning with which one is starting. pies.” Strictly speaking, all the brain does is “cognition”; the brain sci- From a different angle, a second question can be posed: do ences confirm how the entire brain is involved with some kind of we want brains to be more moral? Fulfilling minimally expected cognition in its broadest sense. Significant changes to any major levels of moral conduct is one thing; elevating one’s moral per- brain process will impact the cognitive functioning of the rest. formance is another. We like to take notice when people not only Highly specialized treatments try to narrowly modify just one or “do the right thing” but additionally “go above and beyond.” another aspect of the brain’s work, perhaps staying below the con- From the especially nice person who is more helpful than required, scious threshold or noticeably affecting our conscious awareness. or the person who could have easily taken advantage of another’s

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Transforming Humanity: Fantasy? Dream? Nightmare?

weaker situation but decided against causing harm, to the heroic ships. Yes, visitors to a very different culture from their own must figure who is courageously self-sacrificing to save another, there learn speedily how to display a particular virtue, but there’s no con- are ways for society to applaud and recognize extraordinary moral fusion about the expected virtue itself. conduct. Anyone can be heard to say, “I wish there were more But we are still talking about quite basic kinds of simple virtues people like that.” Maybe you yourself have thought, “I wish I was upon which all societies rely. That doesn’t mean that all of moral- more like that.” Perhaps some of us will get that chance. ity is a matter of common agreement around the world; many From the widest angle, wanting more moral brains may mean moral disagreements obviously divide us. The fact that we can get a third thing: expressing the wish that all of humanity would per- into moral disagreements is proof of humanity’s general sense of manently elevate its moral capacity to some far higher level. Not morality and fairness; that we can’t easily resolve specific moral only religions but secular philosophies, too, have occasionally har- disagreements is likewise proof that not all of morality is settled bored idealistic hopes for this species. Some say that we could among us. already be ethical saints if not for the corrupting influences of a misguided society. Others say that while we have a mixed moral e all agree that morality comes in degrees, and that we often nature, great effort and training can ensure that our better selves Wwish that others, and ourselves as well, could be more moral prevail. Whatever the speculative view of the raw human material on occasion. Let’s move beyond the thirst for more moral conduct (and the ever-proliferating training exercises) that ethics has to and more moral brains to the deeper question about how such work with, perhaps brain science and moral enhancement tech- desires could possibly be satisfied. What would a moral enhancer nologies will render all that experimentation completely irrelevant. specifically do? There’s no obvious answer to that simple question, Do we want to know what the brain is really doing? Ask the brain even after we agree that more morality would be great and that scientists. Do we want to know how to make more moral people? everyone should at least fulfill minimally expected levels of moral Ask the moral enhancement specialists. Already self-styled “trans - conduct. When we point farther in the direction of “above-nor- humanists” are picturing a future kind of society full of such car- mal morality,” where are we pointing? Are we all pointing in the ing and cooperative people that you’d think you were in heaven— same direction? or a utopian “heaven on earth,” one might secularly say. It’s becoming common enough to read in academic journals about not just cognitive “Besides moral mood enhancement, another sort of enhancement but moral enhancement as well that a wider audience is starting to notice. ‘moral’ enhancement won’t turn out to be practical: the When academics or journalists throw around moral enhancer that works by placing one’s powers of the term moral enhancement, it can sound rational command in greater control of decisions.” like everyone agrees what that could mean. And maybe there is a common enough sense for everyone to grasp it. Don’t we all mean pretty much the same thing by “morality” and by “being more It all depends on the specific ethical view one has in mind. Let’s moral”? consider an example. Suppose you think that no one is making If we all had the same meaning in mind when we say “That’s moral choices unless they are using “free will,” and you also moral” or “See, that’s the right thing to do,” then I suppose the believe that this free will is such an unnatural and uncaused thing great work of religion or philosophy might be completed. Yet there’s that no modifications to the brain could possibly increase it. If no real sign that any one religion or philosophy, or even one cultural that’s your ethical view about morality, then you will deny that a tradition, has gotten everyone to the point where we agree on what drug targeting a brain process to make a person more moral could is moral and what isn’t. Sure, there’s broad enough agreement on truly be a moral enhancer. At most you’d be prepared to admit the moral basics; travel around the world and you will see founda- that perhaps that drug has hit upon a “moral degrader,” some tional habits of moral conduct instilled in children that scarcely vary. other brain process that clouds or obstructs what the morally Put another way, what counts as antisocial and grossly immoral con- good free will would do. Sure, the drug permits a person to do duct—what no parent would want to see a child doing, much less more moral things, but that’s only because the untouched moral an adult—is roughly similar across cultures. Sure, it’s easy to focus part of the person is at greater liberty to do good. But for you, on highly specific instances of cultural rituals or practices carried out there will never be, by definition, any possible physical modifica- by adults that are viewed as repulsive and immoral by other cul- tion to the source of moral choices, so there could be “moral- tures. Looking deeper, humanity isn’t really all that diverse in its ele- behavior enhancers” but never “moral enhancers” in the nar- mental habits regarding respectful, loyal, and fair social relation- rower ethical sense. Since the brain sciences and technologies will

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never be dealing with any such nonexistent thing as an uncaused refutes an ethical theory expecting more or better morality to and nonnatural free will, we can drop that notion here. However, result from increasing one’s capacity for pure reason. there are further senses of “morality” that similarly resist the very Will moral enhancement end up being just like pleasant mood notion of a “moral enhancer.” enhancement or pure-reason enhancement? Probably not. Again, On first hearing, “moral enhancement” probably strikes most most of us are practical-minded people—we think good inten- people as meaning something like “making a person more tions are nice, but good conduct is what counts. Reporting of moral,” which specifically means something like “more likely to changes to mood or inclination or logicality are not enough. The do the morally right thing.” When people consider the vague idea ultimate laboratory test of the efficacy of a genuine moral of moral enhancement in this general way, they are simply relying enhancement would be the observation of increased moral con- on whatever they already regard as moral; differences among their duct, either in frequency or substance or both. Perhaps one would personal views on morality will readily become apparent. perform more altruistic acts and fewer selfish acts. Or, perhaps However, if a proposed moral enhancer actually resulted in no there would be the same frequency of conformities to expected observable difference to a person’s moral conduct, that enhancer moral standards, the same raw number of good deeds, but one’s would be universally judged a failure. We are all practical-minded deeds would turn out to be more cooperative, helpful, and bene- about morality, aren’t we? Well, maybe not all of us. For some ficial to others than before. people, a “moral enhancer” might be more like a mood enhancer Of course, we have to remain within the realm of science: that causes little outward behavioral modification but does cause experimentally verifying changes to moral conduct are crucial, and those verifications presuppose some standard of moral conduct that is available to apply. People doing experimental checks would use some “The experience of an experimental subject selected standard of what is to count as appro- priately moral conduct. That standard may be having deep moral beliefs turned on and off taken from philosophy or religion, from cultural by some moral enhancement treatment could norms, or from one’s personal moral views. The itself be deeply thought provoking.” experimenters could apply their selected stan- dards, or they could simply choose to apply the moral standards of the subject. An experimental check on a moral enhancement’s efficacy would a noticeable change to one’s inner mental qualities. “I feel so apply either an externalist or an internalist moral standard, where much more like a morally good person,” we could imagine a sub- “internalist” means a standard that the subject of the enhance- ject saying after a moral enhancement treatment. Perhaps being a ment already takes to be moral and “externalist” means a stan- moral person is mostly about one’s own personal sensitivity to the dard that the enhancer’s inventors take to be moral. Of course, an moral aspects of situations, or about one’s earnest inclination to external standard may coincide with an internal standard, where want to do the right thing more often. subjects and experimenters agree on relevant moral standards to Besides moral mood enhancement, another sort of “moral” apply. But standards need not coincide, and the future of moral enhancement won’t turn out to be practical: the moral enhancer enhancement will confirm this. that works by placing one’s powers of rational command in A moral enhancer might work simply by increasing the fre- greater control of decisions. Philosophers have dreamt of ethical quency of conduct that the subject already believes is moral. This utopias where reason rules. If only the rational center of our mind sort of “generic” moral enhancer doesn’t work by changing what could always be in command! Indeed, some philosophers have a person believes is moral or by changing which motives actually gone so far as to argue that our reason always is pretty much in determine a person’s conduct. It merely strengthens whatever command. This is highly implausible, not only because those moral intuitions, motives, or habits a person already has. For exam- philosophers can’t explain why human behavior usually departs so ple, a vegetarian could be confident that a temptation to eat meat widely from rationality but also because the brain sciences cannot would be much less likely to overwhelm his moral intentions to be find any neural basis for such an executive command center for kind to animals. A banking executive could be confident that any rationality. There are portions of the cortex that participate in temptation to be compassionate toward an employee would be what we call deliberative and careful thinking. But a center for just much less likely to overwhelm his or her moral intentions to prac- pure reasoning? Pure fiction. And those cortical regions capable of tice equal treatment. A soldier could be confident that any temp- making our conduct a little more careful, a little more logical, or a tation to be merciful to another person would be much less likely little more farsighted still have only limited regulatory participa- to overwhelm his or her moral intentions to kill an enemy combat- tion, alongside so many other sensory and emotional centers. ant. For a generic moral enhancer, experimenters can confirm effi- That’s a scientific account that more easily explains why our con- cacy by simply first ascertaining the subject’s own moral views. duct is rational to only modest degrees. It is also an account that If a moral enhancer accidentally altered what the subject

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Transforming Humanity: Fantasy? Dream? Nightmare?

believed to be morally right, experimenters would confirm this by moral-enhancement market will confront a great deal of this sort showing the contrast between his or her moral beliefs as meas- of skepticism and relativism. How can moral-enhancement mar- ured pre- and post-experiment. An experimental subject who was keting surmount this initial problem? Initially, and perhaps for a initially pro-choice might be shocked and dismayed after the long time, marketing will go around this problem by offering enhancement was completed to hear his or her pro-choice views moral enhancements that conform to what the vast majority of as recorded in a pre-experiment interview video. The experience of people already think is moral. If you need many customers for an experimental subject having deep moral beliefs turned on and your product, culture is king. off by some moral enhancement treatment could itself be deeply The standpoint of cultural conventionalism probably works thought provoking. best for designing moral enhancers designed to inhibit specific In contrast to any generic moral enhancer, there could be spe- immoral conduct. For example, people who are easily aroused to cific moral enhancers. Imagine if the members of a trial group that violent behavior could benefit from moral enhancers targeting received an experimental moral enhancement stopped eating meat such things as respect for others or compassion for others’ suffer- and began giving large amounts of money to animal-rights organ- ing. Where a culture generally agrees that some kind of conduct izations. Was the treatment successful? Fine-tuning the specific is a severe moral transgression, such as a moral transgression that kind of moral enhancement would be necessary in order to ensure is also illegal, moral therapy could elevate moral conduct to some- that any effective moral treatment enhanced the kind of morality thing approaching normality. Objectivists may claim that a moral desired. A variety of specific moral enhancers might be possible— standard against unnecessary violence enjoys a status far more enhancers for compassionate giving to the poor, scrupulous fair- justified than just approval by some cultures, but in practice this ness towards only the deserving, or for prioritiz- ing care for family and friends over strangers. Indeed, we could imagine the development of highly specific “boutique” moral enhancers “. . .Free-marketeconomieswillproducemoral that focus narrowly on some desired moral enhancementtherapiesbasedonconventional behavior. A teacher could desire to enhance standards—andboutiquemoralenhancersbased pupils’ devotion to helping the immature and ignorant; a politician could wish to enhance his onsubjectivestandardsaswell—withoutwaiting or her concern that large campaign donors forphilosophicalconclusions.” receive every possible assistance. Boutique moral enhancers may not impress most people as genuine cases of moral enhancement. However, by what moral standard should we judge philosophical difference is irrelevant. We would accept a moral efficacious moral enhancers? If we want to go beyond internal treatment that conforms to our cultural standards of morality even subjective moral standards, where shall we turn? Standout sug- if we think additionally that there is objective justification as well. gestions for alternatives arrive from cultural conventionalism and It should not prove too difficult for cultural conventionalism to jus- objectivism. Cultural conventionalism would suggest that the tify some moral therapies, especially if they successfully inhibit moral standards to apply should be those the culture as a whole criminal conduct. generally takes to be morally right, while objectivism would sug- Cultural conventionalism won’t work as well for confirming gest that the moral standards to apply should be the justifiably proposed moral enhancements that elevate moral performance correct moral standards, regardless of what any culture or individ- above normally expected levels. We may not really want what we ual says. We may leave aside philosophical issues over how cul- say we want. For example, people widely approve of generosity. tural conventionalism or objectivism can justify recommendations However, is there common agreement that normal generosity of moral standards. Out in the real-world market for consumers of should be significantly elevated in our population? We may say moral enhancements, people will judge for themselves whether a that we wish people were more generous, but we really mean is proposed moral enhancer is actually efficacious. They all have a that other people should be more generous to us or that people simple method for doing this: they will apply their own judgment should be more generous to others who deserve it. Generosity to of what is moral, regardless of what their culture says or what rich people or malevolent people can seem misdirected. some philosopher says. If a drug manufacturer markets a moral Conventionalism seems inadequate when trying to apply moral enhancer by pointing out that your neighbors or some philoso- platitudes to moral enhancement, and objectivism won’t help phers agree that it works, you won’t be too impressed unless your either. Objectivism is useless for confirming proposed moral moral standards are getting confirmed in the process. Anyone enhancements beyond normal levels. Either objectivism just could simply say, “Sure, they say it enhances morality, but it really largely agrees with what many cultures already believe, or objec- doesn’t, according to what I know is right and wrong.” A future tivism can demand some moral standards that significantly deviate

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MOVING The annual joint conference of

SECULARISM

FORWARD

MARCH 1–4, 2012 ORLANDO, FLORIDA

Bask in the splendor of the world-class Hyatt Regency Orlando International Airport. No shuttles or taxis to contend with—just collect your luggage and ride the escalator straight to the hotel lobby! Full-service

conference hotel. Free broadband Internet access in guest rooms. Easy access to Disney World, Universal Studios, and all other Orlando attractions. Stay up to three days before and after the conference at the exclusive discounted conference rate.

