Phrase Structure Rules, Tree Rewriting, and Recursion
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Personal Pronouns, Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement, and Vague Or Unclear Pronoun References
Personal Pronouns, Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement, and Vague or Unclear Pronoun References PERSONAL PRONOUNS Personal pronouns are pronouns that are used to refer to specific individuals or things. Personal pronouns can be singular or plural, and can refer to someone in the first, second, or third person. First person is used when the speaker or narrator is identifying himself or herself. Second person is used when the speaker or narrator is directly addressing another person who is present. Third person is used when the speaker or narrator is referring to a person who is not present or to anything other than a person, e.g., a boat, a university, a theory. First-, second-, and third-person personal pronouns can all be singular or plural. Also, all of them can be nominative (the subject of a verb), objective (the object of a verb or preposition), or possessive. Personal pronouns tend to change form as they change number and function. Singular Plural 1st person I, me, my, mine We, us, our, ours 2nd person you, you, your, yours you, you, your, yours she, her, her, hers 3rd person he, him, his, his they, them, their, theirs it, it, its Most academic writing uses third-person personal pronouns exclusively and avoids first- and second-person personal pronouns. MORE . PRONOUN-ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT A personal pronoun takes the place of a noun. An antecedent is the word, phrase, or clause to which a pronoun refers. In all of the following examples, the antecedent is in bold and the pronoun is italicized: The teacher forgot her book. -
Language Structure: Phrases “Productivity” a Property of Language • Definition – Language Is an Open System
Language Structure: Phrases “Productivity” a property of Language • Definition – Language is an open system. We can produce potentially an infinite number of different messages by combining elements differently. • Example – Words into phrases. An Example of Productivity • Human language is a communication system that bears some similarities to other animal communication systems, but is also characterized by certain unique features. (24 words) • I think that human language is a communication system that bears some similarities to other animal communication systems, but is also characterized by certain unique features, which are fascinating in and of themselves. (33 words) • I have always thought, and I have spent many years verifying, that human language is a communication system that bears some similarities to other animal communication systems, but is also characterized by certain unique features, which are fascinating in and of themselves. (42 words) • Although mainstream some people might not agree with me, I have always thought… Creating Infinite Messages • Discrete elements – Words, Phrases • Selection – Ease, Meaning, Identity • Combination – Rules of organization Models of Word reCombination 1. Word chains (Markov model) Phrase-level meaning is derived from understanding each word as it is presented in the context of immediately adjacent words. 2. Hierarchical model There are long-distant dependencies between words in a phrase, and these inform the meaning of the entire phrase. Markov Model Rule: Select and concatenate (according to meaning and what types of words should occur next to each other). bites bites bites Man over over over jumps jumps jumps house house house Markov Model • Assumption −Only adjacent words are meaningfully (and lawfully) related. -
Chapter 30 HPSG and Lexical Functional Grammar Stephen Wechsler the University of Texas Ash Asudeh University of Rochester & Carleton University
Chapter 30 HPSG and Lexical Functional Grammar Stephen Wechsler The University of Texas Ash Asudeh University of Rochester & Carleton University This chapter compares two closely related grammatical frameworks, Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar (HPSG) and Lexical Functional Grammar (LFG). Among the similarities: both frameworks draw a lexicalist distinction between morphology and syntax, both associate certain words with lexical argument structures, both employ semantic theories based on underspecification, and both are fully explicit and computationally implemented. The two frameworks make available many of the same representational resources. Typical differences between the analyses proffered under the two frameworks can often be traced to concomitant differ- ences of emphasis in the design orientations of their founding formulations: while HPSG’s origins emphasized the formal representation of syntactic locality condi- tions, those of LFG emphasized the formal representation of functional equivalence classes across grammatical structures. Our comparison of the two theories includes a point by point syntactic comparison, after which we turn to an exposition ofGlue Semantics, a theory of semantic composition closely associated with LFG. 1 Introduction Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar is similar in many respects to its sister framework, Lexical Functional Grammar or LFG (Bresnan et al. 2016; Dalrymple et al. 2019). Both HPSG and LFG are lexicalist frameworks in the sense that they distinguish between the morphological system that creates words and the syn- tax proper that combines those fully inflected words into phrases and sentences. Stephen Wechsler & Ash Asudeh. 2021. HPSG and Lexical Functional Gram- mar. In Stefan Müller, Anne Abeillé, Robert D. Borsley & Jean- Pierre Koenig (eds.), Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar: The handbook. -
