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Chemokines in Inflammatory Bowel Diseases Impact of New Keys in Pathophysiology on IBD Treatment Dig Dis 2010;28:386–394 DOI: 10.1159/000320392 Chemokines in Inflammatory Bowel Diseases Raja Atreya M.F. Neurath Medical Clinic 1, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen , Germany Key Words tive inhibitors for chemokines or chemokine receptors, -Chemokine receptors ؒ Chemokines ؒ Inflammatory bowel based on a more complete understanding of the immuno diseases pathogenic role of chemokines in intestinal inflammation, will be of great interest as potential novel therapeutic strate- gies in IBD. Copyright © 2010 S. Karger AG, Basel Abstract Uncontrolled activation of mucosal effector cells has been identified as the main pathogenic mechanism involved in the initiation and perpetuation of mucosal inflammation in Immunopathogenesis of Inflammatory Bowel inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). The sustained activation Diseases of these cells leads to the aberrant production of various pro- inflammatory mediators, which co-ordinated action ampli- Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis are the two ma- fies the inflammatory process. In this setting a network of jor forms of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), which tissue-specific chemoattractant cytokines (chemokines) and are defined as chronically relapsing inflammatory condi- their corresponding receptors have been implicated as main tions of the gastrointestinal tract not resulting from spe- contributors in the initiation and perpetuation of the inflam- cific pathogens. Whereas Crohn’s disease is a segmental, matory reaction in IBD. They are produced by a variety of transmural disorder involving any part of the gastroin- inflammatory cells present in IBD lesions, as well as endothe- testinal tract, ulcerative colitis is characterized by con- lial and epithelial cells. Chemokines not only control the mul- tinuous inflammation involving the mucosa and submu- tistep process of leukocyte adhesion to and migration across cosa of the large intestine. Both entities are characterized the endothelium, but also the release of lipid mediators and by an unpredictable disease course that may lead to de- oxygen radicals from leukocytes, the modulation of tumori- bilitating complications, including an increased inci- genesis, release of matrix metalloproteinases and tissue fi- dence of colorectal cancer [1] . brosis. Numerous data indicate that that intestinal chemo- Although the precise etiology of IBD still remains ob- kine expression is non-selectively up-regulated in IBD and scure, there is a general consensus that a disturbed inter- correlates with disease activity. The development of selec- action of enteric antigens with the intestinal immune sys- © 2010 S. Karger AG, Basel Raja Atreya 0257–2753/10/0283–0386$26.00/0 Ulmenweg 18 Fax +41 61 306 12 34 DE–91054 Erlangen (Germany) E-Mail [email protected] Accessible online at: Tel. +49 9131 853 500, Fax +49 6131 175 508 www.karger.com www.karger.com/ddi E-Mail raja.atreya @ uk-erlangen.de tem of a genetically susceptible host greatly contributes to The final result of this intricate cytokine network is disease pathogenesis. This leads to the disruption of mu- the recruitment of more effector cells and induction of cosal homeostasis and excessive activation of the mucosal tissue-damaging (nitric oxide, prostacylin) and other in- immune system. Advances in the past few years have elu- flammatory mediators (leukotriens and prostaglandins), cidated some of the underlying immunopathogenic which further amplify mucosal inflammation [16] . In- mechanisms involved in the inflammatory process [2–5] . flammatory mediators therefore present potentially at- While the normal intestinal immune system is under tractive therapeutic targets to establish novel treatment a carefully controlled regulatory balance that maintains options for patients with IBD. The possible impact of such a state of equilibrium in spite of its constant encounter an approach is best provided by the advent of anti-TNF with commensal and pathogenic antigens, IBD is charac- antibodies, which have by now become an integral part terized by a malfunction of these immune-regulatory of the therapeutic options in IBD [17–20] . mechanisms [6] . Uncontrolled activation of mucosal ef- Other critical determinants of mucosal inflammation fector cells has been identified as the main pathogenic in IBD are chemoattractant cytokines (chemokines) and mechanism involved in the initiation and perpetuation of their corresponding receptors, which play a key partici- the intestinal inflammatory reaction [7, 8] . The sustained patory role in the inappropriate recruitment and accu- activation of these cells leads to the aberrant production mulation of leukocytes into the pathologically inflamed