SPEAKERS INCLUDE DANIEL C. DENNETT | SIR HAROLD KROTO | P Z MYERS

RUSSELL BLACKFORD | STEPHEN LAW | RITA SWAN

ANTHONY PINN | VICTOR STENGER | ELISABETH CORNWELL EDDIE TABASH | OPHELIA BENSON | LIONEL TIGER RONALD BAILEY | RAZIB KHAN | JAMILA BEY SIKIVU HUTCHINSON | DAVID SILVERMAN | BILL COOKE

STEVEN K. GREEN | ELLENBETH WACHS | RONALD A. LINDSAY DEBBIE GODDARD | TOM FLYNN Musical entertainment by GEORGE HRAB

and more to come!

WHY FLORIDA? Florida will host one of 2012’s most dramatic church-state battles. In response to a Council for Secular Humanism lawsuit, a measure on Florida’s November 2012 ballot would amend the state constitution to jettison language that forbids state funding of religious institutions. The national implications: more than thirty-five other states have similar constitutional provisions (often called “Blaine Amendments”) that bar state aid to religious groups in language stronger than the U.S. Constitution’s First Amendment.

At “Moving Secularism Forward,” you’ll learn about the Florida face-off—about what you can do to help defend Florida’s Blaine Amendment—and much, much more!

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SCHEDULE (subject to change) Thursday, March 1 7:00 – 9:00 PM Evening Reception.

Friday, March 2 9:00 AM – NOON Face-off in Florida. Update on Florida lawsuit; fighting the constitutional amendment attacking church-state separation.

NOON – 1PM Luncheon. DANIEL C. DENNETT Rita Swan, director of Children’s Healthcare Is a Legal Duty, on the successful campaign to end Oregon’s legal protections for parents who deny their children needed medical care on grounds of religion. 2:00 – 5:00 PM Situation Review: The International Academy of Humanism. IAH Secretary Stephen Law moderates a discussion featuring Humanist Laureates Sir Harold Kroto (Nobel Laureate), Lionel Tiger, and others. SIR HAROLD KROTO Saturday, March 3 9:30 AM – 12:30 PM Outreach and Advocacy Strategies. From the grassroots to the Supreme Court, a distinguished panel of secular humanists weighs the movement’s future options.

NOON – 1:00 PM Luncheon. Australian SIKIVU HUTCHINSON philosopher, bioethicist, author, and critic Russell Blackford, coeditor of 50 Voices of Dis- belief.

2:00 – 5:00 PM Does Secular Humanism Have a Political Agenda? A debate: Is secular humanism politically agnostic, or is it incom- patible with certain political orientations? Politically progressive (former Rep. Patricia Schroeder), conservative (Razib Kahn of Secular- P Z MYERS Right.org), libertarian (Ronald Bailey, Reason magazine), and radical-leftist (Desiree Schell) nontheists have it out. Not to be missed!

7:00 – 10:00 PM Banquet. Awards Ceremony; Keynote Lecture by Daniel C. Dennett. Musical entertainment by George Hrab. Sunday, March 4 9 AM – NOON What Are Our Objectives as Secular Humanists? RUSSELL BLACKFORD A distinguished panel of speakers ponders the way forward to a future in which we are truly “Moving Secularism Foward.” 2:00 PM – 5:00 PM Nuts & Bolts Outreach Workshop. Led by Lauren Becker, CFI’s vice president for outreach. Invitation-only working session for local group leaders and other activists.

ANTHONY PINN Monday, March 5 Optional motorcoach excursion to Kennedy Space Center. Join us “the day after” for a special attendees-only excursion. Register now for a full-day all-inclusive tour of the Kennedy Space Center marking the conclusion of America’s historic space shuttle program. Tour includes premium motorcoach transportation from the hotel to Cape Canaveral, guided motorcoach tour of Kennedy Space Center, self-guided tour of museum and exhibit center, and IMAX movie. Includes movie popcorn and soda and a luncheon voucher usable at any KSC foodservice facility. ELISABETH CORNWELL Just $140 per person. FI Dec11 Jan12 from home_Layout 1 10/31/11 9:18 AM Page 44

Please register ____ persons for “Moving Secularism Forward.” Registration includes all daytime sessions. Does not include Friday and Saturday Speaker Luncheons, YES! Saturday Gala Banquet, or Kennedy Space Center excursion. CONFERENCE RATES:  SATURDAY SPEAKER LUNCHEON $375/Person ____ persons @ $375 $ ______“No Fire, No Sword: Freedom of Religion and the Secular State” with Australian philosopher, bioethicist, author, and  ADDITIONAL DISCOUNT critic Russell Blackford, coeditor of 50 Voices of Disbelief. If you’re an Associate Member of the Council for Secular $70/Person. # of persons: _____ Luncheon Total: $______Humanism or a Friend of the Center for Inquiry, take 10 percent off the registration fee.  SATURDAY EVENING GALA BANQUET Enclose copy of your Associate Member with Daniel C. Dennett, author of Breaking the Spell, or Friend of the Center card. Darwin’s Dangerous Idea. Deduct $ ______Premium dinner, awards ceremony, entertainment TBA.  FULL-TIME STUDENT RATE $95/Person. # of persons: _____ Banquet Total: $______$100/Person $ ______ Enclose photocopy of valid full-time student ID. KENNEDY SPACE CENTER EXCURSION Only one person may register on this form if student Luxury motorcoach to Cape Canaveral; guided tour; rate is selected. museum admission; IMAX movie. A full-day experience (Monday, March 5). REGISTRATION SUBTOTAL $ ______$140/Person. # of persons: _____Excursion Total: $ ______ADDITIONAL ITEMS:  PREORDER COMPLETE PROCEEDINGS  FRIDAY SPEAKER LUNCHEON OF THIS CONFERENCE ON AUDIO CDs. with Rita Swan, director of Children’s Healthcare Is a Legal _____ set(s) at $125 each Total: $ ______Duty, on the successful campaign to end Oregon’s legal Set price is guaranteed regardless of actual count of CDs in the set. protections for parents who deny their children needed medical care on grounds of religion. $62/Person. # of persons:_____ Luncheon Total: $ ______TOTAL ENCLOSED $ ______

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HOTEL INFORMATION: Through February 9, 2012, conference To obtain conference hotel room rates, you must reserve attendees can reserve rooms at the special conference discount online at https://resweb.passkey.com/go/CFSH2012 (preferred) rate of $149.00 single or double occupancy, $174.00 triple or by phone. Call 1-888-421-1442. Give operator the pass occupancy, $199.00 quadruple occupancy. Room rates do not phrase “C F S H 3-1-12” to secure discounted conference rate. include applicable state and local taxes and applicable service Driving to the conference? Parking in the airport/hotel ramp of hotel-specific fees in effect at the time of the meeting. is FREE for attendees! Attendees are urged to stay through Sunday evening, March 4, EXPERIENCE ALL ORLANDO HAS TO OFFER! Plan to see and and through Monday, March 5, if joining the Space Center excur- do it all before or after the conference—your way! sion. Staying to enjoy Orlando’s many recreational options? Conference room rate is available for up to three days before Visit www.secularhumanism.orlandomeetinginfo.com for complete and/or after the conference. Sleeping rooms not included in con- Orlando information, including links to all major attractions. Com- ference registration. You must contact the hotel directly to book piled by VisitOrlando exclusively for attendees of this conference! sleeping rooms at the conference rate. FI Dec11 Jan12 from home_Layout 1 10/31/11 12:54 PM Page 45

Transforming Humanity: Fantasy? Dream? Nightmare?

from widely shared cultural standards. If objectivism just delivers inflated cultural conventionalism, then cultural conventionalism’s limitations apply. If objectivism deviates from what most cultures believe, it renders itself impractical for testing the efficacy of moral enhancers because few people will accept objectivism’s proposed standards. If some alleged moral enhancement causes people to stop treating their friends any differently from strangers, Kantian objectivists may approve, but few others would. Of course, Kantian objectivists could seek their own boutique moral enhancers, but that returns our situation to a question of which special moral enhancer dominates the market. Subjectivists, relativists, conventionalists, and the like could not object to the possibility of moral enhancers—but objectivists may. An objectivist could claim that since morality truly consists of certain rules or principles, any proposed moral enhancer that does not enhance conformity to those objective rules or principles is in fact not a moral enhancer at all because it cannot be enhancing morality, whatever else it may be enhancing. However, since the kinds of moral enhancers we are considering are designed to try to enhance what some people in the real world actually take to be moral already, moral objectivism is practically irrelevant to bringing moral enhancers to market. Subjectivists and conventionalists would get into disagree- ments over boutique moral enhancers. Conventionalists would not be impressed by the more eccentric enhancers that seem remote from ordinary moral concerns or directly contradict com- mon moral standards. If a person wants a moral enhancer that intensifies his or her devotion to following his or her favorite sports team to the point of fanaticism, are we still talking about a moral enhancer? What about a moral enhancer that enhances a religious person’s enthusiasm for abandoning family and job for a life of vagabond proselytizing?

hilosophical debates ensue quickly, but free-market economies Pwill produce moral enhancement therapies based on conven- tional standards—and boutique moral enhancers based on subjec- tive standards as well—without waiting for philosophical conclu- sions. Society might go ahead to demand—and enforce—a dis- tinction between “genuine” moral enhancement and boutique moral modifiers, given that boutique modifications may not quite conform to what society expects of moral conduct. This implies that the possibility of moral enhancement at pres- ent faces no deep philosophical or practical obstacles. So long as the field of moral enhancement does not permit itself to make implausible claims about the sort of morality enhanced or the degree of enhancement possible, then the future for the develop- ment of genuine moral enhancement remains open.

John Shook is director of education and senior research fellow at the Center for Inquiry and associate fellow at the Center for Neurotechnology Studies, Potomac Institute for Policy Studies.

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Exoplanets and the End of Terrestrial Religion

Andrew Fiala

an terrestrial religion survive intact in a universe in which ogy and the question of whether there is life on other planets. innumerable planets orbit other suns? The short answer may And in 2008, the head of the Vatican Observatory, Jose Gabriel Cseem to be no. At first glance, the world’s religious traditions Fuentes, a Jesuit from Argentina, gave an interview to do not appear to have room in their myths to deal with the dis- L’Osservatore Romana in which he said: “Just as there is a multi- covery of new planets in far-off star systems. However, religions plicity of creatures over the earth, so there could be other beings, are resilient and able to adapt to new information. Rather than even intelligent (beings), created by God. This is not in contradic- ushering in the demise of religion, the discovery of exoplanets will tion with our faith, because we cannot establish limits to God’s most likely prompt a series of new and radical reinterpretations of creative freedom. To say it with St. Francis, if we can consider traditional religious doctrine. some earthly creatures as ‘brothers’ or ‘sisters,’ why could we not The exciting news from the world of astronomy is that the speak of a ‘brother alien’? He would also belong to the creation.” Kepler space telescope has discovered a variety of planets in other solar systems. Scientists have extrapolated from Kepler’s observa- ere in the United States, theologian Ted Peters of the Graduate tions and now estimate that our galaxy contains fifty billion plan- HTheological Union in Berkeley has written on this question. ets. Five hundred million of those planets may be rocky worlds Peters predicts that religious belief will adapt to new astronomical that occupy the “Goldilocks zone” around their stars—not too discoveries. He even conducted a survey in which he interviewed hot and not too cold. Some of these planets may be capable of people about the question of whether the discovery of extraterres- supporting life. trial intelligence would undermine their religious belief. His conclu- Given the fact that there are one hundred billion galaxies in sion: “Responses from persons self-identifying with one of seven the universe, it is likely that there are other planets on which life major religious traditions report that they do not fear an impend- has evolved. And it is possible that intelligent beings on these ing collapse in their own religious belief system. Taking into other worlds have developed religious ideas that include some account a minority who for theological or scientific reasons affirm claim about their own special status and unique relation to the the rare earth position [that humans are alone in the universe], rel- gods. We may never directly encounter these extraterrestrial atively little fragility in existing religious beliefs seems evident.” beings in our lifetimes. However, the likelihood of their existence Spong, Fuentes, and Peters each imply that it is possible to gives us a reason to reinterpret terrestrial religion. reconcile religious belief with these new scientific discoveries. But Despite the fact that some religious believers oppose the the- will it be easy? ory of evolution, religions do evolve to accommodate new facts. A fundamentalist reading of ancient religious myths—myths Some belief systems—such as Young Earth creationism—attempt that developed when human beings were unable to imagine exo- to deny scientific fact. But many religious people are interested in planets—will have a hard time incorporating exotic planets and the the latest scientific knowledge. The Episcopalian Bishop John possibility of extraterrestrial life. At the very least, traditional reli- Shelby Spong, for example, has argued that religion must adapt gions will have to reinterpret themselves in such a way as to explain to new knowledge. As the title of one of his books puts it, how the geocentric focus of the past is to be understood in light Christianity must either “change or die.” Spong has argued that of our expanded astronomical knowledge. our knowledge of the size of the universe precludes the possibil- I use the term geocentric here deliberately as a reminder of the ity that Jesus ascended “in any literal sense into a heaven located history of the tension between religion and astronomy. It is apro- somewhere above the sky.” The facts of contemporary astronomy pos that the space telescope is named after Johannes Kepler. and the heliocentric theory of the solar system are now so unde- Kepler, along with Galileo, was a proponent of the heliocentric niable that it would be difficult to imagine a religion that excluded model of the universe—which contradicted the church’s geocen- them. Indeed, the Catholic Church has finally admitted it was in tric theory. Although Kepler and Galileo remained committed to wrong in the Galileo affair. And the new pope has acknowledged the basic tenets of Christianity, each challenged the traditional the basic facts of evolution: the Big Bang event, the age of the view of the universe. Now that the Kepler telescope is showing us earth, the fossil record, and genetic connections across species. distant planets, we are moving even beyond the heliocentric Moreover, in 2009 the Vatican hosted a conference on astrobiol- model. Old Helios—the sun god—has definitely been deposed.