Names a Person, Place, Thing, Or an Idea. A. Common Noun – Names Any One of a Group of Persons, Places, Things, Or Ideas
Name: __________________________________________ Block: ______ English II: Price 1. Noun – names a person, place, thing, or an idea. a. Common noun – names any one of a group of persons, places, things, or ideas. b. Proper noun – names a particular person, place, thing, or idea. c. Compound noun – consists of two or more words that together name a person, place, thing, or idea. d. Concrete noun – names a person, place, thing that can be perceived by one or more of the senses. e. Abstract noun – names an idea, a feeling, a quality, or a characteristic. f. Collective noun – names a group of people, animals, or things. 2. Pronoun – takes the place of one or more nouns or pronouns. a. Antecedent – the word or word group that a pronoun stands for. b. Personal pronouns – refers to the one(s) speaking (first person), the one(s) spoken to (second person), or the one(s) spoken about (third person). Singular Plural First person I, me, my, mine We, us, our, ours Second person You, your, yours You, your, yours Third person He, him, his, she, her, hers, it, its They, them, their, theirs c. Case Forms of Personal Pronouns – form that a pronoun takes to show its relationship to other words in a sentence. Case Forms of Personal Pronouns Nominative Case Objective Case Possessive Case Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural First Person I We Me Us My, mine Our, ours Second Person You You You You Your, yours Your, yours Third Person He, she, it they Him her it them His, her, hers, its Their, theirs d. -
Lexical-Functional Grammar and Order-Free Semantic Composition
COLING 82, J. Horeck~(eel) North-HoOandPubllshi~ Company O A~deml~ 1982 Lexical-Functional Grammar and Order-Free Semantic Composition Per-Kristian Halvorsen Norwegian Research Council's Computing Center for the Humanities and Center for Cognitive Science, MIT This paper summarizes the extension of the theory of lexical-functional grammar to include a formal, model-theoretic, semantics. The algorithmic specification of the semantic interpretation procedures is order-free which distinguishes the system from other theories providing model-theoretic interpretation for natural language. Attention is focused on the computational advantages of a semantic interpretation system that takes as its input functional structures as opposed to syntactic surface-structures. A pressing problem for computational linguistics is the development of linguistic theories which are supported by strong independent linguistic argumentation, and which can, simultaneously, serve as a basis for efficient implementations in language processing systems. Linguistic theories with these properties make it possible for computational implementations to build directly on the work of linguists both in the area of grammar-writing, and in the area of theory development (cf. universal conditions on anaphoric binding, filler-gap dependencies etc.). Lexical-functional grammar (LFG) is a linguistic theory which has been developed with equal attention being paid to theoretical linguistic and computational processing considerations (Kaplan & Bresnan 1981). The linguistic theory has ample and broad motivation (vide the papers in Bresnan 1982), and it is transparently implementable as a syntactic parsing system (Kaplan & Halvorsen forthcoming). LFG takes grammatical relations to be of primary importance (as opposed to the transformational theory where grammatical functions play a subsidiary role). -
PARTS of SPEECH ADJECTIVE: Describes a Noun Or Pronoun; Tells
PARTS OF SPEECH ADJECTIVE: Describes a noun or pronoun; tells which one, what kind or how many. ADVERB: Describes verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs; tells how, why, when, where, to what extent. CONJUNCTION: A word that joins two or more structures; may be coordinating, subordinating, or correlative. INTERJECTION: A word, usually at the beginning of a sentence, which is used to show emotion: one expressing strong emotion is followed by an exclamation point (!); mild emotion followed by a comma (,). NOUN: Name of a person, place, or thing (tells who or what); may be concrete or abstract; common or proper, singular or plural. PREPOSITION: A word that connects a noun or noun phrase (the object) to another word, phrase, or clause and conveys a relation between the elements. PRONOUN: Takes the place of a person, place, or thing: can function any way a noun can function; may be nominative, objective, or possessive; may be singular or plural; may be personal (therefore, first, second or third person), demonstrative, intensive, interrogative, reflexive, relative, or indefinite. VERB: Word that represents an action or a state of being; may be action, linking, or helping; may be past, present, or future tense; may be singular or plural; may have active or passive voice; may be indicative, imperative, or subjunctive mood. FUNCTIONS OF WORDS WITHIN A SENTENCE: CLAUSE: A group of words that contains a subject and complete predicate: may be independent (able to stand alone as a simple sentence) or dependent (unable to stand alone, not expressing a complete thought, acting as either a noun, adjective, or adverb). -