of various pro-inflammatory mediators, co-ordinated gut [21] . This constant influx of leukocytes leads to fur- action of which amplifies the inflammatory process [9, ther exacerbation of destructive processes within the in- 10] . testine. Histologically, neutrophil migration is character- Among the network of pro-inflammatory mediators istic for chronic intestinal inflammation and the level of involved in IBD pathogenesis, special attention has been active inflammation refers to the presence of extra-vas- paid to cytokines and chemokines, which are small (4– cular neutrophils, correlating with clinical disease activ- 15 kDa) inducible immune-regulatory proteins that play ity in IBD [22] . The final composition of leukocytes and a central role in the development and homeostasis of the also macrophages and granulocytes from circulation into immune system [11] . The pathogenic position of pro-in- the mucosa is determined by the relative expression of the flammatory cytokines in IBD has long been the focus of various chemokines and their specific cell surface recep- extensive research. Alterations in the mucosal cytokine tors, which thereby play a decisive role in the perpetua- profile, resulting in an imbalance between pro- and anti- tion of mucosal inflammation [23, 24] . Apart from ab- inflammatory cytokines, have been demonstrated for errant leukocyte chemoattraction, chemokines also or- both Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis [12] . It is gen- chestrate production of metalloproteinases for matrix erally believed that intestinal macrophages and especial- degradation, granule exocytosis and up-regulation of the ly CD4+ T lymphocytes play a crucial role in the cyto- oxidative burst, which all contribute to chronic intestinal kine-driven inflammation underlying these diseases. inflammation and mucosal destruction ( fig. 1 ). In the fol- The T helper cells have been classified as Th1, Th2 or lowing, the inflammatory role of chemokines in the im- Th17 cells, according to their cytokine profile [13] . This munopathogenesis of IBD is discussed with extension to aggressive T effector cell activation is insufficiently coun- their potential as molecular targets for therapeutic inter- teracted by regulatory and anti-inflammatory T cells vention. (Treg, Tr1 and Th3), thereby leading to the inflammatory reaction [7] . Crohn’s disease is characterized by CD4+ lympho- C h e m o k i n e s cytes with a predominant Th1 [12] and TH17 phenotype [14] . Excessive IL-12/IL-23 and IFN- ␥ /IL-17 production Chemokines are a large family of small (7–15 kDa) determine the downstream release of further pro-in- structurally related heparin-binding proteins with well- flammatory cytokines in Crohn’s disease. Mucosal im- recognized roles in adhesion and directional homing of mune response in ulcerative colitis differs from this, as it immune and inflammatory cells. Over 40 chemokines is marked by a Th17 and a modified Th2 phenotype, with have been identified so far and have been divided into excessive production of IL-13 and IL-5, but not IL-4. In four subfamilies (C, CC, CXC and CXC3) based on the addition, disease-perpetuating cytokines like IL-6 and arrangement of cysteine residues in the amino-terminus TNF- ␣ are produced by both Th1 and Th2 cells as well of the protein. The major subgroups consist of CXC che- as by macrophages in both IBD entities [2, 15] . mokines (largely involved in neutrophil and monocyte Chemokines in Inflammatory Bowel Dig Dis 2010;28:386–394 387 Diseases Tumorigenesis lumina M cell M cell epithelial layer Fig. 1. The immunopathogenic role of che- mokines in IBD. Chemokines and their Color version available online lamina propria chemokines Metalloproteinases Fibrosis corresponding receptors contribute to the intestinal inflammatory process in IBD. Matrix degradation They control the multistep process of the migration of effector immune cells across the endothelium, modulate the release of lipid mediators and oxygen radicals from LPMCs leukocytes, regulate the production of me- Oxidative burst talloproteinases and matrix degradation, Immune cell trafficking influence tissue fibrosis and participate in Chemoattraction the process of tumorigenesis. LPMCs = Lamina propria mononuclear cells. recruitment) and CC chemokines (more strongly impli- healing and release of lipid mediators and oxygen radicals cated in lymphocyte and dendritic cell recruitment) [25, from leukocytes [28, 29] . 26] . Functionally chemokines are classified into two The notion that chemokines and their receptors groups: ‘constitutively secreted’ and ‘inducible’ [27] . The might contribute to the immunopathogenesis of IBD homeostatic or constitutive subfamily plays an important stems from a series of clinical studies published nearly immune surveillance role in basal leukocyte trafficking twenty
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