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It is not surprising that religions are geocentric. When the world’s discoveries of Galileo, Kepler, and Darwin. But we should recall religious traditions developed, it was impossible to conceive of other that these scientific geniuses ran afoul of traditional religious and planets orbiting distant stars. Ancient peoples only knew about Earth moral teaching. Galileo was forced by the church to abjure his the- and its inhabitants. Ancient religions had no knowledge of any other ory; his work was banned for several centuries. Kepler’s mother possible centers for God’s concern. Even after the Copernican revo- was accused of witchcraft and threatened with torture. Kepler lution, it was possible to imagine that God had created this system used his influence to free her. He was eventually forced out of and Earth as unique places in the cosmos. Something like this per- Prague when the emperor ended tolerance for Protestants. sists today in the “rare earth” hypothesis mentioned by Peters in his Darwin was not subject to the same threat of torture or censor- discussion of one of the ways that religious believers may choose to ship. However, his idea of evolution by natural selection has been cope with exoplanets. The rare earth hypothesis—defended in a denied by advocates of creationism. And Darwin’s view of the book of that name by Peter D. Ward—holds that it is wildly improb- world has been maligned for removing the traditional basis for able that life would develop at all anywhere in the universe. Thus morality and for running counter to the basic ideas of creationism. despite the fact that other planets exist, it is still possible for us to There have always been those who want to deny the discov- believe that we are unique and exceptional. eries of science in the name of religion. There may be some exo- This focus on our uniqueness helps explain why the world’s reli- planet deniers, who question the reliability of the method used to gious traditions tend to be ethnocentric and anthropocentric. find these planets. The same methodological doubt was used to Western religious traditions emphasize the special relationship that respond to Galileo: it could be that the telescope misled him. In a chosen people has with God. This view devel- oped historically within closed communities that concentrated on the needs and desires of the community without concern for nonmembers. So “The exciting news from the world of astronomy it makes sense to find elements of ethnocentrism is that the Kepler space telescope has discovered in these traditions. Some religious traditions have evolved beyond ethnocentrism toward a broadly a variety of planets in other solar systems. ecumenical concern. But they tend to remain Scientists have extrapolated from Kepler’s anthropocentric to the extent that they empha- observations and now estimate that size human concerns. It is human beings that are supposed to have a special relationship with God, our galaxy contains fifty billion planets.” having been created in God’s image. Some tradi- tions do speak of transmigration of souls across the species divide. But it is usually held that there is something spe- the same way, some creationists continue to defend the idea of a cial and unique about the human phase of the soul’s journey. In reli- “young earth” despite the mass of evidence that the earth is older gion, the interests of human beings on this planet are the primary than six thousand years. But as science unfolds, through repeated concern. observation and confirmation, it will soon enough be undeniable that there are other planets out there. Exoplanet skeptics will be e are on the cusp of another phase in the evolution of reli- as marginal as Young Earth creationists. Censorship will be impos- Wgion. Religions will have to evolve beyond an exclusive focus sible. Perhaps the rare earth hypothesis will remain as a bastion on the earth. While some critics may hope that this phase in the from which to defend traditional religious belief. But as Fuentes evolution of religion may lead us beyond religion altogether, it is and Peters indicate, religious belief can continue even if life is more likely that religion will develop in new directions. While the found on distant planets. discovery of exoplanets finally confirms the fact that there is noth- In that case, religious traditions will have to revise their cre- ing special about our planet, defenders of the rare earth hypoth- ation stories in such a way as to provide for a creation event that esis can focus on the specifics of temperature differentials, gravi- includes other planets. And as we become more aware of the pos- tational fields, the chemical composition of the atmosphere, and sibility of life on these distant planets, the creation story will have the presence of liquid water to argue that intelligent life remains to admit that there may have been independent developments of special. It is more likely, however, that the earth is not so rare— life on distant worlds based upon something like evolution as we especially if we acknowledge the billions of stars that may host know it here on Earth. inhabitable planets. We need, then, to reconceive our place in the Of course, the world’s religious traditions will have to find cosmos. The discoveries of the Kepler telescope direct our atten- ways to explain the embarrassing lack of knowledge among tion to the vastness of the universe and our own insignificance. ancient prophets who knew nothing of these other planets. It And they remind us how limited our terrestrial perspective is. could be that religious hermeneuts will find obscure passages in Several generations hence, we may well look back upon this the ancient scriptures that can be interpreted in such a way that discovery as the sort of turning point that we associate with the they include reference to foreign planets. But it will remain diffi-

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cult to explain how the mainstream tradition developed during the tant planets. Traditional religions provide no answer to the ques- past millennia in ignorance of these exoplanets. Theologians and tion of whether extraterrestrial life would have moral value. scholars have often pushed far beyond the literal word of the Would it make sense to say that extraterrestrial beings are created ancient texts. So it might be possible to reinterpret these texts in in the image of God or that they are endowed by their (or our) cre- a variety of ways to make room for the new astronomy. Some- ator with inalienable rights? And how would extraterrestrials be thing similar happened with interpretations of the book of Joshua incorporated into religious eschatology? Are extraterrestrials and its claim that God held the Sun still in the sky in order to allow afflicted by original sin? Can they be saved? And so on. Joshua time to complete a battle. Galileo’s discoveries forced the Science and modern moral philosophy do provide us with bet- church to revise the standard interpretation of this passage, but ter guidance here. Darwinian biology provides an account of how the passage still remains as part of the tradition. life would evolve on those distant worlds: via natural processes Perhaps it will be possible to incorporate these new discover- and in response to the exigencies of the local environment over ies within a traditional religious worldview. Advocates of intelli- the course of long millennia. The Darwinian model tells us that gent design might argue that God created a vast number of sentience, intelligence, and cooperative activity develop as species worlds, including several that have the potential for life. And until respond to the environment. Indeed, Darwinian theory can explain intelligent life is discovered elsewhere, it may be possible to how religion itself might have evolved on a distant planet—as the remain adamant in the claim that human beings alone are created response of communal and intelligent beings to the demands of in the image of God. But this still leaves much to be explained. the environment. A similar approach is found in modern moral And the problem remains: to explain why and how the designer philosophy, which tells us that moral value can be found in sen- of the vast cosmos has a special relationship to Earth and its tience, intelligence, and communal belonging. If we discover life human beings. The intelligent designer of this cosmos may end up on distant planets, it is these features that will matter when we quite different from the god of traditional religions, who appears begin to think about the value of those extraterrestrial life-forms. to be obsessed with occurrences on our puny world. The great philosopher Immanuel Kant once said that two Most terrestrial religions promise much more than the abstract things fill him with wonder and awe: “the starry heavens above theology of intelligent design provides. Religious tales usually me and the moral law within me.” The vast sublimity of the uni- speak of a chosen people, a prophet with divine wisdom, or a verse is awe-inspiring. But it is our awareness of ourselves and our unique historical moment of revelation. These myths will have to moral connection with other beings that gives life value. It may be be reinterpreted to accommodate the fact that we are not alone possible that there are some beings on distant worlds who are or unique in the cosmos. And claims about saviors and redemp- filled with wonder at the starry skies above and at their own sense tion will have to be reinterpreted to explain the possibility of of self. Indeed, Kant hinted that morality should extend to include redemption for inhabitants of exoplanets. all “rational beings.” This phrase points in a direction that goes Religions do adjust to new discoveries. Consider, for example, be yond mere human nature—toward rational nature in general, what happened with Mormonism. Joseph Smith claimed to have wherever it evolves. found a way to deal with the fact that the Christian tradition was As far as we know, we are the only beings in the universe that ignorant of the Americas. His prophecy explained how the lost understand morality and the question of value. We are not per- tribes of Israel came to the New World and how Jesus appeared fectly rational beings—but we are the most rational beings we to people in the Americas after his resurrection. Mormons con- know. We are special because we are able to wonder whether we tinue to believe that God ordained that Zion (the promised land) are special and because we are able to ask whether other beings will be built in the Americas. And esoteric Mormon doctrine holds on distant worlds might have a similar sort of value. In this way, that it is possible that righteous men can become gods and go on the discovery of extra-solar planets is an important reminder of to rule over universes of their own. Perhaps this idea or some what is valuable to us here on Earth. other like it could be used to explain ideas about the existence of One hopes that as the news of these new discoveries filters into other worlds. our consciousness, we will be able to respond to the need to revise It is possible that a similar adjustment could be made by a reli- our old beliefs in order to make room for these new discoveries and gion that wants to incorporate the existence of exoplanets into a the newly enlarged cosmos beyond our solar system. larger theory of salvation and redemption. It is possible to imag- ine a religion teaching that some humans left the planet to visit distant worlds or that Jesus or some other prophet or messiah has roamed the stars in spiritual form. Indeed, Church of Scien tology doctrine contains elements of an extraterrestrial mythology. Andrew Fiala is professor of philosophy at California State University, But mainstream terrestrial religions—as they exist today—pro- Fresno. vide scant guidance for dealing with the possibility of life on dis-

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Evolutionary Biology for Everyone

John A. Frantz

n everyday life, evolution explains phenomena that nothing almost as sweet as watermelon. All mammals create lactose in else can—and not just in biological specialties. It is the master their milk glands as the result of sophisticated biochemical Ikey to much that has been locked in mystery. If you seek real manipulations. Lactose also requires special enzymes for diges- understanding in almost any field, you must not reject evolution- tion in all mammalian young. This biochemical complexity would ary theory. It has never been my bread and butter, as I practiced require some selective advantage in order to have occurred at medicine for some sixty years. But I can cite example after exam- all. My take: it would be harder to wean the young from sweet ple in which the understanding of has milk at the appropriate time, resulting in fewer offspring per enhanced my education, not only in medical school but also such mother during her reproductive life—a substantial selective throughout my life. I hope that these details of my personal “cur- advantage for mothers producing milk containing lactose in - riculum” in evolutionary biology will help all students, including stead of a sweeter sugar. Perhaps sweeter milk in early mam- lifelong learners like myself. malian progenitors lacking lactose chemistry re sulted in the entire lineage having a sweet tooth throughout life, to the detri- How I Became an Evolutionary Biologist at an Early Age ment of adult nutrition. The evolution of the lactose biochem- In my sophomore year in high school, a friend told me what an istry thus may have resulted in return to a more varied and nutri- evil man Darwin was, after which I made a thorough study of The tious diet. The innovation is as old as the mammalian class of Origin of Species. Don’t give me too much credit—Darwin’s book vertebrates itself: the duck-billed platypus, the most primitive liv- is unique in being the only groundbreaking scientific treatise that ing mammal, has lactose as the carbohydrate in its milk. This was written for the general public—but reading The Origin of kind of thinking may help future physicians steer our communi- Species made me an evolutionary biologist almost overnight. ties toward appropriate policies to cooperate with nature’s long- I began surmising about the biological basis for characteristics term effort to limit the damages of the desire for sweets. of humans and other animals, both physical and behavioral. (“Biological basis” refers to the survival value of an anatomical 4. Whale communication. In his remarkable book, Among Whales, structure, ability, or behavior, and its likelihood of undergoing nat- Roger Payne describes how much money has been spent by ural selection and inheritance.) I lead off with two simple examples whaling countries in attempts to discover the breeding grounds of evolutionary thinking from medicine (and personal experience). of blue whales, so far without success. There is probably no breeding ground as such, since the blue whale’s auditory and 1. Adaptation to darkness. Why does it take thirty minutes for vocal equipment permits communication across ocean basins. human eyes to get used to the dark? This happens to be the duration of tropical twilight, the most rapid onset of darkness Still, this equipment is no more powerful—or sensitive—than it that occurs in nature. Prior to artificial lighting, adaptation in needs to be in order to function across the world’s largest basin, less than thirty minutes had no appreciable survival value. (Solar the Pacific. Thus, the whales have no problem locating one eclipses are too infrequent to present selection pressure.) another and do not need to be near each other to locate mat- ing partners. Note that there was no biological selection for this 2. Acclimatization to altitude. Why does it take several days for kind of fitness beyond what the whales need. the mammalian respiratory system to acclimatize to high alti- tude? The process takes about as long as it takes for a mammal 5. Sickle-cell anemia. This disease, common in people of African to reach a high altitude on its own power, such as by walking lineage, shows how even seemingly deleterious characteristics up a mountain. (Birds, with their ability to reach high altitudes can have survival value under special circumstances. Homo - rapidly, have a more powerful adaptation: a countercurrent zygotes—people who inherit the sickle-cell gene from both par- blood gas exchange system in their lungs.) ents—die of the disease before reaching reproductive age. Heterozygotes, who have one gene from an unaffected parent, Now for some more complicated examples of evolution’s ex - enjoy a pronounced survival advantage: resistance to malaria. planatory power. In malarious regions of Africa, mathematicians tell us that the 3. Lack of sweetness in lactose (milk sugar). If milk contained as observed incidence of the abnormal gene is just enough to much of any other ordinary sugar as it does lactose, it would be maximize the benefit to the population as a whole.