Apostrophes.Pdf
The Writing Center Library Technology Center concordia.csp.edu/writingcenter 651-603-6233 Apostrophes Apostrophes have four main roles: creating possessive nouns (both singular and plural), creating possessive indefinite pronouns, representing omitted letters in a word, and forming plurals of letters and numbers. Creating possessive nouns Examples: My car’s tires are all flat. (singular, indicates the tires of one car) o Both of my bikes’ lights need batteries. (plural possessive, lights of more than one bike) o Carolyn’s house is so nice. (singular, the house of Carolyn) o James’s* bike is awesome. (singular, the bike of James.) o Shawn’s and Susan’s sunglasses are the same brand. (two singular possessive nouns—the sunglasses of Shawn and the sunglasses of Susan) o Yang and Natalie and Sidney’s project won first place. (plural possessive—one project of several people. Note the apostrophe is only placed after the last person listed) *Note: When a noun that ends with an s is possessive, either write s’ or s’s to make it possessive is acceptable: James’ or the James’s. There is conflicting opinion about a set way, but the Concordia University Writing Center uses pronunciation as the determining factor. If the possessive of Perkins is pronounced as three syllables (Perk-en-sez), write Perkins’s. When pronouncing the possessive of boss as two syllables (boss-sez), write boss’s and not boss’ (ess apostrophe ess). When pronouncing the possessive of Israelites as two syllables, use just one apostrophe after the ess: The Israelites’ flag design is nice (not Israelites’s flag). -
Psychoacoustics, Speech Perception, Language Structure and Neurolinguistics Hearing Acuity Absolute Auditory Threshold Constant
David House: Psychoacoustics, speech perception, 2018.01.25 language structure and neurolinguistics Hearing acuity Psychoacoustics, speech perception, language structure • Sensitive for sounds from 20 to 20 000 Hz and neurolinguistics • Greatest sensitivity between 1000-6000 Hz • Non-linear perception of frequency intervals David House – E.g. octaves • 100Hz - 200Hz - 400Hz - 800Hz - 1600Hz – 100Hz - 800Hz perceived as a large difference – 3100Hz - 3800 Hz perceived as a small difference Absolute auditory threshold Demo: SPL (Sound pressure level) dB • Decreasing noise levels – 6 dB steps, 10 steps, 2* – 3 dB steps, 15 steps, 2* – 1 dB steps, 20 steps, 2* Constant loudness levels in phons Demo: SPL and loudness (phons) • 50-100-200-400-800-1600-3200-6400 Hz – 1: constant SPL 40 dB, 2* – 2: constant 40 phons, 2* 1 David House: Psychoacoustics, speech perception, 2018.01.25 language structure and neurolinguistics Critical bands • Bandwidth increases with frequency – 200 Hz (critical bandwidth 50 Hz) – 800 Hz (critical bandwidth 80 Hz) – 3200 Hz (critical bandwidth 200 Hz) Critical bands demo Effects of masking • Fm=200 Hz (critical bandwidth 50 Hz) – B= 300,204,141,99,70,49,35,25,17,12 Hz • Fm=800 Hz (critical bandwidth 80 Hz) – B=816,566,396,279,197,139,98,69,49,35 Hz • Fm=3200 Hz (critical bandwidth 200 Hz) – B=2263,1585,1115,786,555,392,277,196,139,98 Hz Effects of masking Holistic vs. analytic listening • Low frequencies more effectively mask • Demo 1: audible harmonics (1-5) high frequencies • Demo 2: melody with harmonics • Demo: how -
12 Different Types of Meditation (And How to Know Which Is Right for You) a Note from Eric
THETHE ONEONE YOUYOU FEEDFEED PODCASTPODCAST 12 DIFFERENT TYPES OF MEDITATION (AND HOW TO KNOW WHICH IS RIGHT FOR YOU) A NOTE FROM ERIC Well done. You’ve done a really good thing for yourself. By downloading this guide, you have taken a great step in the direction of establishing deeper roots for your meditation practice, thereby moving you along the path towards an experience with life that is rich in wisdom, strength, steadiness, a deep sense of inner peace and inner calm. As you read on, you will discover 12 What meditation DOES do is give us the different types of meditation as well as ability to interact differently, more skillfully some guidance surrounding which might and more intentionally with our thoughts be right for you. Keep in mind, many and feelings thereby completely changing meditation practices are comprised of the way we experience them. We begin to several different types of meditation so suffer less at their hands, gain some don’t limit yourself to just one. internal space and connect to a deep well of inner strength and calm amidst the chaos of Before we dive into this content, let’s life - within us and around us. And that is a discuss the most important part of game-changer. engaging in any type of meditation, the purpose and the context - as well as what Though deeply spiritual, the practice of meditation is NOT. meditation isn’t necessarily religious. In fact, many types of meditation are secular One of the biggest misconceptions about and you can practice meditation in addition meditation is the belief that the point of to any deeply held religious faith or meditating is to somehow control your tradition. -