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6. Homosexuality. This may be another instance where a trait that tial substances: those that were available in profusion did not seems to disadvantage the individual’s capacity to pass genes need to be synthesized, while if others were present in subop- on to offspring may enhance the survival of the population as timal quantities, there would have been substantial evolution- a whole. You may well ask, “How can evolution select for a trait ary pressure enhancing the ability to conserve these nutrients. that does not reproduce?” The mechanism involved is trickier It follows from this that a varied diet is very likely to contain even than that which accounts for the prevalence of sickle-cell adequate amounts of all nutrients, assuming that total calories anemia. I puzzled about it for decades, until I stumbled on an are also sufficient. A corollary to all this is that hunter-gatherers article about comparative primatology that described homosex- should be less subject to malnutrition than settled agricultural- uality in a number of primate species. Its thesis was that homo- ists because of their ability to move on quickly in case of a local sexuality motivated nondominant males to remain with the food shortage. A case in point: the recommended supplemen- troop, strengthening the group and enhancing the survival of tary dose of folic acid during pregnancy to prevent birth defects the individual’s other relatives (siblings, nieces, and nephews) approximates the increased amount of folic acid most likely to who will pass on that male’s genetic attributes. I am sure that have been present in a typical paleolithic diet—roots, nuts, and these extra males also help with tribal territorial warfare—a pre- vegetables instead of the cereal in a modern diet. Concepts like human precedent for gays in the military, if you will. The case these are baffling in the absence of evolutionary thinking. of homosexuality furnishes a salient example of the power of 9. Recognition of friend and foe. The instant recognition of faces evolutionary biology in shaping our interpretations. When the is a hardwired ability that confers obvious survival value in terms American Psychiatric Association decided some years ago that of recognizing friend or foe. This ability has been well studied homosexuality would no longer be defined as a psychiatric ill- by students of animal behavior. I was especially intrigued by ness, instead of being upset or surprised, I promptly gave them recent research on face recognition using sheep as the study credit for being ahead of the curve of new knowledge from subjects. Twenty sheep were trained to recognize pictures of Jane Goodall and her ilk. sheep or human faces that were placed at junctions in a maze 7. Obesity. A somewhat modern insight into the biological back- with food rewards for correct choices. The sheep were very ground of obesity comes from the study of the Pima Indians of adept at recognition. If sheep can do it, who can’t? The evolu- the southwestern United States. The Pimas have the highest tionary implication is that humans and sheep must have had a incidence of obesity of any ethnic group worldwide. They common ancestor some tens of millions of years ago already in descended from ancient inhabitants of very arid canyons of the possession of this brain circuitry. Voice recognition is also part four corners area, such as Mesa Verde in Colorado and Grand of recognition of friend or foe and may be the underlying abil- Gulch in Utah. Their ancestors had survived drought and famine ity that enables us to appreciate music—something that puz- in endless sequence, so they had been preferentially selected zled Darwin himself: “As neither the enjoyment nor the capac- for the ability to gain weight promptly whenever food was ity of producing musical notes are faculties of the least use to plentiful, thus increasing their chance of survival in the next man . . . they must be ranked amongst the most mysterious famine. We are all a little like that, though to a lesser degree. If with which he is endowed.” we understand how we got the way we are, there may be 10. Addiction. Tolerance is a mechanism permitting consumption opportunities to adjust our behavior to blunt undesirable con- of plants with toxic effects, and it causes drug addicts to be sequences—another example of the benefit of scientific liter- able to survive, even thrive, on otherwise fatal doses of the acy, including knowledge of evolution. drug to which they are addicted. A corollary to this is the idea 8. Megavitamins. In light of the current enthusiasm for mega- that addiction has persisted by being tied incidentally but inex- doses of vitamins, consider that we humans are among very tricably to tolerance. Thus, seemingly harmful traits can survive few animal species that do not synthesize vitamin C in the natural selection if they are associated with a trait of great ben- body. We synthesize many other vital substances, such as efit to the species. Could drug addiction be such a harmful trait lecithin—lecithin deficiency has never been observed in unavoidably connected with tolerance, and could its survival humans—but not vitamin C. What conclusions can we draw value lie in permitting greater consumption of a “dangerous” from this? food? Could addiction be a vestige of an inheritance from First, we are descended from organisms that did once make some ancient, long-extinct ancestor who actually benefited their own vitamin C. Vitamin C synthesis is a capacity that was from the trait, most likely a common ancestor of insects and abandoned in the course of human evolution. We still have all vertebrates? There are modern insects whose larvae become but one of the enzymes needed to synthesize vitamin C. So the “addicted” to toxic plants, rendering the entire species toxic to foods available to our ancestors in their primeval environment predators. An example is the common monarch butterfly, must have provided ample vitamin C, such that when our early which eats poisonous milkweed and thereby avoids predation. or prehuman ancestors started to lose the ability to create it, While this strategy of becoming tolerant to a poison was evolv- that posed no great handicap. The same is true for other essen- ing, addiction may have become part of the package because

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that assured an adequate, steady intake of the poison—strag- laxis got into the addiction package along with a withdrawal glers who failed to become addicted quickly enough became syndrome and tolerance. prey and ceased to be part of the lineage. Countless other such My oddest personal insight into tachyphylaxis came after fascinating discoveries await us especially, in the tropics. For a subsequent decade during which I consumed almost no caf- example, butterflies of the genus Parides in Central America, as feine. One week I broke my years of abstinence with one cup larvae, eat Aristoloquia leaves whose toxicity is similar to that of midday coffee three days in a row. Amazingly, four or five of milkweed. hours after the first “missed dose,” I developed a headache. So the following scenario may partially explain the origin My addiction, dormant for years, had been rekindled by a of addiction. Unlike the Parides larvae, which hatch on a poi- minuscule exposure to caffeine; now the headache was warn- sonous Aristolochia leaf, our aquatic ancestor (an acorn ing me that I had “missed a dose.” I have had no experience worm)* which “invented” addiction would have had to keep with patients experiencing such headaches if they drank less seeking the poisonous food that rendered its lineage poison- than five or six cups of coffee or tea per day. Now I drink no ous and therefore less subject to predation. Addiction served more than a cup or two of real coffee a month. this purpose by overcoming the temptation posed by ample What little is currently known about the biochemistry of alternative food choices. In our case, the ability to become addiction is merely a discussion of the possible interactions of addicted just happens to have persisted after its benefit neurotransmitters with the mesolimbic dopamine system, became moot. Compare that with our appendix, which also where pleasure is produced, and how some of the addicting persists with negative benefit. More toxic animals and plants substances produced by plants are similar to (and imitate) vari- inhabit the marine environment than our terrestrial one. ous neurotransmitters. The literature seems to contain very little Undoubtedly some of the toxic species utilize secondhand tox- about how addiction could enhance survival. The bottom line: ins much as Parides larvae do. If we can find a poisonous regard addiction as similar to having an appendix and don’t marine vertebrate that achieves toxicity through its diet, this bother with the cure until threatened by some inconvenience. may begin to confirm the hypothesis of an evolutionary origin of addiction, especially if that species bears live young so that Summary they would be born addicted, as are human infants born to When I started to write this article several years ago, my goal was mothers currently addicted to heroin. Experiments with a cap- to defend the teaching of modern biology and to demonstrate the tive population of such animals should easily demonstrate tol- power of evolutionary thinking in understanding and explaining erance or even tachyphylaxis, the ability of former addicts to many important and interesting phenomena. Since then, I have become readdicted extraordinarily promptly. It is a universal gradually received numerous reinforcing insights that suggest that feature of the addiction syndrome (along with tolerance and evolution is a pillar contributing to mankind’s intellectual and cul- drug-seeking behavior). Once again, evolution has explained tural history. We can hope that further study will result in still the well-nigh inexplicable. deeper insights regarding the connections between evolution and My personal experience with caffeine addiction is a good social and political spheres. It took four centuries for Newton’s explanation of tachyphylaxis—significant because it was so ideas to lead to space travel. We will need to digest Darwin more ex treme though not disabling or otherwise harmful, aside quickly if we are to achieve hoped-for benefits in time to avoid dis- from occasional withdrawal headaches. I was never a regular asters like climate change and overpopulation. user of caffeine before I lived in Afghanistan from 1968 to In short, the proper and widespread study of evolution is a vital 1970. While there, I drank tea very frequently. By that means and integral part of a liberal education. What field is better posi- I could restrict my fluid intake to water that had been boiled tioned to lead the way in this endeavor than medicine? Let us do without insulting the locals—as might happen if I insisted on it for ourselves and for the world. I am reminded of reading in my boiling my drinking water. It takes much tea to fill one’s water youth a book about the Western frontier. The author stated that requirement in a tropical environment—so much that the the frontier doctor was more likely than any other citizen to be dose of its active ingredients might exceed toxic levels for a forgiven for believing in evolution. I sense that this may still be naïve user. So I cultivated a tea addiction, accustoming my sys- somewhat true, in which case we are “ex officio” leaders in the tem to a high consumption level. As I actually dislike tea, it effort to teach biology. was easy to wean myself from it in about a week, unless I was expecting to travel. When I traveled during my sojourn in Afghanistan, I would drink copious amounts of tea. John A. Frantz practiced medicine from 1946 to 2006. He taught internal med- Tachyphylaxis restored my addiction sufficiently promptly to icine as a Peace Corps volunteer in Afghanistan from 1968 to 1970. He is a avoid any toxic symptoms, emphasizing to me how tachyphy- member of the National Association of Science Writers. An extended version of this article can be found on ww.frantzmd.info. *The acorn worm (a hemichordate) is the last surviving common ancestor of insects and vertebrates. It is so named because it has a large proboscis in front of the mouth that is acorn-shaped.

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Leading Questions Exposing Dominionism A Conversation with Rachel Tabachnick continued from p. 8

TABACHNICK: There is Christian Recon- more successful in drawing large numbers. Tea Party–type things like not having big structionism, and the founder of that is This movement is also different from, government. How does that fit into their considered to be Rusas John Rushdoony. say, Jerry Falwell’s Moral Majority or Pat framework? Rushdoony’s Dominionism was based on Robertson’s Christian Coalition of Amer ica. TABACHNICK: They are extremely anti - an extensive study of biblical law and was Look at the Christian Coali tion’s creation of government and supportive of very small very draconian; he talked about stoning a voter guide, which would go out to government. This they have in common those who break biblical law. Although he churches all over the country and list politi- with Rushdoony, who believed that gov- was tremendously influential in the reli- cians by their positions on certain hot-but- ernment should be limited to functions gious Right, people tended to disown ton issues. The voter was to look at that and like defense and policing and that every- Rushdoony because of this draconian then make his or her decision. What you see thing else should be handled according to application of biblical law. with the NAR is that the apostles and biblical law. The NAR has taken the same idea of prophets are supposedly getting their direc- But they also have draconian ideas. For taking control of government and society tions from God. They can give the instruc- instance, Apostle Alice Patterson, who but wrapped it in a much more attractive, tion that God has selected a candidate. was standing with Rick Perry when he less frightening package. A lot of NAR MOONEY: The NAR apostles care about spoke at The Response, has written that activities are packaged in the idea of char- the standard religious Right–type issues widows should not receive any assistance ity and racial reconciliation. They are much like abortion and homosexuality, but also from the church until they are sixty years

Tom Flynn A Discussion Long Overdue continued from p. 9

population problem, it is an immigration ground America can afford to feed—or how and instead post a sign that reads “Sorry, problem. many more can be supported by available America is full”? Immigration is often thought of as a and sustainable freshwater supplies. Per - I raise this topic knowing that it’s hard vexed subject that generates more heat haps we need to consider that the last time to discuss without shouting. Just ask the than light. But instead of having argu- America welcomed immigrants at a rate Sierra Club. Up until 1996, this venerable ments over whether immigrants “steal anything like today’s, it was the fourth quar- environmental group had as one of its jobs” from the native-born—instead of ter of the nineteenth century, when the long-standing core agenda items limiting pitting a racist critique of Latino culture manufacturing economy demanded large immigration in order to slow population against often-uncritically held ideals of numbers of workers at every skill level. Last growth. In 1996 the Club assumed a neu- American openness—should we not in - time I looked, employment prospects today tral stance on immigration, and that’s stead examine the issue of immigration were far less rosy. where things have stood ever since. In through the lens of population policy? So, I would submit, the question needs 2004 there was bitter division when dissi- Perhaps we need to ask more openly how to be asked: Is it time to take down that dents led by former Colorado Governor many more people of any ethnic back- proverbial torch beside the golden door Richard D. Lamm tried, ultimately unsuc-

Wendy Kaminer New Theocrats vs. ‘New Atheists’ continued from p. 13

Obama administration still allows them to orating). It seems safe to predict that seem poised to do), we will face many engage in federally funded employment Amer ican culture will always be influenced more serious threats than anodyne refer- discrimination. The federal judiciary, espe- by the resilient religiosity of American peo- ences to God in public ceremonies or on cially the Supreme Court, is increasingly ple. But while a cultural preference for reli- public buildings and dollar bills. We’ll face friendly to church-state partnerships and gious belief, even when reflected in in- the official elevation of sectarianism over sectarianism in government. stances of official ceremonial deism, may science, faith over reason, and “right reli- This is not a call for the godless to sur- be irritating to atheists and agnostics, it gious thinking” over religious as well as render, but it does underscore the need for doesn’t necessarily entail substantive depri- irreligious rights. them to choose their battles wisely, as I’ve vations of rights. A successful secular often suggested. Atheism or mere agnosti- movement will recognize cism in America requires a sense of humor, that reality. If right-wing reli- Wendy Kaminer is a lawyer and social critic. Her latest book is however black, as well as a thick skin and gious extremists succeed in Worst Instincts: Cowardice, Conformity, and the ACLU (Beacon the acceptance, if not the embrace, of out- taking over the White House Press, 2009). sider status (which, after all, can be invig- and Congress (as they now

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old and that widows who have never been Native Americans and white Americans and sides simply educating ourselves? part of the church should not receive any allowing abortion to be legalized in the TABACHNICK: One of the most important assistance whatsoever. United States decades later. things is to recognize that this is not about Another type of ceremony that’s going MOONEY: I don’t think you are saying that secular versus religious. That’s a trap that on is called “identificational repentance and Rick Perry actually believes in any of this stuff. these movements are all too happy for us to reconciliation.” At first this looks very good TABACHNICK: It’s impossible for me or fall into. Most evangelicals are not Do - and altruistic; these are ceremonies in which anybody else to say what Perry personally minionists. A lot of observant Christians and there is reconciliation between groups: white believes. What we can say is that he has people of other religions believe very Americans and Native Americans, for in - made a decision to very publicly partner strongly in separation of church and state stance, or white Amer icans and African with these Apostles and apparently feels and don’t support Dominionism. Americans. But this is another spiritual war- that they can deliver something for him fare methodology where supposedly genera- politically. Now what they would get out of Point of Inquiry is the radio show and pod- tional curses are removed from a population that if he became president is hard to say. cast of the Center for Inquiry, a supporting so that they can be evangelized. They have Certainly he has helped to empower the organization of the Council for Secular connected the treatment of Native Amer - movement by doing this. Humanism. Please visit pointofinquiry.org to icans with demons taking control over both MOONEY: What do we need to do, be- hear this interview in its entirety.

cessfully, to elect a slate of candidates to racist. I’m not denying that there are racists common sense—we should embrace our the Club’s board of directors pledged to in the anti-immigration camp; I am just sug- obligation to do all we can to propel the restore immigration reduction to the gesting that an automatic charge of racism issue of overpopulation back into the group’s agenda. It was a vitriolic contest in is not warranted if one has a sincere con- spotlight as a subject for discussion and which then–executive director Carl Pope cern that the nation might lack sufficient then action. did not quail from charging that the dissi- room and/or resources to support, say, the dents were “in bed with racists.” 423 million Americans projected to inhabit Note: Some data for this op-ed came from Let’s try to ratchet down the fury just this country in 2050! the Population Reference Bureau. a bit. The two modest proposals I’d like 2. As secular human- to float before FREE INQUIRY readers are as ists—people who seek Tom Flynn is editor of FREE INQUIRY, executive director of the follows: the best for the human Council for Secular Humanism, and editor of The New 1. It is at least logically possible that future and seek to reach it Encyclopedia of Unbelief. Out of concern for overpopulation he someone can favor reductions in immigra- through the application and his wife have remained child-free. tion to the United States without being a of science, reason, and

Tom Rees Does Religion Bring Happiness? continued from p. 15

Diener also examined why people in relationship between religion and well- If, on the other hand, you are lucky poor societies benefit from religion. Using being is highly complex and context- enough to live in a safe, secure country a sophisticated model that took into dependent. Hardship does lead people to where lives are long and free from fear, account both personal and societal cir- religion, but what makes people religious is then you’ll probably find yourself in a cumstances, he was able to show that not their direct experience but rather the country that is not very religious. You these people felt they had more social society in which they live. As a result, soci- won’t find your lack of religion to be a support and more respect. In good soci- eties tend to be relatively homogeneous problem—indeed, you might find it quite eties, by contrast, there was no advantage when it comes to religion. Some societies liberating. to being religious—both the religious and (and these tend to be the tougher ones in the nonreligious re ported feeling re- which to live) are religious, spected and having high levels of social and if you live in one of these Tom Rees is a medical writer and lifelong humanist. In his blog, support. As a result both had high levels of places and insist on not con- Epiphenom, he writes about the latest research into the psy- happiness and well-being. forming, then you’ll more chology and social science of religion and nonbelief. What all these analyses show is that the than likely be unhappy.

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Shadia B. Drury Part 2: When the Only Defense Is a Fierce Offense continued from p. 14

live by your wretched, measly little brain understood this better than Osama bin being and that everything good belongs instead of trusting in God’s providential Laden. In his effort to recruit suicide to God and is no part of our humanity. wisdom. bombers for his “Jihad against Jews and Supposedly, our capacities for reason, In other words, those who suffer Crusaders” in 1998, Bin Laden rebuked love, and justice are possible only through death and devastation from earthquakes, Muslims for clinging “so heavily to the God. But Lewis gives us no grounds for floods, and tsunamis must accept God’s earth” when God asks them for such a believing that there is anything supernatu- will without question. There is no sense in paltry sacrifice. ral about reason, love, or justice. Those arguing that life is better than death and The second tactic employed by Lewis who don’t know God are nevertheless that happiness is better than misery. Lewis to defend his feeble arguments is to go on capable of reason, love, and justice. It fol- has no sympathy for those who desire life the offensive against atheism. In Mere lows that reason, love, and justice are nat- and happiness in this world. In Lewis’s Christianity, Lewis maintains that atheists ural attributes of our humanity. Christian lexicon, this world is of little con- have an even bigger “problem of evil” In typical Christian fashion, Lewis sequence—the destruction and suffering than believers do. He argues that if the denies that the reason, love, and justice of we experience in this world is negligible. If natural world is all there is, then on what unbelievers are real. It follows that only we trust in God, everything will be grounds can the atheist criticize the injus- Christian reason, love, and justice are real. redeemed—in the end. tice of the world? Supposedly, when the As John Bunyan put it, the righteousness By denigrating life in this world in atheist invokes the idea of justice, he or of unbelievers stinks in the nostrils of God. comparison to life after death, Lewis pro- she is appealing to something altogether I can almost hear Lavigne’s teenage psy- motes a nihilistic indifference to life. As a beyond the natural world. Lewis believes chotic saying to herself that the young result, life becomes worthless, and what- that justice is incomprehensible without man’s love for his murdered girlfriend was ever happens in this world is irrelevant: it God. So, in complaining about the injus- not real—only by loving me could he know is all destined to be destroyed by God very tice of the world, the atheist invokes God real love. It is ironic that the most intoler- soon anyway. This world-be-damned atti- and is therefore caught in a contradiction. ant, smug, and conceited religion ever tude is the psychological prerequisite to This leads Lewis to conclude that the athe- invented regards pride as the supreme evil. committing dreadful crimes with a clear ist is the one who really suffers from the In the final analysis, Christianity suffers conscience. It has contributed to the rich “problem of evil.” from “the problem of evil” because it is catalogue of atrocities committed in the Lewis’s offensive against atheism takes premised on the infantile belief in cosmic name of Christianity through the ages. for granted a Christian dualism that is as justice. In contrast, atheism invites the The same psychological propensity inspires perverse as it is insupportable. He assumes tragic point of view expressed so movingly Muslim terrorists in our time. No one that everything evil is a natural part of our by the ancient Greeks. It is the recognition

Katrina Voss Let Us Stand in Judgment of Judgment Day continued from p. 16

thing to look forward to, so why rub their cent sure that it will happen,” boasted ing or another pious seer makes the next noses in it when it doesn’t happen? one Rapture-ready individual on the end-of-the-world pronouncement), let us Haven’t we learned it’s rude to say “I told “Judgement Day” Facebook page. One once again exercise our skeptical obligation you so”? Aren’t we just acting like bullies? now wonders what, in fact, that planless to ridicule and belittle such people—merci- I believe the answer can be found in a individual actually did on May 22. The lessly—partly for our own enjoyment but hunting metaphor, and even though I am laundry? Surely it had been piling up. partly on the off chance that such ridicule a decades-long vegetarian I’ll use it Sadly, in the months since May 21, might encourage the moderately less stupid unqueasily: if a deer shoots itself in the many individuals have admitted that they to at least come up with a “plan B.” head and then proceeds to strap itself to sent their savings to Brother Camping, pre- the hood of your car, you are justified in sumably to help maintain promotional bill- taking it home and eating it joyfully. boards. Others have, at least But satire is not just fun; it is also use- in past Rapture preparations, Katrina Voss worked for ten years as a bilingual meterologist at ful. In fact, employing satire to warn oth- killed their children and pets a Weather Channel Latin America and AccuWeather. She is now a ers about the dangers of gullibility is few days before the magical science and research writer at Penn State’s Eberly College of among the nonbeliever’s primary duties. “I date. As December 21, 2012, Science. don’t have a plan B because I am 100 per- approaches (or when Camp -

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that the world, with its volcanoes, floods, cation of the world is not only the prereq- hurricanes, and tsunamis, is not designed uisite for religiously inspired terror; it is also to suit us (if it is designed at all). The world the catalyst for the environmental degra- is indifferent to the things that human dation that contributes to the tragic quality beings hold dear—love, generosity, kind- of life. The fact that the pope has added ness, and justice. However, the violence of environmental destruction to his already nature is not malicious or deliberate. bloated list of sins is shameless—as if his Water, earth, and wind do not intend the religion has not been at the heart of the harm they cause. The harm they inflict is problem for two thousand years. Those not the purposeful act of a supreme being who believe that the world is destined to who allows the mayhem to occur with the be destroyed by God very soon have no intention of causing suffering. Since reason to look after it. If the pope were Christians believe that everything that serious, he might start by abandoning his happens is intended by a good God, they Church’s reckless procreative strategy, are endlessly entrapped and dumb- which has contributed to human misery as founded by “the problem of evil.” In their well as to environmental degradation: go desperate effort to evade the problem, forth and multiply and let God worry about they make it worse—they defend a psy- the consequences. We know how God chotic God (he’s doing all this to win our deals with the consequences—war, pov- love), deny observable reality (it’s all for erty, and pestilence. Unfortunately, religion the good), invoke magic (God will save us thrives on human misery; the more tragic in the end), and silence reason (how dare life is, the more likely people will cry to you question divine wisdom). God for deliverance. Worst of all, Christianity contributes to the tragic quality of exis- tence by fostering a reckless Shadia B. Drury is Canada Research Chair at the University of disregard for life in this Regina in Canada. Her most recent book is Aquinas and world. Lewis finds the love of Modernity: The Lost Promise of Natural Law (Rowman & Little - the world as obscene as field, 2008). does Bin Laden. This depre-

P Z Myers The Evolution Elevator Pitch continued from p. 17

on the evolution of venoms. And I haven’t him or her in to be pinned down and have even mentioned the fossils! Everyone talks misconceptions torn apart. about the fossils, but a solid case can be As you might guess, I’m not your stan- made for evolution even without them. dard friendly godless biologist. I assume This is always the dilemma in any con- the readers of this column will constitute a versation about evolution. On one side— largely friendly audience, but I’ll be using my side—we have such an overwhelming these pages to take a rather aggressive, volume and density of information that even militant tone about science and athe- we can steamroll any discussion; all that ism. It’ll be fun! the other side has in any quantity is igno- rance and misinformation,

and its only hope is to dis- With this inaugural column, FREE INQUIRY readers can look for- tract and derail. My elevator ward to regular commentaries by P Z Myers on scientific issues. pitch has an ulterior motive: Myers is an associate professor of biology at the University of to provoke the recipient to Minne sota, Morris, where his work focuses on the evolutionary try to engage further, like development of biology. He writes the science blog. any good pitch, and draw

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Church-State Update

Deforestation, Overpopulation, and Our Future Edd Doerr

he Threats to a Crucial Canopy: and Death of NSSM 200: How the De - right of the individual couple to deter- Deaths of Forests May Weaken struction of Political Will Doomed a U.S. mine freely and responsibly the number “T Controls on Heat-Trapping Gas” Population Policy. and spacing of children and to have infor- was the headline of a two-page report by Curiously, I am one of the few writers mation, education and means [emphasis Justin Gillis in on ever to review Mumford’s book. Let me in report] to do so.” October 1, 2011. Color maps accompany- offer some quotations from the NSSM 200 • “No country has reduced its popula- ing the comprehensive article made dramat- report, which I also employed in an article tion growth without resorting to abor- ically clear that our planet’s forest cover—a in USA Today magazine in January 1995: tion . . . abortion, legal and illegal, now has be come the most widespread fertil- primary reservoir for long-term sequestra- • “In some overpopulated areas, rapid ity control method in use in the world tion of carbon—is shrinking as a result of presses on a fragile today.” logging, clearing for agriculture and graz- environment in ways that threaten longer- ing, droughts, global warming, and grow- term food production, through cultivation There you have it—a blockbusting report ing infestations of insects that are increas- of marginal lands, overgrazing, desertifi- first ordered by Republican Pres ident Richard ingly active due to climate change. De - cation, deforestation, and soil erosion, Nixon in April 1974, finished in 1975, and forestation and are proceed- with consequent destruction of land and endorsed by Repub lican President Gerald ing faster than scientists had predicted. of water, rapid siltation of reser- Ford in November 1975 in National Security This threat to our planet is scary voirs, and impairment of inland and Decision Memo randum 314. enough even without considering soil de - coastal fisheries.” That was then. This is now. But with pletion, disappearing fisheries, dropping • “Rapid population growth creates a nearly double its 1975 water tables, accumulating wastes, un - severe drag on rates of economic devel- level, with economic and environmental checked dependence on finite supplies of opment otherwise attainable.” problems threatening to overwhelm the fossil fuels, and, finally, overpopulation • “There is a major risk of severe dam- world, scarcely anyone dares to talk about and its impact on our environment. As age to world economic, political, and overpopulation. Thinking people of every early as the 1950s, scientists were calling ecological systems, and as these systems secular and religious stripe must pull attention to this problem. (I was actually begin to fail, to our humanitarian val- together to turn back the mind-numbingly blackballed from teaching in the Indian - ues.” fundamentalist, theocratic-leaning bozos apolis public schools in the 1950s for dar- • “Most experts agree that . . . expendi- who have taken over one of our two ing to discuss overpopulation on a radio tures on effective services major parties. talk show, and I didn’t even mention birth are generally one of the most cost effec- But back to 1975. How did the NSSM control. A page-one headline in a newspa- tive investments for an LDC (Less De - 200 report come to be classified and per the next day shrieked, “Population veloped Country) seeking to improve deep-sixed for so many years? Population Bomb Backfires.”) overall welfare and per capita economic scientist Mumford first learned of its exis- In 1975 the Ford administration pro- growth.” tence in the late 1980s from ultra-conser- duced the 227-page National Security • “In international relations, population vative Catholic sources. He is convinced Study Memorandum 200 (NSSM 200) re - factors are crucial in, and often determi- that not ordinary Catholics but the Vati - port, which exhaustively detailed the perils nants of, violent conflicts in developing can—the same power structure responsi- of unchecked human population growth. areas.” ble for the longstanding international Mysteriously, the report was immediately • U.S. policy should aim “for the world cover-up of clerical sexual abuse—was “classified” and buried until shortly before to achieve a replacement level of fertility behind its suppression. a 1994 United Nations population confer- (a two-child family on the average) by ence. The report was un earthed in1992 by about the year 2000.” Edd Doerr is president of Americans for Religious Liberty and population scientist Stephen D. Mumford • The United States should a past president of the American Humanist Association. and discussed in his 1994 book, The Life “repeatedly assert . . . the