One You Local Authority Case Study (Stockton-On-Tees)
= How Stockton-on-Tees used ONE YOU to help staff improve their health Stockton-on-Tees faces a number of health when comparing the most and least deprived and wellbeing challenges, both in terms of areas of the borough. higher levels of deprivation and subsequent lower life expectancy when compared with the Multiple unhealthy behaviours also account England average. Health inequalities are also for 69.8% of adults in Stockton-on-Tees being substantial, with life expectancy 15.3 years classified as overweight or obese. lower for men and 11.3 years lower for women Integrating ONE YOU across the council The ONE YOU offer for staff Tees Active manages the borough’s leisure facilities and works closely with the Public Stockton-on-Tees Borough Council is a significant Health team. This relationship has meant that employer in the area, with over 3,500 staff. Around One You messages and branding have been 69% of council workers live in the borough. The launch adopted throughout Stockton’s leisure centres, of One You presented a good opportunity for the reaching Tees Active employees as well as council to encourage all staff to reappraise their lifestyle residents who visit these facilities. through the How Are You quiz, and to use feedback from this as the focus for making healthier changes. The One You 4-week challenge was also promoted extensively, with all council buildings displaying the full range of One You messages so that everyone could focus on the healthier change most relevant to them and make a personal pledge to improve their health. -
The Grammar of English Grammars, 2 Chapter Iv
1 CHAPTER I. CHAPTER II. CHAPTER III. CHAPTER X. CHAPTER XI. CHAPTER I. CHAPTER II. CHAPTER III. CHAPTER IV. CHAPTER V. CHAPTER VI. CHAPTER I. CHAPTER II. CHAPTER III. CHAPTER IV. CHAPTER V. CHAPTER VIII. CHAPTER I CHAPTER II CHAPTER III. CHAPTER IV. CHAPTER V. CHAPTER VI. CHAPTER I. CHAPTER II. CHAPTER III. CHAPTER IV. CHAPTER I. CHAPTER II. CHAPTER III. THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS, 2 CHAPTER IV. CHAPTER V. CHAPTER VI. CHAPTER VII. CHAPTER VIII. CHAPTER IX. CHAPTER X. CHAPTER XI. CHAPTER I. CHAPTER II. CHAPTER III. CHAPTER IV. CHAPTER V. CHAPTER VI. THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS, WITH AN INTRODUCTION HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL; THE WHOLE METHODICALLY ARRANGED AND AMPLY ILLUSTRATED; WITH FORMS OF CORRECTING AND OF PARSING, IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION, EXAMPLES FOR PARSING, QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION, EXERCISES FOR WRITING, OBSERVATIONS FOR THE ADVANCED STUDENT, DECISIONS AND PROOFS FOR THE SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTED POINTS, OCCASIONAL STRICTURES AND DEFENCES, AN EXHIBITION OF THE SEVERAL METHODS OF ANALYSIS, AND A KEY TO THE ORAL EXERCISES: TO WHICH ARE ADDED FOUR APPENDIXES, PERTAINING SEPARATELY TO THE FOUR PARTS OF GRAMMAR. BY GOOLD BROWN, THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS, 3 AUTHOR OF THE INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, THE FIRST LINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, ETC. "So let great authors have their due, that Time, who is the author of authors, be not deprived of his due, which is, farther and farther to discover truth."--LORD BACON. SIXTH EDITION--REVISED AND IMPROVED. ENLARGED BY THE ADDITION OF A COPIOUS INDEX OF MATTERS. BY SAMUEL U. BERRIAN, -
Phrase Structure Rules, Tree Rewriting, and Other Sources of Recursion Structure Within the NP
Introduction to Transformational Grammar, LINGUIST 601 September 14, 2006 Phrase Structure Rules, Tree Rewriting, and other sources of Recursion Structure within the NP 1 Trees (1) a tree for ‘the brown fox sings’ A ¨¨HH ¨¨ HH B C ¨H ¨¨ HH sings D E the ¨¨HH F G brown fox • Linguistic trees have nodes. The nodes in (1) are A, B, C, D, E, F, and G. • There are two kinds of nodes: internal nodes and terminal nodes. The internal nodes in (1) are A, B, and E. The terminal nodes are C, D, F, and G. Terminal nodes are so called because they are not expanded into anything further. The tree ends there. Terminal nodes are also called leaf nodes. The leaves of (1) are really the words that constitute the sentence ‘the brown fox sings’ i.e. ‘the’, ‘brown’, ‘fox’, and ‘sings’. (2) a. A set of nodes form a constituent iff they are exhaustively dominated by a common node. b. X is a constituent of Y iff X is dominated by Y. c. X is an immediate constituent of Y iff X is immediately dominated by Y. Notions such as subject, object, prepositional object etc. can be defined structurally. So a subject is the NP immediately dominated by S and an object is an NP immediately dominated by VP etc. (3) a. If a node X immediately dominates a node Y, then X is the mother of Y, and Y is the daughter of X. b. A set of nodes are sisters if they are all immediately dominated by the same (mother) node.