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Herbert A. Hauptman Poem (1917–2011)

International Academy of Humanism Laureate Herbert A. Requiem for an Ancestor Hauptman died on October 23, 2011, at the age of ninety-four. Lisa Rosati Hauptman was best known for his pioneering work on crystal structures, which enabled the development of thousands of drugs and medical procedures to treat a wide array of illnesses. Twisted, brittle, and aged bone He and collaborator Jerome Karle shared the 1985 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this work. Bearer of stories Hauptman obtained an MA degree in mathematics from Columbia University in 1939 and his PhD in mathematics from Keeper of time the University of Maryland in 1954. He began his work with Speak Karle after World War II at the Naval Research Laboratory in Wash ington, D.C. Their groundbreaking 1953 monograph was From the Dreamtime of the Primitives titled, “Solution of the Phase Problem I. The Centro symmetric Crystal.” Speak to me of sunlight and shadow In 1970, he joined the crystallographic group of what became the Hauptman-Woodward Medical Research Institute Of ages long past (formerly the Medical Foundation of Buffalo) and became research director in 1972. At the time of his death, he was pres- Of mammoth hunters outlined on the gray sky ident of the Institute as well as research professor in the Department of Biophysical Sciences and adjunct professor in Of mists and Pleistocene rains and Aeolian winds the Department of Computer Science at the University at Of white and sacred stones Buffalo. In the course of his career, Hauptman authored over 170 publications, including journal articles, research papers, chapters and books, and received numerous awards. Old One—relic! Grinning —Andrea Szalanski Cave-wrested, the deep dust clinging

ADVERTISEMENT My hand—itself a fossil-to-be The guise of living flesh Its rotting life grasping Beholden to she who decays no more

Revered sister, address this Living Fossil Whisper to me From the shadows of dead campfires Of the spear, the hide, the Dire Wolf Of the Great Ice Bear Speak This Future Dead awaits your reply

Lisa Rosati is an avid outdoor enthusiast turned television producer and mother of one. After graduating from college at the age of fifty- two, she is now an adjunct professor of earth sciences at Copper Mountain Community College in Joshua Tree, California.

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Reviews

Religion: Dubious Midwife of the American Revolution Debra R. Neill

homas Kidd is associate professor of history at Baylor University and a sen- Tior fellow at the Institute for Studies of Religion. He has appeared on the Glenn Beck television program and written op- God of Liberty: A Religious History of the American Revolution, eds for USA Today and the Washington by Thomas S. Kidd (New York: Basic Books, 2010, Post. In his latest book, God of Liberty: A ISBN 978-0-465-00235-1) 298 pp. Cloth, $26.95. Religious History of the American Revo - lution, Kidd argues that religion creates a “purposefulness of freedom” which is essential in a democracy. This is in contrast to what he calls the “chaos of amoral free- dom” that arises from secularism and the exclusion of religion in the public sphere. He examines the American Revolu tion and the history of the early republic to illus- public religious beliefs [that] . . . united However, during the period that Kidd is trate the good that came from religion (by revolutionaries . . .” and given that the talking about, the most influential ideas which he means Christianity) and to argue “enormous, bloody sacrifices required by on equality came from John Locke, who that no one at that time, including ratio- war seem to require providential justifica- was influenced by both ancient Greco- nalist Founders such as Thomas Jefferson, tions.” Kidd admits that providentialism is Roman ideas and Christianity. According ever envisioned a secular nation that problematic given its long history of justi- to Locke, we were all born free and equal excludes religion from the public sphere or fying atrocities in the name of God, but he in nature, and the source of this equality is government. still thinks that it is valuable because God. While Locke advocated a rational Kidd identifies five “American public “Amer icans want to believe that their wars Chris tianity, the god he spoke of was not principles of religion” that he argues were reflect the will of the Almighty.” Kidd’s necessarily the Christian god. It was often widely accepted by a diversity of Amer- argument for the centrality of religion in re ferred to as “Nature or Nature’s God.” icans, including rational deists, liberal the success of the revolution is unpersua- To make his case that the idea of Chris tians, and dissenting Christian sects: sive. There were many factors that con- “equality by creation” led to the demise of disestablishment; “equality by creation”; tributed to the success of the Americans, slavery in this county, Kidd points to the threat of vice to republican govern- and a belief in Providence seems to be low Jefferson’s phrase “all men are created ments; the need for virtue; and the belief on that list. equal” in the Declaration of Independence. in Providence. He goes on to illustrate the In another attempt to illustrate the Even if we grant that this is religious lan- importance of each of these concepts in “benevolent ends” created by religion, guage, which is doubtful, Kidd forgets to American history and concludes that he Kidd claims that the abolition of slavery mention that Christianity justified slavery cannot “imagine a better source than reli- was brought about by what he argues is a for over a thousand years. gion for channeling American freedom religious idea: “equality by creation.” He is The Declaration of Independence also toward benevolent ends.” always careful to use the phrase “equality provides Kidd with the opportunity to Kidd begins with the Revolutionary by creation” rather than just “equality” in demonstrate the “willingness of Jefferson War, which he claims “was not simply order to buttress his claim that it is a reli- and other founders to use religious con- about unfair taxes and colonial politics”; it gious concept. Kidd certainly cannot credit cepts to mobilize Americans for the Patriot was also about a belief in Providence that Christianity with promoting equality, as he cause.” This is a theme throughout the “summoned Americans to support God’s seems to imply. The idea of equality is book. Kidd claims that “the greatest ora- sacred cause of liberty.” He claims that ancient. The Greco-Roman stoics believed tors and writers of the Revolution, including religion played a significant role in the suc- that the shared rationality of all human Patrick Henry and Thomas Paine, employed cess of the revolution since it was “only beings meant that we were all equal. biblical and evangelical rhetoric to make

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their case. Such rhetoric was the language exempt from government: “The preserva- sons to support his position that Jefferson of the people. Without evangelicalism’s tion of a free Government requires not did not want a secular state. His first claim resources for criticizing political power and merely, that the metes and bounds which is that Jefferson promoted a public role rousing popular sentiment, the Patriots separate each department of power be for religion. Anyone who knows anything would never have commanded the alle- invariably maintained; but more especially about Jefferson knows that he did the giance of so many Americans.” that neither of them be suffered to over- opposite. Second, Kidd claims that The potential for abuse is great and leap the great Barrier which defends the Jefferson had “deep connections” with politicians today use religion to mobilize rights of the people.” many American evangelicals, especially for political gain. This is one Also problematic for Kidd’s interpreta- Baptists. While they did cooperate to leg- of the reasons James Madison opposed tion of Madison is the fact that Madison islate in support of religious liberty and any mixing of religion and government viewed liberty of conscience as an equal sometimes exchanged letters, this could and argued that it corrupts both. right shared by all, and equality requires hardly be called “deep connections.” that religion be exempt from government. A couple of examples should serve to t is critical for Kidd to show a consensus And therefore he claimed that Henry’s bill illustrate how Kidd turns Jefferson into a Ibetween the rational deistic founders and “degrades from the equal rank of Citizens promoter of public religion. For example, evangelicals on the issue of public religion all those whose opinions in Religion do not Kidd interprets Jefferson’s famous letter to because he wants to claim that the idea of bend to those of the Legislative authority. the Danbury Baptists (January 1, 1802) as secularism and strict separation between Distant as it may be in its present form from intending to convey only that “the church and state is new. While it is refresh- the Inquisition, it differs from it only in national government, under the U.S. ing that Kidd doesn’t try to make Madison degree.” In addition Madison argued that Constitution, could never institute an offi- and Jefferson into orthodox Christians, he the harmony between religious sects will be cial religion.” This is an interesting inter- does attempt make them fit his model of lost if the laws “intermeddle with Re - pretation of Jefferson’s letter given that it religious liberty: “the government should ligion. ... Torrents of blood never preference any denomination, per- have been spilt in the old secute anyone for his or her beliefs, or world, by vain attempts of the coerce anyone into religious observance.” secular arm, to extinguish In order to achieve this, he misinterprets Religious discord, by proscrib- “Kidd argues that religion creates a and ignores much of their writings on the ing all difference in Religious ‘purposefulness of freedom’ subject. opinion.” which is essential in a democracy. For example, in describing one of Kidd believes that the Madi son’s most famous works on religious Constitution provides proof of This is in contrast to what he calls the liberty, Memorial and Remonstrance Madison’s support for public ‘chaos of amoral freedom’ that arises against Reli gious Assessments (1785), Kidd religion. Madison played an from secularism and the exclusion only in cludes the parts of the document important role in the creation that support his thesis. Madison wrote of the Constitution. Accord - of religion in the public sphere.” Memorial in response to Patrick Henry’s ing to Kidd, the Constitution proposed tax to provide support for is not secular since “it estab- “teachers of the Chris tian Religion.” Kidd lished a new government reduced Madison’s argument to the claim committed to maintain public that “disestablishment would protect any- virtue.” While it was a common eigh- clearly states his interpretation of the First one from having to financially support teenth-century assumption that virtue was Amendment: “I contemplate with sover- churches whose beliefs they did not share, vital to the survival of republics, it was an eign reverence that act of the whole and it would energize the expansion of assumption that Madison no longer held. American people which declared that their Christianity in America.” But a full reading He believed that not virtue but checks and legislature should ‘make no law respecting of the document makes it clear that balances within the government and an establishment of religion, or prohibiting Madison called for a clear separation of the diversity of the population spread the free exercise thereof,’ thus building a church and state in order to protect the throughout the republic would prevent wall of separation between Church and state, religion, and individual rights. tyranny and thereby preserve the republic. State.” Madison argues that the rights of con- In addition, those who were concerned Jefferson wrote often about his position science are “unalienable” and therefore about virtue were referring to civic virtue, on the relationship between church and “we maintain . . . that in matters of reli- by which they meant active participation state, but these writings are ignored by gion, no man’s right is abridged by the in political life and a duty to subordinate Kidd. For example, in Jefferson’s letter to institution of Civil Society and that Religion selfish desires to the public good, not Rev. Samuel Miller (January 23, 1808) he is wholly exempt from its cognizance.” In morality, as Kidd sometimes implies. explains his position on fasts and prayers: another objection, Madison even more Thomas Jefferson receives similar I do not believe it is for the interest of strongly claims that religion should be treatment. Kidd gives basically two rea- religion to invite the civil magistrate to

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direct it’s [sic] exercises, it’s [sic] disci- revolution is nothing new; in fact it has to swear the oath and became known as pline, or it’s [sic] doctrines; nor of the been a favorite trope of American excep- non-juring priests. They were kicked out religious societies that the general gov- ernment should be invested with the tionalism. But the comparison is unfair. of their positions and replaced by constitu- power of effecting any uniformity of The French Revolution was more vio- tional clergy (those who swore the oath). time or matter among them. Fasting & lent, but this fact has little to do with what To many, the non-juring clergy were trai- prayer are religious exercises. The en- Kidd calls “French revolutionary atheism.” tors and counter-revolutionaries. Fighting joining them an act of discipline. Every religious society has a right to deter- The revolution was a very complex event, broke out between the two groups (con- mine for itself the times for these exer- and the various “excesses” of the revolu- stitutional and non-juroring priests) and cises, & the objects proper for them, tion had various causes. The first phase of their supporters. Another source of according to their own particular the revolution ended with the creation of extreme violence during this phase was tenets; and this right can never be safer than in their own hands, where the a constitutional monarchy and was rela- between the Catholics and Protestants, constitution has deposited it. tively mild (1789–1791). The second, radi- which was essentially a resumption of the cal phase of the revolution (1792–1794) long history of violence between them And Jefferson goes even further than ended in terror and provided the image of that began with the Reformation. Madison. In a letter to Marquis de Chastel- the revolution as a murderous rampage Most damning to Kidd’s portrayal is the lux (September 2, 1785), he claimed that carried out via the guillotine. Kidd has fact that the person who was most respon- the clergy should be excluded from gov- lumped the two to gether to create the ernment since they are “still actuated by sible for the continuation of the Terror, vision of the French Revolution as an athe- the esprit de corps. The nature of that spirit Maximilien Robespierre, was not antireli- istic orgy of violence against gious, although he was anti-Christian. In religion. He claims that the fact, Robespierre’s views about religion, French Revolution “by the virtue, and republics are similar to Kidd’s. mid-1790s had turned into Robespierre, as a disciple of Jean-Jacques “Kidd’s goal in The God of Liberty is to an ugly anti-Christian cru- Rousseau, wanted to create a Republic of sade. Priests were decapi- Virtue, and he believed that religion was persuade us to return to what he claims tated by the guillotine, and the best way to create virtue. To achieve to be the ideal relations between church churches—including Notre this goal he created the Cult of the and state that existed during the Revolution Dame Cathe dral—were van- Supreme Being. Historian Sylvia Neely in A dalized and turned into and early republic. He believes that the Concise History of the French describes ‘temples of reason.’” Robe spierre’s speech at the Festival of the inclusion of religious (i.e., Christian) First, there was no anti- Supreme Being on June 8, 1793, as “a rhetoric and symbols will preserve Christian crusade in the speech (more like a sermon) on the bless- 1790s. There was a de- freedom and save the nation ings that God had bestowed upon a peo- Chris tianization campaign, ple who sought freedom. A symbolic figure from descent into tyranny.” but that did not begin until of atheism was then set on fire. ...” late 1793, and the circum- However, Robespierre came to believe that stances of this campaign he could create a virtuous republic through cannot be understood with- terror. out the background of has been severely felt by mankind, and has French history. In France the two privileged idd’s goal in The God of Liberty is to per- filled the history of ten or twelve centuries orders, the nobility and the clergy, were K suade us to return to what he claims to with too many atrocities not to merit a pro- corrupt and resented by the common peo- be the ideal relations between church and scription from meddling with government.” ple. They were exempt from most taxes state that existed during the Revolution and and therefore the burden of taxes fell on early republic. He believes that the inclusion n addition to presenting the “benevo- the poor. It is also important to note that the of religious (i.e., Christian) rhetoric and sym- Ilence” of religion, Kidd also wants to bishops were appointed by the king and bols will preserve freedom and save the warn his readers of the dangers of a gov- often came from the nobility, most of whom nation from descent into tyranny. Both of ernment unaccompanied by religion. And were not pious. They took the positions to these claims are un founded. While some he has the perfect example: the French advance their careers, not to serve God. advocated his vision of church-state rela- Revolution. He claims that “from observa- Corruption and luxury is what clergy repre- tions, he cannot plausibly claim that tions of the French example, Americans sented to French peasants, with the excep- Jefferson or Madison shared this view. knew that revolutions could become bar- tion of the parish clergy who were often The debate between those who envi- barous, assaulting the very religious insti- poor like themselves. sioned a secular society and those who tutions that prevented the worst tenden- The new French constitution created a wanted close ties between church and cies of popular rule.” The portrayal of the problem for the Catholic Church by forc- state existed during the early republic just French Revolution as the bad revolution ing the clergy to swear an oath to the new as it exists today. An article published in and the American Revolution as the good Constitution. Some of the clergy refused the American Quarterly Review (1835) re -

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sponded to Reverend Jasper Adams’s claim on to debunk the claim that we are a separationists today advocate antagonism in a sermon of 1833 (the same sermon to Christian nation and concludes that toward religion. The problem is that Kidd, which Madison responded) that the “although a vast majority of the people of and many others, believe that government United States is a Christian nation and that the United States are Chris tians, they have neutrality toward religion is antagonism. Chris tianity should be connected to our refused to give the general government Government neutrality in matters of reli- social, legal, civil, and political institutions. power to make any laws on the subject, gion is what creates equality for all citi- The anonymous author (typical for this and have guaranteed to every man liberty zens. To show preference to one religion, publication) wrote that “such a connexion of conscience, without discrimination or Chris tianity, as Kidd advocates, is a return to [between church and state] will necessar- preference to any sect.” mere tolerance, the very thing that Madi son ily create a marked distinction between What about Kidd’s claim that in our adamantly objected to. If one religion is those who believe, and those who do not early history “hardly anyone across the given a privileged position above others, this believe the religion upheld and protected religious spectrum in America believed means that those in the minority are not by law. Hence a discrimination in civil that separation should entail government equals. Religious liberty is based on the idea rights will gradually arise. One set, or an tagonism toward religion or the elimi- that we all have an equal right to freedom rather one sect of men, will be protected nation of religious rhetoric or symbols of conscience. and rewarded, while another will be pro- from the political sphere”? scribed and persecuted.” The author goes He is wrong to claim that Debra R. Neill teaches at Arizona State Polytechnic.

The Deists Who Shaped America Bill Cooke

ost everyone who writes a book claims it fills a “gap in the litera- Mture.” So often is this claim made that it’s all the more surprising when one actually comes across a book where the Revolutionary Deists: Early America’s Rational Infidels, claim is reasonable. Kerry Walters notes by Kerry Walters (Amherst, N.Y., Prometheus Books, 2011, that when his book, Revolu tionary Deists: ISBN 978-1-61614-190-5) 279 pp. Paper, $20.00 Early America’s Rational Infidels, first ap - peared more than twenty years ago, it was the only full-length treatment of American deism. But what really surprised him is that, on publication of this revised edition, it was still true. We’ve had a couple of very good general histories of freethought in America since then, as well as in-depth studies of several of the main people from ples upon which America was founded is emphasis as it is an account of the that history. But American deism, where it confused and ill-informed, not the least origins of unbelief. And Susan Jacoby’s all began, has remained curiously neg- because twenty-first-century readers are account in Freethinkers: A History of lected. unclear about what eighteenth-century American Secu larism (Metropolitan, 2004) This is all the more surprising given the Christianity looked like, and that then, as has, as the title suggests, a slightly differ- never-ending disputes over the true nature with now, the lines between what could ent emphasis again. Her account, though of the relationship between church and and could not legitimately be called very well written, goes into a lot less detail state in America. Legions of the godly in - “Christian” were very fuzzy indeed. than Turner’s work. So Walters is right, and tone that America is a Christian nation and Symptomatic of Walters’s point about we should be grateful to him for his work was founded upon Christian principles. the neglect of this area is that one has to go in this area. Scholars have written brief, often quite back to James Turner for a systematic exam- This, then, is the background of angry dismissals of these claims, which the ination of American deism. But Turner’s Walters’s book. As is required, he begins legions of the godly simply ignore before book, Without God, Without Creed: The with an account of the origins and nature carrying on from where they left off. Origins of Unbelief in America (Johns of American deism. The chapter is a bit Much of the debate about the princi- Hopkins, 1985), has a slightly different textbookish in style, but, like all good text-

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books, it outlines clearly and methodically something of a lost opportunity for ment to pluralism. Nature’s laws are there what readers need to know about the Walters’s book, which would have benefit- to be discovered, but it doesn’t follow that intellectual sources of deism, its passage ted from this bold new interpretation. This the laws we have unearthed are necessar- to America, its reception, and the cultural is perhaps the one nontrivial complaint ily a correct and true reading of them. So it climate in which it flourished. about this book. Perhaps Walters could behooves us to listen to the thoughts of The core of the book is the series of have ranged a bit more widely to bring his others and see what we can learn from chapters outlining the life and philosophy work up to date with ideas that have them. These, then, are the legacy of the of some of deism’s most prominent emerged since the first edition appeared deists: a reverence for God in the sense of spokes persons. Two of the people Walters all those years ago. being the creator of the world of nature, discusses, Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Walters’s book will probably have little respect for the processes of reason, a love Jefferson, are household names with vast impact on the legions of the godly, who of nature and a passion to discover its literatures about all aspects of their lives. don’t concern themselves unduly with secrets, a devotion to study and learning, Thomas Paine is much less prolifically writ- accurate history. But neither is he saying and a respect for the opinions of others. ten about, but there is nonetheless a fairly that these early American deists would be In some ways, the most insightful part substantial literature about him. But then on “our side” of the contemporary culture of the book is the final chapter, which there are Elihu Palmer, Ethan Allen, and wars. Instead, his careful scholarship will examines why deism died out. It was, Philip Freneau, about whom next to noth- stand as a testimony of reason against all Walters says, a victim of its own success. ing is known by anyone outside a few those who seek dogmatically to corral the Deism forced theologians to defend their interested specialists. Walters does a very men and women of history into their partic- religion in terms of natural religion and good job of bringing back to life those ular stable. For instance, the excitement at using the language of reason. The old lit- reading that Jefferson eralism couldn’t work so much anymore, spoke of himself as a “real at least not as an argument. Its only role Christian” should quickly was as an incitement to emotional enthu- evaporate once it becomes siasm among those who were always clear that this meant noth- beyond the reach of erudite theology. “Though the deists would have ing more than a general Witness the Second Great Awakening. shuddered at the prospect, their true admiration for the life and But equally—and this is an important successors were atheists and agnostics who work of Jesus Christ along- insight—deism failed to inspire the next side a deep dislike of all the generation of freethinkers to its cause. For saw no need for the God hypothesis at all.” trappings of ecclesiastical them, deism’s confident placement of God power and privilege that in the cosmic order no longer seemed has built up in his name. either a good argument or a moral neces- The deists all agree that sity. The next generation of freethinkers supernaturalism, miracles, was more motivated by injustice here on whose names are now forgotten and of and dogmatic creeds about the Trinity, Earth, the planet apparently made so per- placing them seamlessly alongside those Atonement, or Incarna tion are all impedi- fectly in God’s image. And fairly soon, the who have acquired a noisy and contested ments to a proper understanding of God’s comfortable notion of nature’s benefi- immortality. nature and purpose. They differ only on cence would give way to the altogether It would have been interesting had the degree of scorn they pile on these nos- darker view being unearthed by geologists Walters read Jonathan Israel’s important trums. All the deists cherish a notion of and evolutionists. So, though the deists history, Radical Enlightenment, (Oxford God, but for none of them is this a per- would have shuddered at the prospect, their Uni versity Press, 2001), which resituates sonal god with whom one can have a rela- true successors were atheists and agnostics the Enlightenment tradition, starting it tionship. The deists’ god is very much the who saw no need for the God hypothesis at earlier and promoting Spinoza as the princi- blind watchmaker, who sets things up and all. The moral lesson we can learn from pal inspiration of its more radical strands of then leaves us to it. But from a contempo- Walters’s valuable book is that our current thought. Israel argues that the connections rary perspective, the deists rather under- brand of humanistic thought is no more and continuities between the Spinozists are mine these insights by retaining a belief in immune to the passage of time and the significant enough to qualify as a strand of personal immortality. Palmer is the noble challenges of new learning. So free inquiry thinking in its own right, which he calls the exception here. So for deists, love of God remains the crucial value. “radical Enlightenment” and which, in turn, can best be expressed as a call to study the he contrasts with the moderate Enlighten - world that he has brought Bill Cooke is a senior editor of FREE INQUIRY and has recently ment of people like Voltaire and the conser- about and set in motion. Free been appointed as the director of international programs for the vative Enlightenment of thinkers like inquiry, then, takes on the Center for Inquiry. He has written numerous works on the his- Leibniz. Palmer, in particular, comes across quality of a sacrament. tory of humanism. His most recent book is A Wealth of Insights: as the leading spokes man for the radical The deists are attractive in Humanist Thought Since the Enlighten ment and has just been Enlightenment tradition in America. Not their delight in study, as they published by Prometheus Books. engaging with Israel’s thesis represents are in their strong commit-

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Clarke in Retrospect Tom Flynn

rthur C. Clarke was one of the three towering figures of science fiction’s AGolden Age, standing alongside and Robert A. Heinlein. He is perhaps best loved in the genre for his Gregory Benford and George Zebrowski, eds., Sentinels In Honor of novels Childhood’s End and Rendezvous Arthur C. Clarke (Overland Park, Kansas: Hadley Rille Books, 2010, with Rama, though any effort to pick ISBN 978-0-9825140-7-8) 399 pp. Cloth, $29.95 favorites from his prolific output is per- ilous. He is best known in the culture at large as coauthor with Stanley Kubrick of the 1968 film 2001: A Space Odyssey. And let’s not forget that while the rest of the world was still cleaning up after World The cover painting by Chesley Bonestell, Clarke’s works and impact, followed by a War II, he single-handedly invented the foremost space illustrator of the mid-twenti- previously unpublished interview with the concept of geosynchronous communica- eth century, sets the tone perfectly. The book man himself. tion satellites! FREE INQUIRY readers also intermixes critical appreciations of Clarke’s Scientific rigor and metaphysical audac- know him as a longtime laureate of the life and work with short stories both old and ity are qualities that seldom coexist in a sin- International Academy of Humanism. new that were inspired by Clarke or reflect gle writer. As Zebrowski wistfully notes, “The Since his death in 2008, a memorial vol- his style. They blend scrupulous scientific culture of literary criticism . . . still does not ume has been long overdue. Physicist, plausibility with soaring speculations on the know how to write about Clarke without astronomer, and best-selling “hard SF” human prospect. Contributing authors in - referring to myths and metaphors, rather author Gregory Benford and novelist and clude Isaac Asimov, Russell Black ford, James than to knowledge and possibility, while the editor George Zebrowski, a frequent FREE Gunn, Heinlein, , and Jack scientific culture perhaps fails to value his fic- INQUIRY contributor, have delivered an out- Williamson. Coeditor Zebrowski concludes tion enough.” I hope this worthy volume standing tribute anthology. the anthology with a masterful essay on helps to correct those omissions.

A Romp on the Dark Side Tom Flynn

ome secular humanists accept that the universe is unauthored and was Sunintended and that life taken as a whole is inherently meaningless (though The Conspiracy against the Human Race, by Thomas Ligotti human beings may attach to it rich, if con- (New York: Hippocampus Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0-9844802-7-2) tingent, meanings of their own devising). 246 pp. Paper, $15.00. Others celebrate those things. Yet many of us shy away from naturalism’s—or existen- tialism’s—bastard stepchild: the gnawing suspicion that life is not only absurd but fundamentally a raw deal. Not Thomas Ligotti, a much-honored human life, whether to have children, or Russian pessimists like Karl Robert Eduard horror writer in the Lovecraft tradition. whether to be in a rush to create artificial von Hartmann. I found this book as With The Conspiracy against the Human intelligence, Ligotti’s advice is that refreshing as a shot of craft bourbon. Race, Ligotti offers a searing manifesto “nonexistence never hurt anyone and For those who find an occasional starting from the recognition that, quoting existence hurts everyone.” escapade on the dark side in philosophy German neurophilosopher Thomas Met- Granted, nihilism is not everyone’s cup bracing, Ligotti is a compelling read be - zinger (1958–), “biological evolution . .. of tea. I may have a particular weak spot cause of the runaway-train logic of his has created an expanding ocean of suffer- for it: more tolerant readers may recall arguments, the pellucid clarity of his ing and confusion where there previously that in my novel Nothing Sacred, I built a prose, and the scorching wit he brings to was none.” comical future religion on the maunder- this most unsettling of subjects. Recom - Whether the question is how to value ings of nineteenth-century German and mended but not for the timid.

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Letters continued from p. 11

paid by their media bosses—CBS, NBC, who question the official story about 9/11 kill as many as possible. Hitchens’s anger is New York Times, etc., even in the midst of are neither crackpots nor fascists. They are understandable, but he seems to misplace battle. The same should hold true for chap- reasonable people with sound judgment both the target of that anger and the means lains in government, military or otherwise. and compelling arguments. I mean only to of resolving it. They should be funded entirely by whatever point to the folly of mocking those who Jerry Bronk faith organization they are representing. question official dogma and of believing as San Francisco, California Nonbelievers can try to re-litigate the gospel the word of national leaders, even Marsh case by using military chaplains as a when they violate long-established customs proxy and, at the same time, offer a way for of fairness, destroy evidence, fail to allow The Problem of Evil the military and legislatures to reduce their the alleged perpetrator to defend himself in I certainly agree with Shadia B. Drury’s obser- court and dump his body in the ocean, fore- respective budgets, which is a popular thing vation that Jews “make no bones about the closing any opportunity for identification. to do these days. Looks like a win-win to me. fact that they live under an all-powerful but Herb Van Fleet Thomas Crancer somewhat brutal God” (“The Problem of Tulsa, Oklahoma Denver, Colorado Evil, Part 1” FI, October/November 2011). Yet, just like loving parents who conceal or rationalize their children’s misbe havior All facts considered, I don’t think it is such a regardless of how sadistic it may be, they lav- zgood idea to establish humanist chaplains Norway’s “shame,”according to Christopher ish praise on their deity. Two examples are in the military. True, humanism need not Hitchens, is, in effect, that state’s failure to Psalm 100:5 (“Yes, God is good. His love is have a specific association with an alleged prevent or mitigate a mass murder. That fail- everlasting”) and Psalm 145:8–9 (“The Lord supernatural deity. But, having grown up ure, however, should be forgiven (by the is gracious and full of compassion, slow to with fundamentalist Christians, I am con- world!) on the condition that those who anger and great in mercy”). vinced that the religious Right would propagate “innuendoes” about our govern- Drury mentions that C.S. Lewis, a Chris - assuredly claim otherwise and try to expel ment’s “inaction and inanition” should tian apologist, at least had the good sense from the military anything they consider cease. He is concerned about that incompe- to admit that Jesus should not be a role humanist. Many Christian fundamentalists tence but denies others the curiosity to spec- model. Several passages in the Bible maintain that anything not expressly Chris - ulate about it because, it seems, such specu- describe Jesus’s behavior as less than exem- tian is humanist by default. Human ism, they lation amounts to accusing the Bush admin- plary. In Luke 22:37–52, Jesus is in vited to say, is a religion and should not be pro- istration. Unfortunately such unbecoming dinner at the home of a Pharisee. While eat- moted by the military. illogic is not just Hitchens’s; it is pervasive. I ing the host’s bread and drinking his wine, John L. Indo fail to see the responsibility of “bizarre leftist Jesus insults him with these words: “You are Houston, Texas Presbyterian groups” or any “truthers” to do full of greed and wickedness.” He then calls so, especially when that duty is contingent the Pharisee and his guests “foolish peo- Tom Flynn replies: upon a very dissimilar crime in Scandinavia. ple.” I’m sure Emily Post would disapprove! Such a preachy admonition sounds Glenn - I agree with Chris Highland that it would In Mark 7:25–29, a pagan woman begs beckian; it doesn’t sound like the informed, be most desirable to have a skilled men- Jesus to heal her daughter. He not only ini- incisive, rational commentator whom I look tor/listener/adviser/advocate within arms’ tially refuses her request but refers to her forward to reading. reach of every servicemember, religious or and all pagans as “dogs.” September 11, 2001, was an extremely otherwise. But that’s a secular desidera- Since childhood, most people are fed a complex event that there will be questions tum, and I question whether further steady diet of unquestioning love and about for, well, who knows how long. The devotion to the religion of their ancestors. expanding the purview of chaplains (who tragedy in Norway could be better com- They revere their religious heroes as pure, are defined not by me but by the Military pared to Timothy McVeigh’s bombing of the brave, and perfect—and don’t anyone Code as religious practitioners) is the right federal building in Oklahoma City. In both dare say anything that contradicts that way to go about it. A secular government instances, the crime’s execution was fairly image. It takes work, patience, curiosity, should look at ex panding the military simple, and neither police nor farm-ware and a fearless spirit of independence to mental-health apparatus to perform these dealers had any indication or suspicion. break the chains of indoctrination and functions, not the chaplaincy. With 9/11 there were suspicions and indica- finally learn the truth that makes us free. tions, and various functionaries had “dots” David Quintero Murder in Norway to work with. To compare that attack with Monrovia, California the murders in Norway is a specious and In “Norway’s Shame” (FI, October/Novem - moralizing conflation of, for instance, the ber 2011), Christopher Hitchens maligns the motivation and characteristics of the perpe- Shadia B. Drury is right on the mark when 9/11 Truth movement. The people I know trators. The intent of both, however, was to she argues that Christianity with its em -

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phasis of God’s goodness and compas- messenger. Main stream representatives order to play in an orchestra, you must first sion, has a peculiar obligation to explain have a vested interest in not being sub- be selected and then must play the same the existence of suffering and evil in the jected to the same types of attack, which music as everybody else. For me, the melt- world. But she focuses on only one of the explains the absence of pushback by ing pot metaphor has worked in the past explanations Christians like to give—a them. Once atheists are marginalized, and hopefully will work in the future. Other - claim that we human beings have abused believers can see their “message” as aber- wise our great country may lose its way. the freedom God has given us and that rant and not worthy of belief. Cognitive Gilbert Reeser human rebellion and wickedness are the dissonance is resolved, and their belief in Galien, Michigan source of suffering and evil. God is left comfortably intact. There’s another answer you can find in Geoff Gilbert a lot of Christian writing and preaching Galien, Michigan Physics and the Soul through the centuries, an answer that lies Re: “Physics and the Immortality of the at the heart of Christian apocalyptic. It’s a Soul” by Sean Carroll (FI, October/Novem - belief in a supernatural source of evil and Examining Mormonism ber 2011): it seems to me a legitimate rebellion: Satan. The devil. Muslims and The latest issue of FREE INQUIRY featuring question to ask, “What do spirits, holy or Jews argue that Christians have corrupted Mormonism is outstanding (“America’s otherwise, think with?” Most of humanity their monotheistic heritage by interpreting Peculiar Piety: Why Did Mormonism Grow? had no knowledge of what the brain was God in Trinitarian terms. But you could also Why Does It Endure?,” FI, October/Novem - for. Egyptians disposed of it. Aristotle argue that a plan of salvation that is predi- ber 2011). For the past sixty years, I have thought the brain might be a cooling sys- cated on a supernatural war between God engaged the Mormon missionaries who tem for the blood emotion. In the Bible and Satan is not strictly monotheistic either. come to my door in discussion. I try to give some are able to read the thoughts in a It resolves the problem of evil in the world them a broader view of life. They are usually person’s heart. With no knowledge of the by proposing a competing supernatural men in their early twenties and well trained necessity of a three-dimensional material being. in their beliefs, but they do seem to listen to thing for thinking, it is easy to have spirits Fritz Williams me. I was surprised a few years ago to and move them around. Leader Emeritus, Baltimore Ethical Society receive a visit from a missionary who was Big spirit or small, smart spirit or dumb, Shermans Dade, Pennsylvania atypical in appearance: he was older look- what is the difference? Would your spirit/ ing, heavy, and had dark skin. He was soul ever learn anything more? Life after from Tonga, an island northeast of New Anti-Atheism death requires a lot that seems very unlikely. Zealand. He said that Mormon missionar- Ralph Stewart I applaud the effort made by Gregory Paul ies had converted his parents when he Mountain City, Tennessee and his coauthors to set the record straight was a small child and brought them to the in their Washington Post op-ed (“Ground - United States. He knew nothing of the breaking Op-Ed Puts Spotlight on Anti- beliefs of the people of Tonga. I helped I’m sure Sean Carroll would agree that Atheist Bigotry,” FI, October/Novem ber him create an interest in his past. each of us contains something that is 2011). But I believe they overlooked an im - Jim Sanders aware of the universe. He is certain the portant point. Anti-atheist bias unques- Flagstaff, Arizona laws of science prohibit its existence after tionably exists, but it has less to do with a life. Does whatever it is that’s aware of failure to comprehend the facts than with existence exist before life? If his answer is the way the human psyche responds to Christian December no, I want to know where it comes from. apparently irreconcilable or “dissonant” Warren J. Blumenfeld wants us to embrace How does it become a part of us? in puts. For example, when a believer is cultural pluralism and to “value other peo- My impression is that most scientists confronted with atheism, “cognitive disso- ples and others’ customs and cultures” seem to think it simply pops up out of nance” results, which the believer’s mind (“The ‘Christian’ Month of December,” FI, nowhere once a person’s brain becomes demands be resolved. Indeed, the more October/November 2011). But to do so complex enough. My problem with this is compelling the case for atheism, the without discrimination would mean accept- that whatever it is, it is severely different greater the dissonance and the stronger ing cannibalism and child sacrifice. There are in kind from matter. Maybe I’m excessively the need to resolve it. What results is the some things in other cultures that are not simple-minded, but it seems to me matter factually unfounded and seemingly irra- compatible with our U.S. culture and should doesn’t really do anything but move tional animus toward atheists character- be resisted. Blumenfeld is against the “melt- around and stick to other matter or ized in the op-ed as “stunning anti-atheist ing pot” term and instead uses the analogy unstick from other matter—for an audi- discrimination.” Believers are unable to of a “great symphony orchestra, not sound- ence of awarenesses. refute the atheist “message” by proving ing in unison but rather one in which all dis- My objective belief is that mind, or that God exists; they can only attack the parate cultures play in harmony.” But in whatever one wants to call this awareness

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of the universe we all have (or seem to Statement of Ownership, have since I can only know for sure of my WRITE TO Management, and Circulation own), is beyond science. It also seems to me eternal, regardless of the fact that Date of filing: September 14, 2011 mine will leave my body and all the mem- Title: FREE INQUIRY ories stored in it behind when I die—but I Frequency of issue: Bimonthly Complete mailing address of known office of publication: see no way that can be either verified or FREE INQUIRY, P.O. Box 664, Amherst, NY 14226-0664 Send submissions to refuted. Complete mailing address of known office of publisher: Andrea Szalanski, Letters Editor, Council for Secular Humanism, P.O. Box 664, Amherst, Bob Grumman NY 14226-0664 FREE INQUIRY, Complete mailing address of headquarters of publisher: Port Charlotte, Florida Council for Secular Humanism, P.O. Box 664, Amherst, P.O. Box 664, Amherst, NY 14226-0664 NY 14226-0664. Editor: Thomas Flynn, P.O. Box 664, Amherst, NY 14226-0664 Managing Editor: Andrea Szalanski, P.O. Box 664, Amherst, Sean Carroll replies: Fax: (716) 636-1733. NY 14226-0664 Known bondholders, mortgagees, and other security holders: None The origin of consciousness is certainly a E-mail: [email protected]. In letters intended for Aver. no. No. of good scientific question, one to which we copies copies publication, please include name, each issue single issue have some intriguing ideas but no definitive during August/Sept. ad dress, city and state, zip code, preceding 2011 answers at this time. That’s usually how sci- 12 months and daytime phone number ence works. There is certainly no reason to a. Total no. copies printed (for verification purposes only). (net press run) 29,922 27,458 believe that our capacity for self-awareness b. Paid circulation by mail and outside Letters should be 300 words or fewer requires anything beyond ordinary matter. A the mail and pertain to previous 1. Paid Outside County 19,525 18,835 camera can take a picture of itself; a com- FREE INQUIRY articles. 2. Paid In-County Subscriptions 00 3. Sales through dealers and carriers, puter can simulate its own operation. The street vendors, and other non-USPS brain is very complicated, but science will paid distribution 3,065 2,899 4. Other classes mailed through the USPS 33 86 eventually figure it out. c. Total paid distribution 22,623 21,820 d. Free or nominal rate distribution by mail and outside the mail 1. Outside County 451 326 2. In-County 00 3. Other classes mailed through the USPS 425 425 4. Free distribution outside the mail 96 e. Total free or nominal rate distribution 885 757 f. Total distribution 23,508 22,577 Soorrrry,ryy, meerkat!memee ee eer rk kat at t! g. Copies not distributed 5,714 4,881

Onnlllyy hhuhumans um ma ans ns ccan an n reread. ea ad d. TOTAL (Sum of f and g) 29,222 27,458 Percent paid and/or requested circulation 96.24% 96.65% (Formerly Humanist in Canada magazine